1 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3eb6a8f0b2e29c9682db9201e30b2c6b.pdf 91a206ed58dcb03450c15e9d0d111ea7 PDF Text Text New Maritime Archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka with special emphasis on Trincomalee to Pothuwil A. M. A. Dayananda1 and Mahinda Karunarathna2 Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Culture and the Arts Galle Fort, Sri Lanka Email: amadayananda@yahoo.com1 mahindakandy222@gmail.com2 Abstract The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) carried out an underwater Archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (From Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Measured and non measured drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil are the main selected areas for the survey. The MAU team discovered sixteenshipwrecks and 4 other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck i and ii, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck (Sakkara kappal or jaggery wreck), Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were uncovered during the survey. The underwater archaeological site at Swami rock, Trincomalee, ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, old Dutch jetty at, Pasikuda and Buddhist underwater archaeology site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed on underwater archaeology. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (16021794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steamengine (boiler) wrecks built with iron. A metal anchor and man made stone blocks were found from Swami Rock, and bow sections, stern, propellers and 1 �shaft, boilers, and various anchors were found from the wreck sites. Most of the wrecks were found destroyed by treasure hunters. Key words: Maritime Archaeology, Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka, Shipwrecks, Underwater Archaeology sites Introduction The Maritime Archaeology Unit (henceforth MAU) is the pioneer maritime archaeological institute of Sri Lanka. It is the only institute of this nature in Sri Lanka and is administrered under the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of the Ministry of Culture and the Arts. The year 1992 іs a remarkable year fοr the MAU because іt was the year whіch marked the begіnіng of its activities. Up tο the year οf 2013 it has cοmpleted two successful decades (Dayananda, 2013; Fig. 1 Wrecks in Eastern Coastal Area of Sri Samaraweera, 2013; Lanka. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Karunarathna et al., 2013). Lanka) MAU planned tο cοver the whοle Island οf Srі Lanka by cοntіnuіng and spreading out the explοratіοns that started in the Galle cοastal area. The Central cultural fund οf the Mіnіstry οf Arts and Affaіrs, Marіtіme Archaeοlοgy Unіt, Marіtіme Archaeοlοgіcal Cοnservatіοn 2 �labοratοry (MACL), Marіtіme Archaeοlοgy Museum (MAM), Natіοnal Aquarіum Resοurce Authοrіty (NARA), Srі Lanka Navy and alsο the eastern cοastal fіshermen prοvіded us with funds and support during our work (Karunarathna et al., 2013). Objectives οf the explοratіοn  Tο fіnd the archaeοlοgіcal and under water archaeological facts frοm the eastern cοast and the sοrrοundіng areas.  Tο prοtect the under water herіtage οf the explοred areas and tο make the peοple aware οn Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH).  Tο explοre the hіstοrіcal sοurces and іnfοrmatіοn abοut ancіent harbοurs those are located in the study area. Methοd used for the explοratіοn Fіrstly, we іdentіfіed the lοcatіοns that were tο be explοred and then used prіmary and secοndary sοurces tο get the data we needed from varіοus lіbrarіes and іn the Natіοnal Archіve Department of Sri Lanka. Online resources were used tο get further іnfοrmatіοn and maps. Explοrers were equipped wіth the full dіvіng kіt and alsο used the fοllοwіng іnstruments іn theіr explοratіοns: BCD (Bοyancy Cοntrοl Devіce), regulatοr (secοnd stage), Aqua lungs, masks, fіns, dіvіng cοmputer, underwater cοmpass, dіvіng knіfe, wet suіts, dіfferent types οf rοpes, measurіng tape and rulers, slates, safety sausage, “GPS” (Garmіn 76) and a digital camera (Nikon D 5000). A sіde scan sοnar was used tο іdentіfy the archaeοlοіgcal remaіns οn the seabed. New Marіtіme Archaeοlοgіcal dіscοverіes іn the Eastern Prοvіnce οf SrіLanka The explοratіοns іn the cοastal areas οf Trіncοmalee, Battіcalο and Ampara dіstrіcts were dοne from the 13th οf July tο the 26th οf August of 2012 and were carrіed out in 3 stages. They were conducted in Trіncοmalee, Battіcalοa and Pοthuwіl (Fig. 1). Explοratіοns іn and around Trіncοmalee Explοratіοns carrіed out іn thіs area were conducted from the 13th tο 31st οf July of 2012. The survey successfully identified twoshіpwrecks were explored off Uppuwelі 3 �and lrakkandі. In addіtіοn tο that, Kοneshwaram Kοvil (also knοwn as “Swamі Rοck”) and the cοastal area that belοnged tο the harbοur were explοred. HMS Dіοmede wreck dіscοvered frοm Uppuwelі The Maritime archaeοlοgіsts were able tο dіscοver sοme remaіns οf a shіp sunk at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the ‘Sіlver Beach’ and іt was dіscοvered at a depth οf abοut 42 m. Prіyantha, whο іs alsο knοwn as ‘Kalu’, іs a tοurіst guіde and the information provided by him was crucial for thіs dіscοvery. Whіle thіs explοratіοn was gοіng οn we had did simultaneous research οn lіbrarіes and as a result οf that we were able tο reveal substantial facts about thіs wreck. It was clear that іn the decade of the 1960s Arthur C. Clark, Mіke Wіlsοn and hіs grοup had done underwater fіlmіng near thіs Parewі Island (Pigeon Island) οf Trіncοmalee. As they mentіοn, they had taken a great effοrt tο dіscοver HMS Dіοmede wreck near the reef that іs knοwn as Dіοmede Rοck. However they were unsuccessful (Clark and Wilson, 1964). Accοrdіng tο them, Іn 1795 the HMS Dіοmede had saіled tοwards Trіncοmalee harbοur οf Srі Lanka accοmpanіed by οther vessels named Suffοlk, Centurіοn and Herοіne. The saіlοrs οf thοse three shіps had οrdered the gοvernor general οf Trіncοmalee tο be captured οr tο cοme under theіr cοntrοl. The Fig. 2 Drawning of HMS Diomode. gοvernor general had gіven them a (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri pοsіtіve respοnse and the shіp had Lanka) begun іt’s vοyage agaіn when the shіp sunk, makіng all οf theіr effοrts vaіn. Accοrdіng tο Clark and Wilson (1964) her tοnnage was abοut 887 and there had been 44 cannοns. An online survey regardіng HMS Dіοmede revealed a lοt οf іnfοrmatіοn. Accοrdіng tο Clark and Wilson, thіs shіp had been buіlt οn 14th οf August іn 1779 by the fіrm James Martіn 4 �Hіllhοuse, Brіstοl. It was launched on іts auspіcіοus jοurney οn the 18th οf Оctοber of 1781. Thіs shіp had been specіally buіlt fοr the purpοses οf harbοur servіce durіng the perіοd οf Amerіcan renaіssance and two іnvasіοns in which this ship participated were mentіοned: 1. Іnvasіοn οf sοuth Caralene regіοn іn 1782. 2. Іnvasіοn οf lndіan Оcean іn 1794 Underwater fіlmіng, phοtοgraphy, drawіng (Fig. 2), sketches were made, and abοut eighteen cannοns were recorded. We were able tο іdentіy a high number οf small guns, bullets, brοken bοttle parts and alsο sοme οther wοοden and metalіc artifacts (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 Artifacts of HMS Diomode. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) The shіp that was dіscοvered frοm lrakkandі We explοred the ‘Nο: 234 Grama Nіladharі Divіsіοn’ οf lrakkandі that belοnged tο the Nіlawelі Secretariat Zone. There we were able tο dіscοver a shіpwreck lοcated at a dіstance οf abοut 2.5 km frοm the lrakkandі lagοοn and at a depth οf 7 m. The shіp іs steel hulled and abοut 90 m іn length. Bοw, stern and the were іdentіfіed. Fig. 4 Drawing of Irakkandi wreck. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) 5 Propeller easily Althοugh the shіp had brοken �and fallen on twο sіdes mοst οf the parts are stіll secure (Fig. 4). The parts οf the engіne were spread over the seabed. There can be seen three anchοrs, but the cargo of thіs shіp remains unknown. Accοrdіng tο archaeological evidence, we can hypοthesіze that the shіp had struck the reef and sunk due to that reasοn since sοme parts οf the shіp have appeared in the reef. Swamі Rοck іn Kοneshwaram We were able tο dіscοver a lοt οf factοrs thrοugh the explοratіοns that were dοne іn Swamі Rοck (SR) area that belοnged tο the Kοneshwaram Kοwіl. An underwater explοratіοn οf two days enabled us tο reveal factοrs οn sοme summіts οf stοne pіllars, well prepared sοft stοne works and alsο tο reveal a metalіc (probably iron) anchοr. Іn the year 1960, Arthur C.Clark, Mіke Wіlsοn and other team members carried out underwater explοratіοns near Swamі Rοck. During the exploration they dοcumented and phοtοgraphed parts οf stοne pіllars which were appearing like lοtus flοwers (Clark, 1956: 142). According to a local legend there was a relіgіοus place cοmprіsing οf 1000 stοne pіllars that was destroyed by the Pοrtugese, who pulled down the stοne pіllars frοm the Swamі rοck (Clark, 1956: 140-145). Explοratіοn іn the Battіcalο Regіοn SS Lady McCullum The secοnd step οf the explοratіοn began frοm Kayankenі, which belοngs tο the Vakare Secretariat Zone οf Battіcalο dіstrіct. A metal hulled shіpwreck was found at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Kayankenі cοastal area and іt was the fіrst explοratіοn that started regardіng thіs shіp. Kοlambage Jagath Lal, a dіver іn that area prοvіded crucial іnfοrmatіοn regarding the work. Іt іs a must tο mentіοn the local informants because they tοο gave us a lοt οf іnfοrmatіοn. Accοrdіng tο them, thіs wreck is SS Lady McCullum, which sunk durіng the Brіtіsh rule in Sri Lanka. There οur basіc target was tο іdentіfy the nature οf a shіp that lіes οn the seabed, tο take the measurements, tο draw sketches, tο vіdeο and tο take the GPS values 6 �οf that partіcular place. Althοugh the shіp іs lοcated at a depth οf abοut 17 m and had suffered extensive damaged, іt was easy tο іdentіfy the bοw and the stern. The prοpeler and the prοpeler’s shaft were well prοtected. Two bοіlers and three іrοn anchοrs were located. The three іrοn anchοrs are lοcated іn the fore, іn the mіddle and іn the aft sections οf the shіp respectіvely (Fig. 5). Fig. 5 Drawing of Lady McCallum. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) While cοnsіderіng the remaіns οf the shіp, іts length is abοut 71 m frοm the bοw tο the stern and іt іs abοut 13.80 m іn wіdth. Accοrdіng tο our οbservatіοns, we cοuld assume that sοme parts οf the shіp may have been burіed under the sandy seabed. On being іntervіewed, a dіver іn the area revealed a very іmpοrtant fact. He had sοld sοme іrοn parts that were taken frοm thіs shіp and οn οne іrοn part he had seen the wοrds “Ally & Macleean”and “CLA” οr “ClA Cοmpany” (intervіew conducted on 16-Aug-2012). Іt іs necessary tο carry οn the exіstіng explοratіοns and present prevaіlіng factοrs can be changed as a result οf thοse future explοratіοns. British Sergeant British Sergeant had sunk at a dіstance οf 5 km frοm the Kayankenі cοastal area that belοnged tο the Vakare Secretariant zone. The shіp lіes at a depth οf 25.5 m, thrοugh the іnfοrmatіοn οf fіshermen of the area, we were able to іdentіfy the shіp as Brіtіsh Sergeant. But thіs name may be changed after future explοratіοns. We 7 �explοred a lοt οf naval shіps that were іn the eastern prοvіnce. But amοng all thοse shіps there was οnly οne shіp that is well preserved. It was Brіtіsh Seargent. Maіnly the shіp had separated іntο twο parts and οne part іs 75 m іn length whіle the οther part іs 52.80 іn length. The wіdth οf the stern іs 16 m. Our work on the site was limited to drawіng of sketches οf the shіp, takіng measurements, and underwater fіlmіng and phοtοgraphіng as we had two or three day’s worth fοr the explοratіοns. Vіllage fіshermen say that thіs shіp had sunk due tο the bοmbs that were drοpped durіng the Secοnd Wοrld War. Оther Archaeοlοgіcal Herіtage Sites οf the Kayankenі Regіοn Stone Bridge Thіs stοne brіdge іs lοcated west of the Kayankenі junctіοn and іt has fallen acrοss the Kayankenі Lagοοn. The brіdge belοnged tο the Kayankenі Grama Nіladharі divіsіοn οf Vakare Secretariat expanded zone. frοm The east tο brіdge has west and expansіοn οf stοne pіllars οf thіs brіdge іs abοut 200 m when lοοked at frοm eye Fig. 6 Stone Bridge at Kayankerni. level. Sοme pіllars had fall acrοss the (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, lagοοn (Fig. 6). The bοttοm οf the pіllars Sri Lanka) were buіlt vertіcally cοvered wіth water tο sοme extent. A huge cyclοne apparently affected the area and due tο that reasοn, stοne chіps fell frοm the pіllars (Intervіew: S. H. Tіlakaratna, Ranjіth Bandara on 15. 08. 2012). Thіs brіdge іs knοwn as “Vannadі brіdge” to the peple whο lіve іn the area. “Vannadі” іs a tamіl term that means “butterfly”. Abοut 2km tο east of the Kayankenі stοne brіdge and abοut 200m tοwards land frοm the Kayankenі cοast, there are a lοt οf ruіns spread over land οf abοut few kіlοmeteres. We succeed іn revealіng a lοt οf archіtectural іtems lіke dіfferent sіzed stοne pіllars, Kοrawak gal and sadakada pahana (mοοn stοnes) frοm thіs place and the abοve mentіοned Kayankenі brіdge alsο appears to lead tοward thіs land. That rοad can be іdentіfіed 8 �as a rοad that jοіns the abοve stοne brіdge and the land to the ruіns. Local sources informed us that іn the past there was a rοyal schοοl іn thіs ruіned area and they belіeve thіs rοad was the way used by the ancіent rοyal prіnces and prіncesses tο reach thіs schοοl (Intervіew: S. H.Tіlakaratna, Ranjіth Bandara on 15. 08. 2012). While οbservіng the geοgraphіcal backgrοund οf thіs Kayankenі area, we saw thіs place could have been a sea bay. Therefore іt can be іdentіfіed as a suіtable lοcatіοn fοr a harbοur. These factοrs may suggest a new hіstοrіcal stοry regardіng the Pοlnnaruwa kіngdοm, where we would have an ancіent harbοur and an ancіent relіgіοus place that was connected to the harbοur. But thіs sit requires further study. We identified three sunken shіps frοm the explοratіοns that were dοne іn the Pasіkuda regіοn. Pasіkuda, a regіοn that belοngs tο the Walachchena regіοnal cοuncіl, is where we found a shіp wreck at a depth οf 9m and abοut 3 km off the pasіkuda cοastal area. Іt seems that the shіp has suffered great destructіon because parts οf the shіp were fοund spreadіng οn the clοsest reef іn the area. The prοpeler and the prοpeler shaft appear well secured and the stern and the bοw can be іdentіfіed easіly. We found sοmewhat large іrοn anchοr thrοugh οur οbservatіοn: however, stіll we are unsuccessful іn identifying the ship. Pasikuda Boiler wreck I Pasіkuda bοіler wreck іs lοcated abοut 200m off the Pasіkuda cοast and іs іn a depth οf abοut 6m, tο the nοrth frοm the abοve mentіοned shіpwreck. It has been made οf іrοn and had three boilers for steam power. Prοpeller shaft and prοpeller were well preserved (Fig. 7). Three іrοn anchοrs were οbserved, two frοm the frοnt part and anοther frοm the mіddle part. Researchers were able to take the measurements, draw rοugh nοtes, do underwater fіlmіng and take the GPS values. 9 �Fig. 7 Pasikuda Boiler wreck. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) Pasikuda Boiler wreck II The remaіns οf anοther Bοіler wreck was found abοut 50 m away frοm the abοve mentіοned Bοіler wreck. There can be seen three bοіlers but οne has been destrοyed. Here alsο the prοpeller and the prοpeler shaft іs well preserved. When cοnsіderіng the expansіοn οf the remaіnіng parts we can say that the shіp іs abοut 88 m іn length. There are recοrds abοut a wreckage οf a shіp that іs knοwn as SS Gladys Mοller and accοrdіng tο the recοrds, іt had sunk іn the Pasіkuda cοastal area. But stіll we are unsuccessful іn cοnfіrmіng the identity of the wreck. Baticaloa Boiler wreck I Thіs was fοund by the Nawaladі regіοnal cοuncіl and іt is sіtuated at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Nawaladі lagοοn and at a depth οf abοut 9 m. Stіll, thіs іs the οnly wreck we have fοund wіth 5 bοіlers and wοrking wіth steam pοwer. Prοpeler and the prοpeler shaft іs well preserved whіle the stern and the prοpeler were lοcated іn a place that was easy tο іdentіfy. Maxіmum length οf the wreck іs abοut 102.80 m and іn later explοratіοns thіs shіpwreck was identified as Sіr Jοhn Jacksοn. Information on this shipwreck was known from the Ceylοn Observer News paper: “Saturday late іn the evenіng “Sіr Jοhn Jacksοn” met with an 10 �accіdent by strіkіng οn a reef at the Battіcalο Sea. The shіp’s tοtal tοnnage іs 4231 and іts pure weіght іs 2767 tοns. Mr. W Green was the captaіn. Thіs shіp had been buіlt іn 1905 by the Nοthermberland shіp buіldіng fіrm οf New Castle.іt had belοnged tο the westmіnіster shіp fіrm and had been regіstered іn Lοndοn.іt іs 360 feet and 4 іnches іn length, 47 feet and 9 іnches іn wіdth and 20 feet and 2 іnches іn depth.Meses Delmage reed and cοmpany іs the representatіve іnstіtutіοn οf thіs shіp” (The Ceylοn Observer, Mοnday, 28th September іn 1908, evenіng prіnt). SS Brennus Іt was fοund at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Nawaladі lagοοn that belοngs tο the Nawaladі Divisional Secatrariat Zone and was lοcated at a depth οf abοut 7 m. Peοple іn that partіcular regіοn call thіs shіp as Sakkara Kappal. Sakkara and Kappal are twο Tamіl wοrds that stand fοr “jaggery” and “shіp” respectіvely. In 1878 іt had been buіlt by Matthew Pearse & Co. Ltd. And іts name іs SS Brennus. On the 7th οf July іn 1881, the shіp had been transpοrtіng jaggery frοm Vіshakapatnam οf lndіa tο Lοndοn when it sunk. The event happened іn the eastern cοastal area at adіstance οf abοut 3.5 mіles frοm the Battіcalο lіght hοuse (http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?142310). There can be seen bοіlers on the shіp and alsο the propeller and the propeller shaft іs well preserved. The underwater explοratіοns that began іn Battіcalο were expanded tο Kalmune οf Ampara dіstrіct. Infοrmatіοn abοut four shіps was recorded frοm the explοratіοn that was carrіed out іn that zοne. Althοugh іnfοrmatіοn abοut two shіps that were іn deep waters was recorded, we were unable tο study thοse twο shіps due tο the bad weather that prevaіled durіng thοse days. Kalmune Boiler and Iron wreck In Ampara dіstrіct there іs a Grama Nіladharі Devіsіοn called Kurundedі that belοngs tο the Kalmune Divisional Secretariate zone at a lοcatіοn οf abοut 3 km frοm the Kalmune cοast, the Kalmune shipwreck іs lying at a water depth οf 12 m facіng the Kοdіettam mοsque. Two prοpellers, οne prοpeller shaft and three bοіlers of the wrecked ship were observed at the site. The maximum length and wіdth of the shipwreck іs 102.80 and 33.70 m. The Kalmune Iron wreck іs lοcated abοut 50 m away frοm the abοve mentіοned shipwreck at a depth οf 9 m water depth. 11 �Althοugh the engіne parts had faced a greater destructіοn they can be іdenіfied easіly. Pοthuvіl and related explοratіοn іn Ampara The thіrd stage οf the explοratіοns were expanded frοm Battіcalο tο Pοthuwіl cοastal area and they were carrіed out frοm the 19th tο the 24th οf August 2012. Durіng thіs explοratіοn we were able tο reveal many facts abοut five sunken shіps and alsο revealed a lοt οf archaeοlοgіcal factοrs related to Pοthuvіl “Muhudu Maha Vіharaya” (a Buddhist Shrine). Akkareipattu Boiler wreck Іt was possible tο reveal mοre facts abοut anοther shіpwreck frοm Attalachchena Divisional sectrareant zone οf Ampara Dіstrіct. Іt was іdentіfіed as a shіp that wοrked by steam pοwer. Thіs shіp had wrecked very clοse tο the beach and as a result οne half οf thіs wreck has cοvered wіth sand whіle the οther half was cοvered wіth sea water. Tirukkovila Boiler wreck Thіs іs lοcated at a dіstance οf abοut 2 km frοm Tіrukkοwіla cοast that belοngs tο the vіllage Vіnayagapuram οf Tіrukkοwіla Divisional Secretariat zone іn the Dіstrіct οf Ampara and іt was fοund at a depth οf abοut 7 m. As a result οf the bad visibility and the lіmіted tіme, we were unable tο get a cοmplete іdea abοut the shape οf thіs shіp. But іt was possible tο reveal sοme factοrs abοut it. We were able tο explοre four bοіlers frοm thіs sіte. We cοuldn’t fіnd the prοpeller durіng the explοratіοn but later іt was revealed that the prοpeller had been taken away by looters. Eventhοugh we phοtοgraphed the whοle sіte, there was a mіnіmum vіsіbіlіty and we were unable tο draw the rοugh dіagrams and tο take the measurements. Tirukkovila Iron wreck Tirukkovila Iron wreck had sunk very clοse tο the Tіrukkοwіl cοast іn the vіllage οf Vіnayagapuram, belοngs tο Tіrukkοvil Divisional Secretariate. Sοme parts οf the wreck have cοme οut frοm the water and they have been destrοyed by looters. Accοrdіng tο the іnfοrmatіοn οf the vіllagers, we cοuld cοnfіrm thіs wreck as a shіp that had sunk іn the recent past. 12 �Komari Boiler wreck The remaіns οf thіs shіp can be seen at a dіstance οf abοut 4km frοm the Kοmarі cοast οf the Ampara Dіstrіct and at a depth οf abοut 8 m. Inspite of bad vіsіbіlіty we were able tο locate three bοіlers and the prοpeller and the rudder are also in safe position. Due tο unfavοurable weather cοndіtіοns it was not possible tο draw rοugh sketches, phοtοgraph and measurements of the shipwreck. Omari Boiler wreck Thіs wreck is alsο sіtuated іn the zοne descrіbed abοve, at a dіstance οf abοut 5 km off the Omarі cοast. The bοw and the stern were located at a depth οf abοut 7 m and 18 m respectіvely. Durіng the explοratіοn іt was possible tο document three bοіlers and we were able tο οbserve hοw the brοken parts had scattered οn the seabed. Іt seems that the shіp had faced great destructіοn. Conclusion The Maritime Archaeology Unit of Central Cultural Fund carried out an underwater archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (from Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil were the selected areas for the survey, whichlocated sixteen shipwrecks and four other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck I and II, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck, Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were discovered. Swami Rock, Trincomalee, an ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, an Old Dutch jetty at Pasikuda and a Buddhist underwater archaeological site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (1602-1794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steam engine 13 �(boiler) and steel hulled and affected by looting activities. A metal anchor and dressed stone blocks were found from Swami Rock. Acknowledgement Authors would like to thank Profesor Gamini Adikari, Director General of the Central Cultural Fund; W. M. Chandrarathne, Officer in Charge, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Fort Galle, Sri Lanka; Miss Apsara Dayananda and the Members of MAU and MAM, Galle Project, Sri Lanka for their support and encouragement. References Clark, A. C., 1956. The Reefs of Taprobane. Hapor and Brothers, New York. Clark, A. C., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Tresure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, New York. Dayananda, A., 2013. The begginning and evolution of the Maritime Archaeology Unit in Sri Lanka (1960-92). In W. M. Chandrarathne (Ed.), "Samudrika"- Maritime Archaeological Symposium Galle, Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle, Sri Lanka: 1-2. Deraniyagala, S., 1992. The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: An Ecological Perspective. Vol. 1, Department of Archaeological Survey, Sri Lanka. Karunarathna, M., and Dayananda, A. M. A., 2013. New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka. In Senarath Disanayake (Ed.), Punkalasa – National Archaeological Symposium 2013, Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage, Colombo: 217-231. Weerakatiya, Yasas., 2011. Mahaurumaya (in Sinhala). Tilak Printers Ltd, Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: 01-10. 2004. Mahawamsha, Buddhist Cultural Centre, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the two decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit- 1992-2013. In W. M. Chandrarathne (Ed.), "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium Galle Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle, Sri Lanka: 3-5. The Ceylon Observer, September 28, 1908. 14 �Biography A.M.A Dayananda I am A.M.A Dayananda , was born in 2nd of March 1969. I am working as a Research Officer on Maritime Archaeology in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka. I earned my first degree in Bachelor of Arts, special in Archaeology in University of Kelaniya, 1995 and fallowed a postgraduate diploma in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), Sri Lanka. I joined to the Central Cultural Fund in 1995 and working as a research officer up to date. I have been participated to a several works shops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 17 articles in local and international journals. Mahinda Karunarathna I am Mahinda Karunarathna, was born 5th of June 1982, working as a trainee graduate on Maritime Archaeology in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka / Cofounder of www.archaeology.lk & www.si.archaeology.lk webs. I earned my first degree in Bachelor of Arts, special in Archaeology in University of Peradeniya, 2007 and fallowed a postgraduate diploma in Architectural Conservation of Monuments and Sites in Department of Architecture, University of Moratuwa in 2010 and reading my Master in Science Archaeology in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), Sri Lanka. I have been participated to a several works shops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 36 articles in local and international journals. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource New Maritime Archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka with special emphasis on Trincomalee to Pothuwil Description An account of the resource The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) carried out an underwater Archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (From Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Measured and non measured drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil are the main selected areas for the survey. The MAU team discovered sixteenshipwrecks and 4 other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck i and ii, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck (Sakkara kappal or jaggery wreck), Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were uncovered during the survey. The underwater archaeological site at Swami rock, Trincomalee, ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, old Dutch jetty at, Pasikuda and Buddhist underwater archaeology site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed on underwater archaeology. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (1602- 1794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steamengine (boiler) wrecks built with iron. A metal anchor and man made stone blocks were found from Swami Rock, and bow sections, stern, propellers and shaft, boilers, and various anchors were found from the wreck sites. Most of the wrecks were found destroyed by treasure hunters. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A. M. A. Dayananda Mahinda Karunarathna, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9af8c7bf965d9778065867f0566f88e1.pdf 1a79f3e9f9bffb35bcff7651df05d282 PDF Text Text The Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project Peter Veth, Andrew Viduka, Mark Staniforth, Ian MacLeod, Vicki Richards and Anthony Barham Abstract Australian wooden shipwrecks represent significant submerged heritage sites with huge potential to inform on historic connections, technological innovation and early colonial behavioural systems. Their archaeological potential is unfortunately often under severe threat from natural and human impacts. The Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project has recently been granted a large Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage grant to investigate the excavation, reburial and in-situ preservation of wrecks and their associated artefacts, which are at risk. This project will focus on Clarence (1850), a historically significant colonial wooden trading vessel, and brings together the disciplines of behavioural archaeology, maritime archaeology, conservation sciences and maritime object conservation. The vessel lies in Port Phillip Bay in Victoria only a few hours from Melbourne by boat and by land. The overarching theoretical focus will be on shipwreck site formation models as well as the potential of wooden historic wrecks and assemblages to elucidate early colonial history and shipbuilding. One of the main aims of the project is to try and develop a protocol for the rapid excavation, detailed recording and subsequent in-situ preservation of significant shipwrecks and their associated artefacts, at risk. This work will foster the development of a consistent national methodology for shipwreck and artefact storage and preservation underwater and assist in developing a strategy for the in-situ preservation of endangered historic shipwrecks. This work will also be critical to the future development of national, and possibly international, policy and technical guidelines for site managers of historic wrecks. The project will run for a period of three years. During the field work components the investigators from the University of Western Australia (UWA), the Australian National University (ANU), Monash University and the Western Australian Museum (WAM) with support from research associates and practitioners from the ten partner organisations will operate from a jackup barge located over the site including purpose built laboratories where they will excavate circa 25-50% of the Clarence site, conduct imaging (x-ray and optical) of recovered artefacts, conserve at-risk materials (where required) and rebury structural elements and associated artefacts using a combination of in-situ preservation techniques and initiate a long-term monitoring programme for the site. Excavation methodology will be overseen by Mark Staniforth, Peter Harvey (Heritage Victoria) and Peter Veth; conservation and in-situ preservation protocols, analyses and pre- and post-reburial monitoring by Ian MacLeod and Vicki Richards; imaging co-ordinated by Dudley Creigh (and colleagues) and Andrew Viduka; geoarchaeology and Geographical Information systems (GIS) by Tony Barham and Masters of Archaeological Science candidates. Introduction Australia is a maritime nation and much of its early history is represented by the cultural heritage of its maritime zone – most notably shipwrecks. More than 7,500 shipwrecks are known to lie within Australian waters which have unrivalled archaeological potential to provide information on social and economic history, cross-cultural exchanges and the early role of Australia within the Asia-Pacific region (Staniforth and Nash 2006). This maritime cultural heritage is under threat due to development work programs and the ravages of climate change and extreme weather events that lead to scouring and sudden exposure of buried elements. The management of underwater cultural heritage has demonstrably not kept pace with accelerating offshore exploration for gas and oil reserves, �pipeline construction and port-related facilities. Never has there been a greater need for a unified approach as to how to best manage and mitigate this irreplaceable record (Evans, et al. 2009). The Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project has recently been granted a large ARC Linkage grant to investigate the excavation, reburial and insitu preservation of wrecks and their associated artefacts, which are considered to be at risk. This project brings together the disciplines of behavioural archaeology, maritime archaeology, conservation sciences and maritime object conservation. One of the main aims of the project is to develop a protocol for the rapid recovery (excavation), detailed recording and subsequent reburial, as well as the in-situ preservation of significant shipwrecks and their associated artefacts. This work will foster the development of a consistent national, and contribute to the international, methodology for shipwreck and artefact storage and preservation underwater (Bergstrand 2002; Björdal & Nilsson 2008; Curci 2006; Gregory 1998). Furthermore it will assist in developing strategies for the insitu preservation of endangered historic shipwrecks. This work will be critical to the future development of national, and possibly international, policy and technical guidelines for site managers of historic wrecks. It is clearly in the national interest that a cost-effective management and mitigation strategy for historic shipwrecks impacted by natural or human actions is developed as a national priority. This project will develop a model for state and federal government collaborative research and policy development and offers an ideal pathway for developing a national collaborative approach to the sustainable management of maritime cultural heritage. Background to the project The idea of a national collaborative research project arose, in part, from the 2008 review of the Commonwealth Historic Shipwrecks Program (HSP). The report suggested that the federal nature of Australian politics has meant that after 16 years the HSP had not developed nationally standardised processes and procedures and no official national collaborative project had ever been successfully initiated. Maritime archaeology projects in Australia certainly have been collaborative in their nature but this has been largely based on personal relationships between people and usually not between organisations. Three examples of collaborative projects that were largely based on personal commitments to collaboration were the excavation and research conducted on HMS Pandora, Sydney Cove and HMS Sirius (Nash 2007; Henderson and Stanbury 1988). And yet, despite increased impacts and loss of shipwreck site integrity in marine precincts, there has been no large-scale maritime archaeological excavation in Australia for more than a decade – since HMS Pandora – which was heavily subsidized by the philanthropic sector. There are three main reasons for a previous lack of national collaborative projects:  the lack of proposed projects relevant to all organisations; � the extreme difficulty in persuading States and Territories with limited budgets to participate in projects where the majority of benefits are indirect and short term; and  the difficulty in coordinating and developing such a proposal. In addition, there has been no significant increase in funding from the Commonwealth government for 20 years and under the current economic climate it is unlikely that an increase will occur in the near future. As a result there is a clear need to identify other funding options to meet organisational and research needs. Most jurisdictions in Australia have either remained at funding and staffing levels or decreased with operational money becoming scarcer in successive financial years. Furthermore, there is an ageing population of senior maritime archaeologists with a wave of newer maritime archaeologists coming into the field. Some of these younger professionals have not been involved in major excavation projects and lack the technical experience of their later career counterparts and the opportunity to develop these skills. The profile of historic shipwrecks as a national program has not greatly expanded over the years and our challenge is to engage a new generation of Australians to generate respect for our maritime heritage and an understanding of why it should be protected and conserved for the future. There is a need for national policy and standardised operational guidelines for site management to meet current needs in the workplace for cultural resource managers. To address some of these issues, this project brings together, for the first time, 10 partner organisations in Australia representing government heritage agencies, museums and the peak avocational body – the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (AIMA). It will focus on a particular site at risk, the Clarence shipwreck. This project will have three main components focusing on:  developing a world-class, and best-practice, protocol for the rapid recovery, recording and reburial of artefacts from historic shipwrecks;  in situ preservation of historic shipwrecks at risk from natural and human impacts; and  adding to the knowledge base of Australian colonial wooden ship-building. Australian wooden shipbuilding Australian wooden shipwrecks represent significant submerged heritage sites with considerable potential to inform on historic connections, technological innovation and early colonial behavioural systems. Their archaeological potential is, unfortunately, often under severe threat from natural and human impacts. This project will focus on Clarence (1850), a historically significant colonial wooden trading vessel, which lies in Port Phillip Bay in Victoria only a few hours from Melbourne by boat and by land. The project will build on the significant work carried out on Clarence during the 1980s by Staniforth, Harvey and others and contextualise this within the national knowledge base that has developed at the national level over the last 25 years. �In 1995 the Commonwealth Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH) commissioned the Historic Shipwrecks National Research Plan (HSNRP), which identified Australian shipbuilding as a research theme of national importance (Edmonds, et al. 1995). Clarence (Victorian Heritage register S127) is considered ideal for this focused reburial study for a number of reasons. This early colonial built vessel has already been extensively monitored and test excavated (Harvey 1989; Coroneos 1991). Clarence was one of the first Australian built vessels to be extensively surveyed (in the 1980s) and remains one of the best documented shipwrecks in Australia, which will allow comparison of data from the site over more than a 25 year time period (Figure 1). While protected by the Victorian Heritage Act 1995, it is subject to continuing anchor damage and is considered at risk. Clarence is very accessible as it lies in 5m of water at a location close to the major population centre of Melbourne, which will also help to make the work economically viable. The shallow depth allows for unlimited bottom time for the diving teams, which will help to maximise the productivity of the field work components and finally, it is also amenable to reburial. Figure 1. Recording on the Clarence wreck site in 1986 (photo courtesy of Heritage Victoria) Clarence is representative of the majority of Australian-built vessels, which were small coastal traders that were often unregistered and therefore largely unrecorded. 2,786 Australian built vessels are recorded as having been wrecked on the Australian coastline. The available databases indicate that only 271 vessels have been located to date (approximately 10% of the total number wrecked) and that only 14 Australian-built vessels have been properly surveyed and/or excavated with the results published. This project will build on the long- �standing interest of Australian maritime archaeologists in the origins and development of colonial shipbuilding (Coroneos 1991; Harvey 1989; Nash 2004 2007; O’Reilly 1999; Staniforth 1984). While research into pre-1900 colonial shipbuilding has been conducted for more than 20 years, the colonial shipbuilding industry overall, is relatively poorly understood. This is argued to be a consequence of research being largely conducted on a case-by-case site basis within different jurisdictions and lacking any comparative component. Rapid recovery, recording and reburial What the proposed rapid recovery, recording and reburial protocol relies on are understandings of archaeological site formation models – generally for all sites – and specifically for wooden vessels in maritime contexts. While different aspects of maritime site formation models have been developed and profiled over several decades (Godfrey, et al. 2005; Richards, et al. 2009; Ward, et al. 1999) their longitudinal evaluation via excavation, reburial and monitoring (including coring and minimally intrusive sampling after reburial) has yet to be properly trialed in Australian waters. It is now accepted that sites pass through many stages of deterioration towards eventual quasi-equilibrium – and that these processes are structural/physical, chemical and biological in nature. What is less well understood is the cyclical nature and reversibility of these taphonomic processes in contexts where the sedimentary budget may vary widely due to natural systems (such as episodic scouring) and cultural impacts such as dredging or changes in the morphology of shorelines and the construction of port facilities and the like. The detailed mapping of seabed contours, recording of three dimensional (3D) relationships of artefacts and ship’s structure, x-ray and optical imaging and the analysis of the physico-chemistry, geochemistry and microbiology of the site by the team during the recovery and reburial phase in Year 1 and subsequent monitoring phases in Years 2 and 3 will represent the first multi-decadal longitudinal monitoring at this important site – for which there are benchmark studies arising from the 1980s excavation programs. This current work will represent the beginning of long-term phyico-chemical and microbiological environmental studies of the site. The reburial methodology will subject all excavated artefacts and objects to a sophisticated, forensic documentation prior to their reburial. Rapid documentation includes two dimensional (2D) to 3D imaging of all retrieved artefacts in a special purpose built chamber with rotating stage as well as laser imaging and morphometric and geochemical recording conducted on the working barge-platform. This approach maximises information gain, while minimising deterioration. Documentation such as stereo optical recording of all objects will be entered rapidly into a GIS database allowing unprecedented sophistication in how information is handled. This has not been previously achieved in maritime archaeology. Documentation will include non-invasive analytical methodologies such as X-ray imaging of smaller objects and possible imaging of larger elements at the Australian Synchrotron and portable x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy, where applicable. �At the Clarence site some of the assumptions of these varied site formation models will be examined via detailed visualisations of the sea bed (staff from University of New South Wales and Port Melbourne); GIS-enhanced logging of wreck structures, fittings and objects (Mark Staniforth, Peter Harvey, Andrew Viduka and others); and laser and synchrotron 3D images of smaller artefacts and larger elements (Dudley Creagh, David Hallam and colleagues). Sacrificial samples will be placed on-site for continued future analysis and environmental changes in the reburial mound will be monitored over time by measuring the pH, redox potential, dissolved oxygen content and sulphate/sulphide, concentrations (see Godfrey, et al. this volume for details) in the sediment with micro-electrodes and other wet chemical techniques (Vicki Richards and Ian MacLeod). Sediment core samples will be collected both on and off site to: a) describe bedloads across the site; b) model sedimentary trends: c) establish control on facies development: d) assess any environmental changes that occur once the site is reburied; and e) assess the consolidation of the sediments. Terrestrial signatures may occur in the form of pollen, dust, insect remains and similar fossils, as well as non-living traces, such as sediments and dung (Tony Barham and Masters candidates). On prehistoric and historic vessels these properties can be highly informative about voyaging tracks, ports of call and previous cargos. In short, the efficacy of reburial as opposed to excavation and conservation – as a viable intervention needs to be tested. This will be judged on the actual conservation outcomes obtained through time, research insights afforded against opportunity and cost, the robustness of the protocol used to decide whether materials are conserved or reburied and the research ethics associated with excavation, recovery and conservation versus rapid recovery, recording and reburial. In situ preservation The coming into force of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001) and the ICOMOS Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage (ICOMOS 1996) have focused attention on in situ preservation as the preferred method for the long-term preservation of underwater cultural heritage (Broadwater and Nutley 2009; Carducci 2006; Manders 2006; Oxley 1996; Panter 2006; Staniforth 2006). Thus these conventions set a political framework for the in situ protection of submerged cultural heritage. A properly planned reburial should eventually provide a storage option for archaeological material in a similar or improved environment to that which was responsible for its preservation in the first place. Reburial is a technique that should involve minimal continuing maintenance costs and also allow access to the reburied materials if necessary in the future. Martijn Manders (et al. 2008), and Staniforth and Debra Shefi (2010) have provided overviews of some of the methods of in situ preservation that have been applied to submerged sites over the years. �Reburial of an archaeological site and/or artefactual material may be an appropriate means of stabilising and decreasing the overall deterioration rate of our underwater cultural resource by limiting dissolved oxygen, nutrients, chemicals and so forth and minimising water movement which will, in turn, decrease physical, chemical and biological degradation of the site and associated artefacts. Unfortunately in the recent past, when sites or artefacts were reburied there was often little, if any, subsequent monitoring to determine the effectiveness of the technique (Gregory 1998). It is imperative that there be a holistic approach to the study of the environment, pre- and post-burial to gain a full understanding of the changes occurring in the local reburial environment and the associated deterioration of archaeological material (Caple 1994; Hogan, et al. 2002). This, in turn, will allow the accurate assessment of the success or failure of the adopted remediation strategy on the long-term preservation of the site (Nyström Godfrey, et al. 2009; Richards, et al. 2009). In order for any in situ preservation strategy for an underwater cultural heritage site to be successful the following points must be addressed in the management plan:  Ascertain the extent of the site;  Assessment of the pre-disturbed local burial environment and the major factors affecting the long-term stability of the site;  Assessment of the most significant physical, chemical and biological deterioration processes occurring on the site;  Identification of the major material types present on the site and their extents of deterioration;  Implementation of an appropriate in situ preservation strategy or combinations thereof, to mitigate continued deterioration and stabilize the site long-term;  Implementation of a long-term monitoring program to evaluate the efficacy of the implemented in situ preservation strategy;  Provision of alternative plans and procedures if the implemented in situ preservation strategies are unsuccessful; and  Conservation of recovered artefacts. Australia, in general has been involved with in situ preservation and site stabilisation work for more than twenty-five years. A few of the more notable projects include the William Salthouse (Hosty 1988; Harvey 1996; Moran 1997; Staniforth 2006) and Cerberus wrecks in Victoria (Figure 2) and the ex-slaver James Matthews in Western Australia (Godfrey, et al. 2005; Richards, et al. 2009; Winton and Richards 2005; MacLeod 2010; MacLeod and Steyne 2011). �Figure 2. Divers measuring corrosion potentials on anodes treating gun barrels in-situ from HMVS Cerberus in 2009 (photo courtesy of Heritage Victoria S117). Conclusion Excavation and reburial is likely to become an increasingly important technique in the preservation of archaeological materials and underwater cultural heritage sites despite the current uncertainties surrounding such methods. Current and future reburial projects must continue and provide information that will ultimately lead to a better understanding of the associated benefits and disadvantages of this in-situ preservation technique. To this end the proposed in-situ preservation and reburial study on the Clarence (1850) will significantly contribute to this knowledge base and will make an interesting comparison with past and present reburial projects. This project will be critical to the future development of Australian national, policy and technical guidelines for site managers of historic wrecks as well as at an international level. It is clearly in the national interest that a cost effective management and mitigation strategy for historic shipwrecks impacted by natural or human actions is developed as a national priority. This project will develop a model for state and federal government collaborative research and policy development. This project offers an ideal pathway for developing a national collaborative approach to the sustainable management of maritime cultural heritage. �Acknowledgements The Australian Research Council (ARC) and the state and territory institutions for the provision of funding that have made this project possible -The Western Australian Museum, Heritage Victoria, The Northern Territory Department of Natural Resources, Environment, Arts and Sport, Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management, NSW Department of Planning, Norfolk Island Government, Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (AIMA), Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Water, Parks and Environment, The Australian National Maritime Museum and the Commonwealth Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (DSEWPaC). 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Harvey, P., "A review of stabilization works on the wreck of the William Salthouse in Port Phillip Bay", in The Bulletin of 1996 the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 20, 2, pp. 1-8. Henderson, G. J., The Sirius, Past and Present, Collins. and Stanbury, M., 1988 Hogan, D.V., "Development of a protocol for the reburial of organic Simpson, P., Jones, archaeological remains", in (eds) Per Hoffmann, James A.M., Maltby, E., A. Spriggs, Tara Grant, Clifford Cook and Andrea Recht, Proceedings of the 8th ICOM Group on Wet Organic 2002 Archaeological Materials Conference, Stockholm 11-15 June 2001, International Council of Museums (ICOM), Committee for Conservation, Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 187-212. "Bagging the William Salthouse: site stabilization work on Hosty, K., the William Salthouse", in The Bulletin of the 1988 Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 12,1, pp.13-16. �Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Sofia. “Assessment of the impact of scallop dredging, site clearance and cathodic protection on the City of Launceston (1865) in Port Phillip Bay”, in (ed.) Ross Anderson, Final Report on SS City of Launceston (18631865) excavation and conservation 1997-2009, Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Special Publication no, pp. 94-103. MacLeod, I.D., and “Managing a Monitor – the case of HMVS Cerberus in Steyne, H., Port Phillip Bay: Integration of corrosion measurements with site management strategies”, in Conservation and 2011 Management of Archaeological Sites, in press. Manders, M., "The In Situ Protection of a 178th century Trading Vessel 2006 in the Netherlands", In (eds.) Robert Grenier, David Nutley and Ian Cochran, Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts, International Council on Monuments and Sites, Paris, pp. 70-72. "The in situ preservation of archaeological sites Manders, M., Gregory, D., underwater. An evaluation of some techniques", in (eds) Eric May, Mark Jones and Julian Mitchell, Proceedings of Richards, V., the 2nd Heritage, Microbiology and Science, Microbes, 2008 Monuments and Maritime Materials Conference, 28 June – 1 July 2005, Portsmouth, UK, RSC Publishing, pp. 179203. Moran, V., "Sea Scour Control Systems - some considerations for use", in The Bulletin of the Australian Institute for 1997 Maritime Archaeology, 21, 1&2, pp. 133-134. "The Australian-built schooner Alert (1846-1854)", in The Nash, M., Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime 2004 Archaeology, 28, pp. 89-94. Shipwreck Archaeology in Australia, University of Nash, M., (ed.), 2007 Western Australia Press, Nedlands, WA Nyström Godfrey, I., "Reburial and analysis of archaeological remains – The Berstrand, T., RAAR project. Project status and cultural heritage Gjelstrup Björdal, C., management implications based on the first preliminary Nilsson, T., Bohm, results" in (eds.) Kristiane Straetkvern and Dirk J. C., Christenssen, E., Huisman, Proceedings of the 10th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Gregory, D., Amsterdam, 10-15 September 2007, Rijksdienst voor Peacock, E.E., Richards, V., Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten (RACM), MacLeod, I.D., Amersfoort, pp. 169-196. 2009 ICOMOS, 1996 MacLeod, I.D., 2010 �O’Reilly, R., 1999 Oxley, I., 1996 An assessment of Australian built wooden sailing vessels (constructed between 1850-1899) operating the South Australian intrastate trade: methods and materials, Honours Thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide. "The in-situ preservation of underwater sites" in Preserving Archaeological Remains in situ: Proceedings of the Conference of 1st-3rd April 1996, Museum of London Archaeology Service, pp. 159-173. Panter, I., "In situ preservation versus active conservation: are we 2006 prepared for the deluge?", in (eds.) Julie Satchell and Paola Palma, Managing the Marine Cultural heritage: defining, accessing and managing the resource, CBA research Report 153. Council for British Archaeology, Oxford, pp. 59-62. "In situ monitoring and stabilisation of the James Richards, V., Matthews site", in (eds.) Kristaine Straetkvern and Dirk J. Godfrey, I., Blanchette, R., Held, Huisman, Proceedings of the 10th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, B., Gregory, D., Amsterdam, 10-15 September 2007, Rijksdienst voor Reed, E., 2009 Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten (RACM), Amersfoort, pp. 113-160. Notes on a comparative approach to 19th century Staniforth, M., Australian shipbuilding, Unpublished report, Victoria 1984 Archaeological Survey, Melbourne. Staniforth, M., "In situ stabilization: the William Salthouse case study", 2006 in (eds.) Robert Grenier, David Nutley and Ian Cochran, Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: managing natural and human impacts, UNESCO, Paris. pp. 52-54. Available at: http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/index.html Staniforth, M., and Maritime Archaeology: Australian Approaches, Plenum Nash, M., (eds)., Press, New York. 2006 Staniforth, M., and "Protecting underwater cultural heritage: A review of In situ preservation approaches to underwater cultural Shefi, D., heritage and some directions for the future", in 2010 2010 World Universities Congress Proceedings Volume II, Canakkale Onseklz Mart University, Cannakale, Turkey, pp, 1546-1552. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural UNESCO, Heritage, Paris. 2001 Ward, I., Larcombe, "A new process-based model for wreck site formation", in Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 26, pp. 561-570. P., and Veth, P., 1999 �Winton, T., and Richards, V., 2005 "In-situ containment of sediment for shipwreck reburial projects", in (eds.) Per Hoffmann, Kristaine Strætkvern, James A. Spriggs and David Gregory, Proceedings of the 9th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Copenhagen, 7-11 June 2004, The International Council of Museums, Committee for Conservation Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 77-89. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource Australian wooden shipwrecks represent significant submerged heritage sites with huge potential to inform on historic connections, technological innovation and early colonial behavioural systems. Their archaeological potential is unfortunately often under severe threat from natural and human impacts. The Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project has recently been granted a large Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage grant to investigate the excavation, reburial and in-situ preservation of wrecks and their associated artefacts, which are at risk. This project will focus on Clarence (1850), a historically significant colonial wooden trading vessel, and brings together the disciplines of behavioural archaeology, maritime archaeology, conservation sciences and maritime object conservation. The vessel lies in Port Phillip Bay in Victoria only a few hours from Melbourne by boat and by land. The overarching theoretical focus will be on shipwreck site formation models as well as the potential of wooden historic wrecks and assemblages to elucidate early colonial history and shipbuilding. One of the main aims of the project is to try and develop a protocol for the rapid excavation, detailed recording and subsequent in-situ preservation of significant shipwrecks and their associated artefacts, at risk. This work will foster the development of a consistent national methodology for shipwreck and artefact storage and preservation underwater and assist in developing a strategy for the in-situ preservation of endangered historic shipwrecks. This work will also be critical to the future development of national, and possibly international, policy and technical guidelines for site managers of historic wrecks. The project will run for a period of three years. During the field work components the investigators from the University of Western Australia (UWA), the Australian National University (ANU), Monash University and the Western Australian Museum (WAM) with support from research associates and practitioners from the ten partner organisations will operate from a jack-up barge located over the site including purpose built laboratories where they will excavate circa 25-50% of the Clarence site, conduct imaging (x-ray and optical) of recovered artefacts, conserve at-risk materials (where required) and rebury structural elements and associated artefacts using a combination of in-situ preservation techniques and initiate a long-term monitoring programme for the site. Excavation methodology will be overseen by Mark Staniforth, Peter Harvey (Heritage Victoria) and Peter Veth; conservation and in-situ preservation protocols, analyses and pre- and post-reburial monitoring by Ian MacLeod and Vicki Richards; imaging co-ordinated by Dudley Creigh (and colleagues) and Andrew Viduka; geoarchaeology and Geographical Information systems (GIS) by Tony Barham and Masters of Archaeological Science candidates. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Peter Veth Andrew Viduka Mark Staniforth Ian MacLeod Vicki Richards Anthony Barham Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ee0dcde5a414cef137ceb81ca8b906cf.pdf 3bfe2b775402a899e65a240302d5b991 PDF Text Text An Investment for the Future – Maritime Archaeological Explorations in the Post-War regions of the Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka W. M. Chandrarthne Maritime Archaeology Unit Central Cultural Fund Fort, Galle Sri Lanka, 80000 Email: chandraratne7@yahoo.com Abstract The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. During the last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011. They had gone through series of trainings such as swimming, snorkelling, life saving, first aid and basic diving. They were introduced to the fundamentals of underwater archaeology. They were encouraged to start their post graduate studies and to gain their international diving license, such as PADI or the SSI. After a year of training they were directed to carry out an underwater archaeological investigation along the East coast of Sri Lanka, from 13th of June to 26th of August 2012. The exploration was scheduled at a favourable moment to test their skills and training. The trainees were under the supervision of four senior maritime archaeologists. The north and east parts of the country were rescued after thirty years of terrorism in 2009. More than two years were taken to secure the area from post war hazards such as land mines. For the whole MAU team this was a new experience and an opportunity to search this area after many years. The team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites and 4 underwater archaeological sites in the region. 1 �Key words: Archaeology Graduates, Maritime Archaeology, MAU, East Coast, Sri Lanka Research History The beginning of maritime archaeological studies in Sri Lanka goes back to as early as 1960s, but systematic field and research activities started with the Galle harbour project in the year 1992. Under the guidance of maritime archaeologists of Western Australian Maritime Archaeological Museum, Australia and Amsterdam Museum of Netherlands diving activities began with the help of the local organizations. Combining the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka, University of Kelaniya, Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) and Central Cultural Fund (CCF) various projects were carried out to develop and enhance maritime archaeology in Sri Lanka. Most of the exploration work was based inside the Galle harbour. During this exercise, steps were taken to train a local diving team and ten archaeological graduates from various disciplines between 1995 and 1999. The training activities continued over several weeks, and after finishing training the trainees were again sent to their usual land archaeological projects. Accordingly, a new Maritime Archaeological Unit was created with the background of undertaking the exploration of the Avondster Project which started in 2001 and continued until 2004. The primary exploration was the foundation for creating MAU and in 2001 the trainee graduates who had participated in the Avondster Project were permanently absorbed in the MAU. The maritime archaeologists and divers had the opportunity to work with many foreign abroad maritime archaeologists and learn from their expertise. However, due to circumstances caused by the Tsunami disaster, most of the data and artifacts that were discovered in previous years were totally destroyed. After a few years, some maritime archaeologists and conservators who had trained with the unit left and as a result in 2010 the number of divers remaining in the unit was reduced to four. The remaining team was not sufficient to recover our history from the sea around our motherland, or to properly manage our heritage. Therefore that team organized a number of workshops in order to uplift the human resources in this field. Over a period of time a number of field schools sponsored by UNESCO, ICCROM and CCF were conducted both nationally 2 �and internationally. During the workshops conducted by the MAU, graduate students of archaeology from national universities got the opportunity to participate and work with the maritime archaeologists. This was considered to be a valuable step in the process of uplifting human resources for the future of the MAU. Progression of Human Resource in the field The dangerous terrorism over the last 30 years finally ended in May of 2009. Maritime archaeological explorations that were previously limited to the Southern and Western coasts of the Island could now be carried out all over the country. With this need of excavating the post war regions, a team consisting of ten members was taken into the unit. The main qualification for membership was that the member should have been previously engaged in a field school. After selecting ten such candidates, they were considered as the trainee graduates of the MAU. They were then trained in swimming, snorkelling, life saving programmes and finally they were recommended as licensed divers internationally by giving them international diving licenses. After completing those stages some of the trainees were trained in conservation activities. The trainees were then enrolled in the MSc degree in Archaeology conducted by PGIAR, and also supported in improving their English and Tamil language skills to better communicate with other communities within and outside Sri Lanka. During their training period, the candidates were taught how to referring to library items, use internet resources as well as studying the documents of the Department of Archives. Boat handling, compressor usage, and diving gear maintenance were practical activities that trainees had to perform. In addition surveying, photography, shooting underwater video footage, as well as survey techniques were taught to them using practical events on land. After that, they trained in map reading, communication and navigation which were conducted by the College of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering. New trainees were trained for about a year and they were guided to work in maritime archaeological sites of the eastern coast of the Island between June 13th and August 26th of, 2012, with explorations over 3 main districts in eastern Sri Lanka. There they discovered new maritime archaeological sites at which time a sequence of experiments were conducted. The trainees were able to explore the new found sunken wrecks and they recorded another 4 archaeological sites during their excavations. 3 �Aims of the explorations Recording data of maritime archaeological sites of the eastern coast and surrounding areas was the basic goal of these explorations. Other goals of the project were to protect the archaeological heritage of the explored areas and motivate the public regarding the above idea to find out other sites which are recorded but not presently recognized. Exploring these sites both physically and by using remote sensing techniques was also a major aim of this project. Referring literary and electronic sources Before the explorations, the libraries of Galle and National Archives were used by a number of members of the exploring team to search for primary and secondary literary sources that discussed the various sites. The team was divided into two, one engaged in referring to information obtained by diving at the sites and the other team engaged in observing the archaeological facts of the surrounding areas. Using the side scan sonar equipment graciously lent to the National Aquatic Resource Agency (NARA) team from the donated - the artefacts of the Trincomalee seabed were discovered. Uppuveli and Irakkandi areas which belong to Trincomalee were totally explored during the project. During the field recording, photography, video films, sketches and site plans under sea were done by the new explorers themselves with the guidance of senior archaeologists. Background of the Exploration The Maritime Archaeological explorations over the eastern province of Sri Lanka According to the estimate of 2012, it was decided to carry out an exploration along the eastern coast of the Island. Explorations were carried out in the district of Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara of the Eastern province region between 13th June and 26th August 2012, adopting following 3 steps: 1. Exploration of the Trincomalee District 2. Exploration of the Batticaloa District 3. Exploration of the Ampara District Exploration over Trincomalee Districts The exploration related to the Area was done from the 13th of July until the 31st of July, 2012. There, archaeological sites into wrecks were located; one each from Uppuveli 4 �and Irakkandi. Additionally, the sea between Koneshwaram Hindu Temple and the Harbour which is known Swami Rock was also explored. The wreck HMS Diomede which was found in the Uppuveli area Our team was able to discover the ruins of a wreck at 140 feet depth, 3 km away from the coast of Uppuveli, an area particularly called Silver Beach. While the explorations were ongoing in the area, valuable information was discovered by our team doing library research. Further information was found through internet sources, according to which this wreck was ordered on the 14th of August, 1779. It was built by the institution of “James Martin Hill Fig. 1 Artifact found from HMS Diomede in Uppuweli. (W. M. Chandraratne) House”. After finishing the construction, its first sailing was on the 18th of October, 1781. This wreck was specially built for coastline services during the American Renaissance war period. Two missions done by this vessel have been recorded. One was the capture of the South Carolina in 1782 and the capture of the Indian Ocean in 1794 (Clerk and Wilson, 1964: 200). Records of HMS Diomede wreck include photography, videography, survey, and drawing sketches. About 18 cannons were scattered around the vessel. A large number of small cannon balls were scattered around the site, as well as a large number of broken bottles and timber and metal parts (Fig. 1). The wreck found from Irrakkandi area This wreck was discovered at a distance of 2.5 km away from Irakkandi lagoon in the Nilaveli region known as Coral Islands. And it was located at a depth of 7 m. Here also the exploration included photography and sketch drawing. But as the wreck had sunk in accessible 5 Fig 2 Irakkandai Shipwreck. (W. M. Chandraratne) �shallow waters, a lot of damage occurred to the wreck. Therefore evidence which could be used to identify the wreck was destroyed by treasure hunters, and by explosives used to kill fish in the sea. The wreck was built using iron and it was about 90 m in length. The bow and the stern could be identified easily, as also the propeller. Though the hull had been broken in to some parts had been well preserved. The parts of the engine were scattered in many places. Three anchors were identified, but no records were found regarding the owners of the vessel (Fig 2). Swami Rock near the Koneshwaram Hindu Temple During the exploration over this area a huge amount of valuable evidence was discovered. Among the evidence found were the tips of stone pillars, and polished stone slabs. This evidence was discovered after two days of diving activities. According to the history of this place, a religious place constructed of 1000 stone pillars was situated here. During the Portuguese period it had been demolished by them and the ruins dropped away from the rock into the sea. 1. Exploration over Batticaloa Districts SS Lady McCullum During the exploration of the Batticaloa District a small area called Kayankerni, in the Vakare region was explored. Three kilometers away from Kayankerni coast there was an iron wreck scattered on the seabed. A local diver named Mr. Kolabage Jagath Lal gave the team the information regarding the wreck. According to the information obtained from the fishermen of the area, this wreck was identified as the “SS Lady Mc Cullum” which had sunk during the British rule in Sri Lanka, but future explorations could change this idea. The explorations over other naval sailings discovered in this area were explored only for 2 to 3 days. The main goals when accessing the region was to identify the nature of wrecks scattered around the sea bed, survey the wrecks, draw sketches, photograph and videotape the wrecks, and calculate the GPS values of the sites. This wreck was scattered on the seabed at a depth of 17 m and many parts of the site were totally destroyed. The saved parts were scattered over a large area, but the bow and the stern were easily identified. The propeller and the shaft were preserved as well. Two boilers and 3 iron anchors were found there, the anchors being from the bow, 6 �the stern and from the middle part of the wreck. From the remaining evidences it could be calculated that the length of the wreck was about 71 m from bow to propeller, while the width was about 13.8 m. The British Sergeant wreck Five km away from the Kayankerni coast of Vakare area in the Eastern province, another wreck was found scattered at a depth of 25.5 m. By the information that came from local villagers, it was considered that this is the wreck, the British Sergeant, sunk during British rule, therefore during the same period as the SS Lady McCullum. This may also change as a result of further investigation. This wreck was the most protected wreck of all the wrecks explored in eastern province from Trincomalee to Baticaloae by the MAU team during this project. The ship was broken in to two parts; one part was 75 m long, while the other part was 52.8 m. Its width of the stern was about 16 m. Since the exploration was done in three to four days; only sketches, photographs and survey plan were completed during that time. According to the fishermen in this area, the wreck sank because of bombing attacks during the Second World War. Other archaeological heritages around Kayankerni Stone Bridge This is located across the Kayankerni lagoon in the Vakare region between Baticaloe – Tricomalee A 15 road. It was constructed from west to east and at eye level. Stone pillars of the bridge lay scattered up to about a 200 m distance. Some pillars have fallen down across the lagoon. The pillars have sunk below the lagoon water up to a certain level. Wrecks around Pasikuda Three wrecks were identified during the exploration over Pasikuda coast line. The naval wreck was identified at a depth of 9 m. Parts of the vessel were scattered in many areas and many were destroyed, but the propeller and the propeller shaft were well protected, while the bow and the stern of the vessel could be easily identified. During the observations over the wreck another iron wreck which was somewhat larger was discovered. From the explorations done up to now, the name of this vessel could not be identified. 7 �Pasikuda Boiler Wreck 1 The above mentioned wreck was situated 3 km away from Pasikuda coast at about 6 m in depth. It was built with iron and steam-powered. Among the remaining evidences of it there were three boilers found and the propeller and propeller shaft were well protected. Two iron anchors situated near the bow of the wreck and another anchor at the middle of the wreck. During the excavations the team surveyed, drew sketches, photographed, videographed and calculated the GPS value of the site. Pasikuda Boiler wreck 2 The above mentioned wreck was located 50 m away from the previously mentioned boiler wreck 1. Three boilers were discovered there, but one was almost destroyed. The propeller and the propeller shaft were also present. There were four other archaeological sites around Pasikuda. Several architectural items which belong to the Dutch period were identified around the Pasikuda coast, among them the remains of a jetty and the base of a warehouse. During the explorations in Kayankarni and Pasikuda areas the fishermen of the area Misters S. Novil, Eeshwaran Prabhu and Velmurugan Arunlath helped the archaeological team greatly. Wrecks around Batticaloa Batticaloa boiler wreck 1 This wreck was located in the Navaladi area of Batticaloa. This wreck was found 3 km away from the Nawaladi lagoon, at a depth of 9 m. Of the boiler wrecks explored during MAU explorations, this was the only wreck which was powered by five boilers. Here also, the propeller and the propeller shaft were well preserved. The evidence of the wreck was scattered on the sea bed protected well enough to identify the bow and stern. The maximum length of the wreck was about 102.8m (Fig. 3). 8 �Fig. 3 Sketch plan of Baticaloe boiler wreck-1. (W. M. Chandraratne) SS Brennus The Nawaladi lagoon situated in the Nawaladi area of Batticaloa is very close to Silamunei coast of the eastern province. The wreck lies at a depth of 7 m, and is 3 km from the Nawaladi lagoon. The people in this area use the word “Sakkara Kappal” to name this vessel. Here ‘sakkara’ means jaggery and ‘kappal’ refers to the ship according to Tamil language. Boilers could be seen in the wreck and there is also the propeller and the propeller shaft present. The wrecks around Kalmune The explorations carried from Kayankarni area of Batticaloa were taken up to Kalmune coast of the Ampara district. From the explorations done there, four wrecks were recorded. Two of them were in the deep sea and due to bad weather during the time our team was unable to explore those two. However we were able to explore the other two wrecks during that time. Kalmune boiler wreck This above mentioned wreck was located in the Kalmune-1 coastal area of the Kurundedi village in Kalmune area of Ampara district. Three km away from Kalmune-1, on the coast line facing the Kodieththam mosque. The wreck lay at a depth of 12 m. This wreck was found in the deep sea. The remains of two propellers, a propeller shaft and three boilers were identified. The length of the wreck was about 102.80 m and the width was about 33.7 m. 9 �Kalmune iron wreck This wreck was recorded at a depth of 9m and located 50 m away from the Kalmune boiler wreck. The engine parts could be easily identified among the greatly destroyed wreck. 1. Explorations around Potuvil area in Ampara district As the third step of the eastern coast exploration project carried out by MAU of Galle, the team moved to Potuvil area in Ampara from Batticaloa. From the explorations done during the 19th to the 24th of August, 2012, facts regarding five wrecks were recorded and archaeological evidence regarding the religious place of Potuvil Muhudu Maha Viharaya was discovered during the exploration. Akkareipattu boiler wreck This is located in the Attalachchene area of Ampara district. This wreck was powered by steam.. The wreck had sunk very close to the coast line and therefore half of the wreck was covered with sand near the beach while the other half was covered with sea water. Although a permanent exploration was not done there, during a snorkelling survey the remains of the ship were identified. Several boilers were found and in the future further exploration should be done related to this site. There the guidance of Mr. J. Yogarasha was a great help for our activities. Wrecks around Tirukkovila Tirukkovila boiler wreck This wreck was located two km away from the Tirukkovila coast in the Vinayagapuram area of the Tirukkovila region of Ampara. It lies on the seabed at 7 m. Due to the bad visibility of the sea water and with survey time being only relegated to one day, the shape of the wreck was not identified but certain facts regarding this wreck were discovered. This boiler wreck was powered with four boilers according to our initial discoveries. Tirukkovila iron wreck This wreck was also identified from the Vinayagapuram area of the Tirukkovila region of Ampara district. Certain parts of the wreck could be seen above the surface of the sea water and those parts had been destroyed by the treasure hunters of the area. From the 10 �information collected from the villagers it was recognized this wreck had sunk in the recent past. Wrecks around Potuvila Komari boiler wreck At four km away from the Komari coast of Potuvila region in Ampara district, this wreck lies at a depth of 8 m. The visibility was poor and as a result only three boilers were found, but later it was observed that the propeller and the rudder were also present. Due to the bad weather conditions we were unable to record any photographs, drawings or surveying regarding this archaeological site. Omari boiler wreck In the region where the above mentioned Komari boiler wreck is situated, about five km away from Omari coast line this wreck was found. Photography recording and drawing sketches were done here. The bow of the wreck is located at 7 m depth, and the stern lies at a depth of 18 m. During the exploration facts regarding the three boilers were identified and parts of the wreck were scattered over a large area. Unfortunately many parts were greatly destroyed. Maritime Archaeological activities around Muhudu Maha Viharaya in Potuvila The major objective of the exploration during the 20th to 24th of August 2012 was to discover facts regarding the Buddhist archaeological ruins of the religious place “Muhudu Maha Viharaya” which was considered to have sunk in the sea. There, from folk stories related to this fact it appears that at a certain period ‘Buddha statues’ and other architectural items could be seen above the surface of the sea. Therefore our team was in a hurry to dive in this area. Another story of the area tells us that the great lady “Viharamaha Devi” had landed on the island from this place. We started our explorations in the hope of verifying the truth or falsity of these stories (Weerakatiya, 2011: 1-10). Experimented Region The Experimented Regions were decided by the initial diving done before the explorations. And this region was 11 Fig. 4 Exploration team-1. (W. M. Chandraratne) �located 400 meters away from the temple to the east and 500 meters away from the coast line in the shallow sea. The depth of the region was between five and seven meters. The area consisted of huge rocks. The wind was blowing from east to west. Throughout the exploration, a rough nature could be seen in the sea. This roughness was increased in this region because of the stone pillars lying in the area. Method The simplest method used here was snorkelling and duck diving using the equipment we had in the experimental region. The basic method of ‘swim- in- line’ and through that duck diving was used. If we got any record of archaeological evidence or identified a place for further experimentation, a buoy was attached to the area. We entered the experimental site after swimming about 500m wearing diving equipment. The areas that were identified by a buoy during the initial snorkelling survey, detailed exploration were then started from that point. There the divers went throughout the site and were able to collect some photographs and videos with ecofacts related to the site. Results After the explorations a few items having architectural value were identified. There was a circular shaped place which was considered to be a man made creation was which was highlighted by a buoy. Much evidence which could be considered as being created by humans was identified by the basic snorkelling survey. In further conservations, these evidences were found to show the shapes of moonstones, balustrade stones as well as bricks which are closely related to the construction of Buddhist temples and their architecture too matches the idea of temple items. Unfortunately, facts or evidence to prove this idea were not found; for those questions further exploration is required. Conclusion The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. Last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011(Fig. 4). The terrorism over the last 30 years finally ended in May of 2009. Maritime archaeological explorations that were 12 �previously limited to the Southern and Western coasts of the Island could now be carried out all over the country. Explorations were carried out in the district of Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara of the Eastern province region between 13th June and 26th August 2012, adopting following 3 steps: Exploration of the Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara Districts. The well trained team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites, such as HMS Diomede wreck, Irrakkandi wreck, SS Lady McCullum, British Sergeant, Pasikuda Boiler Wreck 1, Pasikuda Boiler wreck 2, Batticaloa boiler wreck 1, SS Brennus, Kalmune boiler wreck, Kalmune iron wreck, Akkareipattu boiler wreck, Tirukkovila boiler wreck, Tirukkovila iron wreck, Komari boiler wreck, Omari boiler wreck and 4 underwater archaeological sites (Muhudu Maha Viharaya in Potuvila, Kayankerni Stone Bridge and Swami Rock near the Koneshwaram Hindu Temple) in the region. Acknowledgement Author is thankful to Professor Gamini Adikari, Director General, Central Cultural Fund, Department of Culture and the Arts for encouragement and guidance and to the excavation team of the Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka for their support and cooperation. References Clerk, A., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Treasure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York, p. 200 Karunarathna, M., 2013. New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka. In Punkalasa - National Archaeological Symposium 2013, Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage, Sri Lanka, Colombo: 217231. Mahawamsha. 2004. Buddhist Cultural Centre, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. Panabokke, C. R., 1996. Soils and Agro-Ecological Environment of Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, Energy, Science Authority, Colombo. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the two decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit 1992-2013. "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium, Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle: 3-5. 13 Maritime �Silva, R., and Ariyaratne, P. A., 2007. The Natinal Atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department of Sri Lanka, Colombo. The Ceylon Observer. (September 28, 1908). Weerakatiya, Y., 2011. Mahaurumaya (in Sinhala). Tilak Printers Ltd, Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: 01-10. Biography W. M. Chandraratne (b. 1968), working as a Research Officer of Maritime Archaeology and Officer- in- charge of the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka since 1994. He has participated in several workshops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 20 research articles both in reputed local and international journals. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An Investment for the Future: Maritime Archaeological Explorations in the Post-War regions of the Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka Description An account of the resource The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. During the last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011. They had gone through series of trainings such as swimming, snorkelling, life saving, first aid and basic diving. They were introduced to the fundamentals of underwater archaeology. They were encouraged to start their post graduate studies and to gain their international diving license, such as PADI or the SSI. After a year of training they were directed to carry out an underwater archaeological investigation along the East coast of Sri Lanka, from 13th of June to 26th of August 2012. The exploration was scheduled at a favourable moment to test their skills and training. The trainees were under the supervision of four senior maritime archaeologists. The north and east parts of the country were rescued after thirty years of terrorism in 2009. More than two years were taken to secure the area from post war hazards such as land mines. For the whole MAU team this was a new experience and an opportunity to search this area after many years. The team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites and 4 underwater archaeological sites in the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource W. M. Chandrarthne, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/aed71ad26404c2541bafe9b60397b4f4.pdf 1bb61ec4517eaf6690d5507ff955d202 PDF Text Text Maritime and underwater archaeological explorations in Kenya: Recent discoveries Caesar Bita National Museums of Kenya, Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa, P.O. Box 82412, 80100, Kenya Email: mcbita@yahoo.com Abstract Kenya is the first sub-Sahara African country to initiate an underwater archaeological expedition thus legally recognizing the value of underwater cultural heritage. This was after successful survey and excavation of the 17th Century Portuguese shipwreck, Santa Antonio De Tanna, in Mombasa. Kenya coast is part of the Western Indian Ocean; commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’. This coast was a domain of foreigners from the early centuries of the first millennium AD. It was visited by the Greeks; controlled by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Europeans. In addition, it played a major role in ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard linking the Swahili Coast with the Arab world, India sub-continent, Far East and China, America and Europe. Owing to crude navigation and sea faring technologies of the time, there are on the seabed of Kenya traces of these interactions in the form of archaeological remains. Recent studies have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of shipwrecks and has immense potential in underwater cultural heritage. Drawing from ancient literature, previous and current maritime and underwater archaeological studies, and this paper presents the recent discoveries from underwater archaeological surveys in Kenya. The paper illustrates that there is immense potential for underwater archaeology in Kenya that requires new attention both in research and conservation. Key words: Swahili Coast, Lamu archipelago, Malindi, Maritime Archaeology Underwater Cultural Heritage, Shipwreck Introduction The conservation of maritime and underwater cultural resources has become a major field of great scientific and regional importance world over. Maritime cultural heritage is a critical element of Kenya’s wellbeing. In addition to its intrinsic value, it provides us 1 �with important space for recreation and has a significance that makes it worth preserving; it is part of the environment, has an economic and scholarly value. This resource is however under ever increasing pressure from human activity. Its protection is thus a key part of sustainable development, whereby policies to encourage social and economic development should be equaled by policies to protect our environment. To effectively protect this heritage one important step is to document how much of this resource is available. The National Museums of Kenya (NMK) cannot afford to rely on “accidental” discoveries by non-scientific ventures and still remain an authentic custodian of the national heritage. It is for this that Kenya has made efforts to implement the preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). The country has developed capacities in maritime and underwater cultural heritage through the training of underwater archaeologists and establishment of an underwater artifact conservation laboratory. NMK has designed a maritime archaeological programme for the study of this heritage as well as a database of all shipwrecks in the country. These efforts are expected to increase the dimension in which we understand and interpret this heritage in addition to mitigating the risk of loosing this resource to vandalism and uncontrolled development. Maritime History of the Kenyan Coast Kenya is a maritime country with a coastline approximately 600 km long with many small islands and navigable channels. This coast, which is part of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’, was a major player in the ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard. Its inhabitants are known to have had a history of long and continuous interaction with not only the Indian Ocean but also foreign visitors including the Greeks, 2 1 Fig. 1 Trade goods exchanged across the Western Indian Seaboard. (C. Bita) Arabs, Portuguese and the �Europeans. Further, several early Swahili settlements ranging in time from the 8th-17th centuries AD dot both the entire coastline as well as its off-shore islands (Garlake, 1966; Chittick, 1984; Horton, 1984; Abungu, 1989; Bita, 2011b). Such include Mombasa, Lamu, Pate, Faza, Dondo, Kiunga, Ishakani, Ungwana, Siyu, Kilepwe, Mambrui, Malindi, Gedi, Jumba La Mtwana and Kilifi. These ancient towns linked the Swahili Coast and other continents across the Western Indian Ocean seaboard including the Arab world, India sub-continent, south East Asia, the Far East and China, America and Europe (Fig. 1). Several historical records make reference to ancient seafaring off the Swahili coast. The Periplus of Erytharean Sea, document by the a an anonymous Greek sailor, mentions the east African coast as early as 2000 BP (Freeman- Fig. 2 Figure showing the concentration of shipwrecks along the Grenville, 1962; 1975; Wright, 1984; Horton, Kenya coast. (C. Bita) 1990; Whitehouse, 2001; Chami, 2006). Records by Chinese travelers refer to the Somali coast and her trade connections with the Far East by late 800s AD, while reports by Arab geographers allude to thriving maritime communities on this coast by 900 AD (Kirkman, 1964; Datoo, 1970; Martin, 1973; Freeman-Grenville, 1975; Horton, 1990; Hall, 1996). The period between the first millennium BC and the 2nd half of the first millennium AD was characterized by crude shipping technology and lack of nautical charts. These crude navigation technologies, as well as oceanic changes, are likely to have made early seafarers casualties of coral reefs and violent sea waves. In addition, the East African coast has been a centre of rivalry between major powers and the resultant wars 3 �witnessed a number of marine armour destroyed and sunken in these waters. This evidence is today lying on the sea-bed and foreshores in the form of shipwrecks, anchors, military structures among others (Bita, 2014). In Kenya this underwater archaeology comes to light from researches, accidental discoveries by fishermen, written records and oral tradition. Recent investigations that corroborate historical literary sources have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of ancient shipwrecks. Studies have shown the highest concentration of these sites in Kenya to be around Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu (Fig. 2) (Breen and Lane, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2003; Bita, 2008; 2010; 2011b; 2014). Maritime and Underwater Archaeological explorations in Kenya There are significant pointers towards the richness of Kenya’s maritime and underwater cultural heritage. A survey to establish the full range of this resource is ongoing in the country. The objectives of this undertaking are to identify and understand the range and distribution of this resource in the Kenya coast and to develop a database of the maritime and UCH sites for further archaeological investigation and conservation. Kenya initiated an underwater archaeological expedition after successful survey and excavation of the 17th century Portuguese shipwreck in Mombasa. This Portuguese frigate was sunk by Oman Arabs in 1698 in Mombasa during a battle to free Fort Jesus from the Arabs (Piercy, 1977; 1978; Sassoon, 1980; Boxer, 1960; Lynch, 1991; Patience, 2006). Following this development, this shipwreck, later dubbed ‘Mombasa Wreck’, was gazetted as a national monument and is today protected by the country’s legislation. It is this initiative that made Kenya the first east African sub-Saharan country to legally recognize the value of underwater cultural heritage. In the subsequent years, there was a growing importance of underwater archaeology including management of UCH in Kenya. With the potential of underwater archaeology in the country, a new research and heritage management perspective was required. As such, Kenya sought to develop capacities in underwater cultural heritage management through training and infrastructure development. The country has trained two underwater archaeologists, three conservators of underwater cultural material and has a well established underwater artifact conservation laboratory. Additionally, a database of maritime and 4 �UCH sites has been developed for the coastal region and undersea cultural heritage impact assessments are conducted as part of these efforts. Recent Discoveries Several underwater surveys have been undertaken off the Kenyan coast in which a lot of archaeological heritage has been documented. These surveys include a 2001 maritime archaeological study of Mombasa Island (Breen and Lane, 2003). Others are the 2006-2009 surveys in Lamu, Malindi and Mombasa by NMK (Patience, 2006; Bita and Wanyama, 2007; Bita, 2008; 2009 a-b). The latest, and ongoing, is the survey by National Museums of Kenya in collaboration with National Museums of China, in the “Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology project” (Bita, 2011a; 2013a). In these surveys numerous maritime and underwater heritage sites have been documented including shipwrecks, structures and artifacts. Interestingly these have been found to occur around the ancient towns of Lamu, Mombasa and Malindi; towns that played a major role in the ancient transoceanic interactions across the Western Indian Ocean (Fig. 2). Underwater archaeological surveys have also focused on these important towns. Underwater Archaeological survey in Mombasa Mombasa Island borders the open sea to the south east and has several channels. There have been numerous underwater archaeological surveys of this island in the previous years that realized a lot of maritime and heritage sites. underwater The first cultural survey undertaken was the excavation of the Santa Antonio recovered Indian shipwreck wares, which Chinese porcelain, Martaban and Portuguese jars, canons, mortar shells and bronze medallions (Piercy, 1977; 1978; Bita, Fig. 3 Lamu Archipelago: the eastern shores 2013b). A later survey revealed several have many rock outcrops where ancient ships 5 are believed to have sunk while entering Lamu Town. (C. Bita) �anomalies, some being shipwrecks (Breen and Lane, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2003). Recent surveys (Bita, 2009b; 2011c) have recorded wreck sites and associated structures (Fig. 3). Underwater Archaeological survey in Lamu archipelago Lamu archipelago is composed of several islands but the main ones are Lamu, Manda and Pate, all with ancient towns by the same names (Fig. 3). Ancient settlements in this archipelago are important landmarks in the history of the Swahili Coast. They were important centres of the northern Swahili world with some, like Manda and Pate, exhibiting evidence of very early occupation (Chittick, 1984; Horton, 1987; Wilson and Omar, 1996; 1997). Ancient Pate Bay for instance was the gateway to Lamu Town for sea travelers. Even up to the present, the eastern shores of this island are referred to by the locals as mlango wa Lamu (gateway to Lamu). This route was used by the Portuguese for decades controlling the WIO trade (Kirkman, 1964; Freeman-Greenville, 1975; Chittick, 1976; 1984; Hall, 1996). The Arabs dominated the Swahili Coast long before the Portuguese and used this route for hundreds of years in trade with the Persian Gulf (Bita, 2011b). Pate Bay has several long reefs and many coral rock outcrops such as Pazzali, Hassani and Hanawi. These rocks are at the confluence of Pate channel and the open sea and being submerged at high tide suggests many vessels may have wrecked here. In addition, the lack of nautical knowledge for this area caused many early seafarer Fig. 4 Portion of a shipwreck embedded in concretion in casualties on these coral rocks Mombasa waters. (Coastal Archaeology, National when sailing through this bay. Over Museums of Kenya) the years, fishermen in the Lamu archipelago have been recovering archaeological materials at various sites along these 6 �reefs and channels in addition to seabed surveys (Bita and Wanyama, 2007; Bita, 2009a; 2014). Recent surveys in Lamu have made major achievements in terms of the volume of artifacts recovered; sites surveyed and amount of data collected. Geophysical studies have recorded several underwater anomalies while sites identified include areas with concentrations of pottery and iron anchors (Bita, 2014). A massive anchor approximately 4m long with 2m long hooks was found (Fig. 4). Standing upright and embedded in coral, one of its hooks is however missing (this suggests probably its line was cut when sailors were unable to take it back into the ship). Similar types of anchors have also been recovered in Mombasa. Small iron anchors 2m long heavily encrusted and of 3 hooks have also been recovered. This style of 3 hook anchors is not a common feature of the Swahili Coast and suggests they belong to foreign ships. Early travel across the Western Indian Ocean was subject to the monsoon winds which alternated every six months. For instance, foreign traders sailed to the East African coast on the northwest monsoon wind which blows from November until April. For six months they would wait for the winds to change direction in order for them to sail back home on the southeast monsoon winds which blow from June to October. During this period of wait, ships would be anchored for loading and repairs while the sailors engaged in trade. Similarly, due to ocean currents and long wait, the ship anchors would, in most cases, be covered in sand or dragged into rock crevices. Such would make them difficult to pull back into the ship at departure forcing the crew to cut the ropes and abandon the anchor underwater. As is the case with Pate channel, many areas have silted over the years with many sites heavily covered in the sands (Bita, 2014). Maritime Archaeological Survey in Malindi Malindi town is located 120km north of Mombasa and is one of the ancient trading towns which had contact with the outside world in the last centuries of the last millennium. The town owes, as do many other coastal towns, its origin and prosperity to the Western Indian Ocean for facilitating transport and trade. It was at one time a gateway where the movement and transformation of goods were facilitated and urban services developed to promote maritime trade (Bita, 2008). It is believed to have been visited by a Chinese fleet in the 15th century. When the Portuguese arrived on the Kenyan coast in 1495, they found a thriving town and made it their trade headquarters 7 �while monopolising the WIO trade (Hall, 1996; Martin, 1975; Bita, 2012). Malindi Bay has three ancient centres, Malindi town, Mambrui and Ngomeni. Mambrui and Malindi were vibrant agricultural regions while Ngomeni was known for production and export of mangroves (Bita, 2005; 2008). In trading areas, shipwrecks would be closer to certain shipping hazards such as reefs and projecting headlands. In Malindi Bay, Ngomeni is located near a headland whereas in Malindi town there is Leopard Bay, the navigation channel of which is between two reefs. In the two areas, many ships are suspected to have sunk (Patience, 2006; Bita, 2008; Bita, 2011a-b; 2012). Portuguese records mention their ships lost and sunk in Malindi and whose locations have not been found (Patience, 2006). Maritime and underwater archaeological surveys in the area have documented several shipwrecks (Bita, 2005; 2008; 2011a) including remains of a ship engine block, sites containing 14th-15th century Indian and Chinese pottery (Bita, 2008; Bita, 2011a). This corroborates Portuguese and British records of ships lost in Malindi waters (Patience, 2006). Fig. 5 The plan of the Ngomeni Ras shipwreck Fig. 6 The remains of the Ngomeni Ras shipwreck site. (Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology lying project) on seabed. (Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology Project). Ngomeni Ras Shipwreck While no UCH sites have been located in Mambrui, 10km north of Malindi Town, in Ngomeni, a village about 30 km northeast of Malindi town, several important sites have 8 �been identified. Ngomeni stands on an arm of land jutting towards the sea (Ras Ngomeni), which offers a protected shallow harbour formerly used as a gateway for all seafarers from Lamu to Malindi (Wilson, 1982; Bita, 2008; 2011b). The area was known for mangrove growing which was exported to, and used in house construction in cities around the Persian Gulf (Wilson, 1982; Whitehouse, 2001). Surveys in 2008 discovered a wooden shipwreck that consistently produced materials dating to the 14th century including Persian and Far Eastern wares. The shipwreck was revisited in 2010-2011 and excavated in 2013. The exposed wood remains of this site are however seriously threatened by terredo. Ngomeni Ras Shipwreck is a probable 15th-16th century merchant ship. The site measures 40m x 20m lying 5m below the sea (Fig. 5-6). This discovery has proved the town participated in ancient mangrove trade across the Western Indian Ocean (Bita 2011a-b; 2013a). Fig. 7 A militant bunker overlooking the sea in Fig. 8 Lime and stone jetties and sacred sites on the Mombasa. (C. Bita) maritime zone of Mombasa coast. (C. Bita) Intertidal and Foreshore surveys Intertidal and foreshore surveys have also documented a rich resource of cultural heritage. Irrespective of typology, these sites existed to exploit the maritime resource that is the Western Indian Ocean. The most important include ancient forts, redoubts, anchorages, ports and jetties. Others are maritime practices such as boat building and fishing styles. It is their relationship with this ocean that makes them worth studying and conserving. 9 �Military structures Ancient East African coast was a centre of rivalry between powers such as between rivaling Arab rulers, Arabs and Portuguese and later in the 1st and 2nd world war between Germans, British and Italians (Coupland, 1938; Kirkman, 1964; 1974; Martin, 1973; 1975). These witnessed a number of marine structures erected along the coast as defense forts or escape tunnels (Bita, 2009a-b). The Kenyan coast is awash with such, including redoubts, forts including Fort Jesus, Siyu and Lamu, as well as habitable caves and military bunkers. A majority of these are associated with Arabian, Portuguese and British periods (Fig. 7). Moorings, Anchorages, Jetties and sacred sites Intertidal surveys have recorded ancient moorings and anchorages of different styles (ranging from metal, lime and stone), ruins of jetties built of stone and lime (Fig. 8). A majority of these have been attributed to the Portuguese and British periods. Jetties may probably be related to old crossing points from the Islands to the coastal mainland. Other equally important features are the sacred sites that are manifestations of the relationship between people’s beliefs and the elements of maritime environment. Most shrines are located in rock shelters, caves and secluded places on the seaward side of cliffs (Bita, 2009b). The traditional ritual paraphernalia including talismans, white and or red pieces of cloth; mixed colours of red, blue, white and black are mostly strategically placed so as to come in contact with sea water at high tide. Acknowledgments I am thankful to the Director General, National Museums of Kenya, for his support and nominations to the training in Underwater Archaeology. I am also grateful to UNESCO for the sponsorship to train in the 3rd Foundation and In-Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage courses in Thailand and participation in the Abuja UCH meeting. Thanks too to the Chinese government for the bilateral cooperation in underwater archaeology research in Kenya. 10 �References Abungu, G. O., 1989. Communities on the river Tana, Kenya: An Archaeological study of relations between the Delta and the river basin, 700-1800 AD. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Bita, C., 2014. The potentials of underwater archaeology in Kenya: A short communication. In Sila Tripati (Ed.), Shipwrecks around the world: Revelations of the past, Delta Book World, New Delhi: 486-510. Bita, C., 2013a. Underwater archaeological survey of Ngomeni Shipwreck site. SINOKenya Underwater Archaeology Project Report. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2013b. Martaban jars found in Kenya. Southeast Asian ceramics museum Newsletter. Vol. VII (1) Jun-Sept 2013: 3. Bita, C., 2012. The Origin of Malindi Town: A Case Study of Mambrui. M. A. Dissertation. University of Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam. Bita, C., 2011a. SINO-Kenya Underwater Archaeology Project. Preliminary Report. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2011b. Ancient Afro-Asia links. New evidence from a maritime perspective. 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International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 6 (4): 331-47. Piercy, R, C, M., 1978. Mombasa wreck excavation, Preliminary Report. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 7 (4): 301-19. Sassoon, H., 1980. Mombasa Wreck Excavation. Interim Report, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. 13 �Whitehouse, D., 2001. East Africa and the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean AD 8001500. In B. S. Amenoreti (Ed.), Islam in East Africa: New Sources, Herder, Rome: 411424. Wilson, T. H., 1982. Spatial analysis and settlement patterns on the East African coast. Paideuma, Vol. 28: 201-219. Wilson, T. H., and Omar, A. L., 1997. Archaeological investigations at Pate. Azania, Vol. 32: 31-76. Wilson, T. H., and Omar, A. L., 1996. Excavation at Pate on the East African coast. In G. Pwiti., and R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African Archaeology, University of Zimbabwe, Harare: 543-554. Wright, H. T., 1984. Early seafarers of the Comoro Islands: the Dembeni phase of the 9th-10th centuries AD. Azania, Vol. 19: 13-60. Biography Caesar Bita has a Masters degree in Archaeology from the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; a Postgraduate Diploma in Management of Heritage and Museum Collections from the University of Nairobi, a Professional Diploma in Underwater Archaeology from Underwater Archaeology Center in China. Bita has participated in training programme such as Maritime Heritage Training and Integrated Coastal Zone Management Course (2006, Zanzibar, Tanzania), Regional Training on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (2010, South Africa), International Training Workshop on Preservation, Presentation and Education on Maritime Cultural Heritage (2010, Alexandria, Egypt). He participated in the 3rd UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater Cultural Heritage and In-Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2011, Thailand). He joined the National Museums of Kenya in 1999 and currently coordinating underwater archaeological research and underwater cultural heritage management at Fort Jesus museum, Mombasa, Kenya. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime and underwater archaeological explorations in Kenya: Recent discoveries Description An account of the resource Kenya is the first sub-Sahara African country to initiate an underwater archaeological expedition thus legally recognizing the value of underwater cultural heritage. This was after successful survey and excavation of the 17th Century Portuguese shipwreck, Santa Antonio De Tanna, in Mombasa. Kenya coast is part of the Western Indian Ocean; commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’. This coast was a domain of foreigners from the early centuries of the first millennium AD. It was visited by the Greeks; controlled by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Europeans. In addition, it played a major role in ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard linking the Swahili Coast with the Arab world, India sub-continent, Far East and China, America and Europe. Owing to crude navigation and sea faring technologies of the time, there are on the seabed of Kenya traces of these interactions in the form of archaeological remains. Recent studies have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of shipwrecks and has immense potential in underwater cultural heritage. Drawing from ancient literature, previous and current maritime and underwater archaeological studies, and this paper presents the recent discoveries from underwater archaeological surveys in Kenya. The paper illustrates that there is immense potential for underwater archaeology in Kenya that requires new attention both in research and conservation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Caesar Bita, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ec58639175e5eaa5dfa1016f57575cd4.pdf 374f4b44ba42239bbb8cd94d4ff6d3c2 PDF Text Text Ancient and Medieval ports of the Gulf of Mannar Coast, East coast India and their Maritime Connections across Indian Ocean Countries N. Athiyaman Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology, Tamil University Thanjavur 613010, India Email: rajachidam@gmail.com Abstract The Gulf of Mannar lies in the south-eastern corner of India, bordered by Sri Lanka on the south east. It covers the coast of Tamil Nadu from the island of Rameswaram to Kanniyakumari. This region witnessed extensive long distance maritime activities from the Early Historic period; from 500 BCE to 500 CE. Like other ports of this region, Korkai was part of the Indo-Roman trade activities and literally mentioned in Greek sources. Evidence of Roman contact has been found at the ports of Korkai and Alagankulam. In the Medieval period, Kayal and Periyapattinam were important ports of this region, which is also rich in underwater marine resources and famous for their coral reefs. Stone anchors have been found in this region during surveys by the author. This region has one of the important marine resources venerated by Indians from the ancient period: Turbinella Pyrum. Pearl harvesting was very active in this region for several centuries. It was commercially exploited and exported to many regions in India and beyond. The proposed paper seeks to study the marine archaeological evidence and their importance from the Early Historic period to the medieval period; from 500 BCE to 1600 CE. Key words: Ancient ports, Gulf of Mannar, Korkai, Alagankulam, Pearl fishery, Trade network 1 �Introduction Even before the Christian era, a vibrant trade network between Southeast Asia and Mediterranean region was present in the Indian subcontinent as a transit marketplace. The Indian subcontinent, rich in resources, played a major commercial role between its double-sided counterparts of Southeast Asia and the Red Sea region. More studies are being attempted to view the trade dynamics of these regions from a holistic perspective as maritime contacts cross both cultural and political boundaries. This paper is an attempt to view the active role played by the Southeast Indian coast, a part of the maritime gateway extending between Cape Comorin and Rameswaram Island. Studying this 300 km stretch of land could be useful for understanding the maritime importance of this region (Fig. 1). Sources To understand the maritime trade process of this region for the study period, ancient Tamil Literature, specifically the two Sangam Epics, Silapatikaram and Manimekalai, foreign accounts and sporadic archaeological excavations carried out form the basic sources of the study. The temple inscriptions and foreigners' accounts of the medieval period are used for the later periods. Sources available from Southeast Asia and the Red Sea region Fig. 1 Map showing the Early Historic are also taken in to account. Marine and Medieval Ports of the study Area. archaeological studies by the author around (Athiyaman, 2014) the Rameswaram region as well as previous studies made by the author on pearl fishing were also used as sources for this article. The Hinterland and the resources for Maritime relations The inland region of the study area is a dry plain region shadowed by the Western Ghats of the subcontinent in the west. This region has many rivers; the Vaigai in the 2 �north and the Gundar, Vaippar and Tamraparani in the south. The main source of water flow in these rivers comes from the Southwest monsoon and to a lesser extent during the Northeast monsoon. All of these rivers except the Vaigai are not perennial. However the deltaic area is not as vast as compared to the river Kaveri which flows in central Tamil Nadu. Except for the regions near the river banks, all the regions are semi-arid in nature. Archaeological sites found in this region are few compared to sites found in the northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Those that are found are located along the river course (Rajan, 2011). As these regions were ruled by the Pandiya Kings, spices and forest products available in the Western Ghats could be traded through the ports of Bacare and Nelkynda situated south of Muziri on the west coast, a famous emporium. Only the pearl and Conch shells were the only local resources from this region contributing to trade. However, being situated centrally between the east and west, this coast played a lead role in trade activities. Ports The presence of ports indicates the maritime activities of the particular region and their possible connections with the hinterland. At the very least, resources should be available the region for ships to come and replenish their food stocks and water. Usually the river mouths were used as anchorages for the large boats and ships in the east coast of India. The available evidence suggests that no permanent port structure existed in the early historic period of the Tamizhakam. However, small boats were used to carry the goods from the ships to shore and vice versa. In the present study area the ports or the coastal habitations of considerable importance could be culled out from the foreigners’ accounts, literature and the inscriptions. During the early historic period, from the south, the Cape Comorin, the Korkai at the confluence of River Tamraparani and Alagankulam at the mouth of River Vaigai played a major role in maritime activities. During the early medieval period and medieval period the newly formed ports of Kayal and Periyapattinam played a significant role in the maritime activities. Smaller coastal settlements also were active during this period. The ports of the early historic and medieval period from the south to the north are briefly discussed here. Early Historic Ports 3 �Comorin This is the southernmost tip of the subcontinent which is the meeting point of three seas; the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Mannar. As the wave travels along these three seas in different seasons, for the most part the weather in this region could be rough. The possibility of the existence of a port for maritime trade is remote, since the place for anchorage and cargo transfer is not conducive. However, in foreigner accounts, one finds mention of this place invariably as it was considered a holy place well before the Christian era. Ptolemy mentions this place as Komaria, a cape and town (McCrindle, 1927). Periplus accounts for it as a cape and harbour and also mentions that “(T)here come those men who wish to consecrate themselves for the rest of their lives, and bathe and dwell in celibacy; and women also do the same; for it is told that a goddess once dwelt here and bathed” (Schoff, 1912). So far, no archaeological study around this region has been made. Korkai Korkai, now 6 km east of the coast, where the sea has receded, was one of the important emporia of the Pandiyan Kingdom during Christian era. It lies on the bank of the river Tamraparani. Adichanallur was another contemporary important early historic settlement lying 15 km west of Korkai. Adichanallur was excavated by Rea and ASI (Rea, 1915; Nambirajan et al., 2009). Ancient Tamil literature alludes to Korkai as the place of a fishing community that also dived for pearls and conch shells. One of the anthologies, akanaanuuRu (130:11), refers to it as a coastal town. Periplus (59) mentions, "from Comari toward the south this region extends to Colchi, where the pearlfisheries are; (they are worked by condemned criminals); and it belongs to the Pandian Kingdom..." (Schoff, 1912). Ptolemy accounts 'Kolkhoi' as an emporium (Renou, 1925). Korkai was famous for pearl fishing until very recently. The pearls obtained from this place acquired great trade importance. The importance of the pearl fishery is discussed elsewhere in this paper. 4 Fig. 2 Anchor salvaged off Rameswaram, Gulf of Mannar. (Athiyaman, 2001) �During the 1870's, Caldwell made an exploration and sporadic excavations at Korkai and Kayal (east of Korkai) and published an article in Indian Antiquary. He made a thorough survey and found only the pearl oysters and conch shells on the surface and beneath the soil (Caldwell, 1982). He also came across two Buddha images, two Singhalese coins and sepulchral urns. He discussed in detail about the sea receding to the east and the formation of a new port called Kayal during the medieval period. Based on the literary evidence, the State Department of Archaeology of Tamil Nadu excavated Korkai in the 1969 and found evidence for the cultural sequence of three periods ranging from the 3rd century BCE–4th centuries CE, the 4th–10th centuries CE and between the 10th–14th centuries CE (Sridhar, 2004). The excavations revealed indigenous pottery with early Tamil scripts, sawed conch shells, bangle pieces, and semi-precious stones of the early historic period. A brick structure was also found along with the ring well. The excavation revealed the uninterrupted activity of this place. Alagankulam This site is situated near the river mouth of Vaigai at the extreme north of the present study area. The place mentioned in Periplus as 'Argaru' could be identified with present Alagankulam rather than Uraiyur which is far inland as proposed by the scholars (Sastri, 1972; Athiyaman, 2013). As this port was situated in Palk Bay the transfer of cargo from ships coming from the south was made through a land crossing about twenty kilometres north. This site was excavated by the State Department of Archaeology of Tamil Nadu during 1990's in five seasons (Sridhar, 2005). It yielded a cultural sequence of four periods ranging from 500 BCE to 1200 CE after which the site lost its importance probably due to the emergence of the port Periyapattinam during this period. The site has yielded indigenous as well as western wares, particularly roulette wares. The site has yielded Terracotta dice, spindle whorls, and measuring weights. A Fig. 3 Anchor Salvaged at Gulf of Mannar. (Athiyaman, 2001) 5 �remarkable piece of Red Roulette ware dated to 1st-2nd centuries CE was unearthed with the symbol of ships with oars identified as the depiction of a Roman vessel by Lionel Casson (Sridhar, 2005). The Roman coins of 4th-5th centuries CE were also unearthed in this place. This signifies the active role of this port during early historic and early medieval period. Medieval Ports Kayal As the sea receded along the Gulf of Mannar, Korkai lost its importance around the 10th century. Another port settlement near the sea at the mouth of the River Tamraparani was established. This is due to the importance of the pearl and conch shell fishery and their related activities. This place was also explored by Caldwell during the 1870's. He reported Chinese porcelain wares of many varieties, broken pieces of Arabian ware and Arabian gold coins of 13th century implying the east-west contact in this region (Caldwell, 1982).The Chinese wares of the 13th century found during the exploration at old Kayal and the absence of them in later periods suggest that another settlement south of this place established in the later period since the Chinese ware found south of Kayal, at a site called Punnaikayal, yielded the wares of later periods (Karashima et al., 2004). So far no excavations have been made in this region. However, the Colonial records provide ample information regarding this place which implies that the area was busy with maritime activities. Periyapattinam Periyapattinam, one of the late medieval ports, lies in the Gulf of Mannar region 15 km south of Alagankulam. During excavations conducted by Tamil University with Noboru Karashima in 1987, many Chinese wares have been unearthed and studied for their provenance and possible dating (Karashima et al., 2004). It flourished during 13-14th century CE. It has been mentioned in a Chinese source as 'Dabadan' and Ibn Battuta described it as 'Fattan' (Karashima, 1989; Karashima, 2004). Other minor settlements and ports 6 �During the early historic period Ptolemy mentions some other places which were on the south east coast: Sosikourai, on the Mouth of the River Solen and Kory, also called Kalligikon (McCrindle, 1927). Of these, Kory could be identified with Rameswaram with some certainty. Other places are not as clearly understood. During the Medieval period Kulsekarapattinam, Virapandianpattinam were situated south of Kayal and Kilakkarai (alias Ninaithathumudittan pattinam), west of Periyapattinam has also been identified from the Tamil Inscriptions (Jayakumar, 2001). These places must also have played a considerable role in maritime trade. Marine Archaeological Studies Offshore and onshore explorations conducted in the Gulf of Mannar region of India, by the Centre for Underwater Archaeology of Tamil University have yielded two grapnel type (Indo-Arabian) stone anchors under the shallow waters in the Gulf of Mannar (Figs. 2 and 3). From the region where these two anchors were collected, two more were also found onshore, one a grapnel type and another trapezoidal type. These three grapneltype anchors are now exhibited in the Tamil University museum. Apart from this, a mooring stone, presumably a grapnel type anchor has also been noticed near Tuticorin coast, which even now is used for mooring the fishing boats (Athiyaman, 2001). Though they were dated to between 13th and 14th centuries CE a petrographic analysis may push the date further into the Christian era. Surveys conducted by National Institute of Oceanography around Manapad area, north of Kayalpattinam revealed single holed stone anchors indicating the continuance of indigenous navigation technology (Sundaresh, 2013). Ships and boats of this region The Tamil literature clearly suggests that several varieties of crafts were in use during the early historic Tamizhakam, which proves the extensive nature of its maritime activities. The crafts ambi, mithavai, naavaay, pahri, punai, thimil and toni were medium or small sized crafts. Thimil may have been well-designed since it served as a fishing craft. The crafts naavaay, vangkam and kalam were deep ocean vessels. Not a single clue into the shape of these crafts could be found. Pahri and toni were coastal crafts that plied between the big vessels anchored offshore and were also used in the lagoons. It can be inferred that all the crafts mentioned in the literature except kalam, 7 �which is associated with the Yavanas, were indigenous (Athiyaman, 2011a). Since references to the ship builders are also available, it is clear that the various crafts were built by local craftsmen. The author of Periplus mentions ships named sangara which travelled up to Malacca (Schoff, 1912). This could be the vangkam mentioned in the Tamil text. Archaeological excavations conducted at port towns of Alagankulam (Sridhar, 2005), Korkai (Sridhar, 2004) and Periyapattinam (Karashima et al., 2004) in Tamizhakam prove beyond doubt that busy trade activities were undertaken in ancient Tamizhakam. The volume of trade carried out with the Red Sea region was so huge (Selvakumar, 2011), that for the exchange of various commodities there was need to build various crafts. The early historic Tamizhakam had indigenous knowledge on navigation and shipbuilding. Although this idea is based on the literary evidence, the terms of crafts must be studied in comparison with Greek, Sanskrit and other languages of Southeast Asia. The crafts in the literature of the early historic period were scantily referred to up to the medieval period and lost their names over the course of history. The study clearly highlights that several categories of watercrafts were used for different purposes and the indigenous crafts too had an active role in the long distance trading (Athiyaman, 2011b). Pearl and conch shell fishery Rich in pearl oysters and conch shells the Gulf of Mannar was an attraction not only to traders but too many writers as well. A great deal of importance was given to the pearl and chank fishery and references to this industry off Korkai and Kayal are many. Throughout history, the Gulf of Mannar enjoyed busy trade activities due to the pearl industry (Table. 1). Besides conch shell diving also had its importance each year. A detailed study of this Industry has already been documented by scholars (Arunachalam, 2011; Stephen, 1998; Athiyaman, 2000; Decla, 2008). Table 1. Account of Pearl and Chank Fishery on Indian Coast of Gulf of Mannar Account of Period Reference Megasthenes 3rd century CE McCrindle, 2008 Strabo 21 CE McCrindle, 1979 8 �Periplus 60 CE Schoff, 1912 Pliny 77 CE McCrindle, 1979 Pan Kou end of the first century Sastri 1972 CE Cosmos 6th Century CE McCrindle, 1979 Ma Twan Lin 550 - 600 CE Sastri, 1972 Yuan Chwang 645 CE Sastri, 1972 Chau Ju-Kua 1225 CE Hirth and Rockhill, 1966 Marco Polo 1260 -1300 CE Yule and Cordier, 1993 Account of embassies 1279-1292 CE Sastri, 1972 between China and India John of Montecorvino 1292-1293 CE Sastri, 1972 Wang Ta Yuan 1330 CE Rockhill 1915 Friar Jordanus 1323-1330 CE Sastri, 1972 Ibn Battuta 1333-1345 CE Sastri, 1972 Duarte Barbosa 1516-1517 CE Dames, 1967 Caesar Frederic 1563-1581 CE Caldwell, 1982 Perdro Teixeira 1568 CE Sinclair and Ferguson, 1967 Van Linschoten 1576-1592 CE 9 Arunachalam, 2011 �This industry was worked by the local fishing community, namely Paratavar, from time immemorial as the conch shell collection is carried out even today by them without any intervention (Athiyaman, 2000). This industry around Korkai and then Kayal region has attracted many traders from east and west and this enhanced its influence in the socio-political environment of the inland region (Arunachalam, 2011; Stephen, 1998). Horse Trade Arabian horses were traded along the West and East Coast of South India in the early historic period. The horses making voyages along the Arabian Sea reached the South east coast of Tamil Fig. 4 Mosaic of Nadu and were much sought after up to the Thiruppudaimarudur painting of Vijayanagar period. The inscriptions recounting Horse Trade. (Athiyaman and horse trading and the sculptures and paintings on Rajavelu, 2011) maritime activities depicted in the medieval temples of Tamil Nadu are striking examples. The Nayak period painting depicting an Arab ship arrival with horses was found at Thiruppudaimarudur Temple, Thirunelveli District and sculptural representation of Arab merchants landing in a ship at Thirukkurungudi temple provide authentic evidence regarding the maritime activities of this region (Deloche, 2011; Athiyaman, 2011, Figs. 4-5). This trade was mainly carried out by the Arab merchants as the inscriptions and the art representations suggest (Jayakumar, 2001; Athiyaman, 2011; Rajavelu, 2011). Maritime Trade with Southeast Asia and China Since Sri Lanka is nearest the study region, the maritime trade contact was very frequent and almost uninterrupted from 3rd century BCE. The evidence of the existence of early contacts is covered in recently edited volumes (Manguin et al., 2011). The earliest Tamil inscription is found at Khuan Luk Pat of Thailand, a touch stone belonging to the goldsmith of the third century CE (Chaisuwan, 2011). Medieval Tamil Inscriptions 10 �at various places of Southeast Asia prove beyond doubt that the contact between Gulf Fig. 5 Sculptural representation of Horse Trade (Thirukkurungudi). (Athiyaman, 2011) of Mannar region and Southeast Asia was prolific (Subbarayalu, 1998; Karashima, 2002). It continued as one could glean from the accounts of pearl fishing in the Gulf of Mannar even during the Colonial period. Maritime Trade with Western world Many studies have been made by scholars on the Indo-Roman trade after Warmington (1974). The ports of India, trade goods, shipping and navigation have been studied in the light of the foreign accounts, archaeological excavations conducted at Indian ports of Pattanam, Pumpuhar, Arikamedu, Alagankulam and Korkai, pottery inscriptional evidences and the Vienna Papyrus as well. It is beyond the scope of this present paper. However, the western trade with this region was continued, without break and this region played an active role in it (Young, 2001; De Romanis, 2012). Potential region for Marine Archaeological Studies The Gulf of Mannar has more marine archaeological potential than the northern coast of Tamil Nadu of India. The Marine Archaeological studies carried out at various places of the Northern Tamil Coast like Pumpuhar, Arikamedu and Mamallapuram did not yield much evidence except for the 18th century shipwreck explored by CSIR-NIO, Goa, off Pumpuhar (Sila Tripati et al., 1996; and Sila Tripati et al., 2003). The excavation conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India, also did not yield any concrete 11 �evidence due to the nature of seabed. In northern Tamil Nadu a lot of sediments are carried by the rivers throughout the year and they are deposited in the littoral and shallow water region. The clay formation is so high that a fairly good marine archaeological exploration is not at all possible. However, the Gulf of Mannar is protected by Sri Lanka from the onslaught of huge waves and cyclones. Hence the shipwrecks and lost anchors could be found with more convenience. The sea is relatively calm for long periods. Moreover, the stone anchors found off Rameswaram can be taken as a precursor for marine archaeological studies. The busy trade activity throughout history allows one to presume that this region should be probed intensively in future. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Dr. M. Thirumalai, Vice-Chancellor, Tamil University for his constant support in research and giving permission to contribute the paper at the Asia Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Hawaii. Acknowledgement is also due to Drs. S. Rajavelu and V. Selvakumar of Tamil University for their suggestions in improving the paper. References Arunachalam, S., 2011. 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Lead ingots from a shipwreck off Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu, East Coast of India: Evidence for overseas trade and their significance. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 32 (2): 225-237. Sila Tripati., Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh, Gudigar, P., 1996. Marine Archaeological Explorations in the Kaveripoompattinam Region: Fresh light on the Structural Remains. Man and environment, Vol. 21(1): 86-90. Sinclair, W. F., and Fergusson, D., 1967. The Travels of Pedro Teixeira, Kraus Reprint Limited, Nendeld 14 �Sridhar, T. S., 2004. Excavations of Archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu (1969-1995). Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai. Sridhar, T. S., 2005. Alagankulam: An ancient Roman Port city of Tamil Nadu. Department of Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai. Stephen, S. J., 1998. Portuguese in the Tamil Coast. Navajothi Publishing House, Pondicherry. Subbarayalu, Y. 1998. The Tamil Merchant-Guild Inscription at Barus, A Rediscovery. In Claude Guillot (Ed.), Histoire de Barus, Sumatra, Le Site de Lobu Tua I: Etudes et Documents, Cahiers d 'Archipel 30, Paris: 25-33. Sundaresh., 2013. Stone anchors of Manapad Region, Tamil Nadu. Paper Presented in the 8th National Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries, Dedicating to Dr. S. R. Rao 1st-2nd July 2013 Organized by Society for Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Oceanography Dona Paula, Goa. Warmington, E. H., 1974. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi. Young, G. K., 2001. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and imperial policy, 31 BC - AD 305. Routledge, London. Yule, H., and Cordier, H., 1993. The book of Ser Marco Polo. Munshiram Manoharlal publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Biography N. Athiyaman working as a Professor in the Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology of Tamil University, Thanjavur, India has about 30 years of service in research organisations at various levels. He has participated in marine archaeological investigation off Pumpuhar, in collaboration with National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai. He has salvaged four stone anchors and two metal anchors of medieval period in Gulf of Mannar. He has participated in excavations of early historic settlement sites conducted by Tamil University. He has authored four books and edited 13 volumes on Archaeology, History and Maritime History. He is the life member of Indian History congress, Society for Marine Archaeology and Tamil Nadu Archaeological Society. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ancient and Medieval ports of the Gulf of Mannar Coast, East coast India and their Maritime Connections across Indian Ocean Countries Description An account of the resource The Gulf of Mannar lies in the south-eastern corner of India, bordered by Sri Lanka on the south east. It covers the coast of Tamil Nadu from the island of Rameswaram to Kanniyakumari. This region witnessed extensive long distance maritime activities from the Early Historic period; from 500 BCE to 500 CE. Like other ports of this region, Korkai was part of the Indo-Roman trade activities and literally mentioned in Greek sources. Evidence of Roman contact has been found at the ports of Korkai and Alagankulam. In the Medieval period, Kayal and Periyapattinam were important ports of this region, which is also rich in underwater marine resources and famous for their coral reefs. Stone anchors have been found in this region during surveys by the author. This region has one of the important marine resources venerated by Indians from the ancient period: Turbinella Pyrum. Pearl harvesting was very active in this region for several centuries. It was commercially exploited and exported to many regions in India and beyond. The proposed paper seeks to study the marine archaeological evidence and their importance from the Early Historic period to the medieval period; from 500 BCE to 1600 CE. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource N. Athiyaman, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/708b4dbbe6bc70240824e2adba5ea2c7.pdf 7f76272b6c6a6bc27bc51a651cf0ba4d PDF Text Text Cultural attitude and values towards underwater cultural heritage and its influences on the management actions in Indonesia Zainab Tahir Directorate of Coast and Marine Affairs, Jakarta, Indonesia 10110 zen02zen@yahoo.com Abstract Understanding attitudes and values towards underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is critical element in determining appropriate approaches to a wide variety of planning and management actions. Management actions such as gaining support to protecting historic shipwreck and its associated relics, designing and implementing new management methods depend on an understanding of cultural norms and values of their success. In Indonesia, historic shipwrecks and its associated relics are managed through two different policies. Cultural protection Act 11/2010 mandates protection on cultural heritage including underwater remains, and Presidential Decree 19/2009, regulated commercial management processes, incorporating UCH as marine resources with potential economic value, which might contribute to community welfare. These two paradoxical procedures have raised long debate between stakeholders, including government agencies. Using individual interview, this paper attempts to understand cultural attitudes and values towards shipwreck and its relics in related government agencies in Indonesia, in which resulting the two deferent management approaches. Furthermore, this writing also examines the possible influences of these policies on the current management of UCH in this country. Key words: historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, intrinsic value, commercial interest, private company Introduction Substantial amount of underwater cultural heritage in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are predicted lying off Indonesian Water. This form has lost mainly due to natural or accidental causes. Currently, there are twenty underwater sites documented, spreading from South China Sea to Java Sea.The character of the wrecks varies from one another. For example, the Cirebon wreck, found in Java Sea, is a 10 th century wooden shipwreck containing large amount of artifacts from Five Dynasty Chinese ceramics to glass bottle from Iran, enriched history of an ancient trade in �maritime silk road, while in Tulamben, Bali lies beneath the water a World War II transport ship the USAT Liberty. Each wreck has its story, comprising valuable knowledge, technology and culture from specific periods and place, assigning it not only exceptional and irreplaceable (Smith & Couper, 2003) but also finite. Therefore, some experts assert that historic shipwrecks are human legacy and it deserves protection and management, ensuring these heritage is interpreted and shared with the wide public and preserved for the benefit of present and future generations (Jameson and Scott-Ireton 2007; Spirek and Scott-Ireton 2003 see in (Leshikar-Denton, 2010). However, beside the concern of safeguarding the UCH, there is a distinct-profit interest towards historic shipwrecks. It is likely related to a different value assigned to the objects by different parties. Delgado (1988) examines the monetary benefit provided by historic shipwrecks, in particular its cargoes, besides cultural, historical, archaeological, aesthetic and recreational (Delgado, 1988). Public has witnessed how the Geldermalsen and Vung Tau were priced $16 million and $7,2 million respectively in the auction house. Some people have seen this commercial interestas threat against preservation and protection of the heritage. Kaoru and Hoagland (1994) supported that those values can overlap considerably causing conflict among parties over appropriate use of historic shipwrecks (Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). Overlapping interest towards historic shipwreck and its cargoes become an interesting issue on managing underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia. Legally, there are two distinct policies imposed in regard to managing underwater artifacts. First is a policy places this heritage as significant cultural, archaeological and historical remains required preservation and protection, while the other policy has governed the objects as marine resources with physical value, allowing consumptive use of the heritage �i . Hypothetically, this paradoxical management type is influenced by knowledge, perception and attitude of people in a policy making level. Some studies have shown that people’s perceptions and attitudes towards particular objects or management issues are shaped by their knowledge, educational background, socio economic factors or management intervention (Allendorf et al. 2006; Shrestha and Alavalapati 2006; Xu et al. 2006; Alkan et al., 2009; Shibia 2010 see in (Htun, Mizoue, & Yoshida, 2012).This paper is about to portray and compare perceptions and attitudes of decision making level officers from two institutions in Indonesia, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF), and Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC), towards an underwater cultural heritage and its current management. Both institutions plays significant role in managing UCH in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in this country. The result of the study might provide preliminary insight and support in developing appropriate management strategies towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia Methods Policies towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia Shipwrecks exploration in Indonesian water has a long history, started from the exploitation of the Geldermalsen in 1986. Before this period, there was no specific national mandatory on managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (Tanudirjo, 2008)). Discovery of the Geldermalsen and the fantastic value of its cargoes became an eyeopening reality to the government in regard to the significance of historic shipwrecks, particularly its cargoes (Tanudirjo, 2008). In 1989, the Presidential Decree concerning Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship commanded the government to form a special committee, which has responsibility to manage the cargoes discovered from shipwrecks, included permitting its exploration and exploitation (Decree No. 49, 1989) ii. Since then, the monetary interest of underwater cargoes has become a concern inmanagingthe UCH in Indonesia.Three years later, in 1992, Act concerning Protection of Cultural heritage had been released under Ministry of Education and Culture, and it mandated a protection of cultural resources in land and underwater (Act 5, 1992)iii. The Act was revised in 2010 through Act 10/2010 and this new is clearly prohibited transferring cultural objects to other countries for any purposes but education and research. 815 �However, another new act concerning Coastal Management (Act 27, 2007), released under Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, classifies historic shipwreck and its cargoes as marine resources, in which the protection and economic concerns can be mutually managed. Sample and Data Collection Perception and attitudes of the government officers from the two ministries regarding underwater cultural heritage were measured by a personal interview, using questionnaire. The questionnaires consisted of three sections, first is started questions to identify general knowledge about the valuable cargoes from shipwrecks, answered in Yes, No and Not Sure; the section 2 is 15 major statements covered in 3 parts, part 1 is meant to gauge perceptions on the state of the significance of an underwater heritage, part 2 scales the attitudes towards the current management of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, and the last part is to identify responses on the management implication; then the section 3 is personal information. Perceptions and attitudes were measured by asking respondents to rate statements using Likert-type scale from 1 (Strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (not sure), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree), few statements used strongly unacceptable to strongly acceptable form. The questionnaires were closed type, however few parts of the section 2, the respondents were given space to provide comments. The respondents were gathered using non-probability method, with purposive sampling technique (Kumar, 2013). This paper only examined perception and attitudes of the decision making level officers (i.e. Head of Unit, Deputy Director and Director) from Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) and Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC), focusing to the unit or directorate that has closely responsible in managing underwater cultural heritage. From MMAF, 9 high official members of Directorate of Coastal and Marine Affairs were chosen, while in the MEC, the target respondents were Deputy Directors of Directorate of Culture and Head of the Preservation and Protection of Cultural Resources Office. The total respondents from the two institutions were 18 people. Result The first section, the respondents were asked four general questions with a Yes, No or 816 �Not sure answer to assess their understanding of the status of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia. Respondents who answered “yes” were preceded to the section 2 enquiring their perceptions and attitudes towards management of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes and the implication. In general, as it is written in table 1, all respondents from both institutions distinguished that historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are not only important but also protected. They also have knowledge, that these historic objects are opened for commercial purposes. Table 1. General understanding on the status of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Questions on survey instrument Percentage Yes Do you know about the valuable objects from the sunken ship or commonly known as BMKT? 100 Do you think historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are important? 100 Do you know historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are protected? 100 Do you know some of the cargoes, discovered from historic shipwrecks could be sent off to auction? 94,4 Perceptions of the officers on the significant values of an underwater cultural heritage Concerning the significant value of an UCH in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, the respondents were asked to scale 4 statements. These statements are narrowed to portray perceptions of the officers towards the consumptive use and the non-use value of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (See (Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). The results as indicated in table 2 show the officers from both institutions have strong agreement on valuing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Both of them are aware that there are several different values attached to these entities. Shipwrecks and its cargoes are historically and culturally significant, framing intrinsic quality of maritime past, as many experts support that historic shipwrecks are a closed context reflecting the society of the time; it has the potential to provide information about the people on board, ship construction, navigation technology, and the goods it was transporting; however, beside those essential value, it also have short term economic opportunities gained from this 817 �historic object (See (Delgado, 1988; Huang, 2013; Hutchinson, 1996; Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). Table 2. Perceptions of the officers on the significant values of the UCH Statement On survey instrument Protecting underwater cultural heritage is important (i.e. historic shipwrecks and its cargoes) because it has historical value By managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes provide livelihood and other economic opportunities. The government should protect historic shipwreck and its cargoes in order to preserve national and cultural identity. Artifacts from historic shipwreck, such as ceramics and jewellery, are highly valuable in the antique market. Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 0 0 0 0 0 0 22.2 0.0 77.8 100 0.958 0 0 0 0 0 0 66.7 6.0 33.3 33.3 0.853 0 0 0 0 0 0 55.6 33.3 44.4 66.7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 22.2 88.9 77.8 11.1 0.160 n1 = 9 (respondent from MMAF), n2 = 9 (respondent from MEC); 1 - 5 = likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = not sure, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree; Correl. = Correlation Perceptions of the officers on the current management of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Currently, private company funds exploration of shipwrecks in Indonesian water. Consequently, they have rights to own 50% of the cargoes or 50% generated from the selling artifacts. The five statements in the questionnaire tried to explore how decisions making level officers perceive the involvement of the third party in exploring historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, auctioning the artifacts, and an appropriate funding source. In response to the statements, as it is shown in the table 3, the respondents from both institutions scaled strongly agree to agree that the government has responsibility to provide funding support to exploring and managing the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. However, interestingly, when they were giving an option whether the fund for exploration should be provided by the government or private, the responses were varied, 33,3% officers from MMAF agreed the exploration should be funded by the government, 33% of it opposed the idea and 22,2% was not sure. 55,6% from MEC preferred the private as fund source, instead of the government, yet 22% strongly agreed if the fund 818 �support is from the state, while 11% was not sure. Even though, more than half of MEC’s respondent agreed the private providing fund for exploration, there were 33,3% of them refused the involvement of the third party would assist to manage and preserve historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Table 3. General Knowledge on the Status of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Statement On survey instrument Exploration of shipwrecks and its cargoes should be conducted and funded by government not by private company. National policy allows private company to perform recovery excavation of historic shipwrecks and auction its cargoes off; then the selling income will be shared between government and private company. We can auction off artefacts discovered from one shipwreck as long as the national museum has pick the Significant Representative Collection. The government has responsibility to provide funding support to explore and manage historic shipwreck and its cargoes To help managing and preserving historic shipwreck and its cargoes in Indonesian water is by involving third party or private company to explore it Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 11. 1 0.0 33.3 55.6 22.2 11.1 33.3 11.1 0 22.2 0 22.2 11.1 56.7 0 0 55.6 22.2 33.3 0 -0.067 0 0 0 77.8 0 0 44.4 11.1 55.6 11.1 -0.24 0 0 11.1 0.0 0 0 44.4 55.6 44.4 44.4 0.970 0 0 0 33.3 22.2 11.1 66.7 44.4 11.1 11.1 0.659 0.476 Furthermore, the biggest difference between the officers from the two institutions is when they were asked their perception on getting the artifacts off to auction. Even though, the unique and rare pieces must be list as state property and prohibit for sale, still 77,8% respondents from the MEC against the idea of selling the underwater artifacts, and only 11% respectively scaled strongly agree and agree to this idea. While, 55,6% and 33,3% of the MMAFs’ officers settled with the notion of commercial interest. They commented, that principally they agree to bring the mass product artifacts off to auction but the rare one must belong to the country.Subsequently, strong negative correlation (See(Rumsey, 2003) between officers existed, when they were asking their 819 �opinion on the current National Policy in which allows private company to salvage and auction the underwater artifacts. There was strongly disagreement towards the policy (56,7% and 22,2%), even though 22,2% of MECs’ officers marked agrees towards it. While 55,6 and 33,3% officers from MMAF were consistently support this involvement. Attitudes of the officers towards the management implication Integrating commercial values of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes into the policy have evolved public perceptions towards the objects. Since 1989, number of private companies permitted to explore shipwrecks in Indonesian water has increased and hundred thousands of artifacts discovered along the shipwrecks (PANNAS, 2012). However, despite the fact that this practice attracts investment to the country, some people criticized the exploration and salvage activities in Indonesia are far concern to the money-making and tend to disregard the intrinsic value of the objects (Tanudirjo, 2008). The International Congress of Maritime Museums mentioned the exploration of the Geldermalsen as an example how commercial salvor destroy the historical value of the cargoes (See in (Hallwood & Miceli, 2005). Six statements in the table 4 examine attitudes and perceptions of decision making officers from two main institutions, that closely responsible for managing underwater heritage, towards the management implication of the current policy. There are some significant differences between the MMAF and MEC regarding the statement that income generated from investment on shipwrecks and its cargoes benefits the country. 66,6% MECs’ respondents resisted that business on shipwrecks is not profitable to the state, contrasting 66,7% of the respondents from MMAF. The correlation between the high official respondents is negative. Similarly, most of the MECs’ do not accept to gain revenue by selling artifacts, while more than half respondents from MMAF (66,7%) consider this policy as an agreeable. Interestingly, when the MECs’ officers were asked about banning the auction, the proportion of MECs’ (44,4%) who agreed and disagreed is similar. Furthermore, a significantly higher percentage of the MECs’ (88,9%) believed the exploration of shipwrecks destroys the context of maritime history, while 56,7% from MMAF disagreed with the statement and one third of them have no knowledge 820 �regarding the issue. From one perspective, it might understandable if the proportion of “not sure” answers were little high considering respondents from MMAF generally come from different study background such as environment and economic. Yet, one MMAF’s respondent stated exploration might destroy the context of history if there is no strong regulation existed. Despite strong agreement from MECs’ about destruction of historical context, there are slightly high proportion of its respondents (44,4%) accepted the exploration done by the private has contributed to the preservation and protection of the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, even though 33,3% of them disagree with this. Some people believe that exploration and recovery of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes might be considered as one way to safeguard the objects from being illegally salvaged and also providing further opportunity of the wide public to access the objects. Table 4. Attitudes and perceptions of the officers towards the management implication Statement On survey instrument Income from business on underwaterartifacts benefits the country. National policy should ban selling the cargoes discovered from shipwreck Exploration of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, done by private, has contributed to the preservation and protection of underwater cultural heritage. Exploration of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, done by private company, has destroyed the context of maritime history Business on shipwrecks and its cargoes attract more investment to Indonesia Government auctions off artefacts discovered from shipwrecks to gain country’s economic income. Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 0 22.2 11.1 66.7 11.1 0.0 66.7 11.1 11.1 0 -0.17 11. 1 0.0 11.1 44.4 44.4 11.1 33.3 44.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 33.3 44.4 11.1 55.6 44.4 0 11.1 0.476 0 0 55.6 0 33.3 0 11.1 88.9 0 11.1 -0.27 0 1 11.1 55.6 22.2 0.0 55.6 22.2 0 11.1 0.036 0 44.4 11.1 33.3 11.1 11.1 66.7 11.1 11.1 0 -0.39 Discussion and Conclusion This survey was conducted to accomplish the main task of determining the perceptions and attitudes of the decision making level officers from different institutions towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. As it is predicted, the two institutions showed 821 �negative correlation for particular commercial interest issue. The policy on sending artifacts off into auction becomes sensitive among respondents from the MEC. Kaoru and Hoagland (1994) noticed that some individuals might find commercial attachment to the historical objects is offensive. To inform, all of the interviewees come from similar background, archaeologists and historians. Their knowledge on the historic objects might associate with their perception and attitude. In parallel with some studies resulted that greater in knowledge are associated with greater influence of attitudes on behavior (See (Fabrigar, Smith, Petty, & Crites Jr., 2006). On the other hand, high officers from the MMAF tend to consider the consumptive use over the non-use value of the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (See Kaoru and Hoagland, 1994). They argue that historic shipwrecks and its cargoes along with other natural ecosystems are part of marine resources, which can be used and managed for the sake of the community wellbeing. Accordingly, the long term development goal of the MMAF are maximizing the use of the resources to achieve prosperity while keeping sustainability towards environment, social, culture, and economic as a based of actions (MMAF, 2007). Therefore, it is not surprising when the officers from this ministry have supported the inclusion of commercial value of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes into their policy. Assumption on the physical benefit of historic shipwrecks, particularly its cargoes is tempted, even though further research is required to justify how much direct and indirect benefit generated from this business until now. In relation to the involvement of private company in funding and exploring historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, apparently, there is ambivalent on the respondents from the MEC. It is realized that, exploring shipwrecks and its cargoes is an expensive project. The government has a limitation to fund the exploration of historic shipwrecks due to the country’s economic development priorityiv; this constraint encourages institution to seek for alternative funding source in order to study and explore more the maritime past. At the same time the private company offers an opportunity to access the historical time capsule on the deep ocean, with mutual benefit sharing mechanism. It often places the government in dilemmatic positions; partnership with the private company or salvors means allowing them to take away their shares, half of the historic cargoes, separating the artifacts as whole context, however, without fund support, the access to explore, to 822 �study and to research are also limited. While, looting and illegal salvage continually threatens the objects. In fact, both respondents are aware of the intrinsic cultural and historical value of the entities, however, they value the objects differently, in which resulting different management. At the end, managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes requires political willingness. The national government, include both institutions need a comprehensive action to unravel dispute and settle down national strategy on managing the underwater cultural heritage in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Bibliography Delgado, J. P. 1988. The value of shipwrecks. In J. W. Murphy (Ed.), Historic shipwrecks: Issues in management (pp. 1 - 10). Washington, DC: Partners for Livable Places. Fabrigar, L. R., Smith, S. M., Petty, R. E., & Crites Jr., S. L. 2006. Understanding Knowledge Effects on Attitude–Behavior Consistency: The Role of Relevance, Complexity, and Amount of Knowledge. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4), 556 - 577. Hallwood, P., & Miceli, T. J. 2005. Economic Analysis of the Legal Regimes Governing Salvage of Historic Shipwrecks. Ocean Development & International Law, 36(4), 323 337. Htun, N. Z., Mizoue, N., & Yoshida, S. 2012) Determinants of Local People's Perceptions and Attitudes Toward a Protected Area and Its Management: A Case Study From Popa Mountain Park, Central Myanmar. Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal, 25(8), 743-758. Huang, J. 2013. Odyssey's Treasure Ship: Salvor, Owner, or Sovereign Immunity. Ocean Development & International Law, 44(2), 170 - 184. Hutchinson, G. 1996. Threats to underwater cultural heritage: The problems of unprotected archaeological and historic sites, wrecks and objects found at sea. Marine Policy, 4, 287 - 290. Kaoru, Y., & Hoagland, P. 1994. The value of historic shipwrecks: Conflicts and management. Coastal Management, 22(2), 195 - 213. Kumar, P. S. 2013. Sampling Design Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural Science, Social Science and Other Related Fields (pp. 427). India: Springer. Leshikar-Denton, M. E. 2010. Cooperation is the key: We Can Protect the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Maritime Archaeology, 5, 85-95. Management of Coastal Zone and Small Islands, 27 C.F.R. (2007). 823 �Ministerial Decree. Standard Operation Procedures on Survey and Salvage of the Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship, 39 2000. PANNAS, B. 2012. Laporan Perkembangan Pengelolaan BMKT. Annual Report. PANNAS BMKT. Presidential Decree. National Committee of Salvage of the Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship, 19 2009. Protection of Cultural Heritage, 10/2010. Rumsey, D. J. 2003. Statistics for Dummies. Hoboken: NJ. Wiley. Smith, H. D., & Couper, A. D. 2003. The Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 4, 25-33. Tanudirjo, A. D. 2008. Pendahuluan: Awal Jaringan Pelayaran dan Perdagangan. In B. B. Utomo (Ed.), Kapal Karam Abad ke 10 di Laut Jawa Utara Cirebon (Vol. 1, pp. 1 25). Jakarta: PANNAS BMKT. Biography Zainab is an Underwater Archaeologist working for Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. Zainab received her Bachelor in Archaeology at Hasanuddin University and a Master Degree in Environmental Science, specializing in Protected Area Management at James Cook University, Australia. i Sources are Act 11/2010 concerning Protection of Cultural Objects and Act 27/2007 concerning Coastal Area Management and Small Islands. ii This presidential Decree was revised in 2000, 2007 and 2009 due to the changes of responsible institution, however the substantial content has not been altered. Since 2000, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is the mandated institution to lead the committee. iii In order to harmonize the two legislations, the special committee has imposed a decree ordering the exploration and recovery of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes should be documented and recorded by the contractor. In addition, the unique and rare cargoes must be returned to the state (Ministerial Decree 39, 2000). iv Based on the Indonesia Strategic Framework for Development 2012 – 2016, there are five focus area, renewable energy, disaster risk management, agriculture, human resource development and eastern Indonesia 824 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cultural attitude and values towards underwater cultural heritage and its influences on the management actions in Indonesia Description An account of the resource Understanding attitudes and values towards underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is critical element in determining appropriate approaches to a wide variety of planning and management actions. Management actions such as gaining support to protecting historic shipwreck and its associated relics, designing and implementing new management methods depend on an understanding of cultural norms and values of their success. In Indonesia, historic shipwrecks and its associated relics are managed through two different policies. Cultural protection Act 11/2010 mandates protection on cultural heritage including underwater remains, and Presidential Decree 19/2009, regulated commercial management processes, incorporating UCH as marine resources with potential economic value, which might contribute to community welfare. These two paradoxical procedures have raised long debate between stakeholders, including government agencies. Using individual interview, this paper attempts to understand cultural attitudes and values towards shipwreck and its relics in related government agencies in Indonesia, in which resulting the two deferent management approaches. Furthermore, this writing also examines the possible influences of these policies on the current management of UCH in this country. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zainab Tahir, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/92aaf00c10c453cf0aa33756881ed92a.pdf e02504450a683054e2a91663c4fe7d75 PDF Text Text Types of river transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century: an analysis based on the findings of boats in North Sumatera Province and Siak districts, Riau Province Azwar Sutihat Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West Sumatera Province, Riau, and Riau Island Ministry of Education and Culture, Republic of Indonesia Jl. Sultan Alam Bagagarsyah, Batusangkar, West Sumatra, 27281 E-mail: azwar_sutihat@yahoo.com Abstract In the east coast of Sumatra, there were kingdoms that relied on river as the main transportation. In this region, there are big rivers with the same characteristics that empty into the Strait of Malacca, including Asahan River, Siak River, and Batanghari River. Not only relying on the river as the main transportation, some kingdoms even established their center of the kingdom on the river bank. These included the Deli Kingdom nearby Deli River, Siak Kingdom nearby Siak River, Serdang Kingdom nearby Serdang River, and the Ancient Malay Kingdom nearby Batanghari River. In 2013, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office carried out a study on the findings of a boat in Siak River. The type of the boat is considered a rarity for the east coast of Sumatra region. However, it bears a similarity with the boat founded in Deli Serdang District in 1997, which was analyzed by Medan Archeological Agency. In addition of bearing a similarity, the study also concluded that the two boats are believed to be the type of boat that is used before the 19th century. From the findings of both boats, we can then describe the type of boats as the means of transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century. Key words: River Transportation, East Coast of Sumatra, before the 19th Century Introduction Indonesia with its marine potential, is a country about ¾ of which is covered by sea. As a country with around 17,508 islands, Indonesia is known as the largest archipelago in the world with sea areas of 5.8 million square kilometers, and has the second longest coastline in the world (81 thousand km). With its location and condition, Indonesia has various natural resources, and unique floras and faunas throughout the country (Ardiwidjaja, 2011). 1 �Archipelago or inter-islands means an area comprised of islands that are separated by water, making the area consists of water or sea water. Therefore, it is impossible for the inhabitants to move from one area to another without being supported by a floating object. The object called boat is reputedly the oldest means of transportation in the world. Yet, its history of origin is still not known. Archaeological evidences of the existence of boats have been widely revealed, including in the form of cave paintings, referred to and described in the ancient inscriptions, and in sculptures of stone temples (relief). The depiction of boats in these archaeological evidences also show the development of boat building technology based on the shape of the boat in the corresponding era. The shape and technology of the boats seem to adjust the everyday function and the cruising challenges; whether the boat was used as a means to facilitate the movement of people in search of food, trade and habitat movement or migration. According to experts, in the past there have been movements of people that brought along their culture. Evidence of these events can be seen through similar cultural works from one place to another (Siswanto, 2010). Migration cannot be separated from the advancement in technology achieved by the people itself. East Sumatra (Ooskust van Sumatra or Sumatra's Ooskust) is a term that developed in the 19th century to refer to an area around the eastern coast of Sumatra island. In this region, some Malay kingdoms successfully imposed its hegemony over the river that was a major transportation at that time. Some of these kingdom also established the center of the kingdom by the bank of small and big rivers, including: Siak Kingdom with the center of Fig.1: The east coast of its kingdom in the downstream of Siak River, Langkat Sumatra (red line) (Source: Kingdom near the Langkat River, Deli Kingdom nearby Deli www.indonesiataglance.files. River, Serdang Kingdom nearby Serdang River, Asahan wordpress.com) Kingdom nearby Asahan River, Bilah Kingdom in Bilah River and Labuan Panai Kingdom nearby Panai River. 2 �The eastern coast of Sumatra has a long history as the traffic route of trade. Its strategic location makes this area as the main line of trade since centuries ago. In the mid-18th century until the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Siak had been a dominant force in the east coast of Sumatra. The dominance of Siak Sultanate over the areas in the eastern coast of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula was quite significant that they were able to replace the previous Johor influence over the control of trade routes (Marsden, 2008). Long before that, in the 7th until the 11th century AD, the Sriwijaya Kingdom that controlled the Malacca Straits was known as a maritime kingdom that possessed mastery in the ship and shipping navigation technology. The Sriwijaya Kingdom relied the life of its kingdom on trades and maritime activities. Therefore, Sriwijaya had extensive relationships with other countries, not only in the archipelago, but also with China, India, and the Middle East (Riyanto, 2011). Besides Sriwijaya, the Old Malay kingdom (Malayapura) also relied on the river as a major transportation. This kingdom was originally centered in Jambi inland on the banks of the Batang Hari River and moved to Dharmasraya and then to the upstream area of Batang Hari River in Tanah Datar, West Sumatra. Boats and Sailing in Indonesia Boat is one of the maritime cultures that since prehistoric times has played important role in human’s life in the world, including Indonesia. The oldest written record of water transport in the form of a boat in Indonesian waters mentioned in Kedukan Bukit inscription of 683 AD stated the existence of a Sriwijaya’s king that was travelling on a boat (Riyanto, 2010). In addition, information about boat and sailing in Indonesia was derived from Chinese news that told a story about a priest travelling to India by boat in 672 AD. Other notes are the interpretation of Pierre Paris based on other foreign sources stating that in the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD there had been sailing activity using boats from Sumatra to India. A research by F.L. Dunn and D.F. Dunn (1977) stated that between 20,000 to 18,000 years ago the sailing technology in Southeast Asia was still very limited. There was no sailing activity in the open ocean, and sailing activity was possibly still limited in shallow waters such as swamps and mangrove forests which were influenced by the sea tide. 3 �Then, 9000 years ago boat and raft were started to be known. They were used in swamps and for limited sailing in the open water. Area exploitation using boats was only carried out in line with the enhanced knowledge in boating skills. Furthermore, it is estimated that approximately 5000 years ago there was exploitation of the South China Sea region through mastery of the ever developed marine navigation and boat technology. The use of outriggers and simple sail made of woven leaves enhanced the exploitation area with cruising range far enough from the beach. Boat is understood as a manifestation of maritime needs (or other waters; rivers and lakes) as well as the aspiration of the supporting communities. The shapes or characteristics of local boats will be influenced by factors such as surrounding environment and local traditions at that time. Boat tradition is embodiment of a system of ideas about what boat is and how they should design and build the boat. Terminology of engineering design parameters and how to build a boat is a social practice that contains symbolic and ideological aspects. In practice, the shape, size and complexity of a boat will be limited or determined by the desires of the community over its usefulness, availability of materials and the purpose of a boat to be operated. Therefore, the shape or characteristics of local boats, structural characteristics, appearance and usefulness, are predominantly influenced by local values, both physical and non physical (Budiman, 2010). Based on the types, sailing can be divided into sailing in open waters and in inland waters (rivers and lakes). In Sumatra Island, there are large rivers that become the main road heading to inland areas. The interaction between human and rivers in Sumatra is estimated to have taken place since thousands of years ago. Even in this modern era, the relationship can still be seen to this day. Some of the major rivers empty into the east coast of Sumatra (Malacca Strait). These include the Deli River, Serdang River, Padang River, Siak River, Batang Hari River, and Musi River. Physical evidences of sailing in the inland areas of Sumatra include findings of relatively intact ancient boats. From this finding, we can then describe the types and shapes of boats used as a means of river transportation in the east coast of Sumatra, especially before the 19th century. 4 �Besar II Terjun Village, Serdang Bedagai Regency, North Sumatra Province In 2003, a local resident found a boat at the base of Terjun River. The boat was then lifted by the community and placed in the house of the boat founder. The boat was a dugout canoe (hollowed) made of an intact, large, and long wood. Dugout/hollowed canoe are made by removing the center part of the wood. For local communities, this type of boat is known as sudur itik boat, because the overall shape of the tip of the boat resembles the beak of a duck. The boat was 910 cm long, 86 cm wide and 28 cm deep. The boat wall has an average thickness of 3 cm. In each of the inner side of the hull, there are thirteen sangkar (local term for these components in South Kalimantan), which is the rectangular protrusion engraved directly on the tree trunk that is used to make the boat. These sangkars are 20-26 cm long and 8-10 cm wide. Their function is to support the boards or logs that are laid crosswise on the body of the boat as wall reinforcement and can be used by passengers or rowers (Koestoro, 2010). Fig. 2: Sangkar components on boat (Source: Medan Archaeological Research Office) Fig. 3: Sudur Itik boat (Source: Medan Archaeological Research Office) 5 �Padang River, Tebingtinggi, North Sumatra The boat was founded by local resident at the base of Padang River in 2006. This boat has the same shape and construction as the boat found in Serdang Bedagai Regency. The construction is made of solid wood, and perforated in the middle. The boat is 610 cm long, the widest section is 113 cm wide, and 29 m deep. The middle part of the boat has a slightly rounded shape and elongated at both ends. Both ends are somewhat tapered. 1 Fig. 4: Itik boat sketch (Source: Medan Archaeological Research Office) Inside of the boat hull, there are eight sangkars. The sangkars are 22-27 cm long, 12-14 cm wide and 10-15 cm thick (Koestoro, 2010). In the boat wall, both at the base and at the hull, there are parallel holes with diameter of 1 cm that penetrate the wall of the boat. The holes are covered with a round wood that has the same size as the thickness of the body of the boat. Communities in Riau call this hole as kakap hole that serves to equalize the thickness of the hull of the boat. The kakap hole serves a guide or a basis for the process of dredging the inside of the boat. After perforation is complete, the kakap holes eyes are closed or clogged with wood so that water does not get into the boat. 6 �Muara Bungkal Village, Siak Regency, Riau Province Boat in Muara Bungkal village was founded by local residents in 2012. The boat was founded at the base of Minas River (a tributary of the Siak River). Once lifted by the residents, the boat was then placed in the yard Muara Bungkal village office. This boat is made of a piece of wood that is hollowed in the middle. Its shape is like a mortar, the middle part is somewhat rounded and slightly tapered at both ends (mortar-like shaped). Tapered shape, especially in the bow, was probably selected to make it easier for the boat to travel in shallow water, in fast-flowing water, with rocky and muddy river bottom. This is related to the river terrain. Overall, the length of this boat from the tip of the bow (front) up to the end of the stern (rear) is 8.3 meters. The middle part of the boat (the widest) has a width of 77 cm with a height from the stern of the ship to the base of 20 cm. In each part of the inside of boat hull there are sixteen penuku (sangkar). Penuku is a term used by local community. Penuku has similar function with sangkar in a boat found in North Sumatra, namely to support the boards or logs that are laid crosswise on the body of the boat as a wall reinforcement and can be used by passengers or boater. There are different components between penuku/sangkar in Muara Bungkal Village and penuku/sangkar found in North Sumatra. Penuku in the boat of Muara Bungkal has a hole in the middle with average size of 6 cm long and 4 cm wide. Penukus on both sides of the hull are connected by wood. These connecting woods are called gadinggading. Gading-gading has a function as a peg between penuku. In the boat wall, both at the base and at the hull, there are parallel holes with diameter of 1 cm that penetrate the wall of the boat. The holes are covered with a round wood that has the same size as the thickness of the body of the boat. The local community calls this hole as kakap hole that serves to equalize the thickness of the wall or the hull of the boat. Types of river boat in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century Water environment is an important element in supporting the life of human being. Rivers, lakes, and oceans are environment that provide sources of foods and, at a certain time, become the most effective transportation infrastructure to move further and faster. The rivers in Sumatra became an important means of transportation from inland to coastal areas and vice versa. Interaction between humans and rivers in Sumatra has been going on for thousands of years. Boat as a means of transportation can be 7 �Fig .5: Boat in Muara Bungkal Village (Azwar Fig .6: Boat components (Photo and Sutihat, August 2013) Modification by Azwar Sutihat, August 2013) understood as a form of adaptation of human interaction with the environment. According to Johnston (1980), based on shape, material and construction, the development of boats can generally be classified into several types, namely: a. Raft boat, which is boat that was formed from the composition of a single piece of wood tied together horizontally. The next stage is marked by the addition of a layer of wooden beams tied together with the direction of crossed wooden beams on top of the first layer, so that the raft is composed of several layers of wooden beams. b. Dug-out canoe, which is a boat which is formed of a hollowed tree trunk in the middle so that the shape resembles the mortar. c. Planked-boat, which is a boat which construction of its body is formed from arrangement of boards with specific merging technique. 8 �Based on the shape, materials and construction, boats found in North Sumatra and in Siak Regency, Riau Province fall under dug-out canoe type. The three boats have similarities in term of construction and components. The similarities are: a. There are penukus/sangkars to support the boards or logs that are laid crosswise on the body of the boat as wall reinforcement and can be used by passengers or boater. b. There are kakap holes that serve to equalize the thickness of the walls or boat hulls. c. There are gading-gading that functions as peg between penukus/sangkars. In the boat found in North Sumatra, these gading-gading components no longer exist. While in the boat found in Siak there are still 2 pieces of gading-gading. d. Both ends of each boat have a tapered shape that resembles the shape of duck beak. Because of this shape, the Malay community called the boat as sudur itik boat. In the manufacturing process, the tapered shape was selected to achieve better boat speed, and to facilitate better navigation in shallow waters that have many plants. This is clearly related to the river terrain in the east coast of Sumatra that is dominated by mangrove swamps. Koestoro (2010) indicated that the trees used in the manufacture of boats found in North Sumatra are possibly Artocarpus champeden, Intsia palembanica that is resistant to moisture or Hopea sangal that falls under Dipterocarpaceae family. While the materials used in the manufacture of wooden boats found in Muara Bungkal village, Siak Regency is believed by local people as Giam wood (Cotylelobium spp, Vatica spp) that fall under Dipterocarpaceae family. A description of boat building technique on the east coast of Sumatra can at least be obtained from traditional boat building techniques in Kuantan Singingi community of Riau province that is still ongoing. Traditional boat building, that is called jalur by the Kuantan Singingi community, has been going on for hundreds of years. The cultural connection, and close geographical location makes it possible to do a reconstruction of building techniques of boats found in North Sumatra and Siak Regency based on the 9 �traditional boat building techniques in Kuantan Singingi Regency, Riau Province. According Koestoro (2010), the existence of sudur itik boat in the Besar II Terjun village is part of the historical formation of large plantation estates in the east coast of Sumatra in the late 19th century. Besar II Terjun village is one of residential areas located in the middle of plantation of what used to be the area of the Sultanate of Serdang. The boat finding in Padang River cannot be separated either from its historical context. This area was once one of residential areas in the middle of plantation which was once a territory of the Sultan of Deli. The existence of a boat in Muara Bungkal village, Siak Regency has a historical relationship with the Kingdom of Siak as a maritime kingdom. The eastern coast of Sumatra has a long history as the traffic route of trade. Its strategic location makes this area as the main line of trade since centuries ago. Marsden (2008) mentioned that at that time Siak was a supplier of wood material to Batavia (Jakarta) to build ships in large numbers. Even the woods for construction of naval warships in Penang Island were also sourced from Siak. Furthermore, it is said that Siak was a powerful maritime kingdom. The naval force of Siak often attacked Johor, Malacca, and various places in the east and west coast of the peninsula. In term of trade, it was mostly carried out by Keling ships. They traded clothing materials, raw silk, and other goods that they provided in Penang or Malacca. In return, they received gold, wax, sago, salted fish, fish eggs, ivory, gambier, camphor, and various types of rattan. The role of Siak River as part of the core region of the kingdom had a major effect on the economic growth of Siak Sri Indrapura. In the 18th century, in 1767 to be precise, Siak Sultanate led by King Ismail had become a dominant force in the east coast. The advancement of Siak economy is evident from Dutch notes that stated that in 1783, there were about 171 merchant ships from Siak heading to Malacca. Siak became a trade triangle between the Dutch in Malacca and the British in Penang Island (www.wikipedia.org). Conclusion Rivers in Sumatra Island become an important means of transportation from inland to coastal areas and vice versa. Interaction between humans and rivers in Sumatra has been going on for thousands of years. Some kingdom in Sumatra even made the river 10 �as the main force in maintaining their existence. Boat as a means of transportation can be understood as a form of adaptation of human interaction with the environment. Findings of boats in three locations in the east coast of Sumatra show that before the 19th century, there were river cruising boats in this area. The first feature can be seen from the shape and construction that fall under the type of dug-out canoe. The two ends of each boat have a tapered shape that resembles the shape of duck beak. The Malay communities call such boat as sudur itik boat. The second feature is the boat components such as penuku/sangkar, kakap hole, and gading-gading. In some locations in the Indonesian archipelago, we can still find dug-out canoe made of one piece of wood. However, nowadays, we can no longer find dug-out canoes that have similar components as sudur itik boat. In the future, we need to have a more in-depth study of sudur itik, particularly regarding the manufacturing technology, the identification of the types of wood, radiocarbon analysis (to determine the absolute age of the boat) and the conservation techniques (waterlogged wood conservation). Acknowledgments Thanks to Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West Sumatera, Riau, and Riau Island - Ministry of Education and Culture, Medan Archaeological Research Office, Siak Regency Government, especially the Office for Education and Culture of Siak Regency, Sungai Mandau Government Sub-District, Muara Bungkal Government Village, Research and Development Centre for Marine and Coastal Resources, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, and to all people who always support us in conducting study and preservation on marine archaeological resources. Bibliography Ardiwidjaya, Roby., 2011. “Temuan Perahu Kuna di Rembang”. Varuna. Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air. Vol.5/2011. Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air. Jakarta. p. 1-5. Budiman, Arief., 2010, “ Bentuk Perahu Awal Manusia Pulau Borneo sebelum Persebaran Penutur Austronesia: Sebuah Hipotesis”. Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi. No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta: Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p. 120-153. 11 �Dunn, F.L, and Dunn, D.F., 1984, Maritime Adaption and Exploitation of Marine Resources in Sundaic Southeast Asia, Prehistory a Reader, ed. De Velde, P.V.,H.248, Foris Publication, Holland. Jhonstone, P.,1980, The sea-craft of prehistory, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London. Koestoro, Lucas Pratanda., 2010, “Bangkai Perahu di Pesisir Timur Sumatera Utara dan Pembudayaan Perahu”. Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi. No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta: Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p. 84-109. Marsden, William., 2008, Sejarah Sumatera. Komunitas Bambu. Jakarta. Riyanto, Sugeng., 2010, “Perahu Kuna Punjulharjo dan Arkeologi Maritim Nusantara” . Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi. No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta: Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p. 2-13. Siswanto., 2010, “Temuan Perahu Kuna di Rembang”. Varuna. Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air. Vol.4/2010. Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air. Jakarta. p. 1-5. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesultanan_Siak_Sri_Inderapura www.indonesiaatglance.files.wordpress.com Biography Azwar Sutihat was born in Yogyakarta on February 11, 1983. In 2008, he completed his study in the Department of Archaeology, Gadjah Mada University. From 2009 to the present, Azwar works at the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West Sumatra, Riau, and Riau Island, Ministry of Education and Culture, Republic of Indonesia. Over the last 5 years, he has various experiences working in the field of preservation of cultural heritage and has participated in several international level activities such as Workshop on “Document Preparation of World Heritage Nomination” (2013), Workshop on “Managing Indoor Climate Risks” (2013), ”Sub-Regional Training Workshop on "Disaster Risk Preparedness and Management” (2013), and World Culture Forum (2013). 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Types of river transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century: an analysis based on the findings of boats in North Sumatera Province and Siak districts, Riau Province Description An account of the resource In the east coast of Sumatra, there were kingdoms that relied on river as the main transportation. In this region, there are big rivers with the same characteristics that empty into the Strait of Malacca, including Asahan River, Siak River, and Batanghari River. Not only relying on the river as the main transportation, some kingdoms even established their center of the kingdom on the river bank. These included the Deli Kingdom nearby Deli River, Siak Kingdom nearby Siak River, Serdang Kingdom nearby Serdang River, and the Ancient Malay Kingdom nearby Batanghari River. In 2013, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office carried out a study on the findings of a boat in Siak River. The type of the boat is considered a rarity for the east coast of Sumatra region. However, it bears a similarity with the boat founded in Deli Serdang District in 1997, which was analyzed by Medan Archeological Agency. In addition of bearing a similarity, the study also concluded that the two boats are believed to be the type of boat that is used before the 19th century. From the findings of both boats, we can then describe the type of boats as the means of transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Azwar Sutihat , in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/875858654025fec90d9a9ab6e63862ab.pdf 58a5982c7977d3775fdaf32e9a11a520 PDF Text Text The continuation of traditional boatbuilding in Cam Pha, Sam Son and Cua Lo, Vietnam Ken Preston Independent Researcher Seattle, US Email: kenpreston46@gmail.com Abstract This paper will describe recent and current construction activity on three separate building sites, one each in Cam Pha (near Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh Hoa), and Cua Lo (near Vinh). The three sites produce boats generally in the Northern Vietnamese/Chinese tradition, but with significant differences in both design and construction details and techniques. The designs that will be discussed are all traditional style motor vessels, that is, vessels whose design and style were developed prior to the availability of powerful diesel engines but are now motorized. They include:  The Halong Bay “Square Head” boat, a mid-sized utility and fishing vessel that is the dominant wooden boat in Halong Bay in the size range from 18' to about 35'.  The Sam Son large traditional fishing vessel, A 60' class seagoing shallow draft vessel derived directly from a 3-masted lug rigged sailing vessel with a long history in the Northern Coastal waters.  The Cua Lo mid-sized utility fishing boat (works in a number of fisheries), which is the only significant design in use from the small fishing port on the south bank of the river at Cua Lo. Key words: Traditional Boatbuilding Techniques, Cam Pha, Sam Son, Cua Lo, Northern Vietnam Background Between 2005 and 2013, I have made a total of 8 trips to Vietnam, totaling about one year accumulated time in country, or in nearby Laos and Cambodia. My purpose has been to document the continued building and use of wooden fishing and freight vessels along the coast and up the Mekong. I have made repeated visits to certain specific boat building sites and boatyards. Among these are three in particular in northern Vietnam. Many of their techniques are very similar and the boats they build have much in common. The three sites, Cam Pha (23 km north of Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh Hoa) and Cua Lo (near Vinh), are all within a distance of 300 km along the northern coast. Though they have other commercial interests, all three are vigorous fishing towns. 1 �Although epochal changes in technology can lead to radical changes in boat building and design (availability of steel saws leading to readily available planking for example, or the introduction of inexpensive diesel engines leading to broad transom sterns) my expectation is that a thorough knowledge of the surviving traditional construction techniques and vessel designs will provide significant insight into the origin and perhaps age of shipwrecks and on-shore remnants of older vessels. The common boat building techniques and the similarities of design characteristics of the boats built in the three towns described can be summarized as follows:  The planking is edge nailed from plank to plank  The primary fastenings are black iron, hand forged square spikes and commercial bolts and nuts.  The boats are built right way up on a single central plank, with one or both ends bent up to serve as stem and stern post.  If a separate stem timber is used, it is bolted directly to the central bottom plank, effectively replacing the bent up bottom plank's function.  The wood is bent when necessary by heating it over a slow fire and bending the plank with weights or levers or both.  Although all three boat designs are more or less descended from sailing ancestors, they are all pure motor boats today.  They are usually built to ground readily, with hoisting rudders and flat (but rockered) bottoms that keep their props mostly off the bottom.  The boats have long overhanging bows, and their lines are long and easy, with very few sharp bends in the planking.  Two of the three are, in effect “5-plank” boats with two chines each side. That is, they have the flat bottom “plank”, sloping bilge “planks” and near vertical side “planks”, though each “plank” will be made of a number of individual pieces. Cam Pha When I first became aware of the building site on the derelict beach below the town of Cam Pha in 2005, one old man with a crew of up to eight men and women was building 2 �two different sizes of the typical “Halong Bay Squarehead” utility vessel. These boats are traditional both in their overall style and in the manner of their construction. Their defining characteristic is their odd (but very useful) square foredeck. They are commonly built in lengths from 20' to about 40', the smallest having no cabin other than a small box or a deck over the engine and perhaps an arched canvas cover over the hold. The larger sizes have substantial houses built at deck level over their engine areas. 1 Fig. 1 Cam Pha Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston) The building process of the traditional “squarehead” boat (Figs. 1 and 2)  The central plank is tapered at the forward end then bent sharply upward at each end by heating over a slow fire while forcing one end of the plank down with weights. More recently, a separate stem timber is bolted to the forward end of the central plank and the aft end is bent up as before.  The central plank is set up, with props at bow and stern to support the ends and bolted down to deadmen set in the sand.  Planks are added to the boat in pairs, port and starboard, by edge nailing with 3 �hand forged square boat spikes about 5” long x 1/4” thick. The plank is first offered up and the inner edge marked to follow the previous plank. The builders use large wooden clamps, chains and prybars to hold the plank in position while it is marked and fastened.  The upper edge of the new plank is marked to utilize the available wood while achieving the hull curvature the builder has in mind and the plank is sawn to shape.  It is offered up a second time to check the sawn shape, and at that time the two adjacent plank edges are marked for spike locations at about one foot on center. The “new” plank will be chisel cut to produce a V-shaped tapered opening into the interior of the plank at each nail location, then the plank will be braced on edge and a nail “guide hole” drilled from the center of the plank into the chiseled entry.  The plank already on the vessel will also be drilled, from the marked nail location straight into the center of the plank.  With both the old and new planks drilled for spiking, the new plank is offered up one more time and pried into position with clamps and pry bars while it is nailed off.  If all goes well the spikes will be driven home using a punch to drive them into the chisel cut slots into the face of the plank. If there is trouble with the fit up, the spikes can be withdrawn with the same punch, catching under the hooked head of the spike, the correction made and the plank finally fastened off.  These boats are not 5-plank boats; they are a simple round bottomed shape. At the turn of the bilge nothing is done differently, except that the new plank is pried up to match the builder's idea of the correct angle. Usually, with one plank above the bottom in place, a floor timber will be added amidships, chopped to the angle with a balance-hatchet and spiked in place. A similar timber will be placed to form the lowest member of the future transom stern. 4 �Fig. 2 Cam Pha Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)  Thereafter, the sides are raised with at most a few additional floor timbers and a futtock or two to help hold the growing hull together. The wood used at Cam Pha is generally dreadful, full of knots and checks, and sawn relatively thin. The fit up of the plank seams is quite casual.The builders rely heavily on good caulkers to make their boats water tight.  At the top of the lower portion of the hull, a doubly thick but narrow plank or “wale” is placed full length each side. By this time the stem and transom are both well established and effectively locked into place by the planking and the wale.  A cross-timber is added at the top of the stem, extending out to the sides to mark the extent of the foredeck and provide a landing for the forward end of the sheer plank (which is twisted sharply through nearly 90 degrees to land flat on the cross timber) and the filler pieces that bridge the wide gap in the planking under the foredeck.  Aft, the wale continues on past the lower transom and defines the lower edge of the upper transom. This was originally a common feature on Chinese sailing vessels, on which the upper, outer transom provided some protection to the 5 �rudder (hanging on the lower transom) in following seas. Nowadays the rudder is often a typical steel plate motorboat's rudder, positioned deeper under the hull in the prop-wash.  Since the sheer plank tumbles home a bit aft and rolls out nearly 90 degrees forward to form the squarehead, it is always fitted in at least two pieces, scarfed about amidships.  With the planking finished (or nearly so) the balance of the framing is fitted into the hull, using all sorts of rough pieces of timber, sawn to gentle curves, beveled to fit with the balance hatchet and spiked into place with boat spikes. Here and there the hull, as originally planked, won't suit the builder's eye and he'll bore a hole through plank and frame for a bolt, which will be used as a clamp to force the planking into place against the frame.  Very different from Western practice, the floors and frames do not usually overlap much if at all, and may not even touch each other.  With the planking complete, in the older model, a false stem was fitted over the hood ends of the planks at the bow and shaped to a somewhat sharp entry. In the past two years the use of a completely separate stem has become the norm and that stem, bolted to the central bottom plank, is rabbeted in normal fashion as planks are brought to it.  At some point after the planking is complete to the sheer, the curvature of the plank ends, where they transition from the lower to the upper transom, will be marked by eye with white chalk and cut out with a mallet and chisel.  With the frames in place and trimmed to height, bulkheads are installed full depth (spiked to the frames and edge nailed plank to plank) at least one at the forward end of the engine area and another at the forward end of the fish hold. Often even fairly small boats are divided into five compartments (lazarette, engine room, fish hold, forward hold, and a space under the fore deck). Often the fish hold will be drilled through the planking to provide a free-flooding wet well for the catch. No doubt the hulls derive a great deal of their strength from the bulkheads, since the frames are not continuous anywhere.  Deck framing and hatch coamings are installed along with uprights extending 6 �from the floor timbers to the eventual height of the cabin top.  Decks are laid and cabin joinery completed.  With the hull construction complete, she's released from her anchorage to the earth and propped up first on one side, then the other for caulking. Since the planks were fitted roughly and tight edge to edge and no caulking seam was cut, it is done by the caulkers as they go along, opening up not only the seams between planks but also the checks and splits in the planking. Quantities of waste fiber are driven into the seams and splits, trimmed with a chisel, and troweled over with a gray mastic for sealant.  At that point the vessel is ready for power and outfitting for her work and is routinely put overboard on a high tide and towed away to have her engine fitted elsewhere. Fig. 3 Cua Lo Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston) Sam Son (Figs. 3 and 4) Although the boatyard in the river mouth north of town does significant new construction of various sorts, for this paper we will only consider the construction of large traditional vessels on the beach in front of town. They are built on a single very long bottom plank 7 �bent up at each end to form the stem and what amounts to the central plank of a narrow transom stern. They are fastened with hand forged square boat spikes and commercial steel carriage bolts. Since I have not seen the entire building sequence, some points can only be surmised, but in general:  The bottom (which comprises the “bottom plank” and the two “bilge planks”) is built complete in one piece lying on coconut palm trunks that are set to support the line of the bottom rocker, on sand bags a foot or so above the beach. The bottom planking is bolted through the floor timbers (which do not extend past its edge) but a number of edge nails are also used.  The entire side “slabs” are edge nailed together and cut to final profile flat on the beach. When I arrived to see one of these boats at this stage, the port side was complete and lying flat on the sand alongside the completed bottom, with its stern quarter region already bent into a sharp curve upward. The starboard side was not yet complete forward, additional planks were being offered up where the slab lay in the sand, but the stern quarter area was already in the midst of being bent up over a slow fire. This is the only example I have seen of bending the slab upward by levers rather than downward with weight, a concession to the size of the completed sides, which are massive, with planking nearly 2” thick and require a number of planks edge nailed and scarfed lengthwise.  Unlike at Cam Pha, these heavy planks are not repeatedly offered up and marked, cut, offered again, marked again, drilled, offered again and finally nailed. Rather they are offered only once on the sand, cut to shape with a circular saw, and edge nailed directly where they lie. The chisel cuts to provide an entry for the spike are the same as at Cam Pha but the hole is drilled from the chiseled opening into the two planks. Since the drill cannot bend to run cleanly into the center of the old plank as it effectively does at Cam Pha the drilled hole necessarily is aimed toward the far side of the plank. A small bend is placed in each spike before driving and most of them stay within the planking. Only now and then does one break out to the surface of the side. 8 �Fig. 4 Cua Lo Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)  With the sides nearly complete but lying flat on the sand on either side of the hull, a single temporary mold is erected and braced off amidships.  In the course of a long day, the sides are raised into position on the bottom, wrapped around the temporary mold and fastened off to the bottom and the raised stem and transom sections of the central plank. The process requires about 20 men to pick up the sides one at a time and temporarily hold them generally in place with rope, chain and chain falls. But the rest of the day's effort only involves eight to ten men, slowly urging the side slabs into contact first with the transom portion of the center plank, then bit by bit with prybars, chain falls, large wedges and brute strength, bringing the chine together full length. The chine fasteners are carriage bolts roughly 1/2” x 10”, driven into drilled holes through the side and into the edge grain of the bottom on approximately one foot centers.  Thereafter the futtocks (side frames) are cut and fitted, one pair per floor timber, but not necessarily in contact with the floor and not normally bolted to it. In some 9 �examples I've seen the futtocks are deliberately spaced between the floors. The futtocks are shaped like hockey sticks, sawn to shape, so that the short end of the hockey stick projects out onto the hull bottom and becomes a primary connection and strength member at the chine. They extend well above the original side slabs to support additional structure.  Above the sides that were erected in one piece, a thicker plank or wale is wrapped around the frames. Bulwarks are raised a further foot to 18” and given a rail cap, which is often armored with a smoothly welded stainless steel cover to help prevent hangups of the fine web used in their nets.  Aft, three or four beams are let into the top plank of the original sides and are used to extend the deck substantially to each side, with the bulwarks boxing in a comfortable aft work deck. This gives the boat a peculiar appearance aft, with a large boxy aft deck area above the shapely quarters.  The rudder lowers through a trunk extending from the aft deck through the bottom, and the whole aft compartment is left free flooding and not even caulked. A tight bulkhead between the rudder compartment and the rest of the vessel may be the only tight bulkhead. Other bulkheads may be added, but in many cases the hull is effectively open from end to end.  A centerline hatch runs full length of the fore deck, covered with loose hatch covers that apparently are never dogged down.  The “pilot house”, if any, is low, providing only sitting headroom, and may be nonexistent, the engine house covering the engine but not offering crew quarters.  As recently as the 1990's these boats were rigged with three masts and three lug sails and provided with a Chinese style daggerboard working vertically in a trunk, but none of them carry a rig today and there is no sign of the daggerboard. Cua Lo (Figs. 5 and 6) The small fishing boat harbor in the creek at Cua Lo is remarkable in that all the resident boats are the same model, ranging in size from about 25' to about 50' overall length. Before my visit in late 2012 I had not seen any of these boats under construction, only hauled for maintenance. In late 2012 there were two new boats 10 �about 35 feet long standing partially framed and planked in the yard on the south bank nearest the mouth of the creek. Fig. 5 Sam Son Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston) At that time one was clearly a week or two further along than the other, which immediately gave some indication of the sequence of building. I was able to examine them in detail at that time and again about one month later. More recently, in late 2013 the same small yard had three boats under construction spaced a couple of weeks apart, from a bare bottom going together to a nearly planked up vessel. Between these three visits we have essentially complete documentation of the building sequence.  The boats are built on a central plank which is bent up aft to form the run, leading to what will be a broad, but narrow (top to bottom) planked transom in the finished boat.  A separate stem timber is bolted to the bottom plank and rabbeted for the planking. The first three or four floor timbers swallow the stem.  The floor timbers are cut to the profile of the bottom and the planks are bolted to them, rather than being edge nailed without benefit of frames. Fastenings in 11 �general are bolts, not spikes. The boats give the impression of being round bilged from outside, but they are actually multi-chined, with hard chines as well as an arced bottom. The planking is very thick and probably planed to relieve the sharp corners outboard. The planks are definitely planed to remove scars from flame bending.  Sawn elbows are bolted to the floors, and the futtocks in turn are bolted to the elbows, forming a typical western-style complete frame. However, only a few frames are completed before the planking is advanced further. The hard chines are formed by sawing the angles into the floors and futtocks, not by making each futtock straight and splicing the frame with gussets.  Rather than advancing the planking piece by piece, when the turn of the bilge is reached a separate plank is placed above the next chine angle to stabilize the frames and apparently also to provide a guide for building subsequent frames. Great care is taken with fitting each plank and the plank seams are routinely nearly perfect.  The boats have a great deal of rocker and the stern is built broad and flat, which forms a very easy long run. Individual planks at the stern are allowed to run wild for most of the construction.  The slot and framing for the rudder trunk are placed early in the bottom construction. Since the harbor partially dries at low tide all the boats have hoisting wooden “barn door” rudders.  Perhaps unique to this design, two futtocks on each side up forward are made of massive timbers, and project well above deck and bulwarks. They will support a cross timber which will support the long booms which the local fleet uses to push a net ahead of the boat.  To provide more working deck aft, the next to last topside plank is rolled out from plumb to nearly horizontal and extends the beam a few inches each side, thus producing a small reverse knuckle in the topsides aft. Alternatively, two or three cross beams may be let into the sides and the aft deck planked over them to provide yet a wider work area aft.  The final topsides plank lands on top of the timber that all the previous bottom 12 �and side planks had been bolted to and becomes the bulwarks of the cockpit and the working deck forward, but also the lower sides of the engine house or cabin midships. Fig. 6 Sam Son Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston) Summary The primary techniques of the northern Vietnamese boat builders, flame bending, edge nailing, building the bottom on a single central plank and raising the sides on the bottom (whether in one piece, or plank by plank) are consistent along the northern coast of Vietnam but those techniques allow for construction of a wide range of boat types. Thus, even if the style of boat changes (e.g. from sail to power) the building techniques will still provide a “signature” which may be useful in identifying their origin. Biography Ken Preston was born in 1946, took a degree in Geology, and served in the US Army in Vietnam. He went commercial fishing off the US West Coast until he went broke, then pursued a career in marine construction (harbor works, bridges, docks, dredging, breakwaters and so forth). Ken held a license as a tug boat operator for a period of years, but only worked on boats locally on construction projects. Since 2005 he has spent six weeks to two months each year traveling in Indochina, documenting the remaining traditional (primarily wooden) fishing and freight boats of the region. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The continuation of traditional boatbuilding in Cam Pha, Sam Son and Cua Lo, Vietnam Description An account of the resource This paper will describe recent and current construction activity on three separate building sites, one each in Cam Pha (near Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh Hoa), and Cua Lo (near Vinh). The three sites produce boats generally in the Northern Vietnamese/Chinese tradition, but with significant differences in both design and construction details and techniques. The designs that will be discussed are all traditional style motor vessels, that is, vessels whose design and style were developed prior to the availability of powerful diesel engines but are now motorized. They include: *The Halong Bay “Square Head” boat, a mid-sized utility and fishing vessel that is the dominant wooden boat in Halong Bay in the size range from 18' to about 35'. *The Sam Son large traditional fishing vessel, A 60' class seagoing shallow draft vessel derived directly from a 3-masted lug rigged sailing vessel with a long history in the Northern Coastal waters. *The Cua Lo mid-sized utility fishing boat (works in a number of fisheries), which is the only significant design in use from the small fishing port on the south bank of the river at Cua Lo Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Preston, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7512c47f527a62b96d97b981d0d0f61b.pdf a915684fbd11f437885dc4f3e0947a99 PDF Text Text USAT Liberty Shipwreck Site in Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali is Under Threats Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan, Semeidi Husrin, and Gunardi Kusumah Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerabilities Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia Jl. Raya Padang – Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245 Email: niahasanah79@gmail.com Abstract USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province is the most popular shipwreck diving attraction in Indonesia. The shipwreck is well-known throughout the world and brings in many domestic and foreign tourists since the 1980s. This underwater cultural heritage has a historical-archaeological value; it is a US cargo ship that sank during World War II and now the shipwreck functions as an artificial reef and is home to various marine life. This makes the wreck a very important coastal resource of this region and has a significant impact in the local people’s life. The condition of the site is currently considered to be vulnerable due to a variety of damage caused by natural and human factors. Threats due to high water dynamics such as currents and waves that could cause erosion, scouring, sliding, and other changes in the physical environment make this shipwreck site highly vulnerable to a variety of mechanical and physical damage as well as chemical weathering and corrosion. The large number of tourist who dive on this site also threatens the site. The marine archaeological research of 2013 conducted by Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is aimed at study the deterioration of the wreck, to collect hydrodynamics, sedimentation, and water quality data for providing an overview of recent conditions of this underwater site, the ocean dynamics of Tulamben waters, along with the damages suffered by USAT Liberty wreck which threatens its sustainability as an underwater cultural heritage and diving attraction. Identify the different types of potential vulnerabilities would become the basis of policy making for its preservation efforts in the future. Keywords: USAT Liberty shipwreck site, Natural and Human Threats, Vulnerability, Dive attraction, Bali Introduction There are a lot of publications on USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Kubu District, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province that highlights the importance of the site; it is the best known shipwreck diving destinations throughout Indonesia and one of the best in the world. We could find hundreds of thousands posts 1 �mentioning the site on the internet (Fig. 1). The research found also many publications discussing the locals attempt to protect the site traditional by imposing laws, their Awig-awig, local which includes fishing prohibitions nearby shipwreck location and prohibitions of destroying the ship's structure and coral reefs. The rules seemed indeed to be obeyed and nobody dares to intentionally violate this laws. Such matters have been discussed very Fig. 1 USAT Liberty in 1918 and 1941 and Its Wreck Site Location. (US Army Signal Corps Photo SC 131484, comprehensive in the writings US National Archives & Research Institute for Coastal Kamaludin (2002), Supriyatun (2007), Resources and Vulnerability) Noerwidi (2007), and Ridwan (2011) and it has also been confirmed by the elders of Tulamben Village through interviews with Mr. Nyoman Karyasa (Kelian Adat Tulamben)i and Mr. Degeng (Kelian Banjar Dinas Tulamben)ii. However, until now there are no attempts from governments to discuss the vulnerability of USAT Liberty to withstand the effects of the natural environment and human factors. These risks are not covered by studies conducted by relevant institutions and authorities on the site. Thus far, undertaken studies are only focused on the stage of mapping and documenting, as the work carried out by Bali Office for Preservation of Cultural Heritage in 2011 (Tenaya, 2011). Therefore, this paper will discuss the vulnerability of USAT Liberty based on the identification of numerous factors threatening the shipwreck and its ecosystem, both environmental and human. This paper will also discuss what measures need to be considered to prevent further damage that could lead to the destruction and loss of the USAT Liberty. This extremely important issue requires to be addressed because the existence of USAT Liberty and its diving industry are the only basis of the villagers' life. USAT Liberty History According to Radigan (1996), USAT Liberty is American freighter ex AK-35, and ex Liberty (ID 3461), built in 1918 by Federal Shipbuilding Co., Hackensack, NJ with 2 �125.43 x 17 x 8.08 m in dimension, 4,809 tonnage, and equipped with one piece 2500ihp power steam engine. She was launched on 19 June 1918, and the local newspapers at that time mentioned that she was the largest steel freighter ever made. In October 1918, this ship was used by US Navy and was named the USS Liberty (ID 3461). In 1939, it was used by US Army who renamed her as Liberty US Army Transport (USAT Liberty). In May 1941, US Army and US Navy approved the decision that US Navy would return to take over the ship, but then US Navy did not get the personnel to be placed on her so that the ship eventually remains Army’s property. In her journey from Australia to the Philippines carrying railroads, rubber, and logistics for the Allied Forcesiii, USAT Liberty torpedoed by Japanese Submarine I-166 in January 1942 off Lombok Straits. US Destroyer, Paul Jones, and Dutch Destroyer, Van Ghent, attempted to drag her to Singaraja Port but she was already damaged and could not go very far and stranded at last on Tulamben shores (http://pacificwrecks.com; wikipedia). The ship then sank deeper and deeper into the depths and currently resides in a sandy slope at 3 - 30 m depth about 40 m from shoreline. USAT Liberty Shipwreck Dive Attraction Shipwrecks in Indonesian waters are one of the main potential marine resources that could be utilized for marine tourism (Ardiwidjaja, 2007). Under Indonesian regional autonomy law, shipwreck sites could become region’s assets as marine tourism destination, as well as for the establishment of maritime museums. USAT Liberty is the most famous shipwreck dive site in Bali and has been included in the top 12 world shipwreck sites to be dived as noted by scuba diving website. Tourists regard this site as "a giant aquarium" due to the present of ± 400 marine life species which live around the site. There are also ± 100 species of high seas fish which visit the site regularly. Divers can find groups of bumphead parrotfish, barracuda, grouper, pigmy seahorse, nudibranchs, morray eel, jackfish, napoleon, fusiliers, surgeon fish, trevally, bream, anthias mill, batfish, large sweet lips fish, angelfish, butterfly fish, anemone fish, lionfish, scorpionfish, hawkfish, pufferfish, coral trout, the gobies, blennies, shrimps, dottyback, and others. Hard corals and soft corals i.e, giant barrel sponges, giant sea fans, tubastrea, gorgonians can also be found easily at this location. Scuba-mania claimed Tulamben as one of the most beautiful dive sites in Indonesia besides Komodo Island, 3 �Bunaken, Wakatobi, Raja Ampat, Lembeh Strait, Karimun Jawa, Bangka, Banda Sea, and Alor (Pickel, 2010; http://gekodivebali.com; http://scuba-mania.com/). In addition, it is the easiest location to enjoy recreational diving and to enjoy underwater scenery around the shipwreck. All skill levels divers could dive due to its unique positions in the seabed that ranging from shallow water until 30 m. USAT Liberty has brought immense Tulamben benefits people's to lives since 1980s and is closely related to people's livelihoods. It is important not Fig. 2 Characteristics of Tides and Currents in Tulamben Waters. (Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability) only for villagers the but Tulamben also communities in Bali Province because all diving operators in Bali offer diving trips to USAT Liberty to the tourists. Nowadays, there are about 150-200/day tourists diving on the site and communities’ income obtained from fees and services is about 500-1,000 USD/day. Meanwhile, the Tourism and Cultural Agency of Karang Asem noted that its regional revenue from tourism sector in 2012 was 1,200,000 USD and there were 416.363 foreigners came to the region to dive. This number is increasing continuously every year (http://karangasemkab.bps.go.id; Ridwan, 2011). Marine Archaeological Research In 2013, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability conducted research at USAT Liberty shipwreck site in order to determine its significance and current condition as well as to carry out a visual observation of the deterioration and the extent of the damage. The research also aims to find out the physical environmental conditions and its changes as well as to identify the various factors threatening the site. This research result could become a basic reference for further conservation effort and a basis for the establishment of Maritime Conservation Area in accordance with the 4 �Marine and Fisheries Ministerial Decree No. 17/2008 and the Underwater Cultural Heritage Site (UCH) determination in accordance with Law No. 11/2010 on Cultural Heritage. The field survey was conducted in June-July, August, and September 2013. Interviews with local communities, agencies, and relevant stakeholders to obtain data and information on the weather and climate conditions; shipwreck's history, and tourism industry development, had also been conducted. The team performed marine geology, ocean hydrodynamic, and water quality measurements to obtain sedimentation, water quality, and hydro-oceanographic data such as tidal, currents, and wave. Installing Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) equipment at 22 m depth with bottommounted system at USAT Liberty site location is a method to collect hydrodynamics data. Those data above are needed to determine water dynamics surrounding site location and to analyze the environment’s influence on shipwreck sustainability. Threats and Site conditions Natural Factor Nicholas Flemming (2011) said that globally, underwater archaeological sites are vulnerable to variety of damages caused by nature or human. A number of sites are devastated due to waves and erosion processes. Threats to shipwreck sites can be related to the changes in environmental factors due to the ocean dynamics in the region. The currents and winds could spur high waves and cause sedimentation, erosion, shifting, and sliding, thus making shipwreck sites susceptible to variety of physical-mechanical damages, as well as chemical damage i.e corrosion matters. USAT Liberty site is located in an area strongly affected by a very dynamic oceanographic conditions where the currents from Pacific and Indian Ocean meet. Tidal data measured by ADCP has 26.9 days duration commencing on August 29, 2013 until September 25, 2013 with a 10 minute data interval. Furthermore, the data were analyzed by using the T_TIDE processing program (Pawlowicz, 2002). Figure 2 shows the results of data analysis in which the tidal analysis results (predictions) appears closer to the actual data rate of up to 96.5% representation. Dominant tidal constituents are O1, K1, M2, S2, SK3, M4, S4, 2MS6 and M8. Based on the number formzahl (Fz = 0822), the nature of the tides in Tulamben waters is a mixture tidal tends to double 5 �(Mixed predominantly semi-diurnal). ADCP current measurements enables us to see the profile of water mass flow column. Figure 2 shows the flow characteristics of Tulamben waters in the form of scatter plots at 4 different depths from the bottom waters, each 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, and 20 m. From scattter plot, it is clear that the current in Tulamben waters are generally dominant moving from East to West direction. Based on the wind data, other factors that lead to differences in the surface characteristics of the scatter plots clearly caused by currents driven by waves and a longshore. Profile of current flow also show the current tendency to move westward and northward, so that the resultant predominantly direction to is the Northwest. The current results measurements show the maximum current to the North reaches v=1 m/s, while to the West the maximum flow reaches u=0:58 m/s. Volcanic sandy seabed around the wreck and the presence of strong currents at certain times Fig. 3 Extreme Weather Condition in Tulamben Coast on can cause scouring in the Juli 2013. (Nia Ridwan) shipwreck area. The hull section located in shallow waters can be affected by all kinds of weather conditions and there is also a large swell which can destabilize the fragile sections of the ship. The part of USAT Liberty shipwreck at the top is starting from a depth of 3-10 m so they could be affected significantly by the power of waves, currents, and winds at the surface. The weather conditions that are occasionally extreme lately in Tulamben waters most likely caused by climate change phenomenon. In extreme weather condition, wind will drive high waves and strong currents on the surface of Tulamben waters and could put strong pressure and make the ship parts in the shallow areas suffered the damage, became fragile, unsteady, and finally collapsed and fall down to the bottom, or befall the another ship part below it. So that successive events happened will cause even more damage 6 �(Fig. 3). High waves on July 2013 hit Tulamben beach for 3 days and reached 3-4 m in height, and even had destroyed some hotels located right in front of shipwreck location. A few days after storms, we found there are 4 parts of USAT Liberty ship that are collapsed and dislodged from her superstructure: 1 point at the stern area, 1 point at the middle section, and 2 points at bow area. In fact, previously the collapsed parts of the hull have also experienced significant corrosion, so we strongly assumed that the high corrosion rate in these parts has weaken them, added by high waves effect so eventually those parts were no longer capable attached in her superstructure, then detached and fallen down (Fig. 4). In 1998, El Nino caused severe bleaching in the coral reefs of the shipwreck site (Pickell, 2010) and from our observation, nowadays coral reefs attached to the hull are also experiencing stress. Tulamben dive guides stated that at this time many species of fish are disappeared from the site. The strong currents and waves in Tulamben waters also led to high erosion processes. Based on our observation, a process that deposited the USAT Liberty in its current location due to strong coastal erosion that occurs continuosly. While the USAT Liberty initially shipwrecked on the beach, it has been moving to greater depths because the sandy bottom upon which it rests has been eroded by currents, tides, and waves. Athough all existing publications indicate that the tremor from the 1963 Mount Agung eruption was a major contributor to the shipwreck´s current location, our research shows that the erosion is probably the main process responsible to USAT Liberty's current location. Mount Agung tremor may also have affected her movement, but erosion is the most predominantly ocean and coastal dynamic process in that area. The elders of Tulamben Village mentioned that the difference between the distance of the current Tulamben beach and the previous shore line is about 100 m, thus, it can be said that there have been a shoreline change. The Regional Spatial Layout Plan 2012-2032 of Karang Asem Regency on Distribution of Protected Areas nowadays states that Tulamben is one of the coastal areas which is highly vulnerable to coastal erosion. Tulamben beach is covered by black volcanic stones from Mount Agung's eruptions prior to 1963. We presume those stones used to be covered by sand, and then the sand was progressively run out and eroded by waves and currents. Eventually later, the 7 �expanse of volcanic stones previously existed in the layer below the sand are appearediv. Since the erosion process has progressiveley "dropped" the USAT Liberty into the ocean and taking into account its position on a 60%-90% slope, it is highly likely that the USAT Liberty will move deeper into the ocean at depths that are no longer safely accessible by divers (Fig. 5). Human Factor The concept of in-situ preservation in protecting and managing UCH raises the idea of making an underwater museum in the site (Delgado, 2011) and a wreck dive attraction. In fact, the easy access to the shipwreck site for tourists and divers represent a potential threat even though it is an opportunity for archaeologist to present UCH to society. The marine tourism has improved the communities’ welfare; however, the impact of yacht marina construction, coastal buildings, hotels, water sports resorts, touristic scuba diving, and the collection and souvenir sales have also impacted negatively in the preservation of the site (Fleming, 2011). The damage to the shipwreck caused by humans is not as dramatic as the damage caused by nature; however, this damage is cumulative and significant (Viduka, 2006, 62). The excessive use of USAT Liberty shipwreck in Bali is indicated by the large number of divers and their impact on ship preservation and its environment have not been examined by local governments. They do not Fig. 4 The Heavy Corrosion Ship Hull at Bow Section which are Collapsed right after High Wave Event on July 2013. (Nia realize that the large number Ridwan) of divers who perform underwater activities have incurred in a tremendous pressure on USAT Liberty and its ecosystem. Increasing number of divers in USAT Liberty does give a significant 8 �advantage to the development of that area, although on the other hand it could cause environmental damage problems to the sea floor and the shipwreck itself. The concern about its further degradation is actually emerging from the communities and local dive guide lately. They dive with the guests almost every day and they notice that there has been extensive damage to the USAT Liberty and its ecosystem. They also informed that at present time many fish species no longer appear on the site and many coral reefs are damaged and destroyed by the divers' negligence and carelessness (Pickell, 2010). The tourists at USAT Liberty site are not intentionally damaging the site and breaking awig-awig, but it is certain that many divers unintentionally destroy the site. The ability of each tourist diving in USAT Liberty is not homogeneous. Many tourists do not have diving qualifications and they use the site to get their diving certification. Uncontrolled flapping fins, arbitrarily penetration into the hull, hands touching and holding the ship's parts directly could cause damage Fig. 5 The Hypothesis of Tulamben Beach Erosion History that Showing the Chronology of the Fall of USAT Liberty into Her Current Position. (Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability) to USAT Liberty. Moreover, the habit of most divers to feed the fish is also against the rules of fisheries conservation. The large number of divers visiting the site may also lead to exposure of the sandy sea floor in USAT Liberty site. The divers’ fin kicking could agitate the seabed and kill unique animals and destroy some sensitive coral reefsv. Besides physical-mechanical damage, the concentration of oxygen from air released by divers may transform into air pockets trapped in the ship's hull. This will accelerate the oxidation process which will increase the corrosion level and will accelerate the chemical destruction process, and corrosion is one of the most threatening chemical damage to iron objects (Fig. 6.) 9 �Conclusion Nowadays, extreme weather conditions often hit Tulamben area and the estimated effect is fairly severe on shipwrecks and its marine life. Erosion is the most dominant environmental changes in Tulamben which can substantially influence the preservation Liberty. currents, of The the USAT movement tides, high of waves, especially in extreme weather conditions damage causes and physical accelerates the Fig. 6 A Large Number of Divers in USAT Liberty Site. mechanical fragility of shipwreck (Nia Ridwan) that has been previously corroded. Meanwhile, the sedimentation rate is relatively small and does not significantly affect USAT Liberty. Today, awig-awig protection is not sufficient and needs to be strengthened by other preservation efforts, i.e. limiting the number of divers on the USAT Liberty. This may not be easy to apply and there will be disagreeing parties who think it will reduce the community's income. Another solution could be to make the site an exclusive dive sites like SS Yongala in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia which has a limit of 7,000 tourists per year. We can monitor and limit the number of divers and still get a high income for the community by raising the entrance fee. In order to implement these policies, mapping this tourist destination according to its type becomes very important. Tulamben needs to be reviewed whether it is a mass-tourism, limited tourism, or eco-tourism area. Placing fish apartments and sinking another ship nearby can also be performed to build a new artificial reef and to provide an alternative dive site. The use of in-situ preservation methods such as corrosion prevention by cathodic-anodic protection using 10 �sacrificial anode can also be done. Another site stabilization to anticipate problems caused by natural hazards can also be enforced. Depth study, long-term measurements and model analysis need to be done to get the complete of data. Measurement and monitoring the hull's progressinve shift can be performed by regularly benchmarking and photo recording of the site after extreme weather conditions events. Making physical models, and numerical modeling are needed to prove the erosion evolution hypothesis that occurs over a fairly long period in Tulamben beach. References Ardiwidjaya, R., 2007. Pemanfaatan Benda Arkeologi Bawah Air (Shipwreck): Satu Peluang Peningkatan Daya Tarik Wisata Selam. Diskusi Ilmiah Sumberdaya Arkeologi Laut, Jakarta. Delgado, J., 2011. The Impact on and Opportunities arising from Tourism to Submerged Sites. UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on Factors Impacting the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 13th-14th December 2011, Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels. Flemming, N., 2011. UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on Factors Impacting the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 13th-14th December 2011, Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels. Kamaluddin, L., 2002. Pariwisata Bahari dan Konservasi. Pembangunan Ekonomi Maritim di Indonesia, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Noerwidi, S., 2007. Pemberdayaan Masyarakat pada Pelestarian Situs Bangkai Kapal USS Liberty, Tulamben Bali, http://arkeologika.wordpress.com/2007/10/31, retrieval April 5, 2013. Pickell, D., and Wally S., 2010. Diving Bali: The Underwater Jewel of Southeast Asia. Periplus, Singapore. Radigan, J. R., 1996. USAT Liberty ex-AK-3, ex-Liberty (ID 3461), http://navsource.org, retrieval March 19, 2013. Ridwan, N. N. Hasanah., 2011. The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi. In Proceeding on the Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila. Pawlowicz, R., Beardsley, B., and Lentz, S., 2002. Classical Tidal Harmonic Analysis including Error Estimates in MATLAB using T_TIDE. Journal Computers and Geosciences, Vol. 28. Supriyatun, R., 2007. Potensi Obyek Wisata Warisan Budaya Bawah Air di Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem. Varuna, Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, Vol. (1/2007): 00-00. 11 �Tenaya, I. W., Gde Yadnya, dkk., 2011. Laporan Pemetaan dan Penggambaran Situs/Kapal Karam U.S.A.T Liberty, Tulamben Karang Asem. Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Bali, Gianyar. Viduka, A., 2006. Managing Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites: The Yongala as a Case Study. In Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk. http://gekodivebali.com, retrieval July, 2013. http://karangasemkab.bps.go.id, retrieval May 10, 2013. http://scuba-mania.com/tag/indonesia/17, retrieval November 17, 2012. http://pacificwrecks.com/ships/usn/USATliberty, retrieval April 2, 2013. http://wikipedia_USAT Liberty, retrieval October, 11, 2011. Biography Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan is Maritime Archaeology Research Scientist graduated from Department of Archaeology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. Since 2005, she has been working in Ministry of Marine Affairs & Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia in Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability. In 2011, Nia appointed as Head of Research Cooperation & Technical Services Division until present. She has researched several underwater sites throughout Indonesian waters. Her current research focuses to identify the factors threatening shipwreck sites and to examine ways to mitigate it. Nia had attended UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater Cultural Heritage (2010) and In Situ Preservation Course (2011) in Thailand; 3 SEAMEO SPAFA-ICCROM trainings: in Thailand (2010), Singapore (2011), Philippine (2011); The Netherlands Cultural Heritage Agency Course on Managing Climate Risks towards a Sustainable Conservation of Mutual Cultural Heritage in Brazil (2011); and ICCROM Forum on Science in Conservation (Italy 2013). Endnotes i Kelian Adat is community leader who deal with social issues such as funeral rites, marriage ceremonies, rituals and traditional customs regulations. ii Kelian Banjar Dinas is a hamlet head who is in charge in taking care of administrative matters, i.e. making residents identity card, family card, and then passing them to the village office, district office or civil registry office. iii Tulamben residents said that USAT Liberty also carried large quantities of black pepper and eucalyptus oil. iv This is confirmed by the village elders were say that they have no idea where those stones suddenly appeared. Even mentioned that these stones arise because of the "miracle of God". However, this can be explained scientifically associated with coastal erosion processes were fairly dramatic. v In the 90s, a French photographer, who despite professional but was reckless, dived on USAT Liberty and dropped his fairly heavy camera. It hit a poisonous coral reefs attached to ship's hull. Besides destroying the hull and the reef, he and the other divers nearby also experienced severe poisoning (Pickell, 2010). 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource USAT Liberty Shipwreck Site in Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali is Under Threats Description An account of the resource USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province is the most popular shipwreck diving attraction in Indonesia. The shipwreck is well-known throughout the world and brings in many domestic and foreign tourists since the 1980s. This underwater cultural heritage has a historical-archaeological value; it is a US cargo ship that sank during World War II and now the shipwreck functions as an artificial reef and is home to various marine life. This makes the wreck a very important coastal resource of this region and has a significant impact in the local people’s life. The condition of the site is currently considered to be vulnerable due to a variety of damage caused by natural and human factors. Threats due to high water dynamics such as currents and waves that could cause erosion, scouring, sliding, and other changes in the physical environment make this shipwreck site highly vulnerable to a variety of mechanical and physical damage as well as chemical weathering and corrosion. The large number of tourist who dive on this site also threatens the site. The marine archaeological research of 2013 conducted by Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is aimed at study the deterioration of the wreck, to collect hydrodynamics, sedimentation, and water quality data for providing an overview of recent conditions of this underwater site, the ocean dynamics of Tulamben waters, along with the damages suffered by USAT Liberty wreck which threatens its sustainability as an underwater cultural heritage and diving attraction. Identify the different types of potential vulnerabilities would become the basis of policy making for its preservation efforts in the future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Semeidi Husrin Gunardi Kusumah, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5a1d178ee063643692aeb3f7a48d0ba9.pdf 5caa9671e99f98b4dbcc98e38dfb0c2f PDF Text Text The sea stories and stone sails of Borobudur Douglas Inglis Texas A & M University PO Box 114, Waimanalo, HI, 96795 US E-mail: divingarchaeology@gmail.com Abstract The most profound examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found on the walls of the 9th century Borobudur monument in central Java. As the contemporary assemblage of nautical iconography from Southeast Asia is limited, the ship reliefs play an important role in debates over trade and expansion in India, Indonesia and mainland Southeast Asia. The Borobudur ships are technical depictions, and contain data about rigging, rope use, rowing configurations and outrigger construction. Elements in their design have persisted independently as Indonesian watercraft evolved, including outriggers, bipod masts, canted rectangular sails, and quarter rudders. Discussion has focused on construction features, and scholars have made various assertions about how the vessels might have been built, how they were used, and their origin. The vessels' artistic context is often ignored. The ship reliefs are part of a religious narrative which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should ultimately interpret them. The stories provide important clues as to where each vessel was headed, who was aboard, and what is happening on deck. Despite their detail, the Borobudur vessels should be interpreted cautiously, and not as ancient blueprints. They are artistic renditions that were never meant to float they were meant to inspire. Key words: Borobudur, bas-reliefs, Sailendra, Indonesia, Java, nautical archaeology Introduction The most informative examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found on the ninth century CE Borobudur monument in central Java (Fig. 1). Borobudur is a massive terraced pyramid, decorated with thousands of bas-reliefs that tell stories from the lives of the Buddha, Bodhisattvas and other saintly figures. Javanese artisans depicted 11 boats within the 1,460 elaborately carved stone panels (Fig. 2). Due to the quality of their technical detail, the artistic, religious, and narrative context of the Borobudur vessels is often ignored. This is problematic, because the vessels are 1 �components of Buddhist narratives which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should interpret them. Moreover, examining the Borobudur vessels in the context of their associated seafaring stories provides unique insights into the Javanese perception of sailing, the ocean, and its dangers. Borobudur Members of Java’s Śailendra Dynasty erected Borobudur sometime between 780 and 832 CE (Miksic, 2010:29). Viewed from above, Borobudur’s nine terraced levels resemble a series of nested concentric squares and circles. Fig. 1: Eastern Indonesia, showing the location of Borobudur Thislayout is similar to that of a mandala, a sacred diagram that represents the structure of the universe (Miksic, 2010:37). The unique design of the monument has generated more than a century of debate, yet its ultimate nature remains a mystery. Borobudur seems to have been a place of pilgrimage and instruction. Over the centuries, diverse groups of monks and devotees deposited thousands of votive stupas and clay tablets at the monument (Ray, 2005:318). The visitors continued their pilgrimage as they slowly circled the monument, ascending level by level. The panels on the lower levels depict the core of Buddhist teaching: the Mahakarmavibhanga (laws of karma), the Jātakas (stories of the Buddha's past incarnations), the Lalitavistara (stories from the Buddha's final incarnation), and the Avadānas (stories of other enlightened beings) (Soekmono, 1976:20-36). It is probable that once these basic lessons were mastered, monks might have permitted select pilgrims to ascend to the upper levels containing the more challenging and esoteric teachings of the Gandavyuha and Bhadracari (Miksic, 2010:71). Surrounded by reliefs of holy figures, miracles and magical stories, the visitor was within a scared, mystical world (Miksic, 2010:46). 2 �The Ship Reliefs and Their Artistic Context Eleven ships Borobudur’s are depicted reliefs. They in are remarkably technical depictions, with data about rigging elements, rope use, rowing configurations, and Fig. 2: Vessel I.b.86, Minister Hiru’s ship (from Van Erp, 1923) outrigger construction. Numerous scholars have used the reliefs to expand our understanding of ancient sailing vessels including Van Erp (1923), Hornell (1946), Mookerji (1957), Needham et al. (1978), Horridge (1982), Manguin (1993), Ray (1994), Jahan (2006), and numerous others. Debate has focused on five outrigger vessels with canted rectangular sails, bipod masts, and rowing galleries; they are most akin to kora kora of the 16th and 17th century (Horridge, 1978:9). Due to their exquisite detail, the Borobudur vessels are often treated as ancient blueprints, while their artistic context is ignored. This is problematic, because the vessels are components of religious narratives which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should interpret them. The vessel depicted in panel I.b.86 has inspired several reconstructions. These sailing hypotheses combined information from the reliefs with evidence available from artwork, ethnography, archaeology, and indigenous seafaring traditions. These reconstructions include Sarimanok, commissioned by Robert Hobman and sailed from Java to Madagascar in 1985 (Dennison, 1985), Philip Beale’s full-sized replica, which was launched in 2003 and sailed from Jakarta to Ghana (Beale, 2005), and the Spirit of Majapahit, launched from Jakarta in 2010 on a goodwill voyage to Brunei, the Philippines, Japan, China, Vietnam, Thailand, and Singapore (Antara, 2010, July 5). Erik Peterson used I.b.86 as a set of blueprints to draft a detailed reconstruction (Fig. 3). Petersen (2003:42) hypothesized that the artist "started by making a precise picture of the ship as seen from the side.” To accommodate for some of the obviously skewed 3 �elements, Peterson suggested that the artist changed perspective to illustrate the rowing galleries and outriggers “as seen from above and from in front." Peterson executed this blueprint experiment well, but there are several problems with the 1 Fig. 3: Erik Peterson’s elegant reconstruction of I.b.86 (from Peterson 2003). underlying assumptions. carvings The are not schematic side profiles with elements added in contrary views. The artist who created I.b.86 was a master stone-carver (Van Erp, 1923:19). They chose to depict I.b.86 sailing toward the viewer at an angle, an incredibly difficult illusion to attempt in bas-relief. To show this perspective, the artist exaggerated the stagger of the bipod mast legs and depicted the forward face of the outrigger booms, none of which would be visible in schematic view. The ship tapers dramatically from stem to stern to further reinforce this perspective. The point where the bow enters the water (marked by a furled wave) is close to the lower part of the frame while the break of the stern is positioned much higher. When combined with the tapered form, this slanted waterline gives the impression of an oblique view. The artist tried to simulate this viewpoint in panel I.b.53 as well. The strake lines sweep up to the stem, and down the other side, giving us a head on view of where they meet at the bow. More importantly, I.b.86 is not sitting upright in the water. The artist went to great efforts to show the ship under full sail. The canvas billows in the wind. The rigging is taut. The artist also exaggerated the forward rake of both stem and stern to show that the vessel is heeling over on its side and responding to the force of the wind (this was not corrected in Peterson’s model, which has retained the extreme forward rake of the stem and sternpost).1The artist was attempting to show a dramatic three-dimensional view. 4 �Peterson (2003:42) hypothesized that while the individuals aboard the vessels were exaggerated, "the relative size of all the ship parts seemed to be accurately represented.” In his reconstruction of I.b.86, Peterson insightfully suggested that each of the modules in the rowing gallery accommodated one individual, and derived a waterline length of 16.4m (23.4 m overall) by estimating that the distance between each of the "modules" in the rowing gallery was 1 m (Petersen, 2003: 52). However, size is seldom realistic in ancient iconography. Manguin (1993:263) correctly observes that "with very few exceptions, iconographic representations of sailing vessels teach us little of the structure and size of the craft depicted… …What one learns from these depictions concerns the superstructure: how many masts and sails were used and what their shape was, the position and number of rudders, and whether or not outriggers were present." Fig. 4: Multiple panel layouts. I.b.53 has three subdivision, while I.b.86 is divided in two (based on images from www.photodharma.net, Anandajoti, 2013). 5 �Panel proportions and division are the primary factors determining the size, shape, and complexity of the Borobudur vessels. The long panels of the first gallery are commonly divided in half or in thirds (Fig. 4). These sub-divisions show related scenes, a progression of events, or serve to clarify the characters and activities depicted. The watercraft in half-panel format (I.b.86, I.b.88 and I.b.88) have much more detail than those compressed into third-panel format (I.a.115, I.b.23, I.b.53, I.b.82) or those on the Balustrades (I.B.a.54 and I.B.a.193).We can see the effects of compression when we compare three of the outrigger-type ships, I.b.53, I.b.86, and I.b.88. Each has the exact same configuration of an outrigger with three booms, rowing galleries, bowsprit, and two bipod masts. I.b.53 is shortest, with 6 rowing stations and 6 sailors, I.b.88 has 10stations and 10 sailors, while I.b.86 is the longest with 12 stations and 19 sailors. One could argue that each panel represents different sized vessels (Manguin, 2010:185). This is not necessarily the case. Vertically, each ship consistently fills 90-95% of the panel. The yard ends nearly reach the top of the frame, while there is only a small gap of water between the outrigger and the bottom of the frame. I.b.86 fills a much greater horizontal area than I.b.53, which makes I.b.86 appear long and skinny while I.b.53 looks practically tubby. They have the exact same configuration, and likely represent the same type of vessel, just compressed and uncompressed according to the work space. The point of these observations and critiques is that the Borobudur Vessels were not created in a vacuum. They are framed by other scenes. The needs of those scenes dictated how much space the artist could work with. If space wasample, they created a beautiful, intricate vessel such as I.b.86. If they had to include more events, the artists allocated less space to the ships and compressed their features, as with I.b.53.In examining the details of these ships, it is important to remember that the vessels are components of stories. The activities and individuals aboard are the centerpieces of the narratives, while the watercrafts are elaborations. Seafaring Stories and Buddhism The maritime folklore associated with the Borobudur vessels is critical to their interpretation. Sea stories have deep roots in the literature of India. The second millennium BCE hymns of the Rigveda mention merchant voyages and sailing to distant 6 �islands.2 Although Vedic literature mentions incidents in the sea, it does not provide evidence of extensive maritime travel (Ray, 2003:13). Shaw (2012:131) observes that surprisingly, almost no travel by watercraft occurs in India’s great epics the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana. Where sea travel is mentioned, it is in similes and metaphor. For instance, the Karna Parva (Book 8 of the Mahābhārata) describes overwhelming grief like "shipwrecked mariners struggling on the bosom of the vast deep" (Ganguli, 1889:II) while the Anugita Parva (Book 14) compares joy to the elation of castaways who have made it safely to shore (Ganguli, 1896:LXX). The absence of sea travel likely reflects the prohibitions against travel by boat found in Indian scripture and codes of law. The dharmasūstras goes as far as to equate sea travel and maritime trade with crimes such as theft from a Brahmin (Shaw, 2012:13).3 Later codes of laws, such as the Manusmṛti (from the beginning of the first millennium CE), deal with practical aspects of riverine transport (Buhler, 1969: pt. 8). Buddhist maritime folklore demonstrates a familiarity with seafaring that is not found in earlier Indian literature. The Jātakas contain numerous references to ship building and ship operation (Ray, 1994:180). The texts knowledgably describe the roles of captain and crew (Schlingloff, 1988:198).This familiarity is not surprising, as the Jātaka and Avadāna traditions matured in the first half of the first millennium CE when a series of Fig. 5: Vessel I. .a. , sho ing up raga and the mouth of the ocean (from Van Erp, 1923) trade booms between China, India and the West drove new developments in sailing, the expansion of maritime trading networks, and the proliferation of ports (see Hall 1985; Ray 1994; Christie 1998; Manguin 2004). During this period, developments in Buddhis men courage maritime development by removing Brahmanical stigmas associated with travel, trade, and outsiders (Wheatley, 1983:272) and by embracing private wealth as a vehicle that could serve spiritual needs 7 �(Holcombe, 1999:280).Hall (1985:37) concludes that Mahāyāna Buddhism was a direct response to the expanding world of commerce. Pilgrims, missionaries, and monastics traveling along the trade networks between India and China spread Buddhist teachings as they went. Kandahjaya (2004:73-79) calculates that between the third and sixteenth centuries CE, approximately half of these initial Buddhist “transmitters” followed the sea lanes that connected India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, China, and the Indonesian Archipelago. Buddhists established monastic communities which conscientiously served the spiritual and material needs of the laity. This created intimate connections with local villages and trading groups resulting in an “interactive support system” (Ray 1994:122; Ray, 2005:320). The resulting contact between Buddhists and maritime communities created conditions conducive to the incorporation of maritime folklore into Buddhist scripture. Seafaring stories would have been an important part of the oral traditions, song, dance, and dramatic performances throughout maritime Asia (Shaw 2012:132). 5Buddhists capitalized on the excitement, danger, avarice, and courage inherent in maritime folklore, and populated Jātakas and Avadānas with greedy merchants, daring sailors, horrible sea monsters, oceans filled with treasure, islands populated by demons, spirits, and goddesses. These dangers and temptations became components of a vast metaphor in which the ocean represents saṃsāra, the endless cycle of death and rebirth, and crossing the ocean represents the process of awakening, searching for understanding, finding salvation, acquiring merit, and obtaining enlightenment (Shaw 2012:133; Tatelman 2013:114). Just as the Buddha offered salvation from the cycle of saṃsāra, bodhisattvas developed into saviors that could be called on by sailors during times of distress (specifically Avalokiteśvara/Padmapāni/Guānyīn, see Rao, 1991: 1856; Ray, 1994: 153; Ohnuma, 1998: 337-40). Heroes and Mariners Buddhist seafaring stories are unique, both in their presentation of the nautical/maritime traveler as hero (Shaw, 2012:130), and in their focus on the lower classes of people(e.g. traders, craftsmen, sailors, etc.) who are generally below description in the Vedic texts (Hall, 1985:37). Borobudur’s intricate reliefs provide an intimate look at both heroes and 8 �sailors as they were conceived in the ninth century CE. An example is the story of Suppāraka/Supāraga the blind navigator (Jātaka No. 463, the Suppāraka-jātaka and Jātakamāla No. 14, Supāraga-jātaka), carved in panels I.B.a.53-55). Suppāraka (a former incarnation of the Buddha) was a master navigator. He lost his sight as he grew old, and retired from seafaring. A group of merchants (from Bharuch, west India) beseeched him to join their voyage to suvarṇabhūmi, the lands of gold (often identified as the Malay Peninsula).A gale blew their ship across sixseas until they eventually came to the jaws of the ocean at the end of the earth. Suppāraka knew that only a miracle could save them. He cried out "Friends, bathe me speedily in scented water, and put new garments upon me, prepare a full bowl, and set me in front of the ship" (Rouse, 1901: 90). Properly prepared, Suppāraka leapt to the bow, used both hands to pour libations into the sea, and uttered his saccakiriyā, an assertion of truth so powerful that it can transform reality (Fig. 5).6The power of his invocation propelled the ship back across all six oceans in a single day (Rouse, 1901: 86-90). Fig. 6: A close-up of figures from the relief, sho ing upp raka pouring out libations in I.B.a.54, and prayer and ceremony from I.b.86 (based on images from www.photodharma.net, Anandajoti, 2013). 9 �Without knowing the story of Suppāraka, it would be difficult to identify many aspects of the crowded ship depicted in I.B.a.54. Clearly the sea monster is a source of distress. However, without knowing the story, it would be impossible to know that it represents the devouring mouth of the ocean at the edge of the world. The Jātakamāla (No. 14) describes the behavior of the ship’s crew during the horrendous gale: “Some were overcome by affliction and stood speechless with terror, some behaved courageously and were busily working to avert the danger, and some were absorbed in prayers to their tutelar deities”(Speyer, 1895: 177 vv. 8). The exact same three reactions (terror, courage, and prayer) are mirrored in the stones of Borobudur. Some of the crew are acting courageously, fighting to control the sail. One is standing on the yard and wrestling with the sail while three are in the stern hauling on the ropes. Desperate passengers in the center of the ship are jettisoning the cargo. Two sitting figures have placed their faces in their hands, sobbing in despair. Another figure has his hand raised high, perhaps calling on the gods. Thanks to the Pāli text (Jātaka No. 463), we know that this figure on the bow is Suppāraka, pouring forth libations exactly as described in the narrative (Rouse, 1901:89), Van Erp, 1923:16). Importance of the Narratives The actions and reactions of the nearly one-hundred figures aboard the Borobudur Vessels provide important insights into how the Javanese perceived seafaring. Panel I.b.23 shows mariners laboring to raise a sail while their comrades spend time catching fish. Panels I.b.108, I.B.a.54, and I.B.a193 show us how seamen reacted to a storm – some struggle to save the ship, a few pray to their gods, others yet cling to the rigging in terror while their comrades are thrown into the tumultuous sea. Panel I.b.86 is famous because it provides elaborate technical details of how Southeast Asian shipwrights constructed watercraft during the classical age. However, I.b.86also teaches us a great deal about ancient seafaring. Hiru’s voyage in the Rudrayana-avadana (Divyāvadāna No. 37) is the epitome of a successful expedition; its depiction in I.b.86 correspondingly shows us what an ideal voyage should look like. The crew are lively about the ship, hauling on the rigging and setting the sails. They show bravery by conducting daring acts at the masthead and bowsprit. They are religious and mindful, performing the 10 �proper rituals at the bow of the vessel (Fig. 6). Hiru sits high in the stern, vigilant, and directing his ship to a successful landfall. The Borobudur vessels are components of Buddhist narratives which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should interpret them. Examination of the figures demonstrates that the Borobudur vessels can provide more information about ancient seafaring than just the technical configurations of Southeast Asian watercraft. They are material evidence of the intimate connection between Buddhism and seafaring, and provide unique insights into the Javanese perception of sailing, the ocean, and its dangers. Footnotes 1 If we look at other vessels of this type, the forward rake of the stem is not as prominent, and the sternpost is actually raked slightly aft (as with I.b.88 and I.b.108). 2 For examples, see Griffith (1896: v. I.25.7, I.48.3, I.56.2, I.116.3-5, and VII.88.3). 3 Shaw (2012: 130–1) also points out that Brahmins were traveling between India and Southeast Asia, so the prohibitions may not have been as serious as these laws seem to indicate. 4 The Manusmṛti contains rules concerning - , 1969: pt. 8). 5 Shaw (2012:132) suggests that these vernacular versions probably thrived in ancient India, but were almost never preserved in Hindu literature as high“ adventure, or ” 6 S k ā “A T ” “T ” w k k ā k w w w S ā k w T w manifest the speakers wish, in this case, delivering the ship back to shore (Kong, 2012: 7–8). w l and fact (in the case of Bibliography Anandajoti, Bhante, 2013. Photographs from the Photodharma.net. Accessed August http://www.photodharma.net/Indonesia/Indonesia.htm Borobudur 10, Monument. 2013, Antara, 2010 (July 5). Spirit of Majapahit to sail to eight countries in pride building sea voyage. The Jakarta Globe. Accessed January 24, 2014, http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/archive/spirit-of-majapahit-to-sail-to-eight-countries-inpride-building-sea-voyage/ Beale, Phillip, 2005. The Borobudur ship expedition – official website. Accessed January 18, 2014, http://www.pioneerexpeditions.com/borobudur/index.htm 11 �Dennison, Richard, 1985. Flight of the Sarimanok. Orana Films. Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (trans.), 1889. The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, Vol. 3, Book 8: Karna-Parva. Bharata Press, Calcutta. Ganguli, Kisari Mohan (trans.), 1896. The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, Vol. 4, Book 14: Augnita-Parva. Bharata Press, Calcutta. Griffith, Ralph T.H (trans.), 1896. Hymns of the Rig Veda, Vol. I. E. J. lazarus and Co: Benares. Hall, Kenneth R., 1985. Maritime Trade and State Development in Early South East Asia. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Holcombe, Charles, 1999. Trade-Buddhism: Maritime Trade, Immigration, and the Buddhist Landfall in Early Japan. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 119 (2): 280-292. Hornell, James, 1946. Water transport: origins & early evolution. University Press, Cambridge, England. Horridge, G. Adrian, 1978. The Design of Planked Boats of the Moluccas. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London. Horridge, G. Adrian. 1982. The lashed-lug boat of the eastern archipelagoes, the Alcina MS and the Lomblen whaling boats. Trustees of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London. Jahan, Shahnaj Husne, 2006. Re-examining ‘Borobudur Ships’ as Evidence of Maritime Contact with South Asia. In Adalbert J. Gail, Gerd J. R. Mevissen, and Klaus Bruhn (Eds.), anamālā: Festschrift A.J. Gail, Weidler Buchverlag, Berlin: 78-86. Kandahjaya, Hudaya, 2004. A Study on the Origin and Significance of Borobudur. Thesis (Ph.D.) Graduate Theological Union, Berkley. Kong, Choy Fah, 2012. Saccakiriyā the belie in the p Buddhist tradition.Choy Fah Kong,Singapore. er true speech in heravāda Krom, N. J., 1927. Barabudur: Archaeological Description. Vols. I. Martinus Nijoff, The Hague. Manguin, Pierre-Yves, 1993. Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 36 (3): 253-280. Manguin, Pierre-Yves, 2010. The Ships on the Borobudur Reliefs. In John. N. Miksic, Noerhadi Magestari, Jan Fontein, Timbul Maryono, and Idham Bachtiar Setiadi (Eds.), Borobudur: majestic, mysterious, magnificent, Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur, Prambanan & Ratu Boko; Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia:180-185. 12 �Miksic, John N., 2010. Borobudur in the Beginning. In John. N. Miksic, Noerhadi Magestari, Jan Fontein, Timbul Maryono, and Idham Bachtiar Setiadi (Eds.), Borobudur: majestic, mysterious, magnificent, Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur, Prambanan & Ratu Boko; Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia:26-75. Mookerji, Radha Kumud. 1957. 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Rao (Ed.), Recent Advance in Maritime Archaeology: Proceedings of the Second Indian Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries January, 1990. Society for Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Archaeology, Goa, India: 185-188. Ray, Himanshu Prabha, 1994. The winds of change: Buddhism and the maritime links of early south Asia. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Ray, Himanshu Prabha, 2003. The archaeology of seafaring in ancient South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ray, Himanshu Prabha, 2005. The Axial Age in Asia: the archaeology of Buddhism (500 B.C.-A.D. 500). In Miram T. Stark (Ed.) The Archaeology of Asia, Blackwell Publishing, Malden and Oxford. Rouse, W. H. D. (trans.), 1901. he Jātaka; or, Stories of the Buddha's former births.Vol. IV. Cowell, Edward B., (Ed.). University Press, Cambridge. Shaw, Sarah, 2012. Crossing to the farthest shore: How Pāli Jātakas launch the Buddhist image of the boat onto the open seas. Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, Vol. 3: 128-56 Schlingloff, Dieter. 1988. Studies in the Ajanta paintings: identifications and interpretations. Ajanta Publications, Delhi. 13 �Tatelman, Joel. 2005. The heavenly exploits. New York University Press, New York. Wheatley, Paul, 1983. āgara and c mmandery: origins of the Southeast Asian urban traditions. University of Chicago, Dept. of Geography, Chicago. Van Erp, Th., 1923. Voorstellingen van vaartuigen op de reliefs van den Boroboed er M n graphie n ver unst en ultuur 1. di-Poestaka: 'S-Gravenhage. Biography Douglas Inglis studies the archaeology of seaborne exploration and contact. He is a graduate student in the Nautical Archaeology Program at Texas A&M, a professional archae l gist at ultural Surveys Ha aiʻi and a member the Explorers Club. Doug served as assistant director of the Warwick Shipwreck Project in Bermuda and the ongoing Rockley Bay Research Project in Tobago. He is passionate about public history and outreach, and writes about nautical archaeology at http://divingarchaeology.com. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The sea stories and stone sails of Borobudur Description An account of the resource The most profound examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found on the walls of the 9th century Borobudur monument in central Java. As the contemporary assemblage of nautical iconography from Southeast Asia is limited, the ship reliefs play an important role in debates over trade and expansion in India, Indonesia and mainland Southeast Asia. The Borobudur ships are technical depictions, and contain data about rigging, rope use, rowing configurations and outrigger construction. Elements in their design have persisted independently as Indonesian watercraft evolved, including outriggers, bipod masts, canted rectangular sails, and quarter rudders. Discussion has focused on construction features, and scholars have made various assertions about how the vessels might have been built, how they were used, and their origin. The vessels' artistic context is often ignored. The ship reliefs are part of a religious narrative which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should ultimately interpret them. The stories provide important clues as to where each vessel was headed, who was aboard, and what is happening on deck. Despite their detail, the Borobudur vessels should be interpreted cautiously, and not as ancient blueprints. They are artistic renditions that were never meant to float - they were meant to inspire. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Douglas Inglis, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014