8 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/072a5e0b00325c6e4e9b54b795e2905d.pdf d7e89693e1ac7883c5cf34d5fea83127 PDF Text Text Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: A Case Study in Developing a Program of Protecting Underwater Cultural Heritage Jennifer F. McKinnon East Carolina University, Program in Maritime Studies, Greenville, 27858, USA Email: mckinnonje@ecu.edu Abstract This paper outlines a specific example, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and its effort to create and maintain a program for identifying, protecting and interpreting underwater cultural heritage (UCH). This paper suggests the process of developing such a program is most successful when it occurs in cooperation with all branches of the government that deal with marine/water resources and the local community who are stakeholders in the protection of their heritage. Key words: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Shipwrecks, Saipan, Sustainable Introduction The Mariana archipelago is located east of the Philippines and south-southeast of Japan. Saipan, the capital of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) and the largest and most populated island, is 19 km long by 9 km wide and is fringed by a barrier reef on its western side which creates a large, shallow lagoon (Fig. 1). On the eastern side of the island the water is much deeper, although Lau Lau Bay offers some shallower water. The clarity and consistently warm temperatures of the water make SCUBA diving in the waters of Saipan possible year-round. Historic shipwrecks and submerged underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the CNMI are protected by both Commonwealth and US federal laws. Several UCH surveys and assessments have been conducted in the waters surrounding Saipan from 1979 to the present which provide invaluable baseline data for identifying and conducting further research on UCH sites in the Marianas. More recently in 2008, remote sensing and diver identification surveys in Saipan were conducted by Southeastern Archaeological Research (SEARCH) (SEARCH, 2008a; SEARCH, 2008b). The remote sensing surveys, including magnetometry and side scan sonar, were broad in nature; however the focus of the 1 �historical research and diver identification was on WWII heritage. The surveys were intended to be a baseline inventory for future investigations to build upon and were funded through a historic preservation grant provided to the Historic Preservation Office (HPO) and administered by the National Park Service (NPS). A total of 1,543 anomalies were located and, “The majority of identified anomalies represents material culture from WWII and offers a unique opportunity for Saipan to interpret its history through maritime heritage and dive trails” (SEARCH, Inc. 2008b: i). In 2009, a comprehensive overview of the maritime history and Fig. 1 The Mariana Islands. (Perry-Castañeda was Library) completed by Ships of Discovery archaeology of the CNMI (SHIPS) (Carrell, 2009). The project was undertaken as part of the CNMI’s on-going efforts to meet its historic preservation and inventory mandates and also was funded through a historic preservation grant administered by the NPS. The maritime context document provided an in-depth discussion of the history of the CNMI from the prehistoric period to the present, and pulled together currently available information on UCH sites in the islands. Together these two projects provided the background information and emphasis for the development of a more intensive archaeological investigation and a public interpretation program for UCH in Saipan. In fact, at the same time that SEARCH, Inc. was conducting survey in 2008, staff and students from Flinders University were on the island working with the HPO to create a plan for developing a “maritime unit” within their existing program. In an earlier trip to Saipan in 2007, the 2 �HPO voiced concerns about their lack of ability to manage UCH (due to a lack of training in underwater archaeological techniques), and the pressing need due to the amount of tourist divers visiting the WWII sites. They also were interested in developing a maritime heritage trail which would provide two favorable outcomes: 1) developing a presence on the water as the agency charged with managing the resources and 2) developing a heritage tourism product that could promote sustainable use of the already heavily visited sites. Thus the idea was formulated to develop a plan to accomplish a number of objectives that would assist HPO in better managing their UCH. These objectives included:  Training staff in underwater archaeological methods in order to create a team of diving archaeologists  Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites  Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism All of the objectives have been achieved and even more developments have taken place. Below are some of the projects and initiatives that were instigated and a discussion on some of the obstacles encountered and ways forward. Training staff in underwater archaeological methods The first objective of developing a training opportunity was accomplished in January 2009 when Flinders University and HPO supported archaeological technician John Castro to travel to Australia and participate in the Flinders University Maritime Archaeological Field School in South Australia. Castro’s extensive diving and archaeological background allowed him to participate as a supervisor in the two-week field school where he gained additional underwater archaeology experience. A new training was developed by Flinders University specifically for the Mariana Islands context and was held in July 2009 on Saipan for staff from several government agencies, including HPO, Coastal Resources Management (CRM), the NMI Museum of Culture and History, and Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), as well as local interested divers. A total of 20 diving and non-diving participants took part in the twoday course. Based on the Flinders University’s Underwater Archaeology Methods topic, 3 �it included classroom lectures, practical terrestrial exercises, a diving exercise and an intertidal exercise for those not SCUBA certified (Fig. 2). The training was a great success and provided participants with information about the importance of preserving UCH. Fig. 2 Herman Tudela and John Starmer drafting during UCH training. (J. McKinnon) Another type of training was offered later when two Heritage Awareness Diving Seminars (HADS) were run in April 2011. HADS is a specialty course run through the three largest diver certification agencies in the world, NAUI, PADI and SSI, and is training intended for course directors, instructor trainers, instructors, dive masters, boat captains and dive shop owners. It was developed to provide diving industry professionals with a greater knowledge of how to proactively protect shipwrecks and other UCH sites (Scott-Ireton, 2008). The goal of HADS is to increase awareness of the fragility of UCH, teach proper anchoring, mooring and diving behaviour on such sites, as well as demonstrate the need for preservation of such resources for future generations and the economic benefits of heritage diving tourism. A total of 16 participants took part in the HADS training, including dive shop owners, the president of a local dive professional organization, boat captains, dive instructors and dive masters, U.S. Coast Guard staff, and a staff member from the NMI Humanities Council. This training was 4 �funded through a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Region Grants Cooperative grant awarded to Pacific Marine Resources, a local non-profit organisation concerned with environmental and historical research and sustainability. HPO and CRM staff presented lectures during this training. The training was seen as a crucial element to the development of the heritage trail and its sustainability. It aimed at educating the end users to protect the sites and educate their students and clients about using the sites appropriately. Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites In January 2009 SHIPS applied for an American Battlefield Protection Program (ABPP) grant for the archaeological and historical investigation of submerged WWII heritage and the collection of data for the development of a proposed maritime heritage trail. Funding was announced for $ 49,900 in August 2009 and the project quickly took shape. HPO, CRM, and DEQ provided an invaluable amount of in-kind assistance during the project including: staff support both on and off the water, boats and vehicles, equipment and fuel. Their support was instrumental to the success and completion of the project. To date, nearly 50 UCH sites have been recorded or investigated and several of these sites are included in the heritage trail that was developed. Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism The planning for a maritime heritage trail began in 2007-2008 and included a great deal of local consultation. Public lectures were given to gauge local interest, and meetings were held with several stakeholders including local divers and dive clubs, HPO, CRM, DEQ, NMI Humanities Council, and the Marianas Visitors Authority (MVA). This consultation centred on the needs and wants of the community and government in terms of their heritage and a heritage tourism product. As a result, three agencies (HPO, CRM, and DEQ) pledged their assistance to the project. The demographics of diving tourists were also sought from the MVA. Several leading experts in the field of heritage trail development were sought to provide input. More discussions were had with the agencies charged with managing environmental and biological resources; particularly useful were relationships with CRM and DEQ. These agencies provided research 5 �permits and worked alongside the project staff to develop a program for placing moorings on all the sites for use by boaters and tour operators – a necessity for reducing anchor impacts to sites. This trail was conceptualized as part of a plan to aid in the preservation and protection of UCH sites that were already being impacted through tourist visitation. By providing interpretive literature which outlined each site’s history and importance, legal protection and proper etiquette for visiting such heritage sites, it was hoped that divers, snorkelers, and swimmers would be better educated and develop a greater appreciation for the heritage, thus avoiding impacting or harming the sites further. In total nine sites were chosen for the trail including aircraft, landing vehicles, amphibious assault vehicles and shipwrecks of both Japanese and US forces. Printed waterproof dive guides were produced as well as four color posters, a website and an eighteen-minute interpretive video to be shown at the NPS American Memorial Park (Fig. 3). Management plan and in situ conservation survey The need to develop a management plan for submerged WWII maritime heritage in Saipan’s waters was identified during the implementation of the trail. Throughout the archaeological survey and subsequent development of the trail, it was noted by archaeologists that certain UCH sites were being negatively impacted by both natural and cultural factors (for a full review see Fig. 3 Japanese aircraft poster for heritage McKinnon and Carrell, 2011). trail. (SHIPS) These impacts were identified as contributing to an overall loss of archaeological and historical context and affecting the structural integrity of the sites and their long-term survival. While some of these impacts were recorded during the archaeological survey for the development of the trail in 2010, they 6 �were not the primary focus of the project and were treated cursorily. Upon completion of the trail it was deemed important to revisit selected sites and record baseline data to develop a plan to monitor, mitigate and manage the sites into the future. A plan to conduct further archaeological survey and initiate in situ conservation surveys was developed and supported by a follow up ABPP grant for $ 72,000 in 2011. In situ conservation surveys are different from standard archaeological surveys because they include the collection of data related to the natural environment (chemical and physical), which can allow for a better understanding of the destructive forces affecting sites and artifacts (MacLeod and Richards, 2011). They also record modern cultural impacts that can be used in the management of sites, including allowing or restricting access to sites and controls for altering behaviors of visitors. Finally, they often collect specific cultural information including data on material composition of objects. This data is vital to understanding the construction of these sites from an archaeological or cultural perspective, but also contributes to understanding the longevity of sites with relation to the material composition of metals and organics, how they react to and survive within the environment, and their overall structural integrity. In situ surveys and studies are critical to regions such as the Pacific because there are limited resources (i.e. funding, staff, and facilities) to conduct recovery and conservation of submerged objects and sites. While the CNMI does benefit from grant funds distributed by the NPS, this funding is limited and often only covers a small portion of the compliance needs of the HPO (Ronnie Rodgers personal communication, 2010). This means that the conservation and management of the resources must be done in situ. Further, understanding the condition of the resources through in situ and archaeological surveys is an important step in the management process. An agency cannot manage a site if they have no knowledge of its condition. The HPO needs information about the condition of the sites in order to make informed decisions about their management. Additional archaeological survey was conducted alongside the conservation survey in order to locate, record and identify new “control” sites not on the trail that could be monitored long-term for comparison purposes. Baseline data collected on new sites is useful because they can help managers understand the differential impacts of site visitation on those included in the trail. Currently the in situ conservation 7 �survey report and management plan is under review by the granting agency and cannot be discussed until approval is sought. Indigenous seascapes and intangible heritage The idea for a project to record Indigenous maritime sites began during discussions in 2008 about the development of the WWII maritime heritage trail, when community members expressed their desire to further investigate their own “maritime-related” heritage. Thus, a conversation began with local historian Genevieve Cabrera (Chamorro and Carolinian descent) and Herman Tudela (a traditional fisher and archaeological technician of Chamorro and Carolinian descent), who is, about the possibility of recording sites that are significant to their maritime past and present. Flinders University graduate student Julie Mushynsky used the idea and project as part of her thesis research and worked directly with Cabrera, Tudela and others to record selected sites. The result was a community archaeology project to record the tangible and intangible “seascape” of the island of Saipan in the Mariana Islands (McKinnon et al., In Press). The project recorded archaeological sites, oral histories, lived experiences and contemporary understandings of maritime-related heritage and life ways in community Rock art, conjunction members (Fig. potential with 4). fish procurement sites, access points, oral histories and other heritage, both tangible and intangible, were recorded and investigated as a result of this project. This type of Fig. 4 Colleague Genevieve Cabrera (center) leading project is critical to ensuring that site visit. (John Carpenter) colonial maritime history is not privileged over Indigenous maritime heritage and provides a balance to previous research conducted on the island. 8 �Obstacles and moving forward While the CNMI has the ability to utilize and enact any and all of the legislation outlined above and they do so effectively on terrestrial sites, the island is in need of a review of the possible ways that this legislation can be made most effective for UCH. This is not a call for harsher restrictions but a reference to applying the legislation most effectively. It is also important to investigate complementary forms of protection. This means recognizing the location of the sites within, for example, a Conservation Area or National Landmark, both of which exist. Further, it would be ideal if the Rules contained in the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 were used as a model in formulating this process. An obstacle in the effectiveness of the laws listed above is that at present there are no effective means by which the sites can be protected due to a lack of trained staff and equipment. Unfortunately, while there were three staff members at HPO who had the dive qualifications and training to conduct underwater archaeological survey (took training in 2009), today there is only one, and that person is no longer physically able to dive. Further the HPO does not own a boat or diving equipment for accessing the sites. This situation is contradictory to Part II, Guideline 5 of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act 1987 which states “The agencies responsible for the management of State-Owned waters should have (or have access to) adequate professional staff, office and laboratory facilities, vessels, diving and underwater survey equipment to carry out assigned responsibilities.” As a result, the community currently relies on off-island resources and expertise to assist them with the management of their submerged archaeological heritage through monies and projects such as those described in this paper, which is not an ideal situation. More archaeologists and archaeological technicians (a minimum of three) need to be hired, or existing staff needs to be trained in SCUBA and the ability to conduct archaeological assessments underwater. Further the HPO would be better equipped if they hired or purchased SCUBA gear and a boat for the purpose of conducting monitoring and assessment of underwater sites and investigating infractions. An alternative approach through interagency cooperation may provide a quicker solution as outlined below. 9 �Interagency Cooperation The involvement of other government bodies in the management of UCH is critical in the Pacific where resources and funding can be limited. In Saipan many UCH sites are located within the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area. The management plan for this conservation area could include provisions for the protection and management of UCH. To accomplish the legislative purpose of the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Act, the CNMI Department of Lands and Natural Resources (DLNR) was delegated the exclusive authority to manage the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area, as well as other marine conservation areas in the CNMI (Section 6 of PL 12-12). The role of the DLNR in regard to the management of UCH is to promote public access to the sites while protecting the physical remains. The 2005 management plan for the conservation area outlines DLNR has a role in providing logistic and financial support for placing moorings on sites to reduce impacts by anchoring. CRM was established on 11 February 1983, with the implementation of Public Law 3-47 within the Office of the Governor. The CRM program was established in order to promote the conservation and sustainable development of coastal resources. CRM is responsible for general permitting activities which impact coastal resources in Saipan and in particular permits for dive boats and dive tour operations. As a result the agency should develop language for permits that supports the protection of UCH. An effective way to increase enforcement of heritage laws is to train and enlist other agency staff whose job description includes enforcement of natural or environmental legislation. Agencies such as CRM, DLNR, DFW, and DEQ, which already operate boats and conduct regular inspections on water-related activities, could be trained in identifying infractions of cultural heritage law. Alternatively intra-agency agreements in which HPO staff accompany other agency enforcement officers during inspections would allow for increased regulation. Section 6 of Public Law 12-12 states that “...the Department [of Lands and Natural Resources] may coordinate and assist other Commonwealth or Federal agencies in performing their emergency or other agency functions within marine conservation areas, if the exercise of such functions is deemed prudent or necessary by the Department, or the performance of such functions is clearly permitted by law within marine conservation areas”. Thus there is a precedent set in law 10 �that allows for collaborative efforts in management of marine resources. The local natural environment in which a wreck is located and the assemblages that make a wreck have direct impact on the marine environment. A wreck can create a unique local environment for fauna and flora to thrive, and this has a bearing on defining the site's significance and issues of research and interpretation. Therefore there is a need for further understanding of UCH sites’ local marine environment and the habitat they create for marine life. Recent biological researcher was conducted in conjunction with the development of the heritage trail by a research from Sydney University. Fowler conducted two years of fish assemblage studies on the sites included within the trail. His research determined that “well- established vessel-reefs are capable of approximating fish abundances and assemblage parameters on natural coral reefs” (Fowler and Booth, 2012). This research indicates that UCH sites are of natural and environmental significance and should be protected as such. There are no provisions within Public Law 12-12, which regulates the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area, to identify UCH as aquatic reserves or equivalent. However access to the sites, if they are environmentally sensitive, maybe be controlled under provisions of the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area management plan. Community Traditionally there has been little communication between local divers and CNMI HPO. Local divers report being frustrated when trying to report new sites to HPO and receive information about their history or significance. This disconnect is a result of HPO’s inability through training, equipment and funding to be involved in the management of submerged sites. However, the HPO could benefit from partnering or working with local divers, dive groups and dives shops in the location and identification of new sites. Those who know the waters best are those who use it regularly. It would be beneficial if HPO developed a public profile and engaged with divers, dives shops and dive groups. Education programs, meetings, information sessions and the development of a sitereporting program are all options for increasing communication. Conclusion In concluding this paper, it is pertinent to re‐state that the CNMI, and the Pacific region in general, has its own unique set of challenges and issues that are quite different from 11 �other parts of the world. Therefore, it is important when developing a UCH management program that other “models” or “programs” are not applied wholesale to this region. An approach that considers the challenges and difficulties CNMI is facing and a program that is suited to deal with these challenges and resolve them into the future is the most likely successful long-term management approach. This paper was written with the intention of outlining some of the successes of CNMI’s HPO and exploring ways in which they may move forward. The option of involving other interested agencies in managing UCH is likely the best immediate solution, but a long-term approach of hiring staff, increase funding and additional training will need to be undertaken. The information in this paper is meant to empower and encourage the local community to continue the positive steps they have made in protecting their UCH and to move forward. While much of the work on UCH has been on WWII UCH, it is important to remember that there are many more sites from previous and later periods that are significant to the history of the island. It is hoped that the HPO can continue to develop a program for managing those sites as well. Inclusive and collaborative efforts should be made with all regulatory agencies that deal with the marine environment, as well as other stakeholders such as tourism companies and divers. Further, it is important to understand that not only the interests of the U.S. and Japanese government are at the core of this heritage, but a local perspective that incorporates Chamorro, Carolinian, Filipino and Korean values should be considered (McKinnon 2013). Acknowledgments Thank you to the CNMI community for their interest and support in protecting your underwater cultural heritage. Thank you also to the colleagues and students who have been a huge part of the projects described within, particularly Toni Carrell and Jason Raupp. References Carrell, T. L., 2009. Maritime History and Archaeology of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SHIPS, Corpus Christi, Texas. 12 �Fowler, A. M., and Booth, D. J., 2012. How well do sunken vessels approximate fish assemblages on coral reefs? Conservation implications of vessel-reef deployments. Marine Biology, Vol. 159: 2787-2796. MacLeod, I. D., and Richards, V., 2011. In-situ conservation surveys of iron shipwrecks in Chuuk Lagoon and the impact of human intervention. Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material Bulletin, Vol. 32: 106-122. McKinnon, J. F., and Carrell, T., 2011. Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail. SHIPS, Corpus Christi, Texas. McKinnon, J. F., 2013. Difficult Heritage: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites. In D. Scott-Ireton (Ed.), Meeting Challenges in the Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Heritage - Between the Devil and the Deep. Springer Press, New York. McKinnon, J. F., Mushynsky, J., and Cabrera, G., In Press. A Fluid Sea in the Mariana Islands: Mapping the Seascape of Saipan. Journal of Maritime Archaeology. Scott-Ireton, D., 2008. Teaching “Heritage” Awareness” Rather than “Skills” to Sport Diving Community. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 3 (2): 119-120. SEARCH, 2008a. Archaeological Survey of Lagoons of on the West Coast of Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SEARCH, Pensacola, FL. SEARCH, 2008b. Archaeological Survey of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SEARCH, Pensacola, FL. Thompson, E. N., 1984. National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. Landing Beaches, Aslito/Isley Field, and Marpi Point, Saipan Island. National Park Service Denver Service Center, Lakewood, CO. Biography Jennifer McKinnon is an Assistant Professor at East Carolina University in the Program in Maritime Studies. Prior to teaching at ECU, she was a Senior Lecturer at Flinders University, South Australia for seven years. Jennifer is a Research Associate of the non-profit organization SHIPS, Corpus Christi. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: A Case Study in Developing a Program of Protecting Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource This paper outlines a specific example, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and its effort to create and maintain a program for identifying, protecting and interpreting underwater cultural heritage (UCH). This paper suggests the process of developing such a program is most successful when it occurs in cooperation with all branches of the government that deal with marine/water resources and the local community who are stakeholders in the protection of their heritage. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/23cb459153f3a69510e47bd7f7d3821b.pdf 5a7c81c64b13144c78287b3eabdb7d1b PDF Text Text Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Sunny O. Ngirmang and Calvin T. Emesiochel Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture, Koror, Republic of Palau 96940 Email: bac_reg@palaunet.com Abstract Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide details of efforts, challenges and goals, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. In addition, give an overview of the latest UCH training, sponsored by UNESCO, which was held in Palau and plans moving forward to increasing the advocacy of UCH in the Pacific Region, particularly Micronesia. Key words: Palau, WWII, Pacific, Micronesia, Yapese Stone Money Introduction Cultural heritage protection by means of public education is an effective medium for the positive awareness at local community level. In addition, it provides enough force for capacity building of key stakeholders or advocates and other leaders to set the stage for community level goals towards cultural resource management mechanisms. This will 1 �promote effective and sustainable resource management, training, public education and awareness, and advocacy that will instigate community based efforts and goals in preserving archaeological heritage sites. Cultural resource management will allocate the awareness of traditional cultural heritage that would embody sustainability and sensitivity towards cultural heritage. Underwater cultural heritage offer a vast selection of heritage wealth for the understanding and interpretation of our past. Underwater archaeology has yet to receive its much-needed recognition and appreciation within the Palauan community since the field is not fully popularized. This report examines the current situation within the Bureau of Arts and Culture (BAC) and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section of their efforts and goals pertaining to the management of underwater cultural resources. In addition, provide the outcome of the most recent Palau Underwater Archaeology Training in 2013. Palau Island Brief History, Geography and Geology The Palau Island is the westernmost archipelago in the Caroline chain approximately 7 degrees North of the equator, consisting of six island groups totaling more than five hundred high and low islands (only 16 of which are inhabited) including World War II battleground of Peleliu and world-famous mushroom shaped rock islands. The inhabited islands of Palau including from north to south is Kayangel, Babeldaob, Koror, Peleliu, Angaur and the Southwest Island groups. Most of the Islands are encompassed in a barrier reef that stretches for approximately 105 km except for the Southwest Islands. Palau lies on a subduction zone causing Babeldaob, the largest island, to submerge about a half millimeter per year. Consequently, it is hypothesized according to paleoenvironmental studies that the earlier colonization and settlement sites along the coast of Babeldaob are underwater (Dickinson and Stephen, 2007). More archaeological data is needed from other possible sites for examination and identification pending comparative analysis. The possibility to access other sites around Micronesia is needed for a further reexamination to cement together a proposed hypothesis of early settlement and exclude others. Role of Agency: Bureau of Arts and Culture The Bureau of Arts and Culture is a branch of the Palau National Government responsible for identifying, documenting, protecting, preserving and managing all 2 �cultural and historical resources within the Republic. First established in 1978, the Bureau of Arts and Culture - then called the Division of Cultural Affairs - and later renamed under the Executive Order No. 203 since 2001- is a Palau governmental entity under the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs, which mandates a framework for the adequate protection of archaeological sites and tangible cultural resources (Emesiochel, 2008: 4). Additionally, the Bureau implements Section 106 of the US National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended. The Bureau helps in the implementation of acceptable historic preservation laws in the 16 states of the Republic of Palau. The Bureau receives funds from the Palau National Government and the Historic Preservation Funds from the U.S. National Parks Service, Department of the Interior. The Bureau has nine staff members. It operates with the advice and assistance from the 16 members Palau Historical and Cultural Advisory Board, 16 members Society of Historians, and 5 members Technical and Professional Review Committee. The mission of the Bureau is to protect and preserve all the Republic’s cultural and historical resources to enhance, enrich, and foster the Palauan heritage now and into the future. To achieve this mission, the Bureau had four main goals: First, to preserve and foster cultural and historical resources for the benefit of Palauan people; second, to preserve and educate Palauan tradition that are threatened with extinction; third, to protect cultural and historical resources from destruction; and finally, to preserve culture and tradition in the face of inevitable increasing foreign contact and interaction. Historical and Cultural Preservation Act Title 19 PNC § 102. Created in 1974, the Palau Historic Preservation Act (PNC Title 19) is administered by the Bureau of Arts and Culture that is intended to serve as the official inventory of all those historical sites and tangible cultural properties, which are deemed of significance to the Palauan people and culture. Their significance makes them worth preserving, and protecting from destruction and impairment. The Palau Register is the legal instrument to ensure that registered properties or properties that may be eligible, threatened by public or private development will be subject to comment and review in accordance with the procedures prescribed by law. Title 19 PNC § 134: Each state reserves to itself the exclusive right and privilege of ownership and control over historical sites and tangible cultural property located on the lands and waters owned or controlled by the state. 3 �Section 134 allows the state government to create legislations for the protection of their UCH sites not limited to the foreign vessels located within their boundaries. The creation of the legislation is however at the discretion of the state. If the state does not have legislation in place, the state would comply with the procedures outlined in PNC Title19. Sites located underwater that may suffer potential damage or displacement during a development project are subject to and must comply with the rules, regulations, and provisions outlined in the PLM Act of PNC Title 19 through the project review process. Currently, all WWII wreck sites as well as the Yapese stone money disks on the shores of rock islands and the bottom of the sea plus other known or unknown submerged landscapes are not listed on the Palau Register of Historic Places. The BAC Survey and Inventory/Archaeology section has yet to perform a thorough underwater survey of the sites. Survey and Inventory/Archaeology The Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section is the leading responsible body for the identification and inventory of all cultural and historical resources within the Republic. To carry out this responsibility, we have divided our survey into three phases: First, Babeldaob survey; second, rock island survey; then, underwater survey. The basis for determining and prioritizing our survey this way is based on economical, developmental, and policy factors, as well as a lack of staff, training and funding to do both surveys at the same time, especially Underwater Cultural Heritage that requires a more technical set of skills. The issue and plan of GIS in Palau and plan is to centralize a main information office that manages all data. Each relevant government agency should be interconnected to the Information office and have their own GIS program they manage and provide data to the central office. This will allow all agencies to share and upload files from different agencies. But due to lack of funding, only few government offices and NGOs are able to acquire a GIS program. Short-term Goals  Revisit identified underwater archaeological sites/resources for further analysis of site condition, assessment, and verification of information, and inventory  Identify immediate threat (deterioration, looting,) affecting underwater cultural resources 4 � Develop community and local state government interest and collaboration Long-term Goals  Method of conservation and preservation  Establish a database for underwater archaeological sites/resources  Create an underwater cultural resource management plan to be implemented at the state and national level  Continuous management, protection, and preservation of underwater cultural resources This section assist in public education in “disseminating information and educating the public through presentations and site visits, in order to foster awareness and importance of protecting, preserving, and conserving our cultural heritage that is our national identity for our future generations” (Emesiochel, 2008: 8). Palau Lagoon Monument 19 PNC § 306 It is hereby declared that it is a policy of the Republic to preserve foreverhistoric landmarks, structures, and other sites and objects of significance to the Republic of the Trust Territory situated within the jurisdiction of the Republic for the inspiration and benefit of the people of the Republic. All ships, other vessels and aircraft, and any and all parts and contents thereof, which formerly belonged to or were part of the armed forces or commercial fleet of Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United States or any other nation, which were sunk to or otherwise deposited on the bottom of the Palau Lagoon and its territorial waters, subject to applicable salvage laws, shall be and hereby are set apart as monuments which shall be collectively called the “Palau Lagoon Monument”. The administration, protection, and development of the monument shall be exercised under the direction of the President of the Republic or his duly authorized representatives. The strictness of this law, give us enough time to seek assistance and trainings to accomplish the survey and inventory of the underwater cultural heritage of Palau. In order to convict someone for violating the Palau Lagoon Monument, the government must prove that the individual (1) removes, appropriates, damages, or 5 �destroys (2) ships, other vessels or aircraft (or parts thereof), which formally belonged to the armed forces or commercial fleet of any nation and which are at the bottom of the Palau lagoon. Types/Categories of Underwater Cultural Resources The most notable types of UCH sites within the Republic are the WWII wrecks located mostly in the Rock Island Southern Lagoon (World Heritage Site – 2012). There are more than 60 WWII ship and aircraft (see Fig. 1 for sample aircraft) wreck sites in Palau (Bailey, 1991). The wrecks sites are popular tourists dive spots. Tourists who decide to dive the wrecks are educated on the types of ship, ship content, and their components. In the form of myths, locally known UHC sites and folklore for instance is the sunken City of Ngibtal. Fish trapping sites, stone docks/piers, underwater burial sites, and submerged landmarks (Olsudong et al., 1997 and 2000) are known UCH sites that are found in different parts of Palau – all are protected under Title19 PNC Chapter 1. Other known material that is not fully documented is the numerous Yapese stone money disks (Fig. 2) which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport from Palau to Yap. Yapese islanders quarried these large stones or “megaliths” in Palau prior to European contact (Hazell and Scott, 2006: 12). During their oceanic voyage to Yap, which expanded several hundred kilometers, some vessels transporting the money disks capsized, leaving a trail of money disks from several trips on the ocean floor. It is not yet certain where exactly these money disks are located. There has yet to be a full documented, mapping, and surveyed report of the Yapese stone money disks under the waters of Palau. Recent work by Fitzpatrick (2008a, 2008b) in the management and protection of the quarry sites provides the opportunity for the local communities in Palau and Yap to take lead in the preservation of such sites. The proposed management plan covers sites located inland. Sites or money disks underwater are also given the same amount of attention and protection it deserve once the sites have been identified. Francis Toribiong, one of Palau’s local community leaders and a well-known scuba diver, has taken the lead in the advocacy and protection of UCH sites in the Republic. As part of public education and outreach projects, BAC in collaboration with PVA, the Belau National Museum, and local state government aims to promote community awareness 6 �of the types of underwater cultural heritage. From the shipwrecks to sunken city and to the Yapese megaliths, Palau aims to increase the fascination and value into the preservation and conservation of UCH sites. Fig. 1 (left)Jake Seaplane - History: A Japanese - Aichi E13A1-1 Navy Floatplane, built in 1941. The seaplane is a long range and high speed reconnaissance seaplane, 3-seat, single engine, twin float, 15 hr maximum endurance, range of 1,128 nautical miles. Primary role – bombing missions against land and shipping targets, air-sea rescues, staff transport and kamikaze sorties and destroyed in 1944. Today, the seaplane sits upright, mostly intact; artifacts around the site are radios, ammunition – small bomb inside cockpit to the right of the aft seat. Marine life surrounding the site consists of crocodile fish, Batfish, Octopus, Cuttlefish, whitecap Shrimp and Nudi branches. The marine life in surrounding shallow patch reef – Sponges, Staghorn Lettuce, Brain, and Table corals, small sea whips and colorful juvenile tropical fish. (Bailey, 1991; Emesiochel 2013 Palau Underwater Archaeological Training field notes) Fig. 2 (right)The site is Uet el Daob ma Uet el Chutem, a Yapese Quarry site on Orrak Island, Airai state. The Orrak Island site is undergoing UNESCO World Heritage nomination process as a Transboundary site with Mangyol Money Bank in Yap. (Scott M. Fitzpatrick, 2002, Airai, Palau) Tourism, location and accessibility Palau was the headquarters of the Japanese command in Micronesia and was heavily fortified by the Japanese in the years leading up to WWII in the Pacific. Malakal Harbor was a major forward supply base for Japanese shipping. On March 31, 1944 U.S. divebomber strikes from aircraft carriers Yorktown and Bunker Hill, of Carrier Task Force 58 destroyed over 50 warships and airplanes of the Japanese Imperial Forces, making Palau's western lagoon their final resting place (Bailey, 1991). Most of the wreck are located within a few minutes of Sam's Tours dive center and remain in excellent condition for diving. Each year in March, Sam Scott of Sam's Tours hosts Palau Wreck Week to mark the anniversary of the sinking of the Japanese fleet. WWII shipwreck sites are mainly located in Palau’s Southern Lagoon in Koror, the states of Peleliu and 7 �Angaur and other sites around the coast of Babeldaob. Most of Palau’s dive shops offer services, kayak, and dives to these WWII wrecks. Provided in the tour, the dive operator educates the tourist on basic information about the wreck. There are 10 popular wreck dive sites, which Sam’s Tour takes their clients for diving. Accessibility to the sites is not restricted; tour operators can freely access the wreck for photo taking, kayak, and other recreational activities. Most of the Palau tour agencies with the assistance of Palau Visitors Authority (PVA) promote eco-tourism and eco-heritage. Such promotion provides incentive to state legislatures to create or strengthen exciting laws pertaining to UCH sites within their boundaries. Current legislation, Preservation and Management of Underwater cultural resources Aside from PLM, local conservation legislations and regulations pertaining to the protection and management of UCH sites are minimal. The permit or MOA is administered by the office of the President for the stipulations of the management and treatment of UCH sites are only created in the event such salvage and research arises. With the exception of PNC 19 and PLM, the Protected Areas Network Act (PAN) and the Micronesia Challenge established in 2007 aims to protect not only terrestrial area up to 20% but also includes a 30% of marine areas where possible UCH sites are located. Since there is not a definite line where the 30% occupies, it would be logical to deduce that such percentage would be broken accordingly to where high concentrations of UCH sites are found. Included in the 30% there should be space reserved for the protection and preservation of high marine biodiversity areas. To be protected under PAN, local state government has to endorse the PAN Act and agree to the stipulations and guidelines under the Act to ensure full resource safeguarding. In turn, the sites designated by the states as PAN sites are eligible for funding and other opportunities for the effective management of the sites. Local state governments take full responsibility in the protection of the UCH sites located within their municipal boundaries. Such legislation, rules and regulations must address the proper protection, monitoring, and research around the areas. Special cases such as the salvage of a particular vessel or parts thereof will be under the unified consensus and understanding between the 8 �foreign entity, the state government, and the President with the cooperation and guidance from the BAC office. “Public involvement and interest in the underwater cultural heritage is at an all-time high, but, paradoxically, one of the major problems as regards marine-zone development and the historic environment remain that of convincing the government and the general public alike to consider cultural heritage within environmental impact assessments, and to see the protection of cultural heritage as not only a moral, social imperative but also as an economic one” (Flatman, 2009). UCH conservation is relatively new. Nevertheless, Palau is willing to take part in any capacity building opportunities for training to effectively manage underwater heritage. This will provide a foundational guidance to the local stakeholders and state government the necessary tools to build their conservation program to include the proper management of their known (and unknown) UCH sites. Threats The ever changing climatic changes, erosion, and looting are potential yet inevitable threats to marine cultural heritage. Climate change is a slow inevitable threat to semisubmerged sites and other coastal properties as it continues to change the physical characteristics of the area. This either alters the features or displaces them from the site. Unexploded Remnants of War (ERW) that leaks out picric acid, oil, and maybe other harmful elements are increasing threats to the livelihood of wreck divers and local community, environment as well as the heritage itself. There is an ongoing project at the famous Helmet Wreck dive site to remove fused depth charges. There are no thorough survey of all the wrecks to understand the extent of EWR and its impact on marine life. Salvage of particular artifacts, relics, or components of a UCH site when exposed to the elements may oxidize, which damages the objects. This possibility will hinder any salvage attempts but will not impede any foreign entity to reclaim their objects. Available expertise and Current Trainings Currently, there are only two staff members within the Palau HPO with adequate training on maritime archaeology. With the assistance from UNESCO’s Participant Program, Palau through the Bureau of Arts and Culture was able to secure funding to 9 �perform a three-week training course on Underwater Cultural Heritage from November 18 to December 06, 2013. Through this training, we were able to achieve valuable lessons: i. Educate local partners the benefits of the UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage ii. Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training program a. Introduction to Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology b. Part 1, Certificate in Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology c. Part 2, Intermediate Certificate in Foreshore and Underwater Archaeology iii. Study Tours – Peleliu and Koror State Southern Lagoon World Heritage Sites iv. Development of a Palau Underwater Cultural Heritage Team (PUCHT) a. Recording and documentation of UCH in Palau Through the Underwater Archaeology Training program, Dr. William Jeffrey of Flinders University and his associate Luis Cabral from the Guam Department of Education were able to train and certify 10 Palauans and 1 American environmental graduate student from the University of Guam in UCH surveying, conservation and preservation techniques. The UCH training gained a great number of supports from the local state governments, environmental NGO’s in Palau, as well as the Palau National Congress. This amount of support from the Bureau of Arts and Culture partner agencies encourages the Bureau to seek more funding from UNESCO to do more UCH trainings beyond technical skills. More importantly, this would help toward the completion of the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) certificate training program of Part 3 and Part 4. This request came through the Bureau by the state government if there is a possibility to do more training in 2014. The success of the training will be shared during the 2014 Asia-Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Honolulu. It is hoped that more publicity could build solid networking and interest to bring in more training opportunities to Palau. Training outcomes included: i. Trained 10 Palauans who have worked together very effectively in conducting a 3Dimensional survey and two quick 2-D surveys of 3 underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites in Koror and Airai States. 10 �ii. Can now work together on future Palauan UCH projects in combination of further training. iii. Well recorded and documented the Jake Seaplane that with further research could be nominated for the Palau National Register of Historic Places or the US National Register of Historic Places. iv. The cohorts have the capacity to conduct surveys of all types of underwater cultural heritage (tangible and intangible). Conclusion In conclusion, we are a small island nation and still in the process of getting ourselves to improve our capacity building and awareness regarding our UCH. We are hoping that the participants who just finished the UCH training will help the agency on both human resource and public awareness. We are also looking forward to seek any other sources to expand the capacity and awareness to the states so we can assist both working side by side to enhance the protection and preservation of our underwater cultural heritage. Acknowledgement We would like to take this opportunity and to extend our deep appreciation to the organizer of the conference that gave us the opportunity to participate and share the Role of the Agency regarding UCH heritage in the Republic of Palau. We would like to also thank all the participants for their contribution and experiences that will help paved us our way to improve and enhance our approach to our heritage. References Bailey, D. E., 1991 WWII Wrecks of Palau. California: North Valley Diver Publications, California. Dickinson, W. R., and Stephen, A. J., 2007. Holocene Paleoshoreline and Paleoenvironmental History of Palau: Implications for Human Settlement. Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Vol. 2 (2): 175-196. Emesiochel, C. T., 2008. Palau County Report: Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protection: Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains. ACCU Nara, Japan. 11 �Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2008a. Maritime interregional interaction in Micronesia: Deciphering multi-group contacts and exchange systems through time. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, Vol. 27: 131-147. Fitzpatrick, S. M., 2008b. Preservation and Management for Yapese Stone Money sites in Palau and Yap, Palau HPO. Palau. Flatman, J., 2009. Editorial. Conserving Marine Cultural Heritage: Threats, Risks, and Future Priorities. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, Vol. (11) 1: 58. Hazell, L. C., and Scott, M. F., 2006. The maritime transport of prehistoric megaliths in Micronesia. Archaeology Oceania, Vol. 41: 12-24. Olsudong, R., Calvin T. E., and Errolflynn, T. K., 1997. Draft: Inventory of Cultural Sites and Oral History in Melekeok and Irai, Bureau of Arts and Culture, Palau. Olsudong, R., Calvin, T. E., and Errolflynn, T., K., 2000. Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture, Draft: Inventory of Cultural and Historical Sites and Oral History in Ngarrard State, Vol. I: Inventory of Cultural and Historical sites, Bureau of Arts and Culture, Palau. Biography Sunny O. Ngirmang is currently the Director/HPO of the Bureau of Arts and Culture, also known as Palau Historic Preservation Office of the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs of the Palau National Government. Ever since in her post in the Bureau four years ago, she has attended several trainings, conferences, workshops and other activities related to managing, preserving and protecting historical and cultural heritage both in the state, national, regional and international level. She is passionate about cultural resource management of Palau’s tangible and intangible heritage. Calvin T. Emesiochel is currently the Deputy HPO of the Bureau of Arts and Culture, also known as Palau Historic Preservation Office of the Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs of the Palau National Government. Emesiochel has over 12 years of extensive archaeological experience including extensive knowledge in GIS and Access database management, Section 106, surveying, and CRM. He is a certified PADI diver since 2002 with experience in underwater archaeological surveying techniques and also NAS Part 1 and Part 2 certified since 2006. He is passionate about the preservation and protection of the Palauan tangible and intangible heritage. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Preservation and Management of Underwater Archaeological Resources: Role of Agency Description An account of the resource Underwater archaeological resources within the Republic of Palau (henceforth referred to as the Republic) cover a wide array of types from famous World War II wrecks, to Yapese stone money disks which sank to the bottom of the sea during their transport, and to traditional sites - which includes but not limited to semi-submerged docks/piers, fish traps, burials, and a sunken city mentioned in traditional folklore. These resources are protected under the Cultural and Historical Preservation Act (henceforth referred to as Title 19) mandated by the Palau Bureau of Arts and Culture (henceforth referred to as the Bureau). More specifically, Chapter 3 of Title 19 known as the "Palau Lagoon Monument" is exclusively reserved for all submerged and semi-submerged foreign vessels located within the Republic’s territorial waters. Tour agencies play a proactive role in monitoring the health and condition of the wrecks, report new site locations, and notifies the Bureau of possible looting activities. A Geographic Information System database maintained by the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section within the Bureau keeps an inventory of underwater sites obtained from earlier works plus data from affiliated tour agencies. This paper will examine the current situation within the Bureau and its subdivisions particularly the Survey and Inventory/Archaeology Section. It will provide details of efforts, challenges and goals, and gaps pertaining to the preservation and management of underwater archaeological resources. In addition, present case studies where the "Palau Lagoon Monument" clause was enacted. Lastly, we will discuss the measures and other aides available within the Bureau aimed towards assisting the state government establish medium-term goals for preservation and management plus effective long-term objectives beneficial for their state in terms of underwater cultural resources. In addition, give an overview of the latest UCH training, sponsored by UNESCO, which was held in Palau and plans moving forward to increasing the advocacy of UCH in the Pacific Region, particularly Micronesia. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sunny O. Ngirmang Calvin T. Emesiochel, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/31c2fe9d646e7d5e9a3658ce7d19ecc3.pdf fe6790592f74783a55e51ba82a8f3abf PDF Text Text Remote Survey of a Near-Coastal Archaeological Alignment at Kualoa, Hawai'i Using Worldview 2 Satellite, LiDAR and UAV Imagery Damion Sailors University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Department of Anthropology Saunders Hall 808-349-9426, USA Email: sailors@hawaii.edu Scott S. Honda University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, Department of Geography, Saunders Hall 808-351-3096 USA Email: sshonda@hawaii.edu Abstract By using World View 2 multispectral satellite imagery, LiDAR, and unmanned aerial vehicles, a large submerged archaeological stone alignment, that is likely part of an ancient Hawaiian fishpond, was detected off the coast of Kualoa, Hawai’i during a remote survey of the area. Principal component analysis, ratio indices, and LiDAR interpretation were utilized in a GIS to help detect this archaeological stone feature that is located in shallow coastal waters. Because threats of modern development, sea-level fluctuations, and complications inherent to coastal-maritime environments have generally challenged the survey of cultural resources located within the coastal strand, this method holds promise for future spatial analyses and provides an accessible and cost efficient means of shoreline assessment. This paper aims to show how remote sensing methods can assist in the study of archaeological features that are located within difficult to access coastal and near-coastal areas. Key words: Remote Sensing, Coastal Survey, Fishponds, Archaeology, GIS Introduction On the windward side of the island of O'ahu, an archaeological alignment was detected utilizing remote sensing techniques in the near-shore coastal flats of the northwest section of Kane'ohe Bay near Kualoa Regional Park. Kualoa is a culturally significant ahupua'a (land division) with a rich, traditional prehistory associated with social elites of old Hawai'i and today it is maintained by the City and County of Honolulu. Kualoa is also a pu'uhonua (ceremonial center) that was governed by the kahuna nui (high priests) of Hawai'i who maintained close relationships with the neighboring watersheds of Hakipu'u on the west and Ka'a'awa on the north as seen in (Figs.1-2) (Sterling and Summers, 1962; Gunness, 1987). Traditionally, these land divisions possessed stone-walled 1 �fishponds that were typical of an intensified form of aquaculture practiced in early Hawai'i (Kikuchi, 1976). However, the spatial data that exists on this subject matter is limited. Accordingly, this paper provides an efficient means of surveying submerged, archaeological features located in shallow, coastal waters using satellite, LiDAR and digital camera imagery. Fig. 1 Area on O'ahu, Hawai'i Where Offshore Stone Alignment Was Detected. (Damion Sailors, 2013) The Site Location - Kualoa The first archaeological survey of Kualoa was performed by J. G. McAllister in 1933 and included the documentation of Mōli'i fishpond, 'Āpua Pond, Mokoli'i Pond, Koholālele Pond, and Niuola'a Heiau. McAllister learned through interviews and translations that Kualoa is a pu'uhonua (ceremonial center) where large ceremonies dedicated to Lono (the god of harvest) were performed and that the area was also well-known for its association with ancient Polynesian genealogies. Kualoa is also respected for its 2 �ancient burial caves reserved for social elites and its unique access to palaoa (sperm whale ivory) which, because of its wealth, afforded Kualoa political power in precontact Hawai'i (Gunness, 1987). McAllister also collected a reference from a local informant about an ancient fish pond named Pilihe'e that was destroyed by a tsunami sometime prior to the mid-19th century (Sterling and Summers, 1962). This fishpond was then located and mapped during a student pedestrian survey during the Kualoa Archaeological Research Project (1975-1985) using a rough “tape and compass” method but was not explored further. As a consequence, this fishpond is not well-known in either academic or local communities and management of this archaeological resource has not occurred (Gunness, 1987; Carson and Athens, 2007). Fig. 2 Aerial photograph of Kualoa Beach Park taken from an airplane showing Mōli'i Pond (large pond on left) and 'Āpua Pond (small pond on right), shoreline accretion at south end of Kualoa, and coral reef development in area. (John O’Connor, 2013) There have been other, more recent archaeological studies conducted at Kualoa Park, and to summarize the findings thus far, there have been 44 shoreline burials recovered to date and a large amount of material artifacts consisting of large proportions of basalt tools, kapa (bark cloth) making utensils, and gaming stones. The recovery of these artifacts support the inference that Kualoa was a ceremonial center associated with the Makahiki festivals honoring the god Lono. Interestingly, fishing gear was poorly represented (only 3.62% of total artifacts) as were household items (2.89%) (Barrera, 1974; Gunness, 1987). The survey of this offshore alignment at Kualoa is significant 3 �because of the wall’s probable antiquity and what it might add to the overall anthropological discussion regarding maritime coastal adaptation in an island environment (Kikuchi, 1976). The absolute age of this feature is unknown but because this stone alignment is of substantial size, it can be inferred that an organized social effort was invested in its construction and maintenance (Kirch, 2010). Oral traditions and geomorphological studies also support the idea that Kualoa was not only a sacred land-division with an extensive royal history, but that it was particularly vulnerable to damage from tsunamis that periodically strike the islands (Gunness, 1987; Carson and Athens, 2007). Considering that the coastal zone of this windward part of O'ahu is highly dynamic in terms of its coastal geomorphology, this stone wall may have also served as a type of break-water constructed in an effort to modify the coastline or it may have functioned as an aggregate for fishing (Kikiloi, 2003). Pacific Island Fishponds At the time of Captain Cook’s arrival to Hawai'i in 1778 there were an estimated total of 360 fishponds of varying size and function located throughout the archipelago. On average, these fishponds were each thought to have produced a total of 3000 kg of fish per year (Kikuchi, 1976; Kikiloi, 2003). At first, this may seem rather industrious, but if we consider that the population in old Hawai'i may have conservatively been around 300,000 people, there would have been very little fish to go around (Schmitt, 1971; Wyban and Wyban, 1989). It is estimated that fishpond technology in Hawai'i may be at least seven centuries old after results from analyses made of the Alekoko and Kekupua Ponds on Kaua'i revealed a radiocarbon range from 1140 - 1280 AD (Burney and Burney, 2003). This is the oldest radiometric evidence there is for fishpond use in Hawai'i but it is possible that the origin of this technology extends further back in time. Hawaiian fishpond types can be separated amongst those that are dependent upon freshwater, brackish water, and seawater. The primary fish harvested in Hawaiian fishponds were mullet and milkfish and at least 22 species of edible marine life also flourished in these ponds as secondary domesticates (Kikiloi, 2003). Based on the available evidence, it could be argued that in contrast to the rest of Oceania, the Hawaiian Islands claimed a more sophisticated aquacultural system (Kikuchi, 1976). This argument is bolstered by the apparent large numbers of fishponds in Hawai'i, their 4 �larger acreage, variation in the types of sites, and in the technological complexity of the system. However, there is evidence that other areas such as in the Society Islands, Micronesia, and Western Polynesia, fish pond technologies were just as elaborate and intensified as those found in Hawai'i (Dieudonne, 2002). Remote Sensing methods The advancements in both passive and active sensors used in remote sensing allow for the collection of data or imagery with greater spatial, temporal, spectral, and radiometric resolution. One example of advancements made with passive sensors is the multispectral sensors on board some of today’s satellites (World View 2, Landsat MSS, IKONOS). Multispectral sensors break up the electromagnetic spectrum into multiple bands allowing for a finer analysis of an object’s reflectance value than previous sensors. Hyper-spectral sensors allow for an even finer analysis, breaking up the electromagnetic spectrum into hundreds of spectral bands (Jensen, 2005). Also an active sensor technology that has seen increasing use is LiDAR (short for light and radar). LiDAR is useful in detecting changes in elevation of an area at a relatively high resolution. The Worldview 2 satellite is a commercial satellite that was launched in 2009 and is capable of collecting 8-band multispectral imagery at a high resolution with an average revisit time of 1.1 days. The spatial resolution of the images is 1.85 m for the 8band multispectral images and 0.46 m for the panchromatic image. There are 8-bands that the satellite groups into different parts of wavelengths (nm) within the electromagnetic spectrum. The 8-bands and sections are the coastal band (400 - 450 nm), blue band (450 - 510 nm), green band (510 - 580 nm), yellow band (585 - 625 nm), red band (630 - 690 nm), red edge (705 -745 nm), near-infrared 1 (770 - 895 nm), and near-Infrared (860 - 1040 nm) (Digital Globe, 2013). Since each band collects at different sections of the electromagnetic spectrum, each band can contain different information based on the material an object or feature is made of. Each band also interacts differently with water. The least amount of absorption and scattering takes place in the wavelengths between 400 - 500 nm. Thus the two lowest bands, the coastal band and blue band, are the most suitable bands to detect underwater features. In contrast, the wavelengths represented by the red and near-infrared bands are highly absorbed by water (Jensen, 2007). In passive remote sensing techniques, there are 5 �multiple operations that can be done to multispectral satellite imagery in order to produce analyzable results. Processing The first process tree began by pan-sharpening the satellite imagery. Pan-sharpening was done so the multispectral bands could have a higher resolution of the panchromatic band, which was 0.46 m (Padwick, 2010). The terrestrial areas were then masked out of the image. This was done to ensure that the full range of digital numbers in the imagery belonged to pixels of offshore areas which could then be analyzed with greater detail. An index ratio called the non-homogenous feature difference (NHFD) was then performed. The NHFD takes the red-edge and coastal bands into the following formula: (red-edge - coastal) / (red-edge + coastal) (Wolf, 2010). Index ratios, such as the NHFD, enhance the contrast between two bands (Zeinelabdeina and Albielyb, 2008). The reason why this formula works well in detecting offshore features is because the rededge and coastal bands interact with water very differently. The energy in the spectrum of the red-edge band is highly absorbed by water where the energy in the spectrum of the coastal band is not. When two bands have very different reactions to a phenomenon (e.g. water) the ratio of those two bands will usually have a substantial amount of information (Jensen, 2005). This creates an image that visualizes the contrast between objects closer or above the surface of the water to objects towards the bottom of the sea floor. The second process tree started with the pan-sharpening and masking out of the terrestrial areas of the satellite imagery followed by a principal component analysis (PCA). PCA is an image enhancement technique that transforms the multispectral imagery into principal components (PCs). Each principal component represents the spatially correlated brightness values of each band in the multispectral imagery, while being uncorrelated to other derived principal components. From the 8 multispectral bands, 8 PCs are derived. The first PC will have the most information and the last PC will usually have the least. The goal of PCA is to reduce the amount of spatially repeated data throughout the 8 bands of the multispectral imagery into principal components that are quite easy to interpret (Jensen, 2005). Once PCA was executed, PCs 1 and 2 were visualized in the GIS platform well-known as ArcMap. 6 �LiDAR has the ability to gather elevation data on land and the bathymetry of areas in shallow waters with relatively high accuracy (Jensen, 2007). LiDAR, that was made available through the 2013 National Science Foundation - Research Experience for Undergraduates, was also utilized to help detect the Kualoa fishpond wall. A LiDAR point cloud (0.25 m resolution) was used to create a continuous surface or bathymetric image using Inverse Distance Weighted and Natural Neighbor tools in ArcGIS (Bolstad, 2012). 3D geovisualization in ArcGIS of the LiDAR point cloud readily displayed the shape of the offshore feature. To visualize the point cloud in 3D, graduated colors based on the Z (elevation) value were first given to each point. Then the point cloud was exaggerated to 30 times of its Z value, to best show the variation in depth of the offshore area. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology was also utilized to collect imagery of the offshore feature. Although there are many UAV platforms available, a DJI Phantom Quad-Copter was used as it was made available via the National Science FoundationResearch Experiences for Undergraduates program mentioned previously. A Pentax Optio camera was attached to the Phantom to collect imagery. Due to the weight of the camera, the flying time of the UAV was limited to approximately two minutes. The UAV coupled with the camera allowed for up-to-date imagery within the visible light spectrum of the feature. However, there were some difficulties with the UAV/Pentax combo. The first difficulty was the manipulation of the UAV’s elevation and position to ensure that useful imagery over the correct feature was being acquired. Another difficulty was that the Pentax captures imagery only in the visible light spectrum, so in order for submerged features to be detected, a substantial amount of sunlight is needed (P. Nesbit, Personal Communication 2013). Unfortunately, because the weather was uncooperative, only a limited amount of useful images were acquired in the time allotted. Finally, an underwater pedestrian survey shown in (Fig. 3), using snorkel gear and underwater cameras, was also performed at a high tide in order to visually inspect, measure, and photograph this feature. The wall sections observed on this day were heavily encrusted with coral, algae, and other marine growth, but it was clear that this alignment was indeed a purposefully constructed stone wall of some sort. Its function though remains speculative. 7 �Fig. 3 (left) Underwater survey of offshore alignment at Kualoa Beach Park. Basalt stones used in the wall’s construction are heavily encrusted with marine growth but can be easily discerned as an articulated feature. (Chuck DeVaney, 2012) Fig. 4 (right) Imagery from the steps taken in two “process trees” used to discern the offshore alignment. A) Non-Homogenous Feature Difference (Red-Edge - Coastal) / (Red-Edge + Coastal), B) Principal Component Analysis (Symbolized as PC1: Green and Blue, PC2: Red), C) Inverse Distance Weighted interpolation of LiDAR point cloud, D) Natural Neighbor interpolation of LiDAR point cloud. (Scott Honda, 2013) Results Due to the combination of difficulties in maneuvering the UAV, the varying availability of sunlight, and the changing tides, the number of useful images captured by the UAV/Pentax was limited. Given more flying time, stable conditions, and additional equipment, like a field of view camera mounted to the UAV, more useful imagery could have been attained. However, a mosaic was attempted in PhotoScan and Microsoft ICE of the collected UAV/Pentax imagery. Although PhotoScan is capable of producing an accurate and georeferenced image, it could not produce a mosaic image from the collected UAV/Pentax imagery. Microsoft ICE was able to create a mosaic using some of the images taken via UAV, but the resulting mosaic had no ground control points available in the imagery that were usable for georeferencing. The software used for manipulating and visualizing the data for analysis was ERDAS Imagine and ArcGIS. ERDAS Imagine is image analysis software that has the ability to execute many remote sensing and image analysis techniques (Intergraph, 2013). Principal component analysis, ratio Indices, pan-sharpening, and masking of the satellite multispectral 8 �imagery were done in ERDAS Imagine. ArcGIS has a variety of tools and applications that can be used to analyze, extract, manipulate, and manage geospatial data but was primarily used for interpolating and visualizing the LiDAR point cloud data. The image analysis, as seen in (Fig. 4), of this offshore alignment revealed the remnant articulation of a discrete, walled structure that may be part of the aquacultural complex in this area that includes Mōli'i fishpond, 'Āpua Pond, Mokoli'i Pond, and Koholālele Pond. This alignment may be part of the Pilihe'e fishpond mentioned by local informants in McAllister’s early twentieth century survey. Alternatively, it may be part of some sort of antiquated breakwater or fish aggregation device placed there long ago. Further study is required in order to understand more about this feature’s origin and function. What we do know from this survey is that this alignment is purposefully constructed from basalt boulders, stones, and pebbles, is approximately 550 m in length, three meters wide, and is less than a meter tall on average being exposed at the lowest of tides when it appears to be part of the natural reef formation of the area. It is a large alignment that if proven to be a fishpond wall, would add many hectares to the traditional aquacultural area of Kualoa. Considering the dynamic nature of Kualoa’s shoreline, whether it is due to tsunami, tectonic processes and/or sea-level fluctuations, this feature must have been an important variable in the recent social and geomorphological history of this part of Kane'ohe Bay, O'ahu. Discussion Based on the non-homogenous feature difference, the principal component analysis imagery, and the LiDAR point cloud, the use of remote sensing techniques (both active and passive) to locate the offshore wall were useful in mapping this near-coastal alignment. Because only the contrast of the wall from the surrounding reef was being sought after, the NHFD was utilized here with the digital number values of the two bands (coastal and red-edge) to demonstrate this contrast. If one were attempting to derive the health or biomass of vegetation, the use of radiance would be more appropriate (Jensen, 2005). Although more sophisticated UAV systems are available, the hobbyist grade Phantom Quad-Copter was capable of imaging the offshore alignment. The post processing of the UAV imagery in photogrammetry based software like PhotoScan could be a useful method of finding and surveying coastal features. 9 �However, in this case study, not all images were usable in PhotoScan. This is probably due to distortions introduced by water. Perhaps if a multispectral camera, with bands that could penetrate water (i.e. coastal blue) were used, PhotoScan would be capable of creating an orthophoto and a digital surface model of underwater features. Kualoa is an area of chronic erosion and accretion, and has had frequent and intense coastal modifications occur over the course of human occupation in the area. How the ancient people of Kualoa adapted to, and perhaps influenced these changes can be seen archaeologically, and thus remote sensing and survey at a high resolution can assist anthropological endeavors in this region (Hunt and Lipo, 2008). Knowledge then gained may shed light on issues of sustainability and how limited resources, such as those found in the Pacific islands, are managed by complex societies (Ladefoged and Graves, 2000; Erlandson, 2010). In a contemporary context, threats of inundation causing the potential loss of cultural resources in coastal areas are immediate and severe. These cultural resources, in the form of archaeological features, can be identified within the coastal strand using the methods we have discussed here in this report. For future study, questions regarding the automation of extracting linear features from remote imagery as well as improvements on data management can be readily explored. Maritime adaptations may be more easily understood using these spatial methods and considering the accessibility and efficiency of this type of non-invasive technique, we propose further similar survey in coastal-maritime regions. Acknowledgments Special thanks go to Drs. Carl Lipo, Suzanne Wechsler, Chris Lee, Matt Becker, and teaching assistants of the 2013 NSF-REU G.R.A.M Field Program, at California State University at Long Beach. We would like to thank Dr. Terry Hunt, University of Oregon and Drs. Christian Peterson and Matt McGranahan, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa. Obligations are extended as well to John O’Connor and Chuck DeVaney for photo contributions. And a final mahalo or “thank you” is given to the National Science Foundation (Grant # DGE-1329626) and to those who assisted in reviewing the paper. References Barrera, W., 1974. Preliminary Archaeological Investigations at Kualoa, O'ahu. For Office of Human Resources in City and County of Honolulu: 1-39. 10 �Bolstad, P., 2012. GIS Fundamentals: A first text on geographic information systems. (4th edition), Eider Press, White Bear Lake, USA. Burney, L., and Burney, D., 2003. Charcoal Stratigraphies for Kaua‘i and the Timing of Human Arrival. Pacific Science, April: 211-225. Carson, M. T., and Athens, J. S., 2007. Integration of Coastal Geomorphology, Mythology and Archaeological Evidence at Kualoa Beach, Windward O'ahu, Hawaiian Islands. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, Vol. 2 (1): 24 - 43. Dieudonne, F., 2002. The Pacific Islands and the Sea. Neptune House Publications, Honolulu. Digital Globe. Worldview 2. Web. 14 Dec. 2013. PDF file. <http://www.digitalglobe.com/ downloads/WorldView2-DS-WV2-Web.pdf> Erlandson, J. M., 2010. A Deep History for the Pacific: Where Past, Present, and Future Meet. Journal of Pacific Archaeology, Vol. 1 (2): 111-114. Gunness, J. L., 1987. Archaeological Investigations at Kualoa Regional Park. Masters Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of Hawai’i, Hawaii. Hunt, T., and Lipo, C., 2008. Top-down archaeology: High resolution satellite images of Rapa Nui on Google Earth. Rapa Nui Journal, Vol. 22: 5-13. Intergraph Corporation. ERDAS IMAGINE. Web. 17 Dec. 2013. PDF file. <http://geospatial.intergraph.com/Libraries/Brochures/ERDAS_IMAGINE_2014_Brochur e.sflb.ashx> Jensen, J. R., 2005. Introductory digital image processing: a remote sensing perspective. (3rd edition), Pearson Education, Inc, Upper Saddle River, USA. Jensen, J. R., 2007. Remote sensing of the environment: an earth resource perspective. (2nd Edition), Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, USA. Kikiloi. K., 2003. A new synthesis in oceanic domestication: The Symbiotic Development of Loko I'a Aquaculture in Precontact Oceania. Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge, No.15: 3-10. Kikuchi, W., 1976. Prehistoric Hawaiian Fishponds. Science, Vol. 193 (4250): 295-299. Kirch, P. V., 2010. How Chiefs Became Kings. Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. 11 �Ladefoged, T., and Graves, M., 2000. Evolutionary Theory and the Historical Development of Dry-Land Agriculture in North Kohala, Hawai'i. American Antiquity, Vol. 65 (3): 423-448. Padwick, C., 2010. Worldview- 2 Pan-Sharpening. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Web. 17 Dec. 2013. Schmitt, R. C., 1971. New Estimates of the Pre-censal Population of Hawai'i. The Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 80 (2): 237-243. Sterling, E.P., and Summers, C. C., 1962. Sites of Oahu. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. Wolf, A., 2010. Using Worldview 2 Vis-NIR MSI Imagery to Support Land Mapping and Feature Extraction Using Normalized Difference Index Ratios. Digital Globe, <http://www.exelisvis.com/portals/0/pdfs/envi/8_bands_Antonio_Wolf.pdf> Wyban, J., and Wyban, A., 1989. Aquaculture in Hawai'i: Past, Present and Future. Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Vol. 9: 37-43. Zeinelabdeina, K. E., and Albielyb, A. L., 2008. Ratio Image Processing Techniques: A Prospecting Tool for Mineral Deposits, Red Sea Hills, NE Sudan. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. 37 (B8): 1295-1298. Damion Sailors is a graduate student in the Anthropology Department at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa and is focused in archaeology within the Pacific island region. His interest is on the span cultural maritime adaptations in a prehistoric context. Scott Honda is an undergraduate student at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, focusing his studies on geospatial geography; and pursuing a Bachelor of Arts degree in Geography, with a Minor in Information and Computer Sciences. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Remote Survey of a Near-Coastal Archaeological Alignment at Kualoa, Hawai'i Using Worldview 2 Satellite, LiDAR and UAV Imagery Description An account of the resource By using World View 2 multispectral satellite imagery, LiDAR, and unmanned aerial vehicles, a large submerged archaeological stone alignment, that is likely part of an ancient Hawaiian fishpond, was detected off the coast of Kualoa, Hawai’i during a remote survey of the area. Principal component analysis, ratio indices, and LiDAR interpretation were utilized in a GIS to help detect this archaeological stone feature that is located in shallow coastal waters. Because threats of modern development, sea-level fluctuations, and complications inherent to coastal-maritime environments have generally challenged the survey of cultural resources located within the coastal strand, this method holds promise for future spatial analyses and provides an accessible and cost efficient means of shoreline assessment. This paper aims to show how remote sensing methods can assist in the study of archaeological features that are located within difficult to access coastal and near-coastal areas. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Damion Sailors, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Scott S. Honda Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4aa437aae0f4b03e1556034917967a78.pdf d81539f5a6662f3363d36e1fd15e2d3a PDF Text Text The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime heritage resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Hans Van Tilburg NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Honolulu, Hawaii 96825, USA Email: hans.vantilburg@noaa.gov Abstract The systematic investigation of underwater cultural heritage in the islands started in 1989 with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program. This slowly grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history. Manned submersibles with the Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab contribute to deep water discoveries and site surveys. Today the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries continues heritage resource site assessments in Hawai`i, in collaboration with partner agencies and programs. The underwater cultural heritage in Hawai`i reflects a multicultural diversity of archaeological and historic properties, such as coastal stone fishponds, submerged heiau, 19th century plantation landings, inter island steamships etc. Major events like World War II left behind numerous naval shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. These are the physical elements of maritime cultural landscapes that describe Hawai`i’s maritime past. Key words: Hawaii, World War II, Culture landscapes, Heritage preservation, Maritime archaeology Introduction Hawai'i’s underwater cultural heritage speaks directly to the ancient past, the multicultural historical period, and the forces of modernization and globalization leading to the modern present. It is a testimony to dynamic change. The resources that reflect this diversity lie beneath the warm blue waters of the North Pacific, generally unknown to the public, on the slopes of the tallest mountain on Earth (including the undersea portion). Discovering these resources opens windows on elements of the Islands’ otherwise unseen history. Awareness of the value of this unseen heritage has been increasing steadily over the past two decades. This paper provides an introductory description of the current state of underwater cultural heritage investigations in the main Hawaiian Islands and some of the chief types of heritage resources found in Hawai'i. (Note: the term “UCH” here includes U.S. national criteria, 50-year limit, etc.) 1 �Current State: Surveys in the Context of Education Academic investigation started in 1989 with an in-water workshop and small symposium hosted by the University of Hawai'i’s Marine Option Program. The Marine Option Program (MOP) provides hands-on marine education experiences for students from any field of study, operating across the ten-campus university system. MOP’s maritime archaeology component was initiated partially in response to the passage of the U.S. Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 (ASA, 1987). Over time the symposium grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history, led by an instructor trained at East Carolina University’s Maritime Studies Program. Between 1996 and 2002 MOP offered annual classroom and field courses in maritime history, anthropology, and a six-week maritime archaeology field class. Numerous students obtained the specialized certificate, and some went on to Masters-level studies at Texas A&M University or East Carolina University (Van Tilburg, 2002). Though the maritime archaeology certificate program no longer exists, a two-week field survey class for university students continues today under a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/University of Hawai'i partnership. The class is known as the Maritime Archaeology Survey Techniques (MAST) course. Taught by NOAA staff, students are introduced to broad aspects of the UCH preservation field in the classroom, prior to beginning the underwater survey. Study sites are selected among the main Hawaiian Islands, and students gain field experience while documenting previously unrecorded heritage resources, thus contributing to the State’s archaeological inventory. Non-diving days are used to explore local heritage among the Hawaiian Islands (e.g. monuments, museums, other archaeological sites) and talk with local divers and Hawaiian cultural practitioners about marine resources and preservation management. NOAA instruction in maritime archaeology also takes the form of public outreach (in addition to formal university education), as Maritime Heritage Program staff have been certified to teach the Nautical Archaeology Society’s (NAS) training curriculum. NAS is a non-profit organization based in the United Kingdom and dedicated to advancing education in nautical archaeology at all levels. To date, NOAA has conducted six NAS Intro and Level One courses in the Pacific (Juneau and Anchorage in Alaska, Seattle in 2 �Washington State, and several courses in the Hawaiian Islands). Maritime archaeology field courses taught at the University of Hawai'i also give the students the opportunity to obtain the NAS training credential. From its early inception until today, the University and now NOAA have also supported the annual Symposium on the Maritime Archaeology and History of Hawai'i and the Pacific. The maritime symposium, now in its 24th year, regularly draws 60-70 professional and avocational participants, as well as local divers and the general public. The three-day event includes presentations, panels, receptions, field trips, and usually an informal back-yard barbeque for the conference “banquet,” local-style grinds. NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program In 2002, NOAA launched its Maritime Heritage Program under its Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. The Maritime Heritage Program is designed to support maritime heritage discovery and resource preservation across the sanctuary system. The sanctuary system serves as the trustee for a national network of 14 marine protected areas encompassing more than 170,000 square miles of marine and Great Lakes federally protected waters (Fig. 1). More than half of these protected areas are in the Pacific: Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (NMS), Cordell Bank NMS, Gulf of the Farallones NMS, Monterey Bay NMS, Channel Islands NMS, National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa, Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale NMS, and the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. With the incorporation of cultural resource management, maritime archaeologists could begin to take existing equipment, capacities advantage of platforms, and diving previously Fig. 1 NOAA map of sanctuary system locations (NOAA ONMS) 3 �dedicated to purely natural resource research missions. More importantly, cultural resources and historic properties within marine protected areas began to gain consideration as unique, significant and worthy of protection. The legal mandate to protect cultural resources was actually already an integral part of the sanctuary systems’ founding legislation, the National Marine Sanctuary Act of 1972, which allowed designation of marine protected areas of special national significance due to their “conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, archaeological, educational, or aesthetic qualities…” (emphasis added…NMSA, 1972). Today the NMSA is one of the most important pieces of federal legislation in the United States for protecting cultural submerged resources in the oceans and Great Lakes. The Maritime Heritage Program is vital, but not large. With five sanctuary sites on the U.S. West Coast, and three in the island Pacific, there are currently only three NOAA archaeologists in the Pacific region. Deep water surveys (beyond typical scuba depths) are often cost-prohibitive. Fortunately Hawai'i benefits from a unique manned submersible program known as the Hawai'i Undersea Research Lab (HURL). HURL was established in 1980 as a joint NOAA/University of Hawai'i center with the primary responsibility of advancing knowledge of the nation’s deep water resources and marine processes. Simply put, operations director Terry Kerby and his HURL team, with the two three-person submersibles Pisces IV and Pisces V, have located more underwater heritage sites than any single other program in the State. These discoveries have been accomplished through surveys conducted during HURL’s pre-season preparatory dives, (testing/training dives for both subs and pilots), cost-efficient opportunities for target site identifications and assessments. Maritime Cultural Landscapes in Hawai`i To date, there has been no single comprehensive assessment of these resources in the waters around the main Hawaiian Islands. Rather, information comes from different sources: the HURL deep water database; the University of Hawai`i’s collection of student site reports; a desk-based assessment of U.S. Navy properties in Hawaiian waters (Van Tilburg, 2003); and local journalists and avocational researchers combing through historic newspapers. Importantly, trust is slowly being built between 4 �management agencies and the general public, and sport divers are beginning to report their own investigations and discoveries. This has led to a partial resource inventory in the main Hawaiian Islands of some 150 underwater ship and aircraft locations, many of them potential heritage properties. It is impossible here to list all the heritage sites discovered and all the maritime archaeology projects conducted in the Islands, but rather than discussing sites individually, contextual understanding of Hawai`i’s UCH can be gained by considering thematically-organized maritime cultural landscapes, for it is the cultural context of human activity that patterns this resource. This approach also better integrates archaeological data with the existing and broader ecosystem-based marine management approaches. Resources associated with three types of maritime cultural landscapes will be introduced here: 1) ancient aquaculture production; 2) the plantation and ranching era; and 3) the military landscape. Ancient Hawaiian Aquaculture Systems Prior to Western contact, the stone seawalls and gates of coastal fishponds, or lokai'a, were prominent features of the Hawaiian landscape. Hundreds of coastal ponds of various sizes produced protein for a large population by taking advantage of nutrientrich runoff from the highlands through the loʻi or taro fields and the brackish coastal setting. Ocean tides through the seaward gates or makaha created flow through the ponds, while the long seawalls protected juvenile fish populations from marine predators. Each island had a handful of notable and productive ponds, while the island of Moloka'i, with is shallow shoals, featured the greatest number of coastal pond locations. The construction and maintenance of these systems represented an impressive commitment of labor and social structure. Most of the traditional ponds are now in ruins, submerged, orcompletely distroyed. Coastal development and sedimentation, as well as the degradation of upstream runoff, have combined to serious effect. Fishpond sites are vulnerable to these larger-scale processes, rather than to the perhaps more familiar individual impacts of divers on historic resource sites. However, an increasing effort exists today to physically restore some of these fishponds to productivity (Handy et al., 1972). 5 �University of Hawai'i students assisted in mapping the shallow submerged remains of stone fish traps and fishpond wall at Kaloko Honokōhau National Park on Hawai'i Island in 1997 with limited success, and have also pursued surveys of other lithic sites including the ruins of an underwater heiau or temple, and the distribution of stone fishing tools (basalt sinkers, anchors, etc) at specific off shore locations (Fig. 2). Statewide archaeological studies assessing the styles and conditions of the many fishpond locations around the main Hawaiian Islands have been completed, but there has been no other underwater archaeological survey conducted on the structural remnants of this type of coastal cultural resource. Existing archaeological reports are exclusively terrestrial, while the ruins of the fishponds are often totally submerged. The question should be posed: would the type of archaeological survey techniques designed for historic UCH properties like shipwrecks be appropriate or even effective for scattered and broken stone walls often buried in coastal sediments? Fig. 2 (left) University of Hawai`i students mapping submerged fish trap structures at Kaloko Honokōhau National Historic Park, 1997. (J. Kuwabara UH MOP) Fig. 3 (right) Near shore survey work on a plantation-period steamship wreck, Shipwreck Beach, Lanai. (J. Kawabata UH MOP) Hawai`i’s Historic Plantation and Ranching Period The early to mid-19th century saw the skills associated with both sugar plantations and with cattle ranching introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, and subsequently plantations and ranches had an enormous impact on the economy and society of historic Hawai'i. Both ranching and plantation economies relied on maritime transportation to the transshipment port of Honolulu, and from there to continental destinations. Yet, with the few exceptions of Honolulu on O'ahu, Hilo on Hawai'i, and Kahului on Maui, the Islands 6 �lacked protected harbors where ships could lie in safety in all weather. Open roadsteads and narrow passages between fringing reefs were the usual setting, and often the skillful use of surf boats or cliff-side moorings and overhead wire systems were the only way to transport both passengers and products. Historic documents record the losses of hundreds of commercial sailing ships and steamers, generally clustered in the vicinity of historic landing locations (Thomas, 1983). Inter island commerce was hazardous business. The shipwrecks identified with Hawai'i’s early plantation history, some submerged in a high-energy warm-water marine environment for over 100 years, have experienced significant biochemical deterioration and mechanical break-up. Whether wood or iron or steel-hulled, Hawai'i’s known steamship wreck sites generally consist of only the heaviest machinery components (boilers, engines, propeller and shaft, anchors etc.) lying on the sea floor adjacent to scattered cargo, small artifacts, and hull debris. These components are often heavily encrusted in corals and coralline algae (Fig. 3). Some of the shipwreck sites were intentionally disposed hulks already stripped of useful equipment. Notably, rough and remote Shipwreck Beach on the north shore of Lāna'i was used by Hawai'i ship owners for many years to dispose of hardworking steam ships which had outlived their useful service. Lāna'i’s north shore was chosen as wind and water there would force the hulks firmly aground on a relatively uninhabited coast. The reefs along the island’s north shore also presented natural hazards to inter island shipping. The resulting cultural landscape at Shipwreck Beach therefore reflects not only Hawaiian settlements and history, but also at least a dozen accidental losses and intentional disposals of 19th and 20th century schooners, barges, and steamships. Several seasons of maritime archaeology fieldwork (1999, 2001, 2009) have been conducted at Shipwreck Beach (The Lāna'i Project, 2009). Nine wreck sites associated with the plantation and ranching era have been assessed to some level, and four of those (SS Maui survey in 2010, SS Kaua`i in 2012, SS Hornet survey in 2009, and an unidentified steamship in 2001) have been the specific subject of NOAA/UH field class surveys, with historical interpretations and site plans. Steamship landings are also considered as potential historic locations, with the potential to shed light on both land and marine human activities. Landing locations typically include pilings, heavy mooring chains and anchors, cargo handling equipment like 7 �winches and derricks, cable, pilings, and assorted artifacts like bottles, fire extinguishers, etc (Fig. 4). Only two of these landing sites have been surveyed in full by maritime archaeologists: Waimanalo plantation landing in 1999 and industrial Mahukona Harbor, former entry-point to the Kingdom of Hawai'i, in both 1994 and 2012. Fig. 4 The industrial archaeology of landing locations: loading derrick at the Waimanal plantation landing site, in-use circa 1880. (T. Casserley NOAA ONMS) Military Vessels U.S. naval activities in Hawai'i have evolved through a number of distinct phases, beginning with early goodwill visits in the 1820’s, and progressing through the commitment to develop a major naval base at Pearl Harbor by 1900, and beyond. The military construction boom and transfer of forces to the islands accelerated in the 1930’s prior to World War II. Hawai'i soon became home to the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and numerous air stations, naval stations and other facilities. Unprecedented naval activity took place among the Hawaiian Islands during the War, in the skies as well as on and under the sea. To understand the military landscape of heritage resources, though, we need to look beyond combat losses. The Hawaiian Islands only came under actual attack a handful of times: the attack on Pearl Harbor and O'ahu military installations on December 7th 1941; the Battle of Midway June 4-7th 1942; Japanese submarine shelling of Kahului, Nāwiliwili, and Hilo harbors on December 30th 1941; and a Japanese seaplane bombing incident on O'ahu March 3rd 8 �1942 known as Operation K. By far, the many known military properties in Hawai'i’s waters today are testimony to the intensive combat training operations (leading to accidental losses) during the war years, rather than direct attack. The known footprint of the military cultural landscape within the main Hawaiian Islands is significant in size and complexity, and may make up the majority of the underwater heritage resource sites. Thousands of naval aircraft and pilots took part in intensive training activities in preparation for combat operations in the Pacific. Records from 1924-1952 indicate over 1,485 naval aircraft sunk in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands during that period. Many of these submerged aircraft crash sites are also war graves. The submerged aviation landscape is not random, but patterned and island-specific. Often, naval aircraft are found in direct relationship to former naval air station runways. Locating and identifying these aircraft has become a popular pursuit for local sport and technical divers, particularly as closed-circuit re-breather (CCR) technology has advanced and become more available to the specialized public. Some submerged aircraft have become regular destinations for Hawai'i’s recreational diving industry. Several formal surveys have focused on documenting naval aircraft (Catalina PBY-5A in Kaneohe study 1994; Corsair F4U-1 survey in Maunalua Bay 2002; Helldiver SB2C-1 and Hellcat F4F in Mā'alaea Harbor 2011…see Rodgers et al., 1998). Additionally, HURL's research submersibles have located and identified dozens of deep water aircraft sites, including several Keystone PH-1 biplanes from the 1930’s, several Dauntless SBD’s, Avenger TBM’s, and Helldiver SB2C’s…and the giant Martin JRM-1 flying boat (Naval, 2004). Of the many aircraft lost in the islands, over 30 have been located and assessed to some extent. The Hawaiian Islands played a major role in the development of naval aviation in the Pacific (Fig. 5). In a fashion similar to the numerous aircraft, the wreck sites of amphibious landing craft (ramped craft delivering troops onto the beach) and amphibious assault vehicles (tracked vehicles transiting the ocean/beach and moving inland) are also ubiquitous in Hawai`i. Several surveys have focused on documenting the remains of these resources (LVT-3 AMTRACK Maui survey 2011; LVT (A)-4 AMTRACKs Maui survey 2013; LSM O'ahu survey planned for 2014). As with the aircraft, the distribution of these amphibious sites is also patterned and specific. Several areas in the main Hawaiian Islands served as amphibious training beaches 9 �prior to major amphibious operations during WWII (invasions of Saipan, Iwo Jima, etc). These include the shores of North Kohala on Hawai`i Island and the southern corridor of Mā'alaea to Mākena on Maui, both within the NOAA sanctuary (Fig. 6). Maui also featured facilities for the Maui Amphibious Training Center and the Combat Demolition Training Center on Mā`alaea Bay, where the first Underwater Demolition Teams (UDT) were trained in surveying and destroying undersea obstructions and in reconnaissance for shore invasions. (Maui’s WWII Legacy, 2011) Hawai'i proved to be the major combined forces Pacific training area for the innovation of amphibious tactics during World War II. Fig. 5 (left) A WWII dive bomber (SB2C-1 Helldiver) ditched 31 August 1944; now a popular recreational dive site. (H. Van Tilburg NOAA ONMS) Fig. 6 (right) MAST students at the site of an amphibious assault vehicle (LVTA-4 AMTRACK), near the former Maui amphibious training beaches, 2013. (H. Van Tilburg NOAA ONMS) There are many other military vessels in Hawaiian waters. The naval inventory lists over 80 US Navy ships and submarines lost in the vicinity (including inshore patrol vessels, fleet oilers, requisitioned fishing sampans, numerous auxiliaries) and many of these have been located and identified. Unlike the early whaling or plantation periods, the peak of military activity in Hawai'i during World War II occurred only a little over 50 years ago. Modern steel construction, pre-fabrication, and sheer industrial productivity account for the fact that there are many more identified WWII and military-related properties in Hawaiian waters than any older sites. Furthermore, several military sites directly associated with the December 7th, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor and O`ahu military installations have an importance far beyond individual archaeological surveys. 10 �The battleship USS Arizona BB-39, launched from the New York Navy Yard in 1915, was sunk in Pearl Harbor during the December 7th attack with the loss of 1,177 casualties. Much has been written about the USS Arizona, the reverence felt for this site, and the place it occupies in the American national narrative. In 1983 the National Park Service Submerged Resources Center initiated the archaeological survey of the site (Lenihan, 1989), and subsequent field projects took place in 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001, partnering at various times with academic, commercial, and military groups. Follow-up studies on bio-fouling and metals corrosion, as well as a site monitoring program, continue today. Multiple lines of inquiry revolve around questions of structural integrity, the specific processes of deterioration, the amount and location of fuel oil remaining in the ship, and the possibilities for long-term site preservation (Russell and Murphy, 2004). In many ways, these studies are defining the nature of submerged World War II resources and their relationship to the ecosystem. In 2002 Terry Kerby and his HURL team discovered a small two-man submarine sitting upright in over 1,200 feet of water off the south shore of the island of Oahu (Japanese Midget Submarine, 2005). This submarine was one of five secret weapons of the Japanese Imperial Navy involved in the attack on Pearl Harbor, which heralded America’s entrance into World War II in the Pacific. The sub sits upright and intact, in relatively good condition, with a slight list to port. Both torpedoes were still in their tubes, and no extensive exterior damage was visible except for a shell hole at the base of the conning tower’s starboard side, corresponding to the shot which sank the sub. Since then, agencies have collaborated on multiple survey and monitoring missions to the site, and a programmatic agreement for preservation management is currently being reviewed between NOAA, National Park Service, State Historic Preservation Division, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (Van Tilburg, 2007). Also since then, HURL has continued its efforts in deep water maritime inventory, and gone on to discover the fifth and last Japanese two-man submarine from the 1941 attack, and several other advanced and aircraft-carrying Japanese submarines scuttled after the war (I-14; I-201; I-401; I-400…see Kerby, 2013). The society in Hawai`i today was largely influenced by the Pacific conflict; the Islands were almost overwhelmed by the number of servicemen and military activity during the war. The heritage resources 11 �beneath the sea stand as the physical reminders of this period. The echoes of this major national and international event still strongly reverberate for island residents and visitors alike. Looking Towards the Future There is great potential for the investigation of Hawai'i’s submerged heritage resources, and the indigenous aquaculture structures, historic properties related to the plantation and ranching periods, and the extensive military resource base, will remain important additions to the story of Hawai'i’s past. Though there is no longer any academic UCH program in the state, the public agency collaboration between NOAA and the University of Hawai'i continues. The necessary prioritization, which is an inherent part of that effort, must carefully consider public opinion, for public agencies which employ maritime archaeology as a tool for public resource management have that responsibility. The field of underwater cultural heritage is relatively new to Hawai'i and not well understood. Effective education and outreach efforts remain, therefore, equal to or greater than efforts to simply conduct more individual site assessments. How the investigation of underwater cultural heritage resources in the islands can continue to be incorporated into marine planning processes, and how heritage sites can ultimately contribute to increasing ocean awareness and ocean resource stewardship, remains to be seen. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Dr. Cindy Hunter and the UH Marine Option Program, Terry Kerby and the UH Hawai'i Undersea Research Program, and the local divers and colleague scientists in Hawai'i who are sharing in the growing awareness and protection of our underwater cultural resources. References ASA Abandoned Shipwreck Act 1987. 43 USC ss2101-2106 http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/43/ch39.html, accessed 11 November 2013. Handy, E. S. C., and E. G., and M. K. Pukui, 1972. Native Planters in Old Hawaii. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 12 �Japanese Midget Submarine 2005 http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/midget_sub.html, Expedition. accessed 10 September, 2013. Kerby, T., 2013. Discovery of Imperial Japanese Navy Submarine August 1st, 2013. Hawaii Undersea Research Lab unpublished report, Honolulu. The Lāna`i Project. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/lanai/welcome.html, accessed 8 December 2013. Maui’s World War II Legacy. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/maui/ accessed 10 October, 2013. Naval Aviation and Deep http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/mars.html Water Discoveries. accessed 12 December 2013. NMSA National Marine Sanctuaries Act 1972.16 USC s1431 et seq. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/about/legislation/ accessed 10 November 2013. Rodgers, B. A., Coble, W. M., and Van Tilburg, H., 1998. The Lost Flying Boat of Kaneohe Bay: Archaeology of the First U.S. Casualties of Pearl Harbor. Journal of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Vol. 32 (4): 8-19. Russell, M., and Murphy, L., 2004. USS Arizona Preservation Project Research Rationale October 2004. National Park Service Submerged Resources Center, Santa Fe. Thomas, M., 1983. Schooner from Windward: Two Centuries of Hawaiian Inter Island Shipping. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Van Tilburg, H., 2002. Underwater Archaeology Hawaiian Style. In C. V. Ruppe, and J. F. Barstad (Eds.), International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York: 247-266. Van Tilburg, H., 2003. U.S. Navy Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: An Inventory of Submerged Naval Properties. Naval Historical Center report, Washington Navy Yard. Van Tilburg, H., 2007. The Japanese Midget Sub at Pearl Harbor. In J. H. Jameson and D. A. Scott-Ireton (Eds.), Out of the Blue: Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Resources, Springer Press, New York: 182-195. 13 �Biography Hans Van Tilburg holds a BA in geography from University of California Berkeley, an MA in maritime archaeology/history from East Carolina University, and a PhD in history from the University of Hawai`i, where he ran the graduate program in maritime archaeology and history. Hans has taught courses in world maritime history and published over 30 articles and book reviews, as well as several books. He has served as a consultant for UNESCO’s cultural heritage program and instructor for UNESCO’s UCH Foundation courses. He is currently the maritime heritage coordinator and unit diving supervisor for NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries in the Pacific. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime heritage resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Description An account of the resource The systematic investigation of underwater cultural heritage in the islands started in 1989 with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program. This slowly grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history. Manned submersibles with the Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab contribute to deep water discoveries and site surveys. Today the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries continues heritage resource site assessments in Hawai`i, in collaboration with partner agencies and programs. The underwater cultural heritage in Hawai`i reflects a multicultural diversity of archaeological and historic properties, such as coastal stone fishponds, submerged heiau, 19th century plantation landings, inter island steamships etc. Major events like World War II left behind numerous naval shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. These are the physical elements of maritime cultural landscapes that describe Hawai`i’s maritime past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7d69fd476a70b8c9d500930a68444b12.pdf 919a59be0734bbad79bc9f9742b341ee PDF Text Text Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines Email: mjlabolunia@yahoo.com Abstract When the Spanish colonizers reached Philippine soils, one of the earliest places they occupied is the tip of southern Luzon including the San Bernardino Strait. The whole area was known as Ambos Camarines and Albay. At present, it is the Bicol Region comprised of six provinces. As one of the earliest Spanish-occupied areas, it was exposed to Spanish activities like building of churches, government halls and shipbuilding. Ancient shipyards called astilleros are found in Bicol. These were used for construction and repair of the galleons that plied the Manila-Acapulco trade. This present archaeological study looks into the shipyards of Sorsogon where three shipyards were documented. Key words: Astillero, Shipyard, Embocadero, Metal smelting, Seamanship Introduction The Spanish colonization of the Philippine archipelago (Scott, 1994, 1992; Arcilla 1971; Pigafetta and Transylvanus, 1969) resulted in major changes in the lives of the peoples. Communities lost their independence with the Spanish imposition of the plaza complex resettling people within the government and church’s ambit (Jocano, 1998; Robles 1969). The majority of the local inhabitants were looked down by the colonizers because of their different manner of dressing, eating and skin color while at the same time surprised that these same people were very knowledgeable in seamanship and metallurgy (Agoncillo, 1990; Jocano, 1998; Scott, 1994, 1992, 1977). Their knowledge was exposed because of their ability to build different types and sizes of boats from memory. Since the Spanish government had decided to maintain the Philippines, there was a need to cut on cost both on the galleons and government. One measure was to build the galleons locally through the astilleros or shipyards. Filipino involvement were either direct through the actual construction of the shipyard, the galleons and as seafarers, may be indirectly through metallurgy and related activities (Agoncillo, 1990; Bolunia, 1995; Jocano, 1998; Mallari, 1999; Scott, 1981). The astilleros displaced many 1 �Filipinos because of their forcible transfer near the shipyard. Bicol experienced this. One of its provinces, Sorsogon, was the location of several shipyards particularly in the towns of Donsol and Pilar (Fig. 1). This present research looked into three astilleros in Sorsogon. The objective is to find out why the Spaniards decided to establish astilleros in this part of the archipelago and to validate what was written on documents by archaeological evidences . Fig. 1. Map of Sorsogon Province. (NAMRIA) Methodology Library and archival research were conducted. Interviews with key cultural consultants carried out. These were senior members of the population like Pedro Nocido, 85 years old, resident of the astillero since he was five. Archaeological activities included foot surveys, reconnaissance and excavations. Mapping of each astillero was done to produce visual representation of the sites. Artifacts like metal objects, earthenware and stoneware sherds as well as the features like furnace, ruins of buildings were collected and drawn and included in the analysis. Laboratory tests were conducted on some of the artifacts. 2 �The site The Bicol Region is found at the southern tip of Luzon, with Sorsogon as its southernmost province (Schurz, 1985; Bolunia, 1995; 1997; 1998). It was a favorable choice because it was directly located on the route of the galleons that plied the Manila-Acapulco trade. It had forests with the best trees for shipbuilding and a population who were skilled in boat-building and metal working. Sorsogon is bounded on the north by Albay, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by San Bernardino Strait, and on the west by Ticao and Burias Passes (Fig. 2). It has a total land area of 2,141.4 sq. km. The San Bernardino Strait or the Embocadero is the passage of all galleons (Malanyaon, Fig. 2. Maps showing the location of the astilleros in the towns of 1991). Two of its towns, Donsol (above) and Pilar (below). (NAMRIA) Donsol and Pilar, face the South China Sea on the west. Both towns are sheltered from typhoons. Both have extensive coasts dotted by bays, coves and major rivers that are navigable (Fig. 2). The town of Donsol is at the eastern side of the Donsol River (Dery, 1991; Goyena del Prado, 1981; Mallari, 1990). Its land area is approximately 156.3 square kilometers comprised of flatlands and low 3 �mountains, streams and rivers, with Donsol River (12.908 0 N and 123.5980 E) as a major river used for transport and food source. The town of Pilar (12.9260 N and 123.6760 E) is found east of Donsol with an approximate area of 248.1313 square kilometers of forests, hills, rivers and bays. An extensive mangrove surrounds it for a safe haven for boat and people. The Astilleros of Donsol and Pilar, Sorsogon Astillero is the Spanish term for shipyard. These were established during the Spanish Colonial Period to cut on the construction cost of the galleons that plied the ManilaAcapulco route (Schurz, 1985), the lifeline of the Spanish government. Their seaworthiness was of primary importance for an uninterrupted trade and exchange of European goods and silver and Chinese trade ware ceramics, silks and precious objects. The astilleros were either established at the mouth of a river like the Donsol astillero or on a cove like the Pilar astileros. The two astilleros of Pilar are separated by bodies of waters. One is inland while the other is nearer the sea. Both are adjacent to deep waters. The more inland is Binanuahan Astillero, located at the Pilar Peninsula. Prior to road networks, this can be reached by boat through Pilar Bay. The bay is a natural harbor and a natural barrier. The survey of the site yielded artifacts like slag, corroded iron nails, Chinese, European and local ceramic sherds. Documented were ruins of an old stone structure (Fig. 3) with a floor area of 288 square meters and thick walls (Bolunia, 2006). Provisions for large Fig. 3. One of the remaining walls of the structure in windows were also evident. A Panlatuan Astillero. (Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia). few meters away are remains of the palm palisade anahaw (Livistona sp.). It is approximately 100 m long with only the top visible during low tide. Two large wooden posts with a diameter of 40-50 4 �cm were also documented. The Panlatuan Astillero (Fig. 4) is located on a cove. Deep waters, two rivers, an extensive mangrove made it a favorable choice for an astillero including a vast flatland and a hill. Corroded iron nails, chain rings, bronze sheathing nails, iron tools, a porthole window, Chinese, European and local ceramic sherds, brick tiles and Spanish coin were recovered. A large slag concentration was also found on the northeastern side. Remains of large wooden posts were equidistantly buried. Ruins of watchtowers Fig. 4. The Panlatuan Astillero showing the location of the various features associated with the shipyard. (National Museum, Philippines) and a warehouse were also documented including remains of a big gate (Bolunia, Santiago and Penalosa, 2011). Two old deep wells were still being used by the owners. The Donsol Astillero is located on the lower reaches of the Donsol River. This astillero was established by reclaiming part of the mangrove around the area based on the auger-coring conducted (Bolunia, 1997, 1998). It has an approximate 5 �Fig. 5. The team members, Mssrs. Penalosa and Toling, posing beside the 3 m long anchor from the Donsol astillero. At right is a scientific illustration of the same anchor. (Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia) area of 11,000 square meters and thickness of 1.75 m with 19,250 cubic meters of sandy clay fill (Aguilera, 1997). Survey, test and full-blown excavations showed that 296 square meters were used for various purposes (Bolunia, 1995; 1997; 1998). Thousands of artifacts and ecofacts were recovered and the remains of the base of a furnace (Bolunia, 1997; 1998). Iron nails and spikes, copper sheathing nails and cut sheets, lead objects, Chinese and European trade ware ceramic sherds, animal bones, shells, wood, lime, stones, Spanish bronze coins, and more than 400 kg of slag were recovered (Bolunia, 1997; 1998). Earthenware moulds showing traces of melted copper and clay tubes or tuyeres were also recovered. A three-meter anchor was also found (Fig. 5). Coal, coke and charcoal were the fuel types recovered. The coke was of high quality based the analysis conducted by the Department of Energy (Bolunia 1998). Coal and coke are major ingredients in iron smelting together with lime and the ore. Charcoal was sourced from the mangrove (Rhizophora sp.) that grew abundantly around. It is a very good fuel because it burns longer and produces a high temperature. The furnace was for smelting based on the slag, lime and burnt surface observed. Iron tools like tongs, wedge, anvil were also recovered. Large wooden posts, approximately 30 cm were also documented in the direction of the 6 �river. Previous studies on the Manila Galleon trade usually focused on the shipwreck and its economic importance. Studies on the shipyards where these galleons were built and repaired are few (Dery, 1991; Schurz, 1985). These assumptions were arrived at after reviewing the available documents. The study of the astilleros showed that the Spaniards took advantage of the favorable landscape of Sorsogon and its strategic location in relation to the San Bernardino Strait. The Donsol Astillero was studied extensively because of its accessibility (Bolunia, 1995; 1997; 1998). The knowledge of the local people was picked when a three-meter Spanish anchor was exposed after a flood in the1950s. Mallari (1990; 1999) writes that a shipyard was built in Donsol where an encounter with pirates occurred resulting in the abandonment of its anchor. Pedro Nocido, mentioned of the presence of the frame of a big ship whose keel and ribs (frame) were eventually used as fuel. Furthermore, Nocido described that the area was flatland planted with hardwoods. Linguistically, the people residing in the Donsol astillero spoke the dialect spoken in Pilar. They are the only ones not speaking the Donsol dialect. They attribute this to their ancestors from Pilar which was a part of Donsol then. Nocido also mentioned that the Spanish mestizo owner was a friend of the Pilar astillero owners. The presence of wooden posts near the riverbanks can be associated with a pier. These wooden posts approximately 30 - 40 cm were deeply buried for mooring. The posts have pointed and grooved ends that would secure them. In the Panlatuan astillero, the wooden posts were still firmly secured even if only 30 cm can be seen during low tide. They were arranged either parallel or perpendular to each other. The presence of stone structures point to a single construction architecture prevalent during the Spanish period. The use of tiles as roof was observed as well as the construction of thick walls using riverine stones and adobe tuff. They have big window and door frames. The deep water well used adobe tuff while the watch tower used riverine stones. Lastly, the fence that enclosed the Panlatuan Astillero also used broken glass on the top for added protection. Based on the artifacts recovered, the structures documented and the accounts given by the cultural consultants, the astilleros were established to complement each other based on the types of activities that were carried out. The Donsol astillero was used as construction and repair site 7 �and smelting site while the Binanuahan astillero must have been the administrative site and the Panlatuan astillero the construction site and smelting site. It is easier to smelt ore in Donsol and Panlatuan because of the rivers that can transport the coal from its origin. It is also easy to roll the galleon once construction or repair work is finished. The waters nearby are also deep; favorable for rolling the ship. In the Binanuahan astillero, the remains of the palisade can be construed as a way of securing the place of administration. The ruins point more to a building of commerce because of the presence of big windows, a courtyard and doors. It has been said by many authors (Schurz, 1985; Mallari, 1990; Dery, 1991, 1996; Legarda, 1999) that the Bicol Region was the location of shipyards because of the forests and its skilled boatbuilders. Bicol, especially Sorsogon, is dotted with bays and coves as well as navigable rivers and streams that serve as transport system for humans and cargoes. Sorsogon faces the famous San Bernardino Strait or the Embocadero, the main access route for the galleons. Bicolanos, like the other boat builders, were capable of building big and small boats (Cuevas, Ronquillo and Santiago, 2006; Scott, 1981, 1994). Those who worked in the astilleros were not only skilled boat builders and mariners but also skilled in handling metals. Up to the present, there are still blacksmiths in Sorsogon making machetes and other objects that may be requested. Archaeological evidences have indicated that even as early as 500 BC there were already inhabitants in the archipelago who had knowledge of metallurgy (Beyer, 1947; Fox, 1970; Solheim, 2002; Dizon, 1988). Dizon (1979) in his archaeological excavation in Sorsogon was able to identify some iron tools and implements that date to 200 BC. This knowledge is thus presumed to have persisted until the coming of the Spaniards. It is not the domain of this paper to tackle how this knowledge was acquired. The shipyards of Sorsogon continue to beguile those who want to know what these bastions of Spanish colonization looked like. At present, there are no shipyards to construct galleons but many Bicolanos, especially those from the towns of Donsol and Pilar are still making boats either for their own use or for commerce. They still use their skills in choosing which wood is good for the keel and which 8 �should be used for other parts of the boat. They do not use blueprints or complex tools. When asked, their ready answer is still “because it has been done that way”. Discussion Previous studies on the Manila Galleon Trade usually focused on the shipwreck and its economic importance. Studies on the shipyards where these galleons were built and repaired are few and scanty (Dery 1991; Schurz 1985). Their locations were not specifically pointed out while the activities were left out for the reader’s own interpretations. These assumptions were arrived at after reviewing the available documents. Based on the three astilleros, the Spaniards took advantage of the favorable landscape and strategic location of Sorsogon. The Donsol Astillero was studied extensively because of its accessibility (Bolunia 1995; 1997; 1998). This location became a bane because many people decided to recycle the materials. The knowledge of the local people was alerted when a strong typhoon hit the town of Donsol in the 1950s flooding the whole town including the astillero. After the water receded, a 3 m Spanish anchor was exposed. Mallari (1990; 1999) wrote that there was once a shipyard in Donsol and an encounter with pirates occurred resulting in burning the galleon thus the anchor. My cultural consultant, Pedro Nocido, also mentioned of the presence of the frame of a big ship whose keel and ribs (frame) were eventually used by the locals for fuel. Had I come a earlier, I would have seen it lying on the shore. Nobody was familiar that the wooden frame was part of a ship although they often heard that these ships went to the alta mar or high seas. Furthermore, Nocido described that the area was flatland planted with hardwoods. Unfortunately, when I did my study, only coconut and fruit trees remained in the astillero. Linguistically, the people residing in the Donsol astillero spoke the Bicol Pilar dialect. They are the only ones not speaking the Bicol Donsol dialect. They attribute this to their ancestors originating from Pilar which was part of Donsol then. The Spanish mestizo owner was a friend of the owners of the Pilar astillero according to Nocido. The wooden posts near the riverbanks in all the three astilleros can be associated with the presence of a pier. These huge wooden posts approximately 30-40 cm in diameter that were deeply buried were neither for houses nor trading centers. This 9 �can be seen in the Donsol astillero where these wooden posts had pointed and grooved ends that would secure them from being swayed. In the Panlatuan astillero, the wooden posts were still firmly secured on the ground even if only approximately 30 cm can be seen during low tide. They were arranged either parallel or perpendular to each other. The presence of structures in the three astilleros also point to a single construction architecture that was prevalent during the Spanish period. The use of earthenware roofing tiles, thick walls using riverine stones and adobe tuff and lime mortar. The remains of the different structures are similar to those other Spanish period structures that have big windows and door frames. The deep well for water also used adobe tuff as building material. The foundation for the watch tower also used riverine cobble stones. Lastly, the fence that enclosed the Panlatuan Astillero did not only use cobble stones but also added imported broken glass on the top for added protection. Based on the artifacts recovered, the structures documented and the accounts given by the cultural consultants, the three astilleros were established to complement each other. This can be based on the types of activities that were carried out in the different astilleros where there was no duplication observed. The Donsol astillero was used as construction and repair site for galleons and smelting site too. The Binanuahan astillero must have been the administrative site while the Panlatuan astillero was also the construction site for galleons and smelting site for iron. It is easier to smelt ore in Donsol and Panlatuan because of the rivers that can transport the coal from Batan Island to the sites. It is also easy to roll the galleon once construction or repair work is finished and this same for the Panlatuan astillero. The area was large and it was possible to conduct various shipbuilding activities. The ruins of a watchtower as well as the possible warehouse and the large water wells are testament to its size. Large amount of slag and the oily soil can still be seen at present near the shore that would point to smelting activities before. The waters nearby is also deep, favorable for rolling the ship once it is built or repaired. In the Binanuahan astillero on the other hand, the remains of the palisade can be construed as a way of securing the place of administration. The ruins of the structure point more to a house or building of commerce rather than a storage structure because of the 10 �presence of openings for windows, a courtyard and doors. Unfortunately, it was impossible to see the full extent of the palisade because of natural (tidal changes) and human interventions. Interviews conducted with the locals confirmed the impression that much of the astillero is already underwater because of the presence of two river systems that meet nearby. It has been said by many authors (Schurz, 1985; Mallari, 1990; Dery, 1991; Legarda, 1999) that the Bicol Region was one of the areas where shipyards were constructed because it had some of the best forests where hardwoods can be found in addition to its skilled boat builders. Bicol, especially Sorsogon, is dotted with bays and coves as well as navigable rivers and streams that serve as transport system for human and cargoes alike. Both natural and human resources made Sorsogon a good choice for the establishment of astilleros with Sorsogon facing the famous San Bernardino Strait, the main route of the galleons. Bicolanos, like the other boat builders in the country, were capable of building big and small boats (Cuevas and Santiago, 2006; Scott, 1981; 1994). They were skilled boat-builders, mariners and metallurgists. At present, there are still blacksmiths in Sorsogon making machetes. Archaeological evidences have indicated that as early as 500 BC the inhabitants of the archipelago had knowledge of metallurgy (Beyer, 1947; Fox, 1970; Solheim, 2002; Dizon, 1988, 1979). This knowledge is thus presumed to have persisted until the coming of the Spaniards. The shipyards of Sorsogon continue to beguile people. At present, there are no more shipyards but many Bicolanos, including those from Donsol and Pilar still making boats for their own use or for commerce. They do not have blueprints nor complex tools. When asked, their answer is “because it has been done that way”. Acknowledgment I would like to acknowledge the help extended by the National Museum, Department of Tourism-Region V, Department of Energy, Sorsogon Provincial Tourism Council, Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation, Drs. Francisco Datar and Meliton Ordillas, Messrs. Rey Santiago, Melchor Aguilera, Antonio Penalosa, Alfredo Orogo and the lot owners. 11 �References Agoncillo, T., 1990. History of the Filipino People. Garotech Publishing, Quezon City. Aguilera, M. L., 1997. Detailed Geological Study of Astillero Site in Barangay Dancalan, Donsol, Sorsogon. In The Astillero: A Metal Smelting Site, Bgy. Dancalan, Donsol, Sorsogon. A Report submitted to the Department of Tourism. National Museum, Manila: 1-14. Arcilla, J. S., 1971. An Introduction to Philippine History. Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City. Beyer, H. O., 1947. Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by Islands and Provinces. The Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 77 (3-4) July-August 1947. Bolunia, M. J. L. A., 1998. Astillero: An Archaeological Analysis of a 19th Century Metal Smelting Site. University of the Philippines, Unpublished Thesis. Bolunia, M. J. L. A., 1997. The Astillero: A Metal Smelting Site, Bgy. Dancalan, Donsol, Sorsogon. A Report Submitted to the Department of Tourism. National Museum, Manila: 15-53. Bolunia, M. J. L. A., 1995. Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Exploration and Test Excavation of the Astillero Site, Dancalan, Donsol, Sorsogon. Manuscript. National Museum, Manila. Cuevas, M., Ronquillo, W., and Santiago, R., 2006. Boat Building Traditions in Pre-18th Century Philippines. ASEAN-COCI, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Dery, L. C., 1991. From Ibalon to Sorsogon: A Historical Survey of Sorsogon Province to 1905. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Dizon, E. Z., 1988. Iron Age in the Philippines. PhD Dissertation. University of Pennsylvania, United States of America. Dizon, E. Z., 1979. Tigkiw na Saday: Final Report. Anthropological Papers No. 2, National Museum, Manila, p.49. Department of Energy., 1997. Energy Research Laboratory Report. Department of Energy, Makati, p.2. Goyena, D. P. M., 1981. Ibalon: Ethnohistory of Bikol Region. AMS Press, City. 12 Legazpi �Jocano, F. L., 1998. Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage. Punlad House, Quezon City. Fox, R., 1970. The Tabon Caves. National Museum, Manila. Mallari, F., S. J., 1990. Vignettes of Bicol History. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Mallari, F., S.J., 1999. Ibalon Under Siege. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Malanyaon, J., 1991. Philippines: A History of the Bikol Region. AMS Press, Naga City. Legarda, B., 1999. After the Galleons. Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City. Pigafetta, A., and Transylvanus, M., 1969. First Voyage Around the World and de Moluccis Insulis. Filipiniana Book Guild, Manila. Robles, E. G., 1969. The Philippines in the Nineteenth Century. Malaya Books, Inc., Quezon City Schurz, W. L., 1985. The Manila Galleon. E.P. Dutton & Co., New York. Scott, W. H., 1994. Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture & Society. Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City. Scott, W. H., 1992. Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Scott, W. H., 1977. Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History. Revised Edition. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Scott, W. H., 1981. Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society. National Museum, Manila. Solheim, W., 2002. The Archaeology of Central Philippines: A Study Chiefly of the Iron Age and its Relationships. Revised Edition, University of the Philippines, Archaeological Studies Program, Quezon City. Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia is the Acting Senior Museum Researcher and is presently the Officer-in-Charge of the Archaeology Division. She earned her PhD in Anthropology from the University of the Philippines. Her research interests include prehistoric maritime trade and exchange. She has been working in Butuan excavating the fourth and fifth prehistoric Butuan boats ca. 12th-13th centuries CE. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Introduction interview with session chair María Cruz Berrocal and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Research on early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region makes a fundamental contribution to the study of Global History. In the last decades, historians are highlighting the region's relevance in the transformation of global economy through its role in far-reaching trade networks. The early beginnings of colonialism in the region, as well as the role of non-Angloamerican colonial agents in the shaping of modern world have been also highlighted. Although these debates have been driven largely from history, archaeology must become more prominent for the study of early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region through the study of consumption patterns, environmental effects, demographic impacts, transformation of gender systems brought about by contact, the role of material culture in these first colonial endeavours, and specifically, the important evidence that maritime archaeology can bring to the fore. It is argued in this session that new lines of evidence and argumentation will be found through a history- archaeology joint collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. María Cruz Berrocal Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon Description An account of the resource When the Spanish colonizers reached Philippine soils, one of the earliest places they occupied is the tip of southern Luzon including the San Bernardino Strait. The whole area was known as Ambos Camarines and Albay. At present, it is the Bicol Region comprised of six provinces. As one of the earliest Spanish-occupied areas, it was exposed to Spanish activities like building of churches, government halls and shipbuilding. Ancient shipyards called astilleros are found in Bicol. These were used for construction and repair of the galleons that plied the Manila-Acapulco trade. This present archaeological study looks into the shipyards of Sorsogon where three shipyards were documented. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 5 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7b453b38358fb25902d0e63a35005141.pdf 8cb91a98f954d706d4bb06ed6ebc70ce PDF Text Text The impact of mass media in the discrimination of Hispanic sunken heritage and the implementation of the UNESCO 2001 Convention Jesus García Calero Cultural section, ABC Newspaper, Spain Email: caleroje@gmail.com Abstract Sunken Hispanic heritage has been perceived sometimes just as an amount of gold and treasures. Unfortunately this widespread approach has prevented archaeologists to succeed in connecting the Hispanic-related cultural remains and shipwrecks with America’s naval archaeological record. The treasure hunting industry took advantage on this and now we regret the destruction of dozens of sites. UNESCO’s 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (CUPCH) (henceforth the Convention) is still the only legal and cooperative framework available to avoid Hispanic sunken ships from looting and dissolving into the marketplace. This is why treasure hunters, from 2010, undertook coordinated attacks against the Convention, often displaying dishonest behaviors, as was demonstrated in Courts, and requesting to be considered fair archaeological contractors. They gathered unfavorable opinions against the Convention even from archaeologists who agree with the UNESCO criteria but want an enforcement of research and projects suggested in the Convention but are concerned about misreading "in situ" conservation as if it were "in situ" oblivion. Now a new Heritage Act in Colombia allows treasure hunting companies to dig colonial shipwrecks legally. This is a beachhead and a challenge for the Convention's signatory countries as well as for archaeologists. The more scientific standards we set, the more actively committed with research and sharing knowledge we must be. Key words: Hispanic, Underwater cultural heritage, Treasure hunters, Mass media, Discrimination Introduction America’s history can no longer be told confronting Hispanic and Anglo-Saxon visions. Revealing works such as John H. Elliott’s Empires of the Atlantic World (2006) have focussed on the intertwined tale of both cultures, surpassing some 20th century prejudices that lost all sense in the current multi-ethnic society. Elliott shows just how the fates of both empires in the New World were closely linked, with surprising contemporary nuances. It’s time to fight the wrong view on sunken Hispanic heritage as a collection of treasures just to be rescued. Perhaps the law of the sea (“finders, keepers”), conceived to justify fortuitous finds, has been shown to be harmful enough as well as inaccurate to define the premeditated and technologically-sophisticated search 1 �of shipwrecks laden with treasure. In the name of old postulates, the new treasurehunting businesses have committed - and are committing - one of the greatest cultural disasters to affect mankind in the 20th and 21st centuries. We are referring to what Tony Horwitz, the shrewd American columnist, expressed in his The New York Times article “Immigration – The Curse of the Black Legend” (2006). In that article, he quotes Carlos Fuentes, who said “The Hispanic world did not come to the United States; the United States came to the Hispanic world. It is perhaps an act of poetic justice that now the Hispanic world should return”. Thus the vision we now invoke is vindicated. And this year we’ve had the opportunity to think deeper on this matter, after the publication of “Our America” the new book by Felipe Fernandez-Armesto (2014), who describes clearly the struggle even inside the American historiography for taking into account the Spanish branch of the past we all share. The idea that the remains of colonial Hispanic sunken vessels correspond to stolen goods, and that the people who perished in those shipwrecks were morally deficient legitimizes the virtual sacking of those very remains, and is commonplace in the pages where bounty hunters announce themselves to their would-be investors. They show no interest in the study of the people from different backgrounds and cultures that were aboard those ships, nor in the scientific consequences of such a revealing study. Such ideology has nothing to do with archaeology. Is the adventurer, surging from the deep sites, a paradigm to anyone who has seen their wildest dreams come true or to whom Providence has rewarded the greatest of efforts by being covered with shipwrecked jewels ripped out of what once was a tomb? There is nothing exemplary about those practices. No single archaeologist worthy of his title can deny the character of the real American history in each and every one of those objects. And the same goes for the moral or legal ties with the societies and people they originate from. An entire historical record has been mistreated by a destructive industry, and a whole culture discriminated. The low or practically inexistent scientific level and methodology that have guided “traditional” treasure - hunting businesses that flaunt administrative permits is also a byproduct of an “ideology” with which they argue in favor of the fruit of their labor. Back in April 2006 when Wilf Bloom, in charge of Deep Blue Marine, announced (Hollenhorst, 2006) the likely finding of the ship “El Salvador”, he told the Associated Press: “There’s 2 �a lot of blood on that gold”. Bloom also made a commitment to invest 10% of the bounty on hospitals and schools in “the regions of South America plundered by early Spanish explorers”. Such good intentions did not go beyond paying lip service to the message, but did provide a handy justification designed to align public opinion with something similar to the idea of the redemption of a black legend… in order to turn a handsome profit. Similar harsh arguments, that painfully caricaturize the history of Spain and America have been bandied before official forums in the United States, a practice that fortunately has not affected the impeccable American archaeological and scientific policies, but has nevertheless influenced its people. Proof of this are the large mass media corporations, who act as sounding boards for those who talk about treasures and value archaeological finds in terms of how many million dollars they are worth. We can see it in most press releases, even in the best exceptions (such as how The New York Times treated the story of the finding of the so-called “Black Swan” on May 19th, 2007) (Aguayo, 2007). The weight of the treasure-hunter industry is usually overwhelming - 13 out of 17 paragraphs in that article - against the few voices of marine archaeologists. In our example, the article started thus: “Explorers for a shipwreck exploration company based in Tampa said Friday that they had located a treasure estimated to be worth hundreds of millions of dollars in what may be the richest undersea treasure recovery to date”. A good example of news media coverage of an important case is the litigation between Odyssey Marine Exploration (OME) and Spain over the cargo found in the remains of Spanish frigate “Mercedes”, where we can readily see that in the United States - where American courts have sided with Spain and where both the U.S. government and its Navy supported Spain’s position– there has been no other voice heard except for that of the Tampa Company and its media connections. Curiously enough, as a contrast and example of the problem that we pose here, two years after the “Black Swan” story, the same company announced the finding of the English ship “HMS Victory” in the English Channel, and we were told the story of the shipwreck and its victims from the newspaper article’s very first paragraph: “Sea explorers probing the depths of the English Channel have discovered what they say is a legendary British warship that sank in a fierce storm in 1744, losing more than 900 men 3 �and possibly four tons of gold coins that could be worth $1 billion” (The New York Times, February 2nd 2009). The difference in how the story is told from a heritage perspective shows how the story plays depending on its origin. While it may be a small subtlety, it has had a devastating effect on the Hispanic archaeological record. Without cultivating a mere curiosity for history, the average person only reads about tons of coins, hundreds of millions of dollars and, eventually, the tough litigation against a power that stars in this new version of the black legend. That poses a great challenge for the scientific community and the historian, who today has to bring about a change in that perception. The 2001 Convention After all has been said and done, it is true that the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (CPUCH, 2001) remains at the center of the present debate as the only international legal and cooperative referent for the scientific community to approach a solution to the multiple, complex and polemical problems related to the historical underwater record. That is why we consider the implementation of its criteria as the most accessible safeguard of the endangered Hispanic heritage. Nevertheless, we shall see that in that regard, there has been a well-coordinated offensive in the last few years. In an article published in the Spanish daily ABC on November 22nd 2012, Filipe Castro and José Luis Casabán discussed the new forms adopted by the bounty-hunting industry: 1) The companies associated with large marine industries act in a shrouded veil of secrecy, on shipwrecks for which they already have buyers; 2) The traditional, ruinous companies, who are responsible for the destruction of a good part of the Spanish wrecks found off the American and African coasts in shallow waters; and 3) The other intermediaries, such as Odyssey Marine Exploration, who boast of being “a great company financed by its shareholders in the stock market, and are always quick to act and always reinventing themselves, with endless smokescreens to create illusions and situations, one step ahead of the mass media and of the regulating bodies, supported by important political entities in the USA” (Castro and Casabán, 2012). 4 �It is true, as is often heard, that most of the treasure hunters are involved in a ruinous business. Ever since the industry’s expansion, the ever-intelligent Peter Throckmorton (1990) understood that conservation of the heritage is a public concern. This debate, which I already touched on in a previous article entitled "Looting is not listed in the stock exchange" (García Calero, 2009), couldn’t be more applicable today. The reason is that we must assume the responsibility for the collective failure that supposes that the stock exchange and markets have not been able to choose a company that engages in the best practices. A company as protean as OME has seen a good share of its “creative force” impugned by its handling of the “Mercedes” case, not only due to the decisions it took in 2007, but also due to its attitude in the litigation against Spain. This is how the Honorable Judge Steven D. Merryday saw it when he condemned the company to pay the trial-related costs, and with harsh words said: They were searching for “a vessel and a location and a cargo all well documented and well known to Odyssey from the start and from long before the first day of this litigation”. The Judge also said: “To come to court and deny the truth of these facts is, as stated earlier, an unacceptable enormity propounded and maintained in bad faith and for an improper purpose”. Judge Merryday went on to say: "This bad faith conduct by Odyssey, dismissive of the applicable standards, dismissive of the court, and dismissive of the opposing party, cannot stand unaddressed by sanctions” (2007). So we would have to ask why this company who as Castro and Casabán have said (2012), pretends to be close to an archaeological dealer and hire archaeologists to supervise the work and even to publish its results, would print the "Odyssey Papers 13" in 2010. Back in 2009 the Tampa court had already shown signs that it would side with Spain against OME, and less than a year later, OME sponsored a symposium in New Orleans and published said “Papers 13”, whose main objective was to cast a reasonable doubt over the validity and the adequacy of the CPUCH. In that publication, Sean Kingsley (2010), a fine archaeologist who works for the Tampa company, makes an effort to distance the Odyssey practices from the old industry (he seems indignant when he cites Robert Grenier for referring (2006) to the old industry as one of “precious metal miners”). Kingsley goes on to justify the work done by Odyssey on the “HMS Victory”: “This careful and concerned approach to underwater cultural heritage is a world apart 5 �from the hit and run image depicted above by Robert Grenier, although it must be acknowledged that standards are far from uniform across the entire commercial marine archaeology field” [the underlining is ours]. Such final confession is striking when it refers to those who are directing continuous attacks against the CPUCH as an international referent due to the “irrelevance” of the in situ conservation criterion. Article 2.5 of the 2001 Convention states: “The preservation in situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage”. The ransacking of the “Mercedes” took place merely a year after Grenier’s comments, but for Odyssey the problem is the Convention, as is defended in “Papers 13”, made up of a combination of various authors united by a critical view. Evidently, nothing can prevent anyone from holding a contrary opinion or nuance to in situ conservation, above all in countries like Spain, where such criteria end up covering up for certain lack of action by civil servants regarding public initiatives to promote archaeological research of our rich underwater heritage. However, such posture is best understood in men like Kingsley when it is precisely the spirit of the Convention that the Joint Nautical Archaeological Policy Committee applied in the “HMS Victory” case, when it barred the Tampa Company from digging. We must remember that the British Ministry of Defense contracts have raised considerable and bitter polemic between archaeologists and Her Majesty’s Government, and that in Parliament, Lord Renfrew has shown this criticism at its highest level, as reflected in an interview (Bergareche, 2012) published by Spanish daily ABC. The Convention and its Annex, which regulates the necessary conditions before research can be deemed scientifically acceptable, worry the very same people whose conscience makes them say that “standards are far from uniform across the entire commercial marine archaeology”. Even then, there is also criticism from the archaeological world which, without impugning the Convention’s criteria, demands that it be applied in its totality, including the bases for the active research and training of a new generation of archaeologists who, out of the absence of projects and passive bureaucracy, will not have a more promising future. In Odyssey’s already cited «Papers 13», Filipe Castro writes on that subject (Castro, 2010). We agree: It is the same people who subscribed and regulated the Convention who should be most active and exemplary, and not hide 6 �behind a facade of passivity, because the heritage that we have to protect calls for knowledge as the first contribution to society. That is truly the real “treasure”. That is the permanent risk of the Hispanic heritage. It must not be touched without proper scientific method and the due respect to the sites. This makes the Convention pertinent and timely. The technology that allows us to reach the wrecks found in the depths is not enough to open a Pandora’s Box of contracting sui generis archaeological companies. The publications by Odyssey and other companies that warn against the danger of trawler fishing and other harmful activities are not enough to open the hunting season on the heritage. One must ask why, as in the two faces of Janus, the archaeologist and the treasure hunter live in such a narrow dialectic and increasingly confusing limits. And to understand why, we must go back to the origins. In those mythical days, when George Bass and a handful of pioneers were setting the basis for this scientific discipline, others were also laying the foundations of the treasure-hunting industry. In fact, in the case of the United States, organizations like the Council for Underwater Archeology, created in 1959, or the Sea Research Society in 1972, counted on diving experts among its founding members, like Robert Marx, who would quickly become one of the treasure hunters who has been most active on the Hispanic cultural heritage. The dichotomy between “trade goods” and “cultural artifacts” is then at the origins. Let us turn to the present. What will be the next battlefield, then? Without a doubt the problems are not over. To begin with, a recently passed law in Colombia will allow companies from 2014 on, to dig wrecks in return for 50% of the salvaged objects. Thus Colombia has launched the most aggressive attack on the Convention, something that is not entirely casual, because that law has turned the Caribbean country into a “beachhead” for the landing of treasure-hunting industry, who will take advantage of a historical opportunity to ensure their future as contractors. Colombian Constitution protects the underwater heritage as a result of its triple consideration of inalienable, embargo-proof and non-prescriptive. That of course means that in order to make a payment the cultural goods will have to be alienated. And that is exactly the treatment of the heritage that we denounce here as a traditional practice of treasure hunters, who in fact disconnect found objects from its cultural value, turning them into mere marketable goods. How is it 7 �possible that some coins or ingots themselves be worthy of being kept in a museum and yet not others? The magic is called “repetition criteria”. Colombia actively participated in the creation of the CPUCH, but changed its role just right before the vote and withdrew its backing to the project, in part due to the debates raised in a country where treasure hunters have always found loyal allies. What few people remember is that Robert Max is one of the inspiring forces behind the criteria of the new Colombian law, and has participated in the Colombian legislative debate from the very beginning. In fact, in 2003, in a hearing before that country’s Constitutional Court (2003), he stated for the first of the projects aimed at achieving the penetration of contractors to dig up treasure-bearing colonial-age shipwrecks. It is not a coincidence that in three different occasions during the last decade a legislative bill with the same purpose has gone before the Colombian parliament. As reported in El Espectador (“Treasure hunters eye Colombia”, June 6th, 2009) (Padilla, 2009), Marx’s presence in that Court in 2003 surprised more than a few. Curiously enough, that text was published in June 2009, right after Spain’s first-round victory over Odyssey in the Tampa court. It is as if, confronted with the likelihood of a possible defeat in the trial for the “Mercedes” cargo, where the industry risked future digs of Spanish wrecks in international waters, the powerful lobby became actively involved not only at the New Orleans congress, but also with its Colombian connections. And they achieved their objectives; the Colombian law takes effect this year. The 50% split between the State and the contractor has been popularized by Robert Marx over his more than 50 years of activity on Hispanic wrecks. And the repetition criteria is a trick that will be specifically applied on coins, jewels and ingots dug from future sites, but not on the nails, wooden planks nor ballast stones, that are also repeated but have no market value. What should worry those who are entrusted with protecting the heritage and also defending the CPUCH is the complete enforcement of what UNESCO dictates. Research, excavation and publication cannot be left for tomorrow, because with the available technology, we simply do not know how much longer the Hispanic underwater record will survive. Moreover, publishing becomes an urgent social responsibility for all archaeologists. We must call for action and results, while at the same time demanding 8 �scientific standards. Not taking an active part in in situ conservation is to abandon the excavation to the treasure hunters. An entire generation of archaeologists will be tempted to take the non-scientific road if they want to work, a dilemma that should never be imposed on any young lover of archaeology. Worst of all, in that case the discrimination against the Hispanic heritage will never be overcome because due to the mere fact of having arrived first to America, as John H. Elliot said. In the process of mining silver and gold, the Spaniards gathered both benefits and curses. From the beginning, the Spanish ships loaded with “treasures” (Treasury) were the favorite prey of the pirates of old. When the galleons sailed, their crews risked their lives over uncertain seas whose roads still lead to us. When they came under attack, they sold their lives and their flags dearly. Today, shipwrecked, they are helpless in light of the greed of these new, technologically super-refined pirates. The only defense we can offer them is to tell their story well and not to let a whole world of objects and artifacts that was sunk with them be dissolved, neither in the ocean nor in the market place. Acknowledgements I am very grateful to APCONF for the opportunity to make visible the Hispanic point of view of a problem we all share and let me speak to you from this far location. To the UNESCO for his role and commitment to the protection of the UCH. To María Cruz Berrocal and Veronica Walker Vadillo for their advice and ideas. And to all those who struggle to prevent our heritage to be destroyed by a profit motive. References Aguayo, T., May 19th, 2007. A Bountiful Undersea Find, Sure to Invite Debate. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2007/05/19/us/19treasure.html Bergareche, B., October 24th 2012. Colin Renfrew: ‘Los Estados recurren a empresas como Odyssey por ignorancia’. Diario ABC. www.abc.es/20121024/cultura/abci- renfrew-arqueologo-lord-odyssey-201210231911.html Broad, W. J., February 2nd 2009. Treasure Hunters Say They’ve Found a 1744 Shipwreck. The New York Times, www.nytimes.com/2009/02/03/science/03shipwreck.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=13883333 21-JEyXu6mX7CDdeVBRW4eXWA 9 �Castro, F., and Casabán, J. L., November 22nd 2012. Así operan los tres tipos de cazatesoros que benefician el hobby de los cleptócratas. Diario ABC. www.abc.es/cultura/20121122/abci-filipe-castro-cazatesoros-hobby-201211211941.html Castro, F., 2010. Archaeologists, Treasure Hunters, and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: a Personal Viewpoint. Odyssey Papers 13. www.shipwreck.net/pdf/OMEPapers13-UNESCO.pdf Corte Constitucional de Colombia: SENTENCIA C-474/03 PATRIMONIO CULTURAL Y ARQUEOLOGICO DE LA NACION. 2003. Corte Constitucional de Colombia. Elliott, J. H., 2006. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 14921830. Yale University Press, New Haven and London // Taurus, Madrid. Fernández-Armesto, F., 2014. Our America. A Hispanic History of the United States W. W. Norton and Company, pp. 402. García Calero, J., 2009. El expolio no cotiza en bolsa. Economía Exterior. July issue, 2009 www.academia.edu/5550882/El_expolio_no_cotiza_en_bolsa. Grenier, R., 2006. Introduction: Mankind, and at Times Nature, are the True Risks to Underwater Cultural Heritage. In R. Grenier, D. Nutley, and I. Cochran (Eds.), Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts ICOMOS. pp X and XI. ICOMOS, 2006. Paris www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/fulldocan.pdf Hollenhorst, J., April 4 2006 Utahns to dive for treasure. Desert News www.deseretnews.com/article/635196749/Utahns-to-dive-for-treasure.html?pg=all Horwitz, T., July 9 2006. Immigration - and the Curse of the Black Legend. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2006/07/09/opinion/09horwitz.html Kingsley, S., 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage and UNESCO in New Orleans: an Introduction. Odyssey Papers 13: 1-6 www.shipwreck.net/pdf/OMEPapers13- UNESCO.pdf Ocean Navigator, january 2001. "Astrolabe found off Cape Verde Islands" www.oceannavigator.com/January-February-2003/Astrolabe-found-off-Cape-VerdeIslands/ 10 �Padilla, N. F., June 6th, 2009. Cazatesoros miran a Colombia. Diario “El Espectador”. www.elespectador.com/impreso/hallazgo-arqueologico/articuloimpreso144368cazatesoros-miran-colombia. Throckmorton, P., 1990. The World’s Worst Investment: Economics of Treasure Hunting with Real Life Comparisons. In Underwater Archaeology Proceedings, from the Society of Historical Archaeology Conference. Edited by Toni Carrel. Tucson, Arizona: 6-10. -UNESCO., 2001. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (CPUCH). Jesús García Calero (Segovia, 1965) is a Spanish journalist, graduate from the Complutense University of Madrid. Since 1994 he has specialized in cultural information and he is chief editor for Culture and Entertainment sections in nationwide newspaper ABC, Madrid, from 1998. Most of his journalistic work addresses issues about Heritage, Art and History, from the theft of valuable maps and manuscripts in the Spanish National Library, to the case “Mercedes” and Odyssey Marine Exploration, or the polemic authoring of some Goya’s paintings -like “Colossus”- at the Prado Museum. He is also founder of the blog “Espejo de Navegantes”. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Introduction interview with session chair María Cruz Berrocal and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Research on early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region makes a fundamental contribution to the study of Global History. In the last decades, historians are highlighting the region's relevance in the transformation of global economy through its role in far-reaching trade networks. The early beginnings of colonialism in the region, as well as the role of non-Angloamerican colonial agents in the shaping of modern world have been also highlighted. Although these debates have been driven largely from history, archaeology must become more prominent for the study of early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region through the study of consumption patterns, environmental effects, demographic impacts, transformation of gender systems brought about by contact, the role of material culture in these first colonial endeavours, and specifically, the important evidence that maritime archaeology can bring to the fore. It is argued in this session that new lines of evidence and argumentation will be found through a history- archaeology joint collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. María Cruz Berrocal Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The impact of mass media in the discrimination of Hispanic sunken heritage and the implementation of the UNESCO 2001 Convention Description An account of the resource Sunken Hispanic heritage has been perceived sometimes just as an amount of gold and treasures. Unfortunately this widespread approach has prevented archaeologists to succeed in connecting the Hispanic-related cultural remains and shipwrecks with America’s naval archaeological record. The treasure hunting industry took advantage on this and now we regret the destruction of dozens of sites. UNESCO’s 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (CUPCH) (henceforth the Convention) is still the only legal and cooperative framework available to avoid Hispanic sunken ships from looting and dissolving into the marketplace. This is why treasure hunters, from 2010, undertook coordinated attacks against the Convention, often displaying dishonest behaviors, as was demonstrated in Courts, and requesting to be considered fair archaeological contractors. They gathered unfavorable opinions against the Convention even from archaeologists who agree with the UNESCO criteria but want an enforcement of research and projects suggested in the Convention but are concerned about misreading "in situ" conservation as if it were "in situ" oblivion. Now a new Heritage Act in Colombia allows treasure hunting companies to dig colonial shipwrecks legally. This is a beachhead and a challenge for the Convention's signatory countries as well as for archaeologists. The more scientific standards we set, the more actively committed with research and sharing knowledge we must be. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jesus García Calero, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 5 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Event and Process in the Founding of Japan: The Horserider Theory in Archeological Perspective Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Walter Edwards Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Summer, 1983 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Walter Edwards Item Type Journal Article DOI 10.2307/132294 ISSN 00956848 Access Date 2009-02-08 07:19:31 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Summer, 1983 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: Summer, 1983 / Copyright © 1983 The Society for Japanese Studies Issue 2 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 265-295 Publication Title Journal of Japanese Studies Short Title Event and Process in the Founding of Japan Title A name given to the resource Event and Process in the Founding of Japan: The Horserider Theory in Archeological Perspective URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/132294 Volume 9 China Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ennin's Travels in TÊ»ang China Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Edwin Oldfather Reischauer Edwin Oldfather Reischauer Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Ronald Press Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Edwin Oldfather Reischauer Edwin Oldfather Reischauer Item Type Book Call Number 951.01.R375e Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1955 Extra Leader: am 0c a Control Number: rla00280969 Fixed field: 820526s1955 nyuc 00100deng LCCN: 55006273 Local system no: CUDGR556273-B Local system no: (UPRA)tmp18756857 Cataloging source: CarP CStRLIN CU-A UPRA Geographic area code: a-cc LC Call Number: DS707 .R45 LC offprint number: Copy 2 Dewey class number: 951.016 Local LC call number: DS707 .R45 Physical description: xii, 341 p. : port. ; 24 cm Holdings: 951.01.R375e DEWEY 1 DOHSTK4WK 31275015170476 Held by: GRANDDEPOS Library Catalog library.usc.edu Library Catalog Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Ronald Press Co. Title A name given to the resource Ennin's Travels in TÊ»ang China China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Edo Kaigun to Bezaisen. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kenji Ishii Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Nihon Kaiji Koho Kyokai Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1988 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Kenji Ishii Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1988 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 413 Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Nihon Kaiji Koho Kyokai Series Umi no rekishi sensho ;; 2; Title A name given to the resource Edo Kaigun to Bezaisen. Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Economic History of Early Southeast Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kenneth R. Hall Nicholas Tarling Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Kenneth R. Hall Editor Nicholas Tarling Item Type Book Section Book Title From Early Times to c. 1500 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Pages 183-275 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Title A name given to the resource Economic History of Early Southeast Asia Volume 1, part 1 Southeast Asia