9 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/92aaf00c10c453cf0aa33756881ed92a.pdf e02504450a683054e2a91663c4fe7d75 PDF Text Text Types of river transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century: an analysis based on the findings of boats in North Sumatera Province and Siak districts, Riau Province Azwar Sutihat Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West Sumatera Province, Riau, and Riau Island Ministry of Education and Culture, Republic of Indonesia Jl. Sultan Alam Bagagarsyah, Batusangkar, West Sumatra, 27281 E-mail: azwar_sutihat@yahoo.com Abstract In the east coast of Sumatra, there were kingdoms that relied on river as the main transportation. In this region, there are big rivers with the same characteristics that empty into the Strait of Malacca, including Asahan River, Siak River, and Batanghari River. Not only relying on the river as the main transportation, some kingdoms even established their center of the kingdom on the river bank. These included the Deli Kingdom nearby Deli River, Siak Kingdom nearby Siak River, Serdang Kingdom nearby Serdang River, and the Ancient Malay Kingdom nearby Batanghari River. In 2013, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office carried out a study on the findings of a boat in Siak River. The type of the boat is considered a rarity for the east coast of Sumatra region. However, it bears a similarity with the boat founded in Deli Serdang District in 1997, which was analyzed by Medan Archeological Agency. In addition of bearing a similarity, the study also concluded that the two boats are believed to be the type of boat that is used before the 19th century. From the findings of both boats, we can then describe the type of boats as the means of transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century. Key words: River Transportation, East Coast of Sumatra, before the 19th Century Introduction Indonesia with its marine potential, is a country about ¾ of which is covered by sea. As a country with around 17,508 islands, Indonesia is known as the largest archipelago in the world with sea areas of 5.8 million square kilometers, and has the second longest coastline in the world (81 thousand km). With its location and condition, Indonesia has various natural resources, and unique floras and faunas throughout the country (Ardiwidjaja, 2011). 1 �Archipelago or inter-islands means an area comprised of islands that are separated by water, making the area consists of water or sea water. Therefore, it is impossible for the inhabitants to move from one area to another without being supported by a floating object. The object called boat is reputedly the oldest means of transportation in the world. Yet, its history of origin is still not known. Archaeological evidences of the existence of boats have been widely revealed, including in the form of cave paintings, referred to and described in the ancient inscriptions, and in sculptures of stone temples (relief). The depiction of boats in these archaeological evidences also show the development of boat building technology based on the shape of the boat in the corresponding era. The shape and technology of the boats seem to adjust the everyday function and the cruising challenges; whether the boat was used as a means to facilitate the movement of people in search of food, trade and habitat movement or migration. According to experts, in the past there have been movements of people that brought along their culture. Evidence of these events can be seen through similar cultural works from one place to another (Siswanto, 2010). Migration cannot be separated from the advancement in technology achieved by the people itself. East Sumatra (Ooskust van Sumatra or Sumatra's Ooskust) is a term that developed in the 19th century to refer to an area around the eastern coast of Sumatra island. In this region, some Malay kingdoms successfully imposed its hegemony over the river that was a major transportation at that time. Some of these kingdom also established the center of the kingdom by the bank of small and big rivers, including: Siak Kingdom with the center of Fig.1: The east coast of its kingdom in the downstream of Siak River, Langkat Sumatra (red line) (Source: Kingdom near the Langkat River, Deli Kingdom nearby Deli www.indonesiataglance.files. River, Serdang Kingdom nearby Serdang River, Asahan wordpress.com) Kingdom nearby Asahan River, Bilah Kingdom in Bilah River and Labuan Panai Kingdom nearby Panai River. 2 �The eastern coast of Sumatra has a long history as the traffic route of trade. Its strategic location makes this area as the main line of trade since centuries ago. In the mid-18th century until the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Siak had been a dominant force in the east coast of Sumatra. The dominance of Siak Sultanate over the areas in the eastern coast of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula was quite significant that they were able to replace the previous Johor influence over the control of trade routes (Marsden, 2008). Long before that, in the 7th until the 11th century AD, the Sriwijaya Kingdom that controlled the Malacca Straits was known as a maritime kingdom that possessed mastery in the ship and shipping navigation technology. The Sriwijaya Kingdom relied the life of its kingdom on trades and maritime activities. Therefore, Sriwijaya had extensive relationships with other countries, not only in the archipelago, but also with China, India, and the Middle East (Riyanto, 2011). Besides Sriwijaya, the Old Malay kingdom (Malayapura) also relied on the river as a major transportation. This kingdom was originally centered in Jambi inland on the banks of the Batang Hari River and moved to Dharmasraya and then to the upstream area of Batang Hari River in Tanah Datar, West Sumatra. Boats and Sailing in Indonesia Boat is one of the maritime cultures that since prehistoric times has played important role in human’s life in the world, including Indonesia. The oldest written record of water transport in the form of a boat in Indonesian waters mentioned in Kedukan Bukit inscription of 683 AD stated the existence of a Sriwijaya’s king that was travelling on a boat (Riyanto, 2010). In addition, information about boat and sailing in Indonesia was derived from Chinese news that told a story about a priest travelling to India by boat in 672 AD. Other notes are the interpretation of Pierre Paris based on other foreign sources stating that in the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD there had been sailing activity using boats from Sumatra to India. A research by F.L. Dunn and D.F. Dunn (1977) stated that between 20,000 to 18,000 years ago the sailing technology in Southeast Asia was still very limited. There was no sailing activity in the open ocean, and sailing activity was possibly still limited in shallow waters such as swamps and mangrove forests which were influenced by the sea tide. 3 �Then, 9000 years ago boat and raft were started to be known. They were used in swamps and for limited sailing in the open water. Area exploitation using boats was only carried out in line with the enhanced knowledge in boating skills. Furthermore, it is estimated that approximately 5000 years ago there was exploitation of the South China Sea region through mastery of the ever developed marine navigation and boat technology. The use of outriggers and simple sail made of woven leaves enhanced the exploitation area with cruising range far enough from the beach. Boat is understood as a manifestation of maritime needs (or other waters; rivers and lakes) as well as the aspiration of the supporting communities. The shapes or characteristics of local boats will be influenced by factors such as surrounding environment and local traditions at that time. Boat tradition is embodiment of a system of ideas about what boat is and how they should design and build the boat. Terminology of engineering design parameters and how to build a boat is a social practice that contains symbolic and ideological aspects. In practice, the shape, size and complexity of a boat will be limited or determined by the desires of the community over its usefulness, availability of materials and the purpose of a boat to be operated. Therefore, the shape or characteristics of local boats, structural characteristics, appearance and usefulness, are predominantly influenced by local values, both physical and non physical (Budiman, 2010). Based on the types, sailing can be divided into sailing in open waters and in inland waters (rivers and lakes). In Sumatra Island, there are large rivers that become the main road heading to inland areas. The interaction between human and rivers in Sumatra is estimated to have taken place since thousands of years ago. Even in this modern era, the relationship can still be seen to this day. Some of the major rivers empty into the east coast of Sumatra (Malacca Strait). These include the Deli River, Serdang River, Padang River, Siak River, Batang Hari River, and Musi River. Physical evidences of sailing in the inland areas of Sumatra include findings of relatively intact ancient boats. From this finding, we can then describe the types and shapes of boats used as a means of river transportation in the east coast of Sumatra, especially before the 19th century. 4 �Besar II Terjun Village, Serdang Bedagai Regency, North Sumatra Province In 2003, a local resident found a boat at the base of Terjun River. The boat was then lifted by the community and placed in the house of the boat founder. The boat was a dugout canoe (hollowed) made of an intact, large, and long wood. Dugout/hollowed canoe are made by removing the center part of the wood. For local communities, this type of boat is known as sudur itik boat, because the overall shape of the tip of the boat resembles the beak of a duck. The boat was 910 cm long, 86 cm wide and 28 cm deep. The boat wall has an average thickness of 3 cm. In each of the inner side of the hull, there are thirteen sangkar (local term for these components in South Kalimantan), which is the rectangular protrusion engraved directly on the tree trunk that is used to make the boat. These sangkars are 20-26 cm long and 8-10 cm wide. Their function is to support the boards or logs that are laid crosswise on the body of the boat as wall reinforcement and can be used by passengers or rowers (Koestoro, 2010). Fig. 2: Sangkar components on boat (Source: Medan Archaeological Research Office) Fig. 3: Sudur Itik boat (Source: Medan Archaeological Research Office) 5 �Padang River, Tebingtinggi, North Sumatra The boat was founded by local resident at the base of Padang River in 2006. This boat has the same shape and construction as the boat found in Serdang Bedagai Regency. The construction is made of solid wood, and perforated in the middle. The boat is 610 cm long, the widest section is 113 cm wide, and 29 m deep. The middle part of the boat has a slightly rounded shape and elongated at both ends. Both ends are somewhat tapered. 1 Fig. 4: Itik boat sketch (Source: Medan Archaeological Research Office) Inside of the boat hull, there are eight sangkars. The sangkars are 22-27 cm long, 12-14 cm wide and 10-15 cm thick (Koestoro, 2010). In the boat wall, both at the base and at the hull, there are parallel holes with diameter of 1 cm that penetrate the wall of the boat. The holes are covered with a round wood that has the same size as the thickness of the body of the boat. Communities in Riau call this hole as kakap hole that serves to equalize the thickness of the hull of the boat. The kakap hole serves a guide or a basis for the process of dredging the inside of the boat. After perforation is complete, the kakap holes eyes are closed or clogged with wood so that water does not get into the boat. 6 �Muara Bungkal Village, Siak Regency, Riau Province Boat in Muara Bungkal village was founded by local residents in 2012. The boat was founded at the base of Minas River (a tributary of the Siak River). Once lifted by the residents, the boat was then placed in the yard Muara Bungkal village office. This boat is made of a piece of wood that is hollowed in the middle. Its shape is like a mortar, the middle part is somewhat rounded and slightly tapered at both ends (mortar-like shaped). Tapered shape, especially in the bow, was probably selected to make it easier for the boat to travel in shallow water, in fast-flowing water, with rocky and muddy river bottom. This is related to the river terrain. Overall, the length of this boat from the tip of the bow (front) up to the end of the stern (rear) is 8.3 meters. The middle part of the boat (the widest) has a width of 77 cm with a height from the stern of the ship to the base of 20 cm. In each part of the inside of boat hull there are sixteen penuku (sangkar). Penuku is a term used by local community. Penuku has similar function with sangkar in a boat found in North Sumatra, namely to support the boards or logs that are laid crosswise on the body of the boat as a wall reinforcement and can be used by passengers or boater. There are different components between penuku/sangkar in Muara Bungkal Village and penuku/sangkar found in North Sumatra. Penuku in the boat of Muara Bungkal has a hole in the middle with average size of 6 cm long and 4 cm wide. Penukus on both sides of the hull are connected by wood. These connecting woods are called gadinggading. Gading-gading has a function as a peg between penuku. In the boat wall, both at the base and at the hull, there are parallel holes with diameter of 1 cm that penetrate the wall of the boat. The holes are covered with a round wood that has the same size as the thickness of the body of the boat. The local community calls this hole as kakap hole that serves to equalize the thickness of the wall or the hull of the boat. Types of river boat in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century Water environment is an important element in supporting the life of human being. Rivers, lakes, and oceans are environment that provide sources of foods and, at a certain time, become the most effective transportation infrastructure to move further and faster. The rivers in Sumatra became an important means of transportation from inland to coastal areas and vice versa. Interaction between humans and rivers in Sumatra has been going on for thousands of years. Boat as a means of transportation can be 7 �Fig .5: Boat in Muara Bungkal Village (Azwar Fig .6: Boat components (Photo and Sutihat, August 2013) Modification by Azwar Sutihat, August 2013) understood as a form of adaptation of human interaction with the environment. According to Johnston (1980), based on shape, material and construction, the development of boats can generally be classified into several types, namely: a. Raft boat, which is boat that was formed from the composition of a single piece of wood tied together horizontally. The next stage is marked by the addition of a layer of wooden beams tied together with the direction of crossed wooden beams on top of the first layer, so that the raft is composed of several layers of wooden beams. b. Dug-out canoe, which is a boat which is formed of a hollowed tree trunk in the middle so that the shape resembles the mortar. c. Planked-boat, which is a boat which construction of its body is formed from arrangement of boards with specific merging technique. 8 �Based on the shape, materials and construction, boats found in North Sumatra and in Siak Regency, Riau Province fall under dug-out canoe type. The three boats have similarities in term of construction and components. The similarities are: a. There are penukus/sangkars to support the boards or logs that are laid crosswise on the body of the boat as wall reinforcement and can be used by passengers or boater. b. There are kakap holes that serve to equalize the thickness of the walls or boat hulls. c. There are gading-gading that functions as peg between penukus/sangkars. In the boat found in North Sumatra, these gading-gading components no longer exist. While in the boat found in Siak there are still 2 pieces of gading-gading. d. Both ends of each boat have a tapered shape that resembles the shape of duck beak. Because of this shape, the Malay community called the boat as sudur itik boat. In the manufacturing process, the tapered shape was selected to achieve better boat speed, and to facilitate better navigation in shallow waters that have many plants. This is clearly related to the river terrain in the east coast of Sumatra that is dominated by mangrove swamps. Koestoro (2010) indicated that the trees used in the manufacture of boats found in North Sumatra are possibly Artocarpus champeden, Intsia palembanica that is resistant to moisture or Hopea sangal that falls under Dipterocarpaceae family. While the materials used in the manufacture of wooden boats found in Muara Bungkal village, Siak Regency is believed by local people as Giam wood (Cotylelobium spp, Vatica spp) that fall under Dipterocarpaceae family. A description of boat building technique on the east coast of Sumatra can at least be obtained from traditional boat building techniques in Kuantan Singingi community of Riau province that is still ongoing. Traditional boat building, that is called jalur by the Kuantan Singingi community, has been going on for hundreds of years. The cultural connection, and close geographical location makes it possible to do a reconstruction of building techniques of boats found in North Sumatra and Siak Regency based on the 9 �traditional boat building techniques in Kuantan Singingi Regency, Riau Province. According Koestoro (2010), the existence of sudur itik boat in the Besar II Terjun village is part of the historical formation of large plantation estates in the east coast of Sumatra in the late 19th century. Besar II Terjun village is one of residential areas located in the middle of plantation of what used to be the area of the Sultanate of Serdang. The boat finding in Padang River cannot be separated either from its historical context. This area was once one of residential areas in the middle of plantation which was once a territory of the Sultan of Deli. The existence of a boat in Muara Bungkal village, Siak Regency has a historical relationship with the Kingdom of Siak as a maritime kingdom. The eastern coast of Sumatra has a long history as the traffic route of trade. Its strategic location makes this area as the main line of trade since centuries ago. Marsden (2008) mentioned that at that time Siak was a supplier of wood material to Batavia (Jakarta) to build ships in large numbers. Even the woods for construction of naval warships in Penang Island were also sourced from Siak. Furthermore, it is said that Siak was a powerful maritime kingdom. The naval force of Siak often attacked Johor, Malacca, and various places in the east and west coast of the peninsula. In term of trade, it was mostly carried out by Keling ships. They traded clothing materials, raw silk, and other goods that they provided in Penang or Malacca. In return, they received gold, wax, sago, salted fish, fish eggs, ivory, gambier, camphor, and various types of rattan. The role of Siak River as part of the core region of the kingdom had a major effect on the economic growth of Siak Sri Indrapura. In the 18th century, in 1767 to be precise, Siak Sultanate led by King Ismail had become a dominant force in the east coast. The advancement of Siak economy is evident from Dutch notes that stated that in 1783, there were about 171 merchant ships from Siak heading to Malacca. Siak became a trade triangle between the Dutch in Malacca and the British in Penang Island (www.wikipedia.org). Conclusion Rivers in Sumatra Island become an important means of transportation from inland to coastal areas and vice versa. Interaction between humans and rivers in Sumatra has been going on for thousands of years. Some kingdom in Sumatra even made the river 10 �as the main force in maintaining their existence. Boat as a means of transportation can be understood as a form of adaptation of human interaction with the environment. Findings of boats in three locations in the east coast of Sumatra show that before the 19th century, there were river cruising boats in this area. The first feature can be seen from the shape and construction that fall under the type of dug-out canoe. The two ends of each boat have a tapered shape that resembles the shape of duck beak. The Malay communities call such boat as sudur itik boat. The second feature is the boat components such as penuku/sangkar, kakap hole, and gading-gading. In some locations in the Indonesian archipelago, we can still find dug-out canoe made of one piece of wood. However, nowadays, we can no longer find dug-out canoes that have similar components as sudur itik boat. In the future, we need to have a more in-depth study of sudur itik, particularly regarding the manufacturing technology, the identification of the types of wood, radiocarbon analysis (to determine the absolute age of the boat) and the conservation techniques (waterlogged wood conservation). Acknowledgments Thanks to Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West Sumatera, Riau, and Riau Island - Ministry of Education and Culture, Medan Archaeological Research Office, Siak Regency Government, especially the Office for Education and Culture of Siak Regency, Sungai Mandau Government Sub-District, Muara Bungkal Government Village, Research and Development Centre for Marine and Coastal Resources, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, and to all people who always support us in conducting study and preservation on marine archaeological resources. Bibliography Ardiwidjaya, Roby., 2011. “Temuan Perahu Kuna di Rembang”. Varuna. Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air. Vol.5/2011. Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air. Jakarta. p. 1-5. Budiman, Arief., 2010, “ Bentuk Perahu Awal Manusia Pulau Borneo sebelum Persebaran Penutur Austronesia: Sebuah Hipotesis”. Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi. No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta: Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p. 120-153. 11 �Dunn, F.L, and Dunn, D.F., 1984, Maritime Adaption and Exploitation of Marine Resources in Sundaic Southeast Asia, Prehistory a Reader, ed. De Velde, P.V.,H.248, Foris Publication, Holland. Jhonstone, P.,1980, The sea-craft of prehistory, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London. Koestoro, Lucas Pratanda., 2010, “Bangkai Perahu di Pesisir Timur Sumatera Utara dan Pembudayaan Perahu”. Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi. No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta: Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p. 84-109. Marsden, William., 2008, Sejarah Sumatera. Komunitas Bambu. Jakarta. Riyanto, Sugeng., 2010, “Perahu Kuna Punjulharjo dan Arkeologi Maritim Nusantara” . Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi. No.6/tahun 2010.Yogyakarta: Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta. p. 2-13. Siswanto., 2010, “Temuan Perahu Kuna di Rembang”. Varuna. Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air. Vol.4/2010. Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air. Jakarta. p. 1-5. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesultanan_Siak_Sri_Inderapura www.indonesiaatglance.files.wordpress.com Biography Azwar Sutihat was born in Yogyakarta on February 11, 1983. In 2008, he completed his study in the Department of Archaeology, Gadjah Mada University. From 2009 to the present, Azwar works at the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office of West Sumatra, Riau, and Riau Island, Ministry of Education and Culture, Republic of Indonesia. Over the last 5 years, he has various experiences working in the field of preservation of cultural heritage and has participated in several international level activities such as Workshop on “Document Preparation of World Heritage Nomination” (2013), Workshop on “Managing Indoor Climate Risks” (2013), ”Sub-Regional Training Workshop on "Disaster Risk Preparedness and Management” (2013), and World Culture Forum (2013). 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Types of river transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century: an analysis based on the findings of boats in North Sumatera Province and Siak districts, Riau Province Description An account of the resource In the east coast of Sumatra, there were kingdoms that relied on river as the main transportation. In this region, there are big rivers with the same characteristics that empty into the Strait of Malacca, including Asahan River, Siak River, and Batanghari River. Not only relying on the river as the main transportation, some kingdoms even established their center of the kingdom on the river bank. These included the Deli Kingdom nearby Deli River, Siak Kingdom nearby Siak River, Serdang Kingdom nearby Serdang River, and the Ancient Malay Kingdom nearby Batanghari River. In 2013, the Cultural Heritage Preservation Office carried out a study on the findings of a boat in Siak River. The type of the boat is considered a rarity for the east coast of Sumatra region. However, it bears a similarity with the boat founded in Deli Serdang District in 1997, which was analyzed by Medan Archeological Agency. In addition of bearing a similarity, the study also concluded that the two boats are believed to be the type of boat that is used before the 19th century. From the findings of both boats, we can then describe the type of boats as the means of transportation in the east coast of Sumatra before the 19th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Azwar Sutihat , in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/48863594340c79715ec886364c78ae39.jpg 3cb97ca1191293e8121aae397c3e924d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poster Session 2014 Description An account of the resource Posters presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Treatment of composite artefacts involving wood and unstable salts as pyrite for the conservation of shipwrecks and wooden maritime structures Description An account of the resource Poster presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage 2014 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gilles Chaumat Bénédicte Caillieret Thimothée Bochaton Asia-Pac Poster 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Origins of the Islamic State Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya al- Philip Khuri Hitti Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Gorgias Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1916 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya al- Translator Philip Khuri Hitti Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1916 Edition 2002 Place Piscataway Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Gorgias Press Title A name given to the resource The Origins of the Islamic State Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Food and Money in Ancient China: The Earliest Economic History of China to A.D. 25: Han Shu 24, with related texts, Han Shu 91 and Shih-chi 129 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ban, Gu Nancy Lee Swann Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Octagon Books Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1950 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Ban, Gu Translator Nancy Lee Swann Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1950 Edition 1974 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Octagon Books Title A name given to the resource Food and Money in Ancient China: The Earliest Economic History of China to A.D. 25: Han Shu 24, with related texts, Han Shu 91 and Shih-chi 129 China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bandaranayake, Senake, et al. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Sri Lanka National Commission for UNESCO and the Central Cultural Fund Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1990 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Editor Bandaranayake, Senake, et al. Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1990 Place Colombo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Sri Lanka National Commission for UNESCO and the Central Cultural Fund Title A name given to the resource Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d37f32241d20ff64236ffa7c4e0995be.pdf 2cd7d98f879376cfddfa48b9d503424c PDF Text Text Protection and Utilization of Underwater Cultural Heritage Bao Chun Lei (Hainan Museum, chunleibao2002@163.com) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within this session, because underwater cultural heritage (UCH) are remains of ancient human civilization. Ancient maritime trade promoted economic and cultural exchange among coastal countries, and promoted the development of world civilization. They are very precious historical information and rare physical data. The case study under consideration are ancient ships and its accompanying UCH in the South China Sea. I briefly discuss the protection of the UCH and explore their development and utilization. Only by developing and utilizing UCH can the study of ancient civilization continue. The resources available to conduct the work include mainly taking ‘Huaguang Reef I’, ‘Nanhai I’, ‘Nanao I’ and other shipwrecks and their UCH as examples. I study the historical evolution and transformation of the three shipwrecks, as well as the cargo such as pottery, metal and the wooden hull. Creative products and related themes and activities are developed according to their historical characteristics, so as to let the cultural relics speak. The research approach is through the development and research of these cases whereby audience can walk into the site that stores the ancient ships, these are tourist attractions. The income from tickets or cultural and creative products provides financial support for the protection and maintenance of ancient ships and UCH. The results are forming a virtuous circle and bringing immeasurable cultural influence. INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within the session ‘History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia’. Ancient maritime trades have promoted economic and cultural exchanges among coastal countries and developed the histories of world civilizations, providing valuable historical information and rare materials. China has a long history of ancient maritime activities, and the continuous discoveries of shipwrecks from the past reveal its once-thriving maritime trade. The extensive history of maritime transportation has resulted in a rich underwater cultural heritage. Although China started its efforts for underwater cultural heritage relatively late, it has developed a series of advanced protection concepts such as ‘in-situ protection and overall salvage’. These concepts have greatly enhanced and deepened the understanding of underwater cultural heritage protection by conducting surveys of underwater cultural heritage and promoting public participation. In contact with seawater, substances undergo varying degrees of dissolution and corrosion. This damage primarily occurs due to the interaction of chemical, physical, and biological activities in seawater. The extent of damage to cultural heritage, which may have been submerged for hundreds or even thousands of years, can be imagined. Cultural heritage that has been underwater for centuries experiences deterioration, and the rate of deterioration accelerates after it is removed from the water due to rapid changes in the preservation environment. This is especially true for metal and water-saturated wooden artefacts, which can suffer from corrosion and cracking if not rescued and protected properly. Such damage can be irreversible. Preservation methods for underwater cultural heritage vary depending on the materials involved. Desalination and dehydration are the first necessary treatments. Salt substances present within raised artefacts pose a significant hidden danger to ceramics, metalware, and even wooden artefacts. The presence of salt can lead to glaze loss in ceramics and cyclic corrosion in metalware. Deionized water is the most cost-effective method for desalination, while complexing agents are used to remove sulfur iron compound salts from wooden relics. Additionally, some artefacts may be covered in a layer of white scale or even the remains of marine organisms. These should be preserved in a way that does not hinder historical research, as they serve as evidence and features of the underwater cultural heritage. The subsequent steps of restoration do not differ significantly from those applied to artefacts found on land. 1 �CASE STUDIES The case studies considered in this context include the following: the Song Dynasty shipwreck in Houzhu Port in Quanzhou Bay, the underwater inscription on Baiheliang in Chongqing, the Song Dynasty shipwreck of ‘Nanhai I’, the Ming Dynasty shipwreck of ‘Nanao I’, and the Southern Song shipwreck of ‘Huaguangjiao I’. Museums, along with their assistive technology products, are valuable resources for conducting this work. Museums serve as institutions for knowledge production, information dissemination, protection, education, research, and outreach. They should actively engage in social activities and respond to social changes, not merely exhibiting collections but also guiding public participation and contributing to local community development. In recent years, the three-fold concept of underwater cultural heritage in Chinese museums, namely ‘Display, Protection, and Research’, has become increasingly evident. Various museums, such as the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong, Guangdong Museum, China Port Museum, and Hainan Museum, have successively established specialized laboratories for underwater cultural heritage protection based on ancient shipwrecks such as ‘Nanhai I’, ‘Nanao I’, ‘Xiaobaijiao I’, and ‘Huaguangjiao I’. These museums have developed systematic displays and research on underwater cultural heritage. Moreover, they have incorporated network communication technologies such as the internet, big data, cloud computing, 5G, and artificial intelligence into their exhibitions. These technologies are rapidly transforming the ways in which people interact with museums, deepening museums' involvement in local society across all aspects. They also present new challenges and opportunities for development. Among the technologies utilized by museums, cloud exhibitions and digital displays stand out, allowing audiences to enjoy museum exhibition information from the comfort of their homes. Such technologies also promote the protection and utilization of underwater cultural heritage. As an example, at ‘the 9th China Museum and Related Products and Technology Expo’ in 2022, China (Hainan) Nanhai Museum employed advanced 5G+ VR technology. This allowed visitors at the exhibition site in Zhengzhou, thousands of kilometers away from the South China Sea, to virtually experience the island of Sansha, providing a real-life experience spanning thousands of miles. Through this technology, the museum effectively enhanced its audience service, cultural artifact restoration, and security management capabilities. The research question for museums revolves around how to effectively utilize and promote the protection of underwater cultural heritage. The artefacts recovered from underwater sites enrich the museum's collections and inspire ideas and perspectives on the protection and utilization of underwater cultural heritage. With the growing recognition of the value of underwater cultural heritage, the number of maritime museums worldwide has significantly increased. Underwater cultural heritage has become a significant resource for many museums, and advancements in technology have made the exhibition of underwater cultural heritage more engaging and immersive. Modern digital technology and multimedia exhibition methods have enabled museums to showcase not only small artefacts that were easily raised from the water but also underwater archaeological sites that are challenging to retrieve. These technologies have made underwater cultural heritage more accessible to the general public, creating vivid and interactive exhibitions that capture the imagination of visitors. With the advent of new technologies, museums are leveraging underwater cultural heritage to develop innovative museum displays. One notable example is the Song Dynasty shipwreck in Houzhu Port, located in Quanzhou Bay, which is among the earliest historical shipwrecks excavated in Chinese waters. To create a compelling exhibition for this shipwreck, the government decided to construct the ‘Quanzhou Bay Ancient Ship Exhibition Hall’ within the local Kaiyuan Temple. The exhibition hall is designed with two floors. The lower floor features the physical display of the shipwreck, allowing visitors to view the actual remains. On the upper floor, the exhibition content encompasses a ‘three-in-one’ display, showcasing the port, shipwreck archaeology, and artefacts associated with the site. This integrated approach provides visitors with a comprehensive understanding of the historical context and significance of the shipwreck. The success of the ‘Ancient Ship Exhibition Hall’ in Quanzhou has had a profound impact on the exhibition design for historical shipwrecks in many other 2 �museums. The exhibition system pioneered by Quanzhou's museum has become a symbol of China's utilization of underwater cultural heritage, and its replication in other museums reflects its effectiveness and influence in showcasing and preserving these valuable artefacts. The year 2009 marked a significant milestone in the innovative integration of underwater cultural heritage protection and museums in China. The practices of ‘in-situ protection’ and ‘relocation protection’ of underwater cultural heritage at the Chongqing Baiheliang Underwater Museum and the Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum were recognized by UNESCO as exemplary cases of protection and utilization. These initiatives showcase China's ingenuity and expertise in cultural heritage preservation and utilization. The Baiheliang site in Chongqing is renowned for its ancient inscriptions and stone fish carvings, which document hydrological information about the Yangtze River spanning over 1,200 years, including more than 60 years of dry periods. UNESCO recognizes it as ‘the world's first ancient hydrological station’ due to its remarkable preservation. However, with the completion of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, the Baiheliang site would be submerged. To safeguard this invaluable cultural heritage, an underwater museum was constructed based on the concept of ‘building a museum on the original site, preserving the environment in its original state, and displaying it in its original state’. Visitors to the Baiheliang Underwater Museum can descend via escalator to the stone carving exhibition area located 38 meters underwater. Even individuals without diving skills can admire the white crane beam through display windows. This groundbreaking presentation method, which allows non-diving visitors to access underwater heritage, had not been attempted by museums worldwide before. UNESCO hailed it as the ‘world's first non-diving accessible underwater heritage museum’. Subsequently, other countries, such as Italy, adopted a similar underwater display approach. For instance, in the Bay of Camarina in Sicily, Italy, a transparent underwater corridor was constructed, enabling people to enter the water from the shore and closely observe one of the ‘stone pillar wrecks’. These pioneering efforts in China and their subsequent replication in other parts of the world demonstrate the innovative and influential role that China's underwater cultural heritage protection and utilization practices have played in enhancing public accessibility and appreciation of submerged archaeological sites. The protection project of the ‘Nanhai I’, Song Dynasty shipwreck, is another remarkable example of the relocation and preservation of underwater cultural heritage. Through the ‘overall salvage’ initiative, the entire shipwreck site was relocated to the purpose-built Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum for archaeological excavation, scientific research, conservation, and exhibition purposes. This comprehensive approach to salvaging and protecting the ‘Nanhai I’ shipwreck represents a unique and innovative methodology and system for the preservation and utilization of underwater cultural heritage. It enables a seamless connection between excavation, protection, and exhibition within the museum, providing a holistic understanding of the historical context. The relocation and protection of the ‘Nanhai I’ shipwreck demonstrate the ingenuity of Chinese museums in safeguarding and showcasing underwater cultural heritage. The success of this methodology and system has proven its effectiveness in both heritage preservation and generating social benefits. In recent years, leveraging the power of the ‘Internet+’ and digital resources, the excavated artefacts have been widely utilized in social education, cultural and creative product development, animation and game creation, and the integration of new media technologies such as online live streaming, children's game consoles, message touch machines, naked-eye 3D studios, and VR or AR experiences. These advancements have significantly enhanced the interaction between museums and their audiences, amplifying the dissemination of historical and cultural knowledge related to the ‘Nanhai I’ shipwreck. The utilization of digital resources and new media technologies has greatly enriched the visitor experience, enabling a more immersive and interactive exploration of the history and cultural significance associated with the ‘Nanhai I’ shipwreck. In 2007, fishermen made a significant discovery in the three-point golden sea southeast of Nanao Island in Guangdong Province. They stumbled upon an ancient shipwreck from the Ming Dynasty, which had been missing for over 400 years. The shipwreck, named ‘Nanao I’, underwent subsequent excavation and recovery efforts. Between 2010 and 2012, underwater archaeological excavations took place, resulting in the retrieval of over 27,000 artefacts. The majority of these artefacts were blue and white porcelain, accompanied by pottery, metalware, wood, stone tools, and other items. Additionally, 3 �24,000 copper coins, 29,000 bead tube ornaments, as well as organic and inorganic specimens like fruit pits, tuber crops, and mercury were found. After the completion of the underwater archaeology project in 2012, ‘Nanao I’ was covered by a large probe frame to preserve its hull at the original site. The raised artefacts were transported to the museum for conservation treatment, where they are now displayed. The Nanao County Coastal Defense History Museum hosts an exhibition centered around the ‘Nanao I’ shipwreck. Visitors can embark on a high-fidelity virtual journey aboard an ancient wooden boat, wearing 360° VR equipment. Through the ‘VR Sailing Experience: ‘Nanao I’ Silk Road Story’ special 3D cartoon, visitors are transported back in time to the prosperous Ming Dynasty. They can explore vivid historical scenes, immersing themselves in the magnificent and longstanding legend of marine trade. The exhibition also features the ‘South Australia I’ VR panoramic navigation experience platform. By utilizing intelligent and information technology, this project presents intricate historical narratives, enhances the exhibition's quality, and effectively disseminates its themes and content. Visitors can wear 360° VR equipment for the ‘Underwater Archaeology VR’ project, simulating the experience of being an archaeological team member diving deep underwater to conduct underwater excavations. The exhibition hall also includes a restored model of the ‘Nanao I’ wreck, showcasing the shipwreck scene, cargo, and surrounding underwater world. Various artefacts from the ‘Nanao I’, such as seabed stones, plates, bowls, and jars, are exhibited to demonstrate the cultural relics of Nanao Port and South Australia, highlighting the prosperity of the Maritime Silk Road. The three-dimensional surround sound effect further immerses visitors in the experience. An integral part of the exhibition's quality enhancement is the QR code self-service guide system. These QR codes facilitate multi-terminal adaptation, allowing visitors to access information on museum exhibits, real-life scenes, and virtual immersive experiences through digital collections. This system provides self-service automatic explanations, enhancing visitors' viewing experiences and improving the overall service quality of the exhibition hall. The ‘Nanao I’ Aquatic Cultural Relics Exhibition at Shantou Museum drew over 20,000 visitors in just over a month. Furthermore, the Guangdong Provincial Museum collaborated with the National Institute of Marine Cultural Properties of Korea to host the ‘Nanao I: Ming Dynasty Maritime Trade’ exhibition. This marked the first overseas cooperation of Guangdong Provincial Museum for an underwater archaeology exhibition. It is worth noting that the ‘Nanao I’ shipwreck site was selected as one of the ‘National Top Ten Archaeological New Discoveries’, signifying its significance in the field of underwater archaeology in China. CONCLUSIONS Chinese museums have embraced the rich underwater cultural heritage resources and are utilizing them in diverse and innovative ways. One such example is the Hainan Provincial Museum, which has curated a series of exhibitions centered around the artefacts recovered from the sunken ship ‘Huaguangjiao I’ in the Xisha Islands. These exhibitions aim to showcase the essence and stories of the sunken ship, particularly in relation to the history of maritime trade and the Maritime Silk Road. Notably, the exhibitions titled ‘Direction of the Sea: Special Exhibition on Huaguangjiao I Sunken Ship’ and ‘Pan Boat of the South China Sea: Exhibition on the Maritime Civilization of the South China Sea’ have both received the prestigious National Top Ten Exhibition Awards, a rare achievement in the field of exhibitions. Another noteworthy endeavor is the ‘Silk Road Sailing Far’ exhibition led by the Fujian Provincial Museum. This exhibition brings together artefacts from over 50 museums nationwide to comprehensively depict the extensive and magnificent history of the Maritime Silk Road. Alongside other historical artefacts, the exhibition also showcases underwater archaeological achievements, highlighting the importance of maritime heritage in the context of the Silk Road. These initiatives demonstrate the commitment of Chinese museums to utilize underwater cultural heritage to tell compelling stories and shed light on the historical significance of maritime trade routes like the Maritime Silk Road. By integrating artefacts recovered from underwater sites, these exhibitions offer visitors a unique perspective on the past and contribute to a deeper understanding of China's rich maritime history. Bibliography Wei J., 2020. Museum Display of China’s Underwater Cultural Heritages. Chinese Museum. Vol. 3: 9-16. Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. Available through: https://www.msrmuseum.com/Home 4 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 1: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference presentation Date Available Date (often a range) that the resource became or will become available. November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Protection and Utilization of Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within this session, because underwater cultural heritage (UCH) are remains of ancient human civilization. Ancient maritime trade promoted economic and cultural exchange among coastal countries, and promoted the development of world civilization. They are very precious historical information and rare physical data. The case study under consideration are ancient ships and its accompanying UCH in the South China Sea. I briefly discuss the protection of the UCH and explore their development and utilization. Only by developing and utilizing UCH can the study of ancient civilization continue. The resources available to conduct the work include mainly taking ‘Huaguang Reef I’, ‘Nanhai I’, ‘Nanao I’ and other shipwrecks and their UCH as examples. I study the historical evolution and transformation of the three shipwrecks, as well as the cargo such as pottery, metal and the wooden hull. Creative products and related themes and activities are developed according to their historical characteristics, so as to let the cultural relics speak. The research approach is through the development and research of these cases whereby audience can walk into the site that stores the ancient ships, these are tourist attractions. The income from tickets or cultural and creative products provides financial support for the protection and maintenance of ancient ships and UCH. The results are forming a virtuous circle and bringing immeasurable cultural influence. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bao Chun Lei Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bao, Chun Lei. 2023. “Protection and utilization of marine cultural relics.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Akifumi Iwabuchi, and Kotaro Yamafune. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1888 Asia-Pac Session 1 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Archaeology of the Boat: A New Introductory Study Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Basil Greenhill Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Wesleyan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-11 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Basil Greenhill Item Type Book ISBN 0819550027 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-11 Library Catalog Amazon.com Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Wesleyan Short Title Archaeology of the Boat Title A name given to the resource Archaeology of the Boat: A New Introductory Study https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/da154ba2b3e3912f4f06212f4c3ace65.pdf 4a25e1d4ec099176701fde633d4ccf0e PDF Text Text Preliminary analysis of the early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines, c.1400 – c.1600 NM Austero1,2, BC Orillaneda1, LM Neri2 1 2 Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Division, National Museum of the Philippines School of Archaeology, University of the Philippines, Diliman ABSTRACT This study presents seven early handheld guns also known as “handgonnes” or hand cannons recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines. In this paper, three guns HHG-001, HHG-002, and HHG-003, feature shorter and stubby barrels with prominent reinforced sections, bulbous breech regions, and flared muzzles. The flared muzzles of these guns are typical of a blunderbuss type and or dart-firing guns of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The remaining handheld guns HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007, on the other hand, are tapered gun barrels without prominent reinforcement rings, and unflared muzzles that are probably designed for a single bullet and long-range firing. The smallest unflared muzzle gun HHG-005 measures only 39.1 cm long with a 1.31 cm bore diameter. While HHG-007 is the heaviest with a prominently thick gun barrel probably designed to withstand more powder charges. Compositional analysis using Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy showed that most of these guns were made of leaded tin bronze alloys. Comprised mainly of 37.77% to 83.57% copper, 3.11% to 22.41% tin, and 0.87% to 47.72% lead with other trace elements including arsenic, bismuth, nickel, and manganese, among others. The discovery of these guns in various merchant ships such as those of the Santa Cruz, Pandanan, and Lena Shoal shipwrecks is clear evidence of their use by the early seafaring merchants. The use of pXRF also revealed traces of possible black powder elements such as sulphur and potassium thereby suggesting the actual usage of these guns that warrants further investigation. Despite their size and offensive functions against pirates and crews of enemy ships, firing them would have been intimidating. Keywords: Seagoing firearms, handheld guns Lists of Figures Figure 1. Early handheld guns with flared muzzles. Figure 2. Early handheld guns with unflared muzzles. Lists of Tables Table 1. Early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines with their gun lengths and bore diameters. Table 2. Percent composition of major and minor elements of the seven early handheld guns using portable X-Ray Fluorescence analysis. INTRODUCTION Small artillery pieces are among the few of the vast number of archaeological materials discovered from most of the maritime and underwater sites in the Philippines. The archaeological excavation of the San Diego shipwreck in Fortune Island, Batangas for example, yielded thousands of lead musket balls, along with a few corroded iron pieces, barrels of rifles, harquebuses, and spring shots (Reverseau 1996; Alba et al. 1993; Alvarez 1992; Conese 1992; Cuevas 1992). San Diego was a Manila galleon sunk by the Dutch ship Mauritius during their naval battle on December 14, 1600. Interestingly, historical accounts have mentioned the vessel’s long-range, large artillery became inconsequential as the fighting occurred onboard using hand-to-hand combat, thereby employing small firearms such as harquebuses and rifles along with the other handheld weapons (Desroches et al. 1 �1996). Several projectiles and small caliber firearms were also discovered in other shipwreck sites in the country. These early handheld guns served as pieces of evidence that provide insights into how these firearms were possibly manufactured and used onboard the merchant vessels plying the seas during the pre-colonial period of the Philippines. The case studies discussed here include significant guns from the Pandanan, Lena Shoal, and Santa Cruz shipwrecks. First is a bronze early handheld gun from the Pandanan shipwreck, a middle to late fifteenth century Southeast Asian merchant vessel (see Orillaneda 2016a, 2016b; Tanaka and Dizon 2011; Dizon 1996, 1994; Peralta 1996; Cuevas 1995; Alba 1995). Second, are five early handheld guns, recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck, a possible Chinese-Southeast Asian hybrid junk that sank around 1490 off the island of Busuanga in the Philippines (see Orillaneda 2016a; Dizon 2003; Conese 1997; Goddio 2000; Lopez-Martin 2002). The third and final is a bronze early handheld gun from the Santa Cruz shipwreck, a possible late fifteenth to early sixteenth century hybrid ship of the South China Sea Shipbuilding Tradition (see Orillaneda 2016a, 2016b, 2012, 2008). In this study, compositional analysis using Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (pXRF) aimed to reveal the materials used in manufacturing these guns. Moreover, the discovery of these guns on board merchant ships such as those of the Santa Cruz, Pandanan, and Lena Shoal shipwrecks suggests their usage by early seafaring merchants. Hence, the use of pXRF also aimed to determine possible evidence of their usage. METHODOLOGY Seven early handheld guns were measured to determine length, width, diameters, and calibers: HHG-001, HHG-002, HHG-003, HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007. The gun length was measured with rulers, tape measures, and a digital caliper (Fujiwara) with a nominal accuracy of ± 0.01 mm. The terms hand cannon and hand gonne and sometimes handgonnes or handguns are already used interchangeably in the past referring to the early small-caliber handheld guns (e.g. Peralta 1996). To avoid confusion, the abbreviation HHG for “handheld guns” were used to code each artifact from HHG-001 to HHG-007. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy Analysis The composition analysis of the early handheld guns was conducted using portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (pXRF) of Olympus Vanta C Series Philippines with rhodium and tungsten anodes at 50 KeV. The analysis was conducted at the Lithics Laboratory of the University of the Philippines School of Archaeology (UPSA). For guns, HHG-001, HHG-002, and HHG-003, the data/spectra were recorded for approximately 180 s directly at the surfaces of the tiller, bulbous region, barrel, and muzzle. For guns HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007, the spectra were also recorded for approximately 180 s on the surfaces of the tiller, the reinforcement region, the barrel, and the muzzle. Additionally, spectra were also recorded for approximately 180 s on the surfaces of the touch holes, handles, sights, and 5th reinforcement rings for all the guns where applicable. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This paper presents the early handheld guns recovered from the Pandanan, Lena Shoal, and Santa Cruz shipwrecks as shown in Table 1. These guns were categorized into two groups based on their possible usage: 1) close-range guns – these guns feature shorter and stubby barrels with prominent reinforced sections, bulbous breech, and flared muzzle regions, including HHG-001, HHG-002, and HHG-003; and, 2) long-range guns – these guns feature relatively longer and tapered gun barrels without prominent reinforcement rings, and unflared muzzles probably designed for a single bullet and long-range firing, including HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007. 2 �Table 1. Early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines with gun lengths and bore diameters. Gun lengths (cm) Sample Code Shipwreck Site HHG-001 Pandanan Shoal HHG-002 HHG-003 Bore Diameter (cm) Barrel Chamber Tiller Total 2.37 19.3 5.2 2.6 27.1 Lena Shoal 2.51 20.9 7.6 4.8 33.3 Lena Shoal 3.26 20.8 5.4 9.2 35.4 2.33 40.2 12.7 8.2 61.1 9.0 4.1 39.1 3.2 64.8 3.9 60.7 Lena Shoal HHG-004 Len HHG-005 Lena Shoal 1.31 26.0 HHG-006 Santa Cruz 2.08 45.2 16.4 Len HHG-007 Lena Shoal 2.78 40.4 16.4 Descriptions of the Guns Early Handheld Gun No. 1 (HHG-001) Recovered from the Pandanan shipwreck, this gun (Fig. 1, left) was thought to belong to small caliber cannons such as the lantakas and rentakas among others as most of its features are typical of the early handheld guns (Peralta 1996). The gun is about 27.1 cm long with a 2.37 cm bore diameter with prominent reinforcement rings. The tiller at the rear end is approximately 2.6 cm in length with only about 1.2 cm deep socket. This is too shallow to hold the tiller firmly without falling off, suggesting the gun was probably stocked-mounted (Peralta 1996). Wooden tillers, however, were mostly secured by iron straps or slotted into the end of the breech (Lepage 2005). Houston and Stroyan (2014) also described a similar hand cannon fired with a trestle-like stand. In that case, the tiller no longer needed to carry the entire weight of the gun; instead, it served as a handle when the cannon tube became too hot to hold after firing several shots (Lepage 2005). The flared muzzle of the gun is also indicative of other small caliber cannons such as a blunderbuss type and or dart-firing guns of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries CE (Lopez-Martin 2002; Peralta 1996; Powell 2010, 1095). Early Handheld Gun No. 2 (HHG-002) This gun is approximately 33.3 cm in length with a 2.51 cm bore diameter, recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (Fig. 1, middle) (Lopez-Martin 2002). Similar to HHG-001, it is a muzzle-loading gun with prominent wide bands of reinforcement rings from the tiller toward the muzzle (see Lopez-Martin 2002). Also similar to HHG-001, its flared-shaped muzzle is indicative of dart-firing guns used from 1464-1496 CE on China’s interior frontiers and in merchant junks against pirate attacks (Lopez-Martin 2002, Powell 2010, 1095). The rear end is also fixed with a tiller of about 4.8 cm in length with a 2.0 cm deep socket, probably deep enough to hold the wooden tiller attachment without falling off. In contrast to the HHG-001, however, this gun was also fixed with a “lug” or handle to add ease in handling and or aiming targets. 3 �Figure 1. Early handheld guns with flared muzzles: HHG-001 (left), recovered from the Pandanan shipwreck (IV-1993-V-1152), with prominent reinforcement rings and a “lug” probably as the gun’s rear sight; HHG-002 (middle), recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (IV-93-H-2901) with prominent reinforcement rings and a handle; HHG-003 (right), recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (IV-93-H-4011) with prominent reinforcement rings. Early Handheld Gun No. 3 (HHG-003) This gun is approximately 35.4 cm in length with a 3.26 cm bore diameter and was recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (Lopez-Martin 2002). Similar to HHG-001 and HHG-002, it is a muzzle-loading gun with prominent wide bands of reinforcement rings and a flared muzzle (Fig. 1, right). Flared muzzles of early handheld guns were intended to scatter the shots at close range and to ease loading (DK Publishing 2006, 247). However, HHG-003’s flared muzzle is narrower compared to those of the HHG-001, and HHG-002, thereby suggesting this gun is probably more effective when shot from a distance. Moreover, the rear end is also fixed with a prominent 9.2 cm tiller socket and a “lug” or handle to add ease in handling and or aiming targets. 4 �Early Handheld Gun No. 4 (HHG-004) This handheld gun measured about 61.1 cm long with approximately 2.33 cm bore diameter, also recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (Fig. 2a) (Goddio 2000). The barrel is slightly tapering towards the muzzle with a maximum diameter of 3.7 cm and a minimum diameter of 3.1 cm. The vent or the touch hole is located approximately 19.7 cm centimeters from the rear end with a simple spherical reinforcement. The stock or tiller socket at the rear end is prominently longer, measuring about 8.2 cm, suggesting a firm attachment of a wooden tiller. The remains of a possible wooden tiller can still be seen attached inside the rear end socket proposing that the gun was not stock-mounted. Early Handheld Gun No. 5 (HHG-005) This gun was also recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck, measuring about 39.1 cm long with approximately 1.31 cm bore diameter (Fig. 2b). The barrel is slightly tapering towards the muzzle with a maximum diameter of 2.0 cm and a minimum diameter of 2.2 cm. The vent or the touch hole is located approximately 4.2 centimeters from the rear end with a simple leaf-like or diamond shape design. The stock or tiller socket at the rear end is relatively longer, measuring 4.1 cm also suggesting a firm attachment of a wooden tiller. A tiny sized-gun can surely be easier to aim and fire. Early Handheld Gun No. 6 (HHG-006) The early handheld gun recovered from the Santa Cruz shipwreck is similar to the gun recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck, HHG-004. This gun is the longest, measuring about 64.8 cm long with approximately 2.08 cm bore diameter (Fig. 2c). The larger barrel is also slightly tapering towards the muzzle with a maximum diameter of 3.58 cm and a minimum diameter of 2.84 cm. The touch hole is approximately 3.2 cm centimeters from the rear end with a leaf-like or diamond-shaped reinforcement. The remains of the tiller socket at the rear end seem to have been broken, measuring only about 3.2 cm. The tiller socket was possibly longer for a firm tiller attachment. Early Handheld Gun No. 7 (HHG-007) This gun is the heaviest and largest of all five guns recovered from the Lena Shoal shipwreck (Fig. 2d). It measures about 60.7 cm long and has a 2.78 cm bore diameter. The gun barrel is relatively thick, about 1.71 cm, which is probably designed to withstand more powder charges to propel a relatively bigger caliber bullet. The touch hole is approximately 3.9 cm centimeters from the rear end with a leaf-like or diamond-shaped reinforcement similar to that of HHG-006. The tiller socket is also short, suggesting a need for reinforcement straps and or added support stand when firing. A similar gun of Chinese origin from the fourteenth to fifteenth centuries was also found in the Molucca Sea in the Dutch Indies (McLachlan 2010). 5 �Figure 2. Early handheld guns with unflared muzzles: HHG-004 (A), recovered from the shipwreck (IV-93-H-0342) with a tapered gun barrel; HHG-005 (B), recovered from the shipwreck (IV-93-H-3417) with a tapered gun barrel; HHG-006 (C), recovered from the shipwreck (III-2001-Z-NA) with a tapered gun barrel; HHG-007 (D), recovered from the shipwreck (IV-1993-H-NA) with a relatively thick gun barrel and of a higher caliber. 6 Lena Shoal Lena Shoal Santa Cruz Lena Shoal �X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) Analysis Results from compositional analysis using pXRF revealed most of these guns were primarily a ternary alloy of Cu, Pb, and Sn (e.g. Pollard and Liu 2023). Comprised mainly of 37.77 percent to 83.57 percent copper, 3.11 percent to 22.41 percent tin, and 0.87 percent to 47.72 percent lead with other trace elements including arsenic, bismuth, nickel, and manganese, among others (Table 2). Pollard and Liu (2023) also noted that the sum of all three metal components of ternary alloys is usually around 98 percent. Our research, however, provided a range between the sums of 94.20 percent to 98.38 percent. Table 2. Percent composition of major and minor elements of the seven early handheld guns using pXRF. Percent Composition of Elements (Barrel) Sample Code Cu Sn Pb As Bi Ni Mn OE 0.05 0.01 1.04 0.09 0.03 1.31 0.88 0.09 0.04 0.74 22.41 22.4095 HHG-001 40.71 31.76 0.26 2.89 1.91 22.4095 22.4095 HHG-002 83.57 12.65 0.87 11.31 4.59 0.45 0.59 HHG-003 81.75 0.88 14.70 HHG-004 74.91 8.77 <LOD 0.66 0.06 0.02 0.07 0.02 1.30 <LOD <LOD 0.01 1.59 <LOD 0.03 0.01 1.59 0.83 HHG-005 HHG-006 HHG-007 77.81 14.31 5.40 37.77 8.71 47.72 47.48 3.11 47.05 0.26 4.20 0.82 Note: Copper (Cu), Tin (Sn), Lead (Pb), Arsenic (As), Bismuth (Bi), Nickel (Ni), Manganese (Mn), and Other Elements (OE). 7 �Interestingly, the use of pXRF also revealed traces of possible black powder elements thereby suggesting the actual usage of these guns and warranting further investigation into firing guns and recording residue. Trace amounts of sulphur and potassium were recorded on the surfaces of the muzzle and tiller of the early handheld gun HHG-001. Traces of sulphur were also recorded on the surfaces of the touchhole, handle, and muzzle of the early handheld gun HHG-003. These results further showed the importance of gunpowder and its use in most seagoing firearms (e.g., Kozari and Vizy 2013; McLachlan 2010; Khan 2004; Andaya 1992). The discovery of the early handheld guns from the shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines affirms the use of seagoing firearms. Records on the use of these light guns against pirates and crews of enemy ships were already known in merchant ships as early as the fourteenth century (Lepage, 2005). Their discovery onboard various merchant ships such as those of the Santa Cruz, Pandanan, and Lena Shoal shipwrecks is clear evidence of their use by the early seafaring merchants. Despite their size and offensive functions against pirates and crews of enemy ships, firing them would have been intimidating (McLachlan 2010; Lepage 2005). Acknowledgment We would like to thank the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) through the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Division (MUCHD) and the UP School of Archaeology (UPSA) of the University of the Philippines, Diliman for their unwavering support for this research. The Department of Science and Technology – Grants-in-Aid Program (DOST-GIA) for Biak na Bato, Bulacan Project for the portable X-Ray Fluorescence (pXRF) instrument used during the conduct of this research. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alba L. “Pandanan Underwater Archaeological Project Report. Pandanan Island, Balabak, Palawan. Third Preliminary Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (1995):1-6. Andaya LY. “Interactions with the Outside World and Adaptation in Southeast Asia.” In The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia from early times to c. 1800, edited by N. Tarling, 345-395. Singapore, Cambridge University, 1992. Cuevas MA. “Pandanan Island Underwater Archaeological Project: Inspection of a Reported Site.” National Museum of the Philippines, (1993): 1-12. “Pandanan Island Underwater Archaeology Project: Second Preliminary Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (1995):1-6. Dizon EZ. “Status of Philippine Underwater Archaeological Researches from 1989-91: Prospects for 1992.” Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (1992), 16(1): 41-47. “A Decade of Archaeological Research in the Philippines.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture & Society, (1994), 22(3):197-222. “The Archaeology of a 15th century A.D. Shipwreck, located off Pandanan Island, Southern Palawan Philippines.” National Museum of the Philippines, (1996): 1-29. “Philippines”. In British Museum Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, edited by Delgado, 303–305. British Museum Press, London. 1997. “Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in the Philippines.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, (2003), 31(1/2): 1-25. DK Publishing. “Weapon: a visual history of arms and armour.” New York, Dorling Kindersley Linited, 2006. Goddio F, Pierson S, Crick M (Eds.). Sunken treasures: Fifteenth-century Chinese ceramics from the Lena Cargo. London: Periplus Publishing London Limited. 2000. 8 �Honasan A. “The Pandanan Junk.” In The Pearl Road: Tales of Treasure Ships in the Philippines, edited by Loviny, 13-23, 1996. Khan IA. “Early use of Cannon and Musket in India: A.D. 1442-1526.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 24, 2 (1981): 146-164. Keith DH, de Bry J. “Artillery.” In La Belle, The Archaeology of a Seventeenth-Century Ship of New World Colonization, edited by Bruseth, A&M University Press, Texas, 2017. Kelly J. “Gunpowder. Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World”. Basic Books (2004): 3-18. Kozari J, Vizy S. “The development of infantry firearms and its impact on army tactics.” Acta Acad. Agriensis, Sectio Historriae XLI (2013): 185-195. Lacsina LSP. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Sixth Progress Report”. National Museum of the Philippines (2004): 1-6. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Seventh Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines (2005a):1-4. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Eighth Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines (2005b): 1-4. Lepage JGG. “Medieval Armies and Weapons in Western Europe. An Illustrated History.” North Carolina, McFarland and Company Inc., (2005): 248-266. Lopez-Martin J. “Cannon.” In Lost at Sea: The strange route of the Lena Shoal junk, edited by Goddio F, Pierson S, Crick M, 239-241. Periplus Publishing Limited, London, 2002. McLachlan S. “Medieval Handgonnes. The First black powder infantry weapons.” Osprey Publishing, (2010): 82 Pp. Orillaneda BC. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: A Field Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004a), 1-8. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: A Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004b), 1-4. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Second Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004c), 1-5. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Third Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004d), 1-8. “The Santa Cruz Underwater Archaeological Exploration: The Fourth Progress Report.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2004e), 1-5. “A Brief Report on the Sharing of the Santa Cruz Shipwreck Ceramic Artifacts.” National Museum of the Philippines, (2005), 1-2. “The Santa Cruz, Zambales Shipwreck Ceramics: Understanding Southeast Asian Ceramic Trade during the Late 15th Century C.E, ” Master’s thesis, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2008. “Of Ships and Shipping: The Maritime Archaeology of the Fifteenth Century CE Southeast Asia.” In Early Navigation in the Asia-Pacific Region. A Maritime Perspective, edited by Chunming Wu, 29-57, Singapore: Springer Science + Business Media, 2016a. “Maritime Trade in the Philippines During the 15th Century CE.” Mousssons 27 (2016b): 83-100. “The Santa Cruz shipwreck excavation: A reflection on the practice of underwater archaeology in the Philippines.” In Innovation and adaptation: Marine archaeology in Southeast Asia, edited by Noel Tan, 86–102. Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum, 2012. Peralta JT. “Anatomy of a Shipwreck: Archaeology of the 15th-century Pandanan Shipwreck.” In The Pearl Road: Tales of Treasure Ships in the Philippines, edited by C. Loviny, 63-94. Mandaluyong, Philippines: Asiatype and C Loviny, 1996. Pollard AM, Liu R. “Predicting bronze casting recipes in Ancient China: ternary copper-lead-tin alloys and the “unit sum problem”.” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences (2023): 15:55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-023-01747-y Powell J. (Ed.). Weapons and Warfare, revised version. California, Salem Press. 2010. Reverseau JP. “Weapons: Small arms.” In Treasures of the San Diego, edited by Desroches JP, Casal G, Goddio F., 192-197. Association Française d'Action Artistique, Paris, 1996 Tanaka K, Dizon Z. 2011. “Shipwreck Site and Earthenware Vessels in the Philippines: Earthenware vessels of the Pandanan Shipwreck Site.” The MUA Collection, (2011), 1-11, http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1234 (Accessed December 27, 2021). 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Preliminary analysis of the early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines, c.1400 – c.1600 Description An account of the resource This study presents seven early handheld guns also known as “handgonnes” or hand cannons recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines. In this paper, three guns HHG-001, HHG-002, and HHG-003, feature shorter and stubby barrels with prominent reinforced sections, bulbous breech regions, and flared muzzles. The flared muzzles of these guns are typical of a blunderbuss type and or dart-firing guns of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The remaining handheld guns HHG-004, HHG-005, HHG-006, and HHG-007, on the other hand, are tapered gun barrels without prominent reinforcement rings, and unflared muzzles that are probably designed for a single bullet and long-range firing. The smallest unflared muzzle gun HHG-005 measures only 39.1 cm long with a 1.31 cm bore diameter. While HHG-007 is the heaviest with a prominently thick gun barrel probably designed to withstand more powder charges. Compositional analysis using Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy showed that most of these guns were made of leaded tin bronze alloys. Comprised mainly of 37.77% to 83.57% copper, 3.11% to 22.41% tin, and 0.87% to 47.72% lead with other trace elements including arsenic, bismuth, nickel, and manganese, among others. The discovery of these guns in various merchant ships such as those of the Santa Cruz, Pandanan, and Lena Shoal shipwrecks is clear evidence of their use by the early seafaring merchants. The use of pXRF also revealed traces of possible black powder elements such as sulphur and potassium thereby suggesting the actual usage of these guns that warrants further investigation. Despite their size and offensive functions against pirates and crews of enemy ships, firing them would have been intimidating. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource NM Austero BC Orillaneda LM Neri Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Austero, Nero M., BC Orillaneda, LM Neri. 2023. “Preliminary analysis of the early handheld guns recovered from shipwrecks plying the seas of the pre-colonial Philippines, c.1400 – c.1600.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Michelle Damian. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1917 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource China’s Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Benn, Charles Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Benn, Charles Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Title A name given to the resource China’s Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Aak to Zumbra: A Dictionary of the World's Watercraft Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mariner's Museum Beverly McMillan Susannah Livingston Susan Beaven Rutter Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Mariner's Museum Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2000 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Mariner's Museum Editor Beverly McMillan Susannah Livingston Susan Beaven Rutter Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2000 Place Newport News, VA Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Mariner's Museum Title A name given to the resource Aak to Zumbra: A Dictionary of the World's Watercraft