7 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d0a95e90bdb2168090ca9fb6ae9f4529.pdf 13c3e666ef5c9b0e0996344347608914 PDF Text Text Vietnamese Ceramics in Asian Maritime Trade between 14th and 17th centuries Ngo The Bach Department of Research and Collections Thang Long - Hanoi Heritage Conservation Centre 19, Hoang Dieu St Hanoi Vietnam Email: bach.ngothe@gmail.com Abstract Vietnam is one of many Asian countries that have a long-standing and famous tradition of pottery production. Vietnam is also one of three countries including China, Vietnam, and Japan which exported ceramics developed to other countries. The 14th century was marked by the initial penetration of Vietnamese ceramics for foreign markets. The 15th century was considered as a prosperous period for Vietnamese export ceramics with the largest export quantity and the most abundant types thereof. The 16th century marked as a pause in the export of Vietnamese ceramics. The 17th century was the development period of commodity economy and the renaissance period of ports located in the northern and central parts of Vietnam. The article reviewed the findings regarding Vietnamese ceramics in Japan, West Asia, mainland, and insular Southeast Asia in order to partially reconstruct the historical context and the flow of Vietnamese export ceramics for the international maritime trade routes in the Vietnamese history of international trades from 14th to 17th centuries. Given that, the author pointed out the origin, chronology of the Vietnamese ceramics discovered from the relics as well as market context thereof and the destinations of Vietnamese export ceramics. Key words: Vietnamese ceramics, Dai Viet (Great Viet), Northern Vietnam, Southeast Asia, Maritime trade routes, Ceramic export Introduction Vietnam is located in Southeast Asia or Indo-China, with more than 3,000 km of long and beautiful coastline, and is at a crossroads of the exchange routes of the East to the West. It is considered as the free trade gateway of Southeast Asia occupying an important role in the system of international maritime trade routes. In the 9th century, 1 �with the advent of several commercial ports and participation of Chinese and Arabian traders, the ceramics officially involved in maritime trade system and set up "the Ceramics Road on the Sea". Vietnam is one of many Asian countries having a longstanding and famous tradition of ceramics production. Vietnam also is one of three countries including Vietnam, China and Japan that exported ceramics developed in other countries. The manufacture of Vietnamese ceramics has been formed and developed from the 1st to the 3rd centuries and strongly developed since Vietnam had won their freedom in the early 10th century. Since Ly Dynasty (1010-1225 AD) onwards, the production methods of Vietnamese ceramics developed constantly and made great advances regarding the types of products, as well as decoration patterns used on ceramics. Northern Vietnam is the place where has many well known ceramic manufacturing centers, such as Thang Long and Bat Trang in Hanoi, Van Yen, Chu Dau and Binh Giang in Hai Duong province as well as Tuc Mac and Con Che in Nam Dinh province. It is noted that apart from the production of ceramics serving for the demand of domestic market especially in the 14th century that Vietnam was officially engaged in the ceramics export network through maritime trade route. For the later periods in Later Le (the 15th century) and Restored Le Dynasties (the late 16th and the 17th century), Vietnam exported a large quantity of ceramics to Southeast Asian, Northeast Asian and Western Asian markets. In addition to a few notes scattered in the written historical sources, the ceramic artifacts discovered through excavations in the ancient trading ports, shipwrecks and others in Vietnam as well as in other countries are important evidence that contributes to the knowledge of commercial activities on the maritime trade routes. These sources seem to suggest that contact Vietnam and other countries in Asia (both East and West) were abundant and important. The participation in the international trades from the 14th to the 17th century is clear in the archaeological record, which highlights the role and position of Vietnam in Asia and even in the West. 2 �Vietnamese Ceramics and Its Maritime Trade Routes in Asia during the 14th to the 17th Centuries After King Ngo Quyen defeated the Nam Han enemy on the Bach Dang River in 938, Vietnam entered officially the new era of independence. During the Ly Dynasty (10101225 AD), Vietnamese glazed wares industry had highly developed its technical and artistic aspects. In Tran Dynasty (1225-1400 AD), a lot of ceramics manufacturing centers had been set up and developed such as Thang Long (Hanoi), Bat Trang (Hanoi), Thien Truong (Nam Dinh), Van Yen (Hai Duong) and others. A large quantity of highquality wares, such as celadon, brown glazed, brown patterned and blue and white wares including white ceramic tiles were produced in many kilns. Archaeological findings in Vietnam and other countries from the 14th century, seem to indicate that ceramics made in the kilns in northern Vietnam were not only sold in the domestic markets but also exported to the foreign markets. During archaeological excavations in the 1980s at Dazaifu, Northern Kuyshu in Japan, Vietnamese ceramics associated with the pieces of wood and dated in “Daitoku the 2nd Year (1330)” have been found there. They are considered the earliest evidences on ceramics exported from Vietnam to foreign markets. According to other documentations, the iron-brown and cobalt-blue glazed wares were similar to ceramics discovered in Dazaifu in Japan, Juara on the Tiumen Island, and Babal states of West Malaysia. Many archaeological sites in East Java and South Sulawesi in Indonesia have also yielded the same types of Vietnamese ceramics. In details, blue and white and monochrome glazed wares produced at the kilns in northern Vietnam have been found there (Cheng and Lammers, 1974: 5-16). The most remarkable object found in these sites is the base of celadon tower decorated skillfully with embossed patterns which are similar to the ones decorated on the tower of Gio Pagoda in Vinh Phuc province, Vietnam dated to the 13th to 14th century. This object is currently preserved at the Adam Malik Museum in Jakarta, Indonesia (Stevenson and Guy, 1997: 270, plate 180). According to Stevenson’s and Guy’s opinions, the fragments of brownglazed jars of Tran Dynasty have been found in Trowulan, East Java (Stevenson and Guy, 1997: 286, 3 �plate 209). This is the first evidence mentioned about Vietnamese brown glazed wares in Southeast Asia. Apart from the ceramics found on the mainland, the Vietnamese ceramics have also been found on the Rang Kwian shipwreck which sank in the Gulf of Thailand and has associated material of Chinese and Thai celadon wares. Vietnamese ceramics comprised of blue and white bowls, plates, and cups (The Fine Arts Department of Thailand) (FAD, 1990: 82-93; Tenazas, 1981: 31-32). Pursuant to the specific characteristics regarding the types and patterns, these types of wares are dated to the mid 14th century. At the end of 2000, a group of fishermen in Ca Mau province, Vietnam while fishing off the seabed picked up a large number of Vietnamese and Chinese ceramics. The museum staffs assumed that there was a shipwreck and designated the site as the Ca Mau II shipwreck. The characteristics of Vietnamese ceramics are the same with ceramics discovered in the Rang Kwian shipwreck which were considered to have a relationship with the period. The Vietnamese blue and white wares on the Ca Mau II shipwreck include a wide variety of bowls, plates and bottles. The associated Chinese ceramics comprised of Jingdezhen blue and white and Longquan celadon wares of Yuan Dynasty dated in the 14th century. Along with the Rang Kwian shipwreck, ceramics discovered on the Ca Mau II shipwreck contributed to brighten the picture regarding the Vietnamese export ceramics during the second half of 14th century. Although traces of this ship has not been confirmed, this find is nevertheless very important regarding the Vietnamese ceramics extracted from the area, which can be dated earlier than the Cu Lao Cham shipwreck sank off the coast of Hoi An in Quang Nam province, Vietnam which sank nearly a century later. This is the second ship discovered in the territorial waters of Vietnam that transported Vietnamese export ceramics. In addition to the findings in Southeast Asia, Northern Vietnamese blue and white wares have also been found in many important monuments in the West Asia. The fragments of blue and white bowl with daisy pattern has been found from the excavation in Fustat, 4 �Cairo, Egypt, whose style is the same with the one contained on the Rang Kwian and Ca Mau II shipwrecks, and the Turiang shipwreck which contains a lot of Vietnamese underglaze iron-decorated ceramics (Sten 2002). This confirms the presence of Vietnamese ceramics in the West Asian market in the same context with the Southeast Asian market. The obvious increasing quantity of the 15th century Vietnamese ceramics in oversea relics showed that there was a significant development on Vietnamese ceramics export sector for the foreign markets during this period. The discovery of the fragments of the 15th century Chu Dau blue and white wares from the commercial port of Hormuz along the coast of Persian Gulf is considered as evidence regarding the Vietnamese ceramics exporting to the West Asia by maritime routes (John Guy, 1984). The most valuable evidence of Vietnamese ceramics exported to the West Asian market is a famous Vietnamese vase which has currently being displayed in the Topkapi Sarayi Museum in Istanbul, Turkey, also known as the "Topkapi vase". This is the beautiful and well-known blue and white vase, on which the information regarding the date and place of production was recorded, such as artisan surname is Bui in Nam Sach, made in the Dai Hoa VIII (1450) (recently called Nam Sach district, Hai Duong province in today). According to the report of Seiki Kin, there are eight sites in the Ryukyu (recently Japan) discovered Vietnamese ceramics especially in Nakijin and Shuri sites. In consideration on the shape and decoration, these ceramics were from the kilns in northern Vietnam dated between the 14th and 15th century (Kin Seiki, 1999). According to the research by Professor Yoji Aoyagi in 1991, Vietnamese ceramics have also been found in 32 sites in Southeast Asia including Indonesia (11 sites), Philippines (10 sites), Malaysia (9 sites) and Brunei (2 sites) (Yoji Aoyagi, 1991: 78-82). Although the findings from this research did not reflect the update thereof and the quantity of relics of Vietnamese ceramics to be found is much less than the ones found in reality, it is enough to show that Southeast Asia is the most important market of the Vietnamese trade ceramics. A notable discovery is the 1995 excavation of the Pandanan shipwreck sank near the Pandanan Island off the southern tip of Palawan Island in the Philippines. The excavation discovered more than 4,000 ceramics in total, of which the Vietnamese 5 �ceramics occupy 70 percent. Most of them were mainly produced at Binh Dinh province in Vietnam, but a few were ceramics produced at Hai Duong province in Vietnam. Based on the report by Eusebio Dizon (1998), it is assumed that this shipwreck sank in the mid-15th century. Other excavation is the Balanakan or Blanakan shipwreck in Ujung Karawang, West Java, Indonesia there has excavated in 1998 and has also been found Vietnam ceramics, especially blue and white wares made at Hai Duong province, as well as it dated to the 15th to the 16th century (Bui Minh Tri 2001; 2002). The 1997-2000 excavation of the Cu Lao Cham shipwreck sank off the coast of Quang Nam in Vietnam has recovered more than 240,000 objects and most of them are Vietnamese ceramics dated in the 15th century that demonstrated the Vietnamese ceramics were also supplied on the maritime trade routes. According to historical record, we know that the trade network in Southeast Asia was expanded from Malacca to the northern coast of Java especially in the 15th century together with the sharing of Muslim traders. The Vietnamese historical record also confirmed that Southeast Asian merchant ships were used to make the landfall to the ports in northern Vietnam for trading and exchange of eucalyptus, pearls, and aromas during the 14th to the 15th century. Although, these notes did not mention about ceramics but they were considered that the quantity of ceramics have been found as many in the trading ports of Vietnam, such as Van Don in Quang Ninh province, Lach Truong in Thanh Hoa province and Hoi Thong in Nghe An province, and have confirmed Vietnamese ceramics were exported during this period. Currently, there is no strong evidence to confirm whether or not this was the case, but there appears to be a continued export on Vietnamese ceramics in the 16th century. The investigation in Japan has found Vietnamese ceramics dated to the second half of the 16th century especially in Keichou period (1595-1615) (Shinichiro 1999). This evidence showed that the maritime trade between Vietnam and Japan was flourishing. In details, the Vietnamese ceramics found in Japanese town were from Hoi An in Quang Nam province and possibly arrived to Japan before the reign of Tokugawa Shogun had applied the closed-door policy in 1639. The results of archaeological research in Hai 6 �Duong province showed that Vietnam had decreased ceramic productions in the beginning of the 16th century, and several types of 15th century trade ceramics were not produced anymore and this phase seems to be focused on the domestic market mainly (Bui Minh Tri 1995). In the 17th century, many evidences – especially historical record – clearly confirm that Vietnamese ceramics were exported to foreign markets. A possible reason for this is the international trade policy under the Trinh Lords and Nguyen Lords of the Dai Viet feudal state (Great Viet - Vietnam today). Another possible reason could be the establishment and development of international shipping companies in the early 17th century, especially the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC). Merchant ships of this company were making long trips to the East to find the local markets, set up trading locations and expand their sales in other countries, especially in Asia (Bui Minh Tri, 2008). In that context, many trading ports with economic structure as the town were established along the coast of Vietnam during this period, specifically trading ports of Thanh Ha in Hue province, Hoi An in Quang Nam province, Nuoc Man in Binh Dinh province, Pho Hien in Hung Yen province, Kinh Ky-Ke Cho in Thang Long, Hanoi. These were the gateways for trading for the Dai Viet (Vietnam) with both Asia and Europe. At these trading ports, many kinds of goods were purchased and exchanged, including agricultural products, handicrafts and ceramics (Bui Minh Tri 1994, Do Bang 1996). In this period, the trades between Dai Viet and Japan were developing strongly especially in the first three decades of the 17th century or called Shuisen (the red seal ships) that Japanese historian called. The numbers of licensed Japanese ships traded in Dai Viet from 1604 to 1635 have 124 ships in total, including 37 boats in northern Vietnam and 87 ships in central Vietnam (Seiichi 1941). Generally, the Japanese shipped commodities, specifically silver, copper, and weapons, to Dai Viet and then they purchased mainly silk, spices, sugar and ceramics back to their country. Even after the Bakufu Shogun had issued the order of “Sakoku” to limit the foreign trades in 1636, 7 �Japan still continued to trade with Dai Viet merchant ships through China and the Netherlands (Bui Minh Tri and Pham Quoc Quan 1994: 34-51). It is worth mentioning that the Trinh Lords and Nguyen Lords did not allow Chinese and Japanese traders to reside in trading ports, but they allowed Western traders to open their trading stores. Particularly, Nguyen Lords allowed the Dutch to open their trading stores in Hoi An, Quang Namprovince in 1636. A year later, Trinh Lords also allowed the Dutch to open their trading store in Pho Hien, Hung Yen province and then open a second trading store in Thang Long (recently Hanoi) in 1645. Such events were good opportunities for trade in the developing regions. The VOC sponsored by the Dutch government had many priority rights including the exclusive trading right in the region East of Cape of Good Hope. For Dai Viet, after having set up trading stores in Pho Hien (Hung Yen) and Thang Long (Hanoi), the business of VOC had prospered because they enjoyed preferential treatment from the Trinh Lords. During this time, many kilns in northern Vietnam had competed to produce ceramics to export to foreign markets and also competed with Chinese and Japanese ceramics trade. The evidence of this can be seen through the abundant quantity of the 17th century Vietnamese ceramics found on many archaeological sites in Japan and insular Southeast Asia as well as the documentation of the VOC Company (Volker, T. 1971). In Southeast Asia, Vietnamese ceramics have been found in Pukissutosanion in Malaysia, and some in Indonesia, specifically Trowulan on East Java, Banten Girang and Banten Lama on West Java, Selayar on South Sulawesi, Warloka on Flores and Bengkulu on Sumatra (Naniek, H.W 1993). Very few of them have been found in Banten Girang and Banten Lama which were famous trading ports operated by Banten Sultan during the 16th to the 17th century. They material can be dated to the same dates as the Hizen ceramics from Japan dated in the late 17th century (Koji Ohashi and Takashi Sakai 1999). By comparative study, I assumed that the Vietnamese ceramics exported to foreign markets during this period were mainly made at the kilns in Hai Duong province on 8 �northern Vietnam. These ceramics were exported and transported by merchant ships of Chinese traders and VOC for consumption in Southeast Asia and Japan from 1625 to 1689 (Bui Minh Tri 2001). The findings of the Vietnamese ceramics in Japan, West Asia, mainland and insular Southeast Asia partly assisted us to deconstruct the historical contexts and analyze export flows of Vietnamese ceramics through international maritime trade routes. Noticeably, Vietnamese ceramics have often been found together with Chinese and Thai ceramics in many sites, which showed that they were shared and exported in the same trade flow. Conclusion Based on historical record and archaeological evidences of the trade ceramics, it appeared that the 14th century was the period for the penetration of Vietnamese ceramics into the Asian market. The 15th century was the flourishing period of Vietnamese export ceramics with the largest shipments and most complexity of export ceramics. The 16th century was marked by a pause in the export of Vietnamese ceramics. The 17th century was the development period of commodity and a prosperous period of trading ports in northern and central Vietnam. The international maritime trades by Vietnam had expanded around Asia with great opportunities to establish foreign relations with other countries in the region as well as Western countries that were based in the East. The impact of international trade had also expanded and developed on other ceramics production centers that were prospering proportionality to that of Vietnam and shared of the same Asian maritime trade routes. During the late 17th century to the early 18th century, the gradual decline of the Dai Viet’s economy associated with the decline of foreign trading stores in Thang Long in Hanoi, Pho Hien in Hung Yen province, affected the foreign economic system of the Dai Viet. The decline of Dai Viet’s trading port system originated from different causes but it was affected directly by the general downturn of Asia and the world trade system. It appears to indicate that the 17th century was experienced a return to prosperity and 9 �development on the international maritime trades, but afterward Vietnamese ceramics production stopped even to supply international maritime trade routes. th Fig. 1. Bottle, cobalt glazed ceramic, 15 ceramics, in Topkapi Saray Museum, Istanbul th Fig.3. Incense burner, blue and white ceramic, 15 century, from Treasures from the Hoi An Hoard (Cu Lao Cham shipwreck, Quang Nam, Vietnam) Fig.2. Status of an aristocratic lady, blue and white ceramic, th 15 century, from Treasures from the Hoi An Hoard (Cu Lao Cham shipwreck, Quang Nam, Vietnam) th Fig.4. Bowls with high feet, iron black ceramic, 15 century, at Puerto Galera (Philippines) 10 �th th Fig. 5. Jar, iron black ceramic, 16 -17 centuries, in the Kyushu Ceramics Museum (Japan) Fig.6. A covered jar with applied dragon embossment and painting in underglaze cobalt. In the possession of the Ozawa family, 17th century (Kyoto National Museum) Fig.7. A large dish painted with VOC trademark, Hizen th ware, 17 century. Found in Dejima port (Nagasaki, Japan) Fig.8. Types and designs of Vietnamese ceramics trade th ware to Japan in the 17 century 11 �References Aoyagi Yoji 1991. Vietnamese ceramics excavated on the islands of Southeast Asia. (In Vietnamese). Vietnam Archaeology. No 4: 78-82. Bui Minh Tri 1994. Thanh Ha commercial port. Hue, past and present (In Vietnamese). No số 4: 84-93. Bui Minh Tri 1995. Investigation Report of ceramics relics at the Cam Binh district, Hai Duong Province (In Vietnamese). Documentation of Vietnam Institute of Archaeology. Bui Minh Tri 2001. Hop Le ceramics in composition of Le Dynasty’s ceramics (In Vietnamese). Ph.D Dissertation. Documentation of Vietnam Institute of Archaeology. Bui Minh Tri 2002. Vietnamese ceramics: The date and origin (In Vietnamese). A century of Vietnam archaeology, Hanoi 2002. Bui Minh Tri 2008. Vietnamese ceramics in the Asia sea-route trade in the seventeenth century (In Vietnamese). Vietnam Archaeology. No 6: 67-82. Bui Minh Tri, Phạm Quốc Quân 1994. Hizen Ceramics (Japan) found at some Vietnam archaeological sites (In Vietnamese). Vietnam Archaeology. No 4: 34-51. Cheng Lammers and Abu Ridho 1974. Annamese Ceramics in the Museums Pusat Jakarta, Himpunan Keramik Indonesia, Jakarta. Dizon Eusebio Z., 1998. Underwater archaeology of Pandanan wreck: A mid- 15 century AD. Vessel, Southern Palawan, Philippines, International Conference in Berlin, from 31 Aug- 4 Sept. Do Bang 1996. The port city of Thuan Quang (In Vietnamese). Hue city 1996. Guy, J. 1984. Oriental Trade Ceramics in Southeast Asia: 9th to 16th Century. University of Melbourne Press: Melbourne. Iwao Seiichi 1941. Studies of the Japantowns of the South Seas. John Stevenson and John Guy 1997. Vietnamese Ceramics: A separate tradition. Art Media Resources, Chicago. Kin Seiki, 1999. Trade with Southeast Asia by the Kingdom of Ryukyu and Vietnamese Ceramics Discovered in Okinawa. (In Vietnamese) International conference on Vietnam-Japan relations: Hanoi 12 �Naniek, H.W., 1993. Vietnamese ceramics from archaeological site in Indonesia. The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies, No. 11. Ohashi Koji and Sakai Takashi 1999. Ceramics from the site of Banten in Indonesia. Bullentin of the National Museum of Japanese History. Vol. 82 Rosa Tenazas 1981. Status reports: Underwater Archaeological Investigation of the Rang Kwien Shipwreck, SPAPA Digest, Vol. II, No. 2: 31-33 Sten Sjostrand 2002. Turiang: a 14th century Chinese shipwreck, upsetting Southeast Asian ceramic history. Southeast Asia - China Interactions which was published by the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society in 2002. The Fine Arts Department of Thailand (FAD) 1990. Sumaphan Published Co., Ltd., Tsuzyki Shinichiro 1999. Vietnam ceramics excavated from Sakai site. The summary record of International Conference in Hanoi, December 1999. Volker, T., 1971. Porcelain and the Dutch East India Company. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 8: Ceramics from Shipwrecks, Harbours, Ports and Related Archaeological Sites Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 8 chair Atthasit Sukkham and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Trade ceramics have usually been found together with other evidence in many ancient shipwrecks, harbours, ports, trade centers, hinterlands and burials around the world which were linked to international maritime trade routes. These were specifically Chinese, Indian, Southeast Asian, Middle East and European trade routes over a long period of history. Trade ceramics are virtually indestructible. They are also one of the most important sources of information for maritime archaeological studies concerning the dating of ceramics and shipwrecks, origins of ceramics, points of departure and destinations of ships and shipments, for instance. This session aims to provide an opportunity for specialists to contribute their knowledge on trade ceramics in multi-disciplinary approaches and foster international collaboration for ceramic studies from the shipwrecks, harbours, ports and related archaeological sites in near future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atthasit Sukkham Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Vietnamese Ceramics in Asian Maritime Trade between 14th and 17th centuries Description An account of the resource Vietnam is one of many Asian countries that have a long-standing and famous tradition of pottery production. Vietnam is also one of three countries including China, Vietnam, and Japan which exported ceramics developed to other countries. The 14th century was marked by the initial penetration of Vietnamese ceramics for foreign markets. The 15th century was considered as a prosperous period for Vietnamese export ceramics with the largest export quantity and the most abundant types thereof. The 16th century marked as a pause in the export of Vietnamese ceramics. The 17th century was the development period of commodity economy and the renaissance period of ports located in the northern and central parts of Vietnam. The article reviewed the findings regarding Vietnamese ceramics in Japan, West Asia, mainland, and insular Southeast Asia in order to partially reconstruct the historical context and the flow of Vietnamese export ceramics for the international maritime trade routes in the Vietnamese history of international trades from 14th to 17th centuries. Given that, the author pointed out the origin, chronology of the Vietnamese ceramics discovered from the relics as well as market context thereof and the destinations of Vietnamese export ceramics. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ngo The Bach, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 8 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8d6bcbc8f46d9f25cfa7a83eb32ca618.pdf fbf56d842c6260969ff09f88aa9a870e PDF Text Text Discovery of Ceramics from the Koh Sdach Shipwreck, Koh Kong province, Cambodia Tep Sokha Royal University of Fine Arts, 72 str. 19 Phnom Penh, 1200 Cambodia Email: tepsokha81@yahoo.com Abstract In February 2006 fishermen discovered a shipwreck off the southwest coast of the Kiri Sakor district, Koh Kong province in 30 m of water approximately 20 km west from Koh Sdeach. Charred timber found at the shipwreck site and large irregular globs of melted metal which encase pottery pieces appear to indicate that the ship burned before sinking. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts and the Shipwreck Research and Salvage Committee obtained the collection, which includes cooking pots with lids, storage jars with four loop-handles of different sizes, basins, bottles, kendi, dishes, plates, mortars and porcelain and celadon bowls. During our examination of the collection we selected a representative sample of 88 pieces of ceramics. Among the recovered material we found two pieces of lacquered covered box. While the designs on the lacquered surfaces were quite faded, the basketry core was in perfect condition. The calibrated date was from 1428 to 1482 AD (95% probability). The preliminary analysis of ceramics indicates that they could originate from the Mae Nam Noi kilns in Singbori province and the Si Satchanalai kilns in Sukhothai province, both in Thailand. Furthermore, the same type of storage jars with four handles has been found in the Cardamom Mountain, in Cambodia, where they have been used for burials. In this presentation I will discuss the preliminary analysis of the material and the different ways in which the site is connected to maritime trade routes in the gulf of Thailand and mainland Southeast Asia. Key words: Cambodia, Post-Angkor, Cardamom, Maritime trade, Ceramics, Burial jars, Koh Sdach Introduction In February 2006 fishermen discovered a shipwreck off the southwest coast of the Kiri Sakar district, Koh Kong province in 30 m of water approximately 20 km west from Koh Sdach Island. Charred timber found at the shipwreck site and large irregular globs of melted metal which encase pottery pieces appear to indicate that the ship burned before sinking. His Excellency Ly Yong Phat funded the recovery of some 900 pieces of complete ceramics, various artifacts and a pile of broken ceramics. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts (MoCFA) and the Shipwreck Research and Salvage Committee 1 �obtained the collection, which includes cooking pots with lids, water jars, storage jars with four loop-handles of different sizes, basins, bottles, Kendi, bowls, plates, mortars, porcelain and celadon bowls. The material is currently stored at the Provincial Court in Koh Kong. During our examination of the collection we selected a representative sample of 88 pieces of ceramics. Among the recovered material we found two pieces of lacquered covered box. While the designs on the lacquered surfaces were quite faded, the basketry core was in perfect condition. The radiocarbon dating was done by Nancy Beavan and its calibrated date ranges between 1428 and 1482 AD (95% probability) (Beavan et al., 2012b). The preliminary analysis of ceramics indicates that they could be derived from two sources of ceramics kiln sites: Mae Nam Noi kilns or Bang Rachan kilns in Singburi province and Si Satchanalai kilns in Sukhothai province, Thailand. Furthermore, the same type of storage jars with four lug handles has been found in the Cardamom Mountain, in Cambodia, where they have been used for burials. In this presentation I will discuss the preliminary analysis of the material and the different ways in which the site is connected to maritime trade routes in the gulf of Thailand and mainland Southeast Asia. Collection of Ceramics from Shipwreck near Koh Sdach Island Discovery of Ship sunk near Koh Sdach Island so far only one shipwreck has been located in Cambodia. This ship sank near Koh Sdach Island. The main cargo was of Thai ceramic production and various artifacts. According to local villagers some of ceramics and valuable objects were looted though the extent of the looting has not been quantified. Additional researches of underwater archaeology suggest that there may be around 15 shipwrecks according to local people in Kompot, Sihanouk village, Kep and Koh Kong province (UNESCO, 2011), but no evidence of their location has been found yet, further work will be done in the future lead by UNSECO in Cambodia and Department of Underwater Archaeology under Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts. According to initial reports, the estimated ship dimension is 30 m long and 8 m wide (Chuch Phoeurn, 2006). The location of the shipwreck is between the mainland and Koh Sdach Island. The popular name of the closest harbor is the “Japanese Port”. This may indicate evidence of maritime trade around area near Koh Sdach Island between Cambodia and Japan. 2 �Transportation and Storage Ceramics, boards of ship, ivories, ingots, one small canon, bamboo lacquer cover boxes, and various artifacts were moved and lifted from the ship by Russian divers. At first, all the collection was stored in a Russian ship, but after the salvage operations ended, the collection was moved and stored in a room that belonged to H.E. Ly Yong Phat, who extended funding support for the operation. Cambodian Royal Government has no funds to lift the shipwreck, an operation that was estimated to cost around one million US dollars. Consequently, the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, and National Museum in Phnom Penh proceeded to make an inventory of the ceramics and various artifacts. These were labeled as “KK.2006.0001”, abbreviation of KK “Koh Kong”. In the project I am currently working on, there are plans to build storage, cabinets, and carry out ceramics conservation such as desalination of soluble salt, assembling of broken ceramics, writing the number in correct place, make description, photography for database, etc. We will classify the ceramics in groups of large storage jars, medium storage jars, small storage jars, cooking pots, water jars, bottles, stoves, motors, basins, and so on. Ceramics Conservation We are carrying out technical methods of ceramic conservation for conservation problems such as waterlogged ceramics in salt water, flaking glaze, powdery clay of earthenware, cracking lines and broken in pieces, problem of storage, numbering in the wrong place, and dirty.  Technical desalination: soak ceramics in fresh water for 24 hours, or three days, or one week. Test the salt in the water carried out by Conductivity Meter that will indicate its scale microsum (µ). Soak it in water time and again until measurement of soluble salt to degrees down around 100 µ. This process will stop the clay turn powdery and prevent further cracks in the ceramics.  Cleaning dirt and shells: at this point, we must learn how to work out a problem of pot stains dirt and shells attached with the ceramics. We can remove some part of shells attach on pot at any area is occurred the deteriorative issue and look conspicuously, we keep in mind that shell remains is on pot could help us to 3 �identify evidence of source where pots found. We can apply sponge, dental brushes, bamboo stick, and scalpel to clean the ceramics.  Consolidation of flaking glaze: adhesive Acryloid B-72 and B-48 dissolve in pure acetone about 5-10 percent to drop on the glaze flaking with painting brush for three or four times. Carrying out this method can help glaze strongly. Normally, the problem of glaze flaking also occurs with soluble salt which thins the glaze and cracks the glaze is getting weak and then it flicks off.  Consolidation of powdery clay: we can apply consolidation as glaze flaking, but this method could make clay to gain a dark color. In any case, desalination of salt may help pot clay in good condition. We know this problem often occurs with low fired pots.  Assembling of pots: use adhesive Acryloid B-72 and B-48 in pure acetone, these types of adhesive is adopted for the climate in Cambodia, the glass transition temperature change is higher than 400C. Before joining shards, we must consolidate the edge of shards three to four times, which strengthens the edge and makes it safer when we press it together. Apply adhesive on one edge of shard and press both shards together, and then pull it to see adhesive to fill in completed hole.  Previous numbering was in the wrong place and also the size of the letter used on small objects was too big. We will remove and number at the right place. Normally, when numbering the objects we must think about where we should write. We make a lined coat and remember not to write direct on pots since ink stains on the pot are difficult to clean. The technical method used for numbering on the pots, is by making a coat with thick liquid of adhesive Acryloid B-72 and then we write the number on the coat, last point, we cover on top with thick liquid adhesive Acryloid B-67, this method, it can protect from scratching of numbering. As for, large jars can write number at low part of body and high from base 5 cm, make layer or coat with Acryloid B-72, size of letter should be 1 cm high. Medium size of storage jars and small jars must number smaller and smaller. Furthermore, cooking pots, water jars, Kendi, basins and various objects should number at a side of flat base in a section that will not be suffering friction from the floor, board 4 �and storage compartment. We must make sure this area is not scratched when we move object.  Ceramics storage: It is really important for management of artifact collection in Museum and Gallery. All of the ceramics derived from the Koh Sdach shipwreck are currently not in a good condition of storage, as we can see from the pile of ceramics and fragments (Fig. 6). Examination of ceramics indicates that many pots were recently broken in pieces, scratched lines of the clay and glaze, and chipped the edge of the shard. This happened due to weight compression from material stored on top. In my project, this year I am working on complete ceramics and I am planning on moving them to the Department of Culture and Fine Arts. I have some funds allocated to build the storage in order to store ceramics on shelf. Conclusion The Koh Sdach shipwreck was transporting cargo following a coastal route but never managed to reach its destination, as it sunk off the coast of Cambodia and currently lies underwater at 32 m of depth. Various researchers have thought this was a Chinese junk, but this assertion requires further study of the planks. A proof of iron melting wrap around ceramics appears to indicate that the ship may have been burnt due to an act of piracy or by accident. This ship was found on February 2016 by fisherman. Ceramics and various archaeological artifacts were brought up from the sea by Russian divers supported by H. E. Ly Yong Phat. Most of the storage jars originated from Mae Nam Noi kilns in Thailand and Radiocarbon date suggest 1428-82 CE old. Furthermore, we found some Si Satchanalai celadon plates, Chinese blue and white porcelain plates, low fired wares such as cooking pots, water jars, stoves, kendis and basins. The discovery of Mae Nam Noi storage jars which highland people used for funerary practices in valley or on the hills of Cardamom Mountain in Thma Bang and Sre Ambel districts, Koh Kong province indicate that the trade routes taken by these materials was mainly coastal. The jar burial sites in the Cardamom Mountains show the common use of Mae Nam Noi Jars that have had the necks of the jars knocked off, and a hole was drilled on the bottom. These jars were used to store human bones in a secondary deposition. The jars were then placed in a natural rock ledge along the range of Cardamom Mountain (Beavan, 5 �2012a). We also found the celadon plates in this context; therefore it is possible that they were used for food offering during ceremonies. In my project have planned for three years of ceramics conservation and management, at first year, I am going to focus on earthenware which researchers have been focused on the stoneware in Southeast Asia; At second points, I am going to focus on the stoneware and third point, I am going to conserve all of broken ceramics in pieces. We are going to build storage for ceramics from the shipwreck and management. Therefore, we expect cultural heritage treasures in Cambodia, were derived from the shipwreck are going to conserved and preserved in good condition. In the near future, we hope UNESCO and other organization will help to build the museum for collection found in Koh Kong province. 6 �Catalogue Notification of ceramics is classified into 12 functions such as storage jars, bottles, jarlets, basins, Kendis, celadon bowls, blue and white Chinese porcelains, cooking pots, water jars, lids of cooking pots and water jars, stoves, and mortars. Additional point, they have slightly different dimensions and decoration. Radiocarbon dating on bamboo box with lacquer has provided the date between 1428 and 1482 CE. 1. Storage Jar (Fig. 1) with thick four lug handles, black and green glaze in the lower part of body, vertical neck, profile lip and flat base. Many jars found having dimension of H: 50-66 cm, Diam: 40-45 cm. Fig. 1 2. Jarlets (Fig. 2) with two handles and green glaze, reddish tan clay. These types of jarlet were produced in Si Satchanalai kiln around 15th -16th centuries. Jarlet was formed shape as gourd, they perhaps use for liquid container. Normal glaze is green glaze that we call Celadon ware to focus on clay object with green color, but soluble salt is made flake and changed color of glaze. Measurements: H: 10.5 cm, Diam: 7cm; and Cat: 13, H: 7 cm, Diam: 8cm Fig. 2 3. Si Satchanalai Celadon Bowls (Fig. 3) Some celadon bowls found in the pile of ceramics which stylistic data of celadon; they were produced in the late period of Si Satchanalai. Bowl Fig. 3: H: 6-7.5 cm, Diam: 23-25 cm Fig. 3 7 �4. Blue and White Porcelain Bowls (Figs. 4-5) with blue cloud design at exterior and Chinese letter “Fu” at center of bowl interior, ideogram for happiness. Dimension H: 7 cm, Diam: 14.5 cm; Bowl Fig. 5 with cobalt blue glaze at exterior and Chinese letter “Fu” but different style of writing than Fig. 4 Dimension H: 4.5 cm, Diam: 9.5 cm Fig. 4 Fig. 5 5. Cooking Pots (Fig. 6) has an ellipsoid shape, short neck, large mouth, and round base, impress design on entire body. This type of traditional cooking pot was made by paddle and anvil, it appears like Thai production and many storage jars of various sizes were exported. There are 30 complete pots we counted and some of them were broken. Dimension of cooking pot Fig. 6 H: 31 cm, Diam: 22 cm Fig. 6 6. Water Jars (Figs. 7-8) Based on the style of tradition of water jars in Cambodia, we call this type of pots “Water Jar” though it does not only refer to water container but it could also be used for various purposes. In this shipwreck, water jars are more in number than cooking pots. Many water jars are of the same dimension: H: 16-17cm, Diam: 20-22 cm; there is only a large water jar, dimension: H: 29.5 cm, Diam: 33 cm. Decoration of pots indicates impression of paddle pattern such as illustration of incised lines on the wood pattern Fig. 7; and pattern of X with fish eggs at upper part of water jar Fig. 8. Fig. 7 Fig. 8 8 �7. Group of lids (Figs. 9-10) with dome shape, handle at center, they may be lids for the water jars. Dimension H: 2-4 cm, Diam: 9 – 15 cm; Four lids with dome shape and unglazed cylindrical shape, Thai earthenware also found at Rang Kwein ceramics (Brown, 2009), H: 711cm, Diam: 23-33 cm Fig. 9 Fig. 10 8. Stove and Mortar (Fig. 11) there are several mortars amongst the items recovered from the ship; it seems under fired clay, this type of object is used for pounding hard foods for cooking. Mortar has ellipsoid shape, stamp foot, and reddish clay. The mortar has the following dimensions H: 10 cm, Diam: 17cm. A stove was also found amongst the material recovered. Fig. 11 Acknowledgements I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to the committee of the Asia-Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage who has supported me; Veronica Walker, and others of the publications committee who has assisted in the reviewing the article, Joyce Clark, and Helen Jessup from Friends of Khmer Culture (FOKCI), Lisa Sardegna, Dr. Nancy Beavan, Dr. Louise Cort, and Atthasit Sukkham. I would like to dedicate this article to Bonnie Baskin and late Roxanna Brown. 9 �References Beavan, N., Halcrow, S., McFadgen, B., Hamilton, D., Buckley, B., Sokha, T., Shewan, L., Sokha, O., Fallon, S., Miksic, J., Armstrong, R., O’Reilly, D., Domett, K., Chhem, K. R., 2012a. Radiocarbon dates from Jar and Coffin Burials of the Cardamom mountains reveal a unique mortuary ritual in Cambodia’s late to post-Angkor period (15th to 17th centuries AD). Radiocarbon, Vol. 54 (1): 1- 22. Beavan, N., et al. 2012b. Field note: A Radiocarbon date for the Koh S’dech Shipwreck, KohKong Province, Kingdom of Cambodia. Smithsonian Freer Sackler Gallery online resource. Site visited on the 26th March 2014, available at: https://www.academia.edu/2066819/Field_note_A_Radiocarbon_Date_for_the_Koh_Sd ech_Shipwreck_Koh_Kong_Province_Kingdom_of_Cambodia Brown, R., 2009. The Ming Gap and shipwreck ceramics in Southeast Asia: towards a chronology of Thai trade ware. River Books, Bangkok. Chuch, P., 2001. The Preliminary Cartography of Cultural Underwater Heritage in Cambodia. UNESCO, Phnom Penh. Tep Sokha is an archaeologist specialized in Southeast Asian ceramics and ceramic conservation. He graduated from the Royal University of Fine Arts (RUFA), where he established a small ceramics conservation workshop and was involved in student training in conservation and ceramic analysis. Tep has some ten years of experience on various ceramic conservation projects and organizing exhibitions including for the Khmer sites of Preah Vihear, Phum Sophy, and Kuk Patri. Tep is currently the Chief Ceramics Conservator for the Living in the Shadow of Angkor project for the jar burials of the Cardamom Mountains and the study of the ceramics from the Koh Sdach shipwreck. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 8: Ceramics from Shipwrecks, Harbours, Ports and Related Archaeological Sites Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 8 chair Atthasit Sukkham and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Trade ceramics have usually been found together with other evidence in many ancient shipwrecks, harbours, ports, trade centers, hinterlands and burials around the world which were linked to international maritime trade routes. These were specifically Chinese, Indian, Southeast Asian, Middle East and European trade routes over a long period of history. Trade ceramics are virtually indestructible. They are also one of the most important sources of information for maritime archaeological studies concerning the dating of ceramics and shipwrecks, origins of ceramics, points of departure and destinations of ships and shipments, for instance. This session aims to provide an opportunity for specialists to contribute their knowledge on trade ceramics in multi-disciplinary approaches and foster international collaboration for ceramic studies from the shipwrecks, harbours, ports and related archaeological sites in near future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atthasit Sukkham Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Discovery of Ceramics from the Koh Sdach Shipwreck, Koh Kong province, Cambodia Description An account of the resource In February 2006 fishermen discovered a shipwreck off the southwest coast of the Kiri Sakor district, Koh Kong province in 30 m of water approximately 20 km west from Koh Sdeach. Charred timber found at the shipwreck site and large irregular globs of melted metal which encase pottery pieces appear to indicate that the ship burned before sinking. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts and the Shipwreck Research and Salvage Committee obtained the collection, which includes cooking pots with lids, storage jars with four loop-handles of different sizes, basins, bottles, kendi, dishes, plates, mortars and porcelain and celadon bowls. During our examination of the collection we selected a representative sample of 88 pieces of ceramics. Among the recovered material we found two pieces of lacquered covered box. While the designs on the lacquered surfaces were quite faded, the basketry core was in perfect condition. The calibrated date was from 1428 to 1482 AD (95% probability). The preliminary analysis of ceramics indicates that they could originate from the Mae Nam Noi kilns in Singbori province and the Si Satchanalai kilns in Sukhothai province, both in Thailand. Furthermore, the same type of storage jars with four handles has been found in the Cardamom Mountain, in Cambodia, where they have been used for burials. In this presentation I will discuss the preliminary analysis of the material and the different ways in which the site is connected to maritime trade routes in the gulf of Thailand and mainland Southeast Asia. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tep Sokha, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 8 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8d0b1d6c2c65250a73c0a8f29c734cbc.pdf 090c0986a57bcfb173dcfd0d87b9aa6a PDF Text Text Ayutthayan Port Towns and Ceramics Trading in Southern Thailand Atthasit Sukkham Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum, Bangkok University, Phaholyothin Road Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand Email: atthasit.s@bu.ac.th Abstract Between 1350 and 1767 CE, the Ayutthaya Kingdom became one of the most important trading centers in the region and a magnet for explorers, missionaries, ambassadors and merchants from around the world, specifically from China, Japan, Southeast Asia and Europe. Crucial to its success was the location of the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom on the Chao Phraya River Basin and its territories in the northern, northeastern, western, and especially the southern region. The southern region is situated on the Malay Peninsula which the peninsula lies between the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean, and has long been a vital strategic and communications link. Archaeological evidence and historical records reveal that the important Ayutthayan port towns in the southern region are comprised of Nakhon Si Thammarat, Chaiya, Thalang, Songkhla and Pattani. A lot of Ayutthayan infrastructure, religious artworks and utensils, such as temples, fortresses, town walls, Buddha images, rock art and mural paintings, as well as trade ceramics were found there. The trade ceramics found in these five port towns were from northern Thailand, Vietnam and China and they were used for architectural decorations, luxury goods and kitchen utensils. Key words: Ayutthaya, Southern Thailand, Port Town, Ceramics Introduction Between 1350 and 1767 CE, the Ayutthaya Kingdom became one of the most important trading centers in the region and a magnet for explorers, missionaries, ambassadors and merchants from Southeast Asia, India, Persia, China, Japan and Europe to make relations and settle in the capital named Ayutthaya. Crucial to its success was the location of Ayutthaya, which was amidst the irrigated fertile Thai heartland, set in a vital strategic and communications link. The kingdom was ruled by the king with the royal court in Ayutthaya and the kings were absolute monarchs with semi-sacred status that derived from the ideologies of Hinduism and Buddhism as well as from natural leadership (Garnier, 2004). The kingship was founded in 1350 by King Ramathibodi I (1350-1369 AD) and lasted for over 400 years. The war between Ayutthaya and Burma began in 1548 under the reign of King Mahachakkraphat (1548-1568 AD) and after that 1 �a combined strong force of Burmese armies invaded the northern and western territories first, and Ayutthaya later capitulated during the reign of King Ukathat (17581767 AD) (Garnier, 2004). A Brief History of Ayutthayan Port Towns in Southern Thailand The Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. approximately The land north-south mass and is runs the southernmost point of the Asian mainland that lies between the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea. The environment is tropical rainforest and seasonal rains. The peninsula also is affected by the Southwest and Northeast monsoon winds. Ayutthaya expanded its territory through conquests, especially towards the south, where port towns leading were located. Since the reign of King Ramathibodi I (1350-1369 AD), Ayutthaya sent troops to conquer all city-states of the southern Fig. 1 A map of the territory of Ayutthaya Kingdom and related archaeological sites. (Atthasit Sukkham) region. They became to be dependent cities under the Ayutthaya Kingdom, especially Nakhon Si Thammarat. The reforms in the reign of King Boromtrailokanath (1448-1488 AD) adopted a Mandala-style (based on influence areas) tributary system and systematically developed new local government organizations for all cities in the northern, northeastern, central, western territories and especially southern territory. There were recognized to be three levels of city comprising of “Inner Cities” (governed by the senior noblemen who were representatives of the kings, situated close to Ayutthaya and listed to be quaternary-rank cities with lowest level of security), “Outer or Chief Cities” (Phraya Maha Nakhon, governed by the senior noblemen who were representatives of the kings, situated far from Ayutthaya to control other dependent cities and listed to be primary-rank, secondary-rank and tertiary-rank 2 �cities depending on distance from Ayutthaya and level of security to protect the rebellion) and “Tributary City-states” (self-government but Ayutthaya still requested them to send tributes and military assistances), as well as independent city-state. A few Ayutthaya archives from the Early Ayutthaya period (1350-1488), contemporary Chinese, Arabian and European archives, and 16th to 17th centuries European maps (Suarez, 1999) have identified the most important port towns in the southern territory of the Ayutthaya Kingdom as: 1. Nakhon Si Thammarat as the chief primary-rank city (Fig. 1) 2. Phatthalung, Chumpon, Thalang and Chaiya as the outer tertiary-rank cities as well as dependent cities under Nakhon Si Thammarat (Fig. 1) 3. Pattani as the tributary city (Fig. 1) 4. Songkhla as the tributary city between Early (1350-1448) and Middle (1448-1630) Ayutthaya periods and liberated to be independent city-state in Late Ayutthaya period (1630-1767 AD) (Fig. 1) (CNAL, 1999). Ceramics Trading and Traditions Since the late 14th century, Ayutthaya was also regarded as the strongest power in mainland Southeast Asia. It began its hegemony by conquering the neighboring kingdoms like Sukhothai and the surrounding cities of Kamphaeng Phet, Si Satchanalai and Phitsanuloke (Fig. 1) during the reign of King Boromarachathirat I (1370-1388 AD). Meanwhile, it also established official and unofficial relations with China and Vietnam, especially regarding trade. Hence, the ceramics were one of the important products that they exchanged. The Chinese Yuan (1280-1368 AD), Ming (1368-1644 AD) and Qing (1644-1911 AD) ceramics, as well as the Vietnamese Tran (1226-1400 AD) and Le (1428-1527 AD) ceramics were exported around the regions that were believed to be the prototypes for Thai potters who tried to copy, specifically on the Si Satchanalai, San Kamphaeng, Wang Nua, Phayao and Boh Suak kilns of the Sukhothai and Lanna Kingdoms (Wong-on et al., 2013) (Fig. 1). As the domestic trades, the ceramic productions and other businesses in the neighboring kingdoms were transferred to Ayutthaya after the conquest, specifically the Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai kilns in the northern territory (Wong-on et al., 2013). It also operated its own ceramic productions in the central territory at the Bang Pun kilns in Suphan Buri (FAD, 1988), the Bang Rachan 3 �(Mae Nam Noi) kilns in Sing Buri (Sukkham 2013) and Klong Sra Bua kilns in Ayutthaya (Yukongdi, 2009) (Fig. 1) but there was no any ceramic production in the southern territory. The Si Satchanalai ceramics are only a group of Thai ceramics that were found in the southern territory especially in Nakhon Si Thammarat. A Middle Si Satchanalai celadon dish with engraved lotus and classic scroll designs dated in the first half of 15th century were found in Nakhon Si Thammarat but the provenance is unknown (FAD, 2000). The Late Si Satchanalai underglaze black and brown and white jarlets (Fig. 2) with floral designs dated from the late 15th to mid-16th centuries were buried surrounding the Sri Lankan style of round stupa in the Chedi Yak Temple on the north of Nakhon Si Thammarat but they have no human remains inside (FAD, 1986: 44). Other Late Si Satchanalai brown and white jarlet was put inside the great stupa of the Chanthat Tharam Temple or Khao That Stupa on the north of Nakhon Si Thammarat but it has no human remains inside as well (FAD, 2013). All of these were produced and exported from the Si Satchanalai kilns in the northern territory between the first half of 15th century and 16th century when the kilns were already transferred to Ayutthaya. However, the ceramics from the Bang Pun, Sukhothai, Bang Rachan and Klong Sra Bua kilns Fig. 2 Late Si Satchanalai underglaze were not found in Nakhon Si Thammarat or other black jarlet (top) and brown and white jarlet (bottom), late 15th to mid-16th century, found in the Chedi Yak Temple. (Nakhon Si Thammarat National Museum) dependent cities in the southern territory. 4 �Regarding international trade, very few Vietnamese ceramics were found in Nakhon Si Thammarat as well. The first group comprises of a Chu Dau blue and white jarlet with painted flower and panel designs as well as a blue and white covered box with painted chrysanthemum, lotus and square panel designs. These were put inside the great stupa of the Thao Khot Temple on southwestern side of Nakhon Si Thammarat (FAD 2000). The second group is a Chu Dau blue and white jarlet with painted flower and panel designs which was put inside the great Fig. 3 Le Chu Dau blue and white jarlets, 15th stupa of the Chanthat Tharam Temple (FAD, century, found in the Chanthat Tharam 2013) (Fig. 3). These ceramics Temple. (Nakhon Si Thammarat National were Museum and 14th Regional Office of Fine Arts produced and exported from the Chu Dau Department) kilns in Hai Duong, northern Vietnam in the Later Le Dynasty around the 15th century. The third group is from other kilns as a Go Sanh brown glazed jar with four handles and the glaze stopping at the middle of the exterior which was also put inside the great stupa of the Chanthat Tharam Temple (FAD, 2013). This jar was produced and exported from the Go Sanh kilns in Binh Dinh, central Vietnam dated to the 15th century. Another international trade is Chinese porcelain. The ceramics trade between China and Southeast Asia appeared during the Tang dynasty (618-907). Since Yuan (12801368 AD) until Qing (1644-1911 AD) Dynasties, Ayutthaya had a good relation with China especially on ceramics trading. The Yuan ceramics marked as the oldest Chinese ceramics found in Nakhon Si Thammarat in the Ayutthaya period (1350-1767 AD) are of unknown provenance. They are two Longquan celadon dishes with vertical fluted on the interior that produced and exported from the Longquan kilns in Zhejiang from the 13th to 14th centuries (FAD, 2000) (Fig. 4). Between Middle Ming and Early Qing Dynasties around the mid-15th to late 18th centuries, the Jingdezhen kilns in Jiangxi, the Longquan kilns in Zhejiang as 5 �well as the Dehua, Cizao and Pinghe (formerly called Zhangzhou) kilns in Fujian exported ceramics to Ayutthaya. The white glazed, celadon, green and yellow, blue glazed, blue and white and overglaze enameled wares were found on the east coast of the southern territory in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Chaiya, Songkhla and Pattani, rather than in the west territory of Thalang (Chandavij, 1994). The details of typology and provenance are detailed in (Table 1). Fig. 4 Yuan Longquan celadon dishes, 13th to 14th century, found in Nakhon Si Thammarat. (Nakhon Si Thammarat National Museum) Nakhon Si Thammarat and Chaiya where the most complex Chinese ceramics are found and those details are mentioned in Table 1. They provide data to categorize the chronology in four different periods: 1. From the 13th to 14th centuries: the Yuan Longquan celadon dishes were found only in Nakhon Si Thammarat but the provenance is unknown (Fig. 4). 2. From the 15th to 16th centuries: the Middle Ming ceramics between Chengtong (1436-1449 AD) and Hongzhi (1488-1505 AD) reigns were exported to the east coast in middle part of the southern territory. Most of them were used for religious purposes, being buried around and put inside the great stupas of Buddhist temples. The ceramics were found in temples in the town of Nakhon Si Thammarat, and just only one sample was found in Chaiya. The Chai Na Temple on southwestern side of Nakhon Si 6 �Thammarat is where the Longquan celadon dishes of Chengtong to Hongzhi reigns were found, with foliate rim and fluted fret designs on the interior sticking on a pair of wooden pillars in front of a Buddha image inside the Early Ayutthaya style (1350-1488 AD) the great hall Maha Ut. The interior walls of the great hall also have a mural painting with the stories of god, goddess and animals in the forest Himmavanta. A Jingdezhen blue and white bowl of Chengtong to Tianshun (1457-1464 AD) reigns with false unglazed rim and peony designs both on interior and exterior was found in Nakhon Si Thammarat. Blue glazed jarlets of Chengtong to Tianshun reigns were found in Chaiya. 3. During the first half of 16th to early 17th centuries: Ming Zhengde (1506-1521 AD), Jiajing (1522-1566 AD), Longqing (1567-1573 AD) and Wanli (1573-1619 AD) reigns exported the ceramics to the east and west coasts of the southern territory. Most of them were buried in the earth surrounding the pedestal of stupa in many temples. The Cizao green and yellow kendis and jarlets of Jiajing to Wanli reigns with engraved flower designs was found in the Phra Khian Temple on the west of Nakhon Si Thammarat, as well as in the temples of Thao Khot and Chedi Yak. A couple of Pinghe blue and white jarlets of Jiajing to Wanli reigns with underglaze flower designs were found in the Nangtra Temple on the north of Nakhon Si Thammarat. Pinghe blue and white jarlet of Jiajing and Wanli reigns with deer designs associated with Jingdezhen blue and white jarlet with flower designs dated from the same period were found in the Wiang Temple in Chaiya. The ceramics produced at the Jingdezhen and Pinghe kilns – which comprise of white glazed kendis, overglaze enameled dishes and kendis as well as blue and white dishes, bowls, and jars from the Zhengde to the Wanli reigns– were also found in every city, specifically Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pattani, Thalang and Songkhla in the areas of Sathingphra and Hua Khao Dang Mountain. Moreover, a couple of Jingdezhen blue and white dishes or Kraak wares of Wanli reign with complex designs such as duck, flower and eight circle panel were found on the cave ceiling of the Singkhon Temple. They were found together with other Chinese ceramics of the Qing Dynasty that were assumed to have been used for architectural decoration in the later period from the mid-17th to early 18th centuries. 7 �4. From the mid-17th to early 18th centuries: Qing ceramics between Kangxi (16621722 AD) and Yongzhen (1723-1735 AD) reigns were exported only to the east coast of southern territory. They were used for architectural decoration on several kinds of buildings in Buddhist temples. The Phra Mahathat Temple at the center of Nakhon Si Thammarat (UNESCO, 2012) was found various types of ceramics comprise of the Bencharong small dishes with flower and floral designs as well as the figure of deva those ordered by Thai to produce at Dehua kilns around Kangxi and Yongzhen reigns, a Dehua blue glazed dish, a Jingdezhen overglaze enameled dish with Arabian alphabets or called “Chinese Islamic magic square” design as well as the Jingdezhen blue and white dishes with complex designs such as basket of flowers, Artemisia and Thai designs (Fig. 6). They were used for architectural decoration on several parts of the great stupa of the Phra Mahathat Temple, specifically four sides of the pedestal of stupa throne called Harmika and four side miniature stupas. The stupas were believed to build since Sukhothai period (the 13th to 15th centuries) but the ceramics were possibly decorated onto them in Late Ayutthaya period (1630-1767 AD). Between 1990 and 1991, the 14th Regional Office of Fine Arts Department at Nakhon Si Thammarat in association with temple clergymen restored the stupas as well as the original ceramics decorated on them were moved for preservation and display in the temple museum. New replicas of ceramic for decoration on the stupa were made and placed in the same position. Fig. 5 Kraak ware dishes, early 17th century, sticking on the cave ceiling of the Singkhon Temple. (Atthasit Sukkham) The Singkhon Temple on the northwest of Nakhon Si Thammarat is other temple that used Chinese ceramics for architectural decoration. Qing ceramics of Kangxi and 8 �Yongzhen reigns were found there, specifically the Jingdezhen and Dehua blue and white dishes, as well as the Jingdezhen overglaze enameled dishes. However, they are also associated with the above mentioned couple of Kraak wares, possibly used for decorating the cave at the same time. All of them are still stuck on the stuccos and rock surfaces of the cave ceiling. The stuccos on the cave ceiling are assumed to be Late Ayutthaya designs (1630-1767 AD), but some archaeologists suggest the ceramics were stuck in the cave temple in the Late Ayutthaya period (1630-1767 AD) as well (Srisuchat, 1991) (Fig. 5). The square stupa called Phra That in Thai was built at the mouth of the cave temple has similar characteristics to the Phra Borommathat Temple in Chaiya and both were assumed to be from the Late Ayutthaya style (1488-1630 AD). This square stupa also used ceramics from the Qing dynasty and the Republic, specifically the Dehua blue and white stem dishes of Tongzhi (1862-1874 AD) to Xuantong (1909-1911 AD) reigns with foliate rim and underglaze Shiitake mushroom designs as well as the Jingdezhen overglaze enameled rids of Xianfeng (1851-1861 AD) to Xuantong reigns with flower scroll and shiitake mushroom designs. Although the square stupa was built in Late Ayutthaya period (1488-1630 AD), these Late Qing (1736-1911 AD) and Republic (1916-recent) ceramics contemporary with the Early Rattanakosin period (1782 to the recent period) suggests that the ceramics may have been used in the restoration of the square stupa around the mid 19th to early 20th centuries (Chandavij, 1994; Sukkham et al., 2012). All Chinese ceramics found in the towns and temples around the southern territory mentioned above are mirrored in many shipwreck assemblages in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea, such as: The late 14th to early 15th centuries shipwrecks: comprised of the Rang Kwien, Song Doc, Turiang, Si Chang II, Maranei and Bakau. The mid-15th to late 15th century shipwrecks comprised of the Nanyang, Khram, Longquan, Royal Nanhai, Pandanan, Phu Quoc II, Belanakan, Brunei and Santa Cruz. The early 16th to early 17th centuries shipwrecks comprised of the Hoi An, Samui, Si Chang III, Si Chang I, Singtai, Xuande and Wanli. The mid 17th to late 19th centuries shipwrecks especially the Ca Mau and Desaru (Flecker, 2001; Brown and Sjostrand, 2001; Sjostrand and Idrus, 2007; Sotheby’s Amsterdam, 2007; Brown, 2009). 9 �Fig. 6 Qing Jingdezhen blue and white dish (left), Qing Jindezhen overglaze enameled dish with “Chinese Islamic magic square” design (center) and Qing Dehua blue glazed dish (right), late 17th to early 18th century. (Phra Mahathat Temple Museum) Conclusion The port towns in the southern territory of the Ayutthaya Kingdom located on the coastal area of the Malay Peninsula connected the Southeast Asian, Chinese, Arabian and even European maritime trade routes in the Gulf of Thailand on the east and the Andaman Sea on the west. These port cities started their expansion from the late 14th century onwards. In history, India, Persia, China, Vietnam, Japan, Portugal, Netherlands, Britain and France established official and unofficial relations focused on trade with Ayutthaya and its dependent cities. They also got permission to settle and open trading stations in Ayutthaya as well as their branches in the port towns on the southern territory. The most important port towns recorded in the Ayutthaya archives and European maps since the reign of King Boromtrailokanath (1448-1488 AD) comprised of Nakhon Si Thammarat as the chief primary-rank city, Thalang and Chaiya as outer tertiary-rank city and dependent cities under Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pattani as the tributary city and Songkhla as the tributary city in Early (1350-1448 AD) and Middle (1448-1630 AD) Ayutthaya periods then after that it was later liberated to be independent city-states in Late Ayutthaya period (1630-1767 AD). The dependent cities, foreign relations and trade benefited from Ayutthaya through agriculture products, forest supplies, ore mines and ceramic productions supplied for domestic usages and monopoly trade, receiving some cultural influences including tributes and military assistances and controlling travel and transportation between the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean on the middle part of the peninsula. All port 10 �towns in the southern territory have yielded Thai, Vietnamese and Chinese trade ceramics following Middle Si Satchanalai celadon (the first half of 15th century), Late Si Satchanalai underglaze black and brown and white (the late 15th to mid 16th centuries), Le Chu Dau blue and white (the 15th century), Go Sanh brown glazed (the 15th century), Yuan (1280-1368 AD) and Ming (1368-1644 AD) Longquan celadon, Ming Cizao green and yellow (1368-1644 AD), Ming (1368-1644 AD) and Qing (1644-1911 AD) Jingdezhen white glazed, blue glazed, blue and white and overglaze enameled, Ming Pinghe (formerly called Zhangzhou) white glazed, blue and white and overglaze enameled (1368-1644 AD) and Qing Dehua white glazed and blue glazed wares. These ceramics indicate the port towns in the southern territory specifically Nakhon Si Thammarat, Chaiya, Songkhla, Pattani and Thalang connected with Si Satchanalai kilns in the northern territory by the port of Ayutthaya, Chu Dau and Go Sanh kilns by the ports of Ha Long, Van Don and Hoi An in Vietnam as well as Longquan, Cizao, Jingdezhen, Pinghe (formerly called Zhangzhou) and Dehua kilns by the ports of Fuzhou and Quanzhou in China. Nakhon Si Thammarat was possibly a dependent city used to control the travel and transportation on the middle part of the peninsula to Ayutthaya since of the complexity of the ceramics assemblages suggests this port to be the first gate for international trading ships, especially the arrival of Chinese junks. These ceramics were used for several purposes and can be categorized in four different periods: 1. From the 13th to 14th century, imported luxury or utilitarian products. 2. From the 15th to 17th century, ceramics were buried surrounding the pedestal of great stupa in a few Buddhist temples but no human remains inside them. They were used for religious purposes. In additions, some ceramics were used for architectural decoration but this did not become a tradition in the Early Ayutthaya period (1350-1488 AD). 3. From the mid 17th to early 18th centuries, ceramics were used as architectural decorations in a few Buddhist temples. By the number of ceramics, they seemed to indicate a decrease for other port towns in the southern territory in the period. The ceramics found in land sites appear to be mirrored in ceramic assemblages recovered from 14th to 19th centuries shipwrecks that sank in the Gulf of Thailand and 11 �the South China Sea. This confirms that the ceramics were shipped on maritime trade routes by Southeast Asian or Chinese ships (Green, 2013) to points of destination in the southern territory and other points of destination in Southeast Asia, India and Far East Asia. Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Pariwat Thammapreechakorn, Director of the Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum, Bangkok University, for his comments. I especially would like to thank the Organizing committee of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, for publishing this paper and travel stipend assistance to attend the conference. References Brown, R. M., 2009. Ming Gap and Shipwreck Ceramics in Southeast Asia: Towards a Chronology of Thai Trade Ware. River Books Press, Bangkok. Brown, R. M., and Sjostrand, S., 2001. Maritime Archaeology and Shipwreck Ceramics in Malaysia. Department of Museum and Antiquities, Kuala Lumpur. Chandavij, N., 1994. Chinese Ceramics from the Archaeological sites in Thailand. Thammasat University Press, Bangkok (In Thai). Committee of National Archives and Literatures (CNAL), 1999. Cultures, Histories, Identities and Knowledge of the Southern Thailand. Bangkok: Royal Thai Government. Available at http://www.m-culture.go.th/knowledge-province.php?sub_id=529. (In Thai) Flecker, M., 2001. The Bakau Wreck: An Early Example of Chinese Shipping in Southeast Asia. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 30 (2): 221-230. Fine Arts Department (FAD), 1988. Ban Bang Pun Kilns. Fine Arts Department of Thailand, Bangkok, (In Thai). Fine Arts Department (FAD), 1986. The Guide to Nakhon Si Thammarat National Museum. Fine Arts Department of Thailand, Bangkok, (In Thai). Fine Arts Department (FAD), 2000. The Guide to Nakhon Si Thammarat National Museum. (Second edition), Fine Arts Department of Thailand, Bangkok, (In Thai). Fine Arts Department (FAD), 2013. The Geographic Information System Database. accessed on December 1, 2013, http://www.gis.finearts.go.th/ChooseSystem.aspx. (In Thai) 12 available at �Garnier, D., 2004. Ayutthaya: Venice of the East. River Books Press, Bangkok. Green, J., 2013. Maritime Archaeology of Ships of Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and East Asia, the Question of Bulkheads. In The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Collection, accessed on November 18, 2013, available at http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1573. Sjostrand, S., and Idrus, S. L. L. S., 2007. The Wanli Shipwreck and Its Ceramic Cargo. Department of Museums Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur Sotheby’s Amsterdam, 2007. Made in Imperial China: 76,000 Pieces of Chinese Export Porcelain from the Ca Mau Shipwreck, Circa 1725. Sotheby’s, Amsterdam. Srisuchat, A., 1991. Rock Art of the Historic Period in Thailand, Part I (Central and Southern Thailand), Fine Arts Department of Thailand, Bangkok. Suarez, T., 1999. Early Mapping of Southeast Asia. Periplus Publishing Group, Singapore. Sukkham, A., 2013. Variability in Ceramics of the Bang Rachan (Mae Nam Noi) Kilns. In SEAMEO SPAFA, Proceeding of the First SEAMEO SPAFA International Conference on Southeast Asian Archaeology at Burapha University, May 7-10, 2013 (DVD). Sukkham, A., Sittrit, C., and Chalawsuntisakul, S., 2012. Ceramic Decoration on the Buddhist Edifices in Surat Thani and Nakhonsithammarat Provinces. Muang Boran Journal. Vol. 38 (2): 151-164. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2012. Wat Phra Mahathat Woramahawihan, Nakhon Si Thammarat, available at http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5752/. Wong-on, T., Thammapreechakorn, P., and Rooney D. F., 2013. Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai Ceramics: Inspiration and Realization. Bangkok Printing, Bangkok. Yukongdi, P., 2009. Development of ceramics production in Ayutthaya. Publishing PhD Thesis in Historical Archaeology, Silpakorn University, Bangkok. Biography Atthasit Sukkham completed his Master of Arts in archaeology from Silpakorn University, Bangkok and received an archaeology field research scholarship from Southern Methodist University, New Mexico in 2010. He is currently Assistant Curator of the Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum at Bangkok University, Rangsit Campus, Pathum Thani. 13 �Table 1. List of the typologies and provenances of Chinese ceramics found in the southern territory of the Ayutthaya Kingdom. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 8: Ceramics from Shipwrecks, Harbours, Ports and Related Archaeological Sites Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 8 chair Atthasit Sukkham and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Trade ceramics have usually been found together with other evidence in many ancient shipwrecks, harbours, ports, trade centers, hinterlands and burials around the world which were linked to international maritime trade routes. These were specifically Chinese, Indian, Southeast Asian, Middle East and European trade routes over a long period of history. Trade ceramics are virtually indestructible. They are also one of the most important sources of information for maritime archaeological studies concerning the dating of ceramics and shipwrecks, origins of ceramics, points of departure and destinations of ships and shipments, for instance. This session aims to provide an opportunity for specialists to contribute their knowledge on trade ceramics in multi-disciplinary approaches and foster international collaboration for ceramic studies from the shipwrecks, harbours, ports and related archaeological sites in near future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atthasit Sukkham Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ayutthayan Port Towns and Ceramics Trading in Southern Thailand Description An account of the resource Between 1350 and 1767 CE, the Ayutthaya Kingdom became one of the most important trading centers in the region and a magnet for explorers, missionaries, ambassadors and merchants from around the world, specifically from China, Japan, Southeast Asia and Europe. Crucial to its success was the location of the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom on the Chao Phraya River Basin and its territories in the northern, northeastern, western, and especially the southern region. The southern region is situated on the Malay Peninsula which the peninsula lies between the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean, and has long been a vital strategic and communications link. Archaeological evidence and historical records reveal that the important Ayutthayan port towns in the southern region are comprised of Nakhon Si Thammarat, Chaiya, Thalang, Songkhla and Pattani. A lot of Ayutthayan infrastructure, religious artworks and utensils, such as temples, fortresses, town walls, Buddha images, rock art and mural paintings, as well as trade ceramics were found there. The trade ceramics found in these five port towns were from northern Thailand, Vietnam and China and they were used for architectural decorations, luxury goods and kitchen utensils. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atthasit Sukkham, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 8 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/14a22bbdef906f20b90585d8b01a489d.pdf ef7d221a7079bbb5e0f64cb5d7d1da36 PDF Text Text Underwater Cultural Heritage Conservation and the Convention Practice in China Fan Yiran National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Beijing People’s Republic of China, 100029 Email: fanyiran@vip.sina.com Abstract China has large number and various types of underwater cultural heritage resources, which altogether forms an essential part of China’s cultural heritage. In order to manage such valuable cultural resources, the nation has been playing the most important, leading role and this state-led working mode is enabled through supports from all aspects: organizational, legal, financial and institutional. Starting from 1970s, underwater archaeology went from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas. Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have also been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a spanking new stage of expanding and transformation. Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, begin surveys in internal waters and get ready for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more international cooperative projects, and actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Keywords: UCH, Underwater Cultural Heirtage, UCH in China, Convention Practice, Nanhai I, Nan’ao I, Underwater Archaeology, White Crane Underwater Museum Introduction As we all know, China is famous for her long and brilliant culture. Possesses over 18000 kilometers’ coastline, nearly 300 square kilometers’ coastal areas and territorial sea and more than 30 square kilometers’ inland waters, China is a nation with great sea power. Its long navigation history and developed water transportation and trade system, as well as the world famous Grand Canal and Maritime Silk Road, made China a country of abundant underwater cultural heritage. At the present day, we are gradually developing a proper way of UCH protection in China. Current situation of UCH Conservation in China In China, conservation and management of UCH is led by the central government, with 1 �support from authorities of all levels. Cross-sector cooperation is also pervasive in this process. However, the real business started rather late, in March 1987, state administration of cultural heritage directed the establishment of the underwater archaeology team, with support from various relevant governmental department and organizations. Later in November, a research department on underwater archaeology was formed within the National History Museum of China (Wu, 2007). The country’s underwater archaeology began from that moment. At the same time, relevant laws and regulations provided all actions a solid legal basis. In 1989, following the “Law of the Peoples Republic of China on Protection of Cultural Relics”1, the state council enacted the “Regulation Republic of of the Peoples China on Conservation and Management Fig. 1 Recent Underwater Archaeological exploration 2 organized by the Center. (National Center of Underwater of Underwater Cultural Relics” , Cultural Heritage) which has been the foundation of all UCH conservation works in China for more than 20 years. As the situations are becoming different day by day, relevant authorities are working actively for an updated version of the regulation. All this time, the government has obtained great results in fighting criminals since a range of activities fighting against looting and vandalism according to the regulation has been proved effective. In today’s China, the State Administration of Cultural heritage3 (SACH) is the leader of UCH conservation team, while the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Fig. 1), directly under SACH’s leadership, is the only national and newly established research organization specially focusing on underwater archeology and UCH conservation. The National Conservation Center for Underwater Cultural Heritage was established in 2009 (National Center of UCH of China , 2013), consisting of the Administration Office (Secretary Office), Technique & Equipment Department, Institute of Underwater 2 �Archaeology, Underwater Cultural Relics Protection and Conservation Department, branch organizations are also under construction in Ningbo, Qingdao, Wuhan and Fujian. The Center nicely played its function, actively developed UCH conservation, research and excavation projects, and got fully confirmations from SACH, and local governments and institutes. It marked that UCH has got a new position as the important content of the national cultural heritage and museum undertakings, and a new chance of focused promotion and rapid development. Generally, the Center is responsible for the works below: - Undertakes daily communication and coordination among ministries for national UCH conservation issues; - Organizes, coordinates and implements national UCH surveys, excavations, conservation, preservation, scientific research and trainings; - Draws up national UCH conservation plans, undertakes researches on related legislation, protocols standards; - Undertakes the management, research and development of UCH conservation technical equipment; - Carries on the management of the Nanhai UCH base and Xisha Archaeological Workstation, and provides guidance on professional works of local UCH offices; - Facilitates and enables public outreach, international exchange and cooperation of UCH conservation; - Carries on other tasks assigned by SACH. Other than the Center, a national level organization, most coastal provinces have established their own institutions and organizations working for underwater archeology and UCH conservation, like the well-known Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum 4 and the Quanzhou Maritime Museum in Fujian Province 5. As components of the UCH protection army in China, all these organizations and institutions greatly improved our professional abilities and standards. The government also paid great attention to professional training. SACH has held 5 professional underwater archeological training courses successively before 2009. And in more recent time, in order to satisfy this expanding field, the Center has helped SACH with one underwater archeology training courses and two relic preservation 3 �training course (Fig. 2). As a result, there are now over 100 underwater archeology professionals and over 40 restoration/preservation professionals. They work in different coastal cities, but can be gathered together when needed, which buys insurance for the overall UCH conservation work. Financially, the state government has always been very generous in funding works related to conservation and management of UCH. Local government also often paid big money since they consider successful conservation and management of native cultural heritage underwater is in Fig. 2 First Underwater Archaeological Training a way an effective method to Programme. (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) uncover local history, enhance local identity and pass on significant cultural remains to future generations. And a fund guarantee mechanism where the central government dominants and local government facilitates has been well established. Aiming at bring UCH business forward; China funded its very first underwater archaeology work ship in 2011. The SACH and the Center organized and coordinated the design and the construction of the ship. This ship, with a displacement of 930 tons and designed draft of 2.7 meters, is going to have its maiden trip in April 2014 (Fig. 3). Development of such a wide range field needs insight on international trend, which, China has always been paying attention to. For 20 years, China has been actively working with countries like Korea, Japan, Italy, France and Indonesia and so on. During the process of international cooperation, our research ability has been greatly improved and professional team strengthened. Experts from abroad were often invited for talks, conferences and projects. UCH Conservation in China: The Convention Spirit Practitioner The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, published on 2 Nov, 2001, provided worldwide UCH conservation a scientific and formal reference, 4 �and oriented its development international cooperation. towards The convention is also significant in terms of its philosophy: emphasizes the transformation of underwater archaeology into underwater cultural heritage; draws attention to public education; underlines the importance of in-situ conservation and minimal intervention as well as pays respects to human remains. Although currently not being a contracting party of the convention, China, nevertheless, has already taken part in conserving underwater cultural heritage. With quite a few major UCH projects undertaking, this country is a true practitioner of the convention as it will be outlined in the following Fig. 3 Underwater Archaeology Workshop. (National Center of Underwater Cultural In-situ Practice in China: The White Crane Heritage) section. Underwater Museum6 An outstanding example of in-situ UCH conservation is the construction of the White Crane Underwater Museum in Chong Qing (Fig. 4). This museum is by far the only museum built in-situ built on a submerged site. Visitors can get 40 m underwater through a corridor. Neither the site nor its surrounding environment had been greatly changed, and this practice was widely recognized. The Ridge of White Crane (Baiheliang), a naturally formed sandstone bridge, locates in Yangzi River and can only be seen in winter. It shows us 72 years of water level from 763 AD over 1200 years from now. In order to keep the site original and integrated, we successfully made the museum despite of the difficulties (Gao, 2012). Practice on Increasing Public Awareness. Following the convention’s notion of increasing public awareness, Chinese put lots of efforts in presentation and interpretation of UCH through effective management approaches. The convention requires UCH to be made accessible for the public, 5 �especially for school education, and that is exactly what they did for the late Song dynasty wreck South China Sea I. The Maritime Silk Road Museum7 of Guangdong is a museum themed on this wreck and associated remains, since its opening in 2009; it has welcomed over a million visitors of different types, making it a definite landmark of the community. Authorized Salvage Excavation: Salvage as a Whole and In-situ Excavation Although the Convention believes insitu conservation is the first option, but first choice does not necessarily to be the priority. If the reason is sufficient and urgent, partially or fully excavation becomes a priority ahead of in-situ conservation. Because of illegal Fig. 4 The White Crane Underwater Museum. smuggling and destruction associated (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) with these illegal practices, we conducted the scientific excavation by the authorization of the government, and creatively began the method of “salvage as a whole and exhibit and excavate in-doors” of large shipwrecks. “Nanhai I” was found in 1989 during the China-Japan cooperated investigation of shipwrecks in South China Sea (Fig. 5). It is one of the few Song dynasty ship found well preserved, thus with significant historical value. However, because it was located in the open sea, and it was difficult to monitor, it had been looted and partially destroyed over the years. The successfully salvage of “Nanhai I” as a whole was a good attempt of the comprehensive implementation of underwater archaeology, relic conservation and maritime engineering. It is a strong evidence of the multi-fields, multi-departments UCH cooperation in China, as well as the best interpretation and scientific development of authority and integrity (Wei, 2008). “Nan’ao I” was located in “Nan’ao” waters of Guangdong, miles from the seashore (Fig. 6). Since it had been looted and destroyed for many times in the past, we decided to do the excavation. The project started in Sep. of 2009, though excavations happen in 6 �2010/2011 and 2012. More than 30 underwater archaeologists and over 10 specialized conservators cooperated to finish the work, 3 professionals from Korea were also invited. The team had mastered the distribution of the shipwreck and the structure, the shipwreck heads north, leans east, 2485 cm in length, widest section was 750 cm, 25 boards. Cargos involve pottery and ceramic, metallic and organic relics. The basic structure is complete, 26 thousands artifacts were lifted, sampled big amount of different soils, remains of animals and plants, metal goods, and etc., did the comprehensive research of scientific archaeology, animal archaeology and plant archaeology. The maritime geological environment was mastered though sonar scans. The team established an iron conservation frame after the excavation was over in 2012, to conserve the main body of the site in-situ (Chen, 2012). Fig. 5 “Nanhai I” Shipwreck inside Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) Fight against Commercial Speculation and Trade Chinese government actively carries out underwater cultural heritage protection; 7 �meanwhile contribute to manage multi-sectorial cooperation, to crack down on destruction of the underwater cultural heritage, such as looting activities. antiques Due to the flourishing of market in China and worldwide, the illegal activities such as smuggling and looting of underwater cultural relics have gone from bad to worse among Chinese coastal areas. Fig. 6 Brown Glazed Porcelain from “Nan’ao I” wreck site. To relieve the serious (National Center of Underwater Cultural situation, Heritage) Chinese government has taken a variety of methods. In recent years, in Hainan, Guangdong, Fujian province, the local police uncovered several crimes on underwater cultural heritage. For instance, in Pingtan county of Fujian province, the local police uncovered 11 cases of relics crimes, detained 40 people believed to be involved in the operations, and recovered 1700 pieces of historical artifacts, namely porcelain. In 2010, Chinese State Administration of Cultural Heritage and the State Oceanic Administration signed "The cooperation framework agreement of underwater cultural heritage protection”, the two sides will jointly carry out eight aspects actions, such as underwater cultural heritage protection strategy and planning, underwater archaeology, underwater cultural relics law enforcement patrol and so on. At the same time we also actively explore the integrated use of modern technology, including GPS, GIS and RS technology, security and monitoring technology. In 2010, for example, we launched China's first underwater cultural heritage monitoring security pilot project – Banyang reef I unmanned monitoring system, in which Buoy monitoring system, sit bottom monitoring, the anti-frogman sonar and unmanned aerial vehicle cooperative monitoring, 3G network monitoring, passive sonar underwater monitoring technology solutions were proposed (Fan, 2013). At the same time the system discussed the combination of technology defense and human defense, as well as the improvement of laws and regulations. The system laid a solid foundation of underwater cultural heritage monitoring, to strengthen the importance of 8 �security monitoring work in underwater cultural heritage protection. Conclusion Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a promising new stage of expansion and transformation. We can summarize this process into five aspects: 1. Academic and practical development from underwater archaeology alone to sophisticated UCH conservation and management (Ding and Fan, 2013); 2. Working area getting from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas; 3. Projects implementation starting to include more stakeholders, departments and organizations; 4. UCH conservation turning from academic and governmental behavior into a business involving the public; 5. Developments emphasizing on diversified and in-depth international cooperation Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. Firstly, top-down system and professional training makes UCH conservation easy to manage. But traditional maritime culture and outdated legal protection somehow negatively affect our work. Secondly, the concept of underwater archaeology and underwater cultural heritage has not been clearly defined, which led to bias in actual field work. At the same time, ideas and philosophies of the Convention have not draw enough attention in Chinese academia. Third, in terms of research method and theories on UCH conservation and management, there is still a big gap between Chinese and advanced international standards. Meanwhile, diving skills received too much attention from professionals. Balance should be achieved although current results are encouraging. Finally, in spite of being a focus of attention worldwide, China’s UCH conservation and management works have not become an organic component of this multinational field of study. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, start surveys in internal waters and prepare for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more 9 �international cooperative projects, and to actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Acknowledgement Sincere thanks to the conference committee for inviting and providing an opportunity for me to share the ideas and knowledge of UCH conservation business in China with experts and professionals from different countries. Also I would like to thank my colleagues, Liu shuguang, Chai xiaoming and Sunjian and so on, they gave me huge support in writing this article. So as my daughter and husband, I would not be able to spend time and energy in work without their care and understanding. Endnote 1 See English version here: http://www.sach.gov.cn/art/2007/10/29/art_1591_58336.html See English version here: http://www.law-lib.com/lawhtm/1989/6039.htm 3 See website here: http://www.sach.gov.cn/ 4 http://www.msrmuseum.com/index.aspx 5 http://www.qzhjg.com/ 6 http://www.cqbhl.com.cn/ 7 See: http://www.msrmuseum.com/index.aspx 2 References Chen, R., 2012. Nao'ao I in Eyes of Site Manager Cuiyong. Ding, J., and Fan, Y., 2013. A Few Issues on Underwater Archaeology. China Cultural Heritage Scientific Research . Fan, Y., 2013. Safty Monitoring of UCH in China. Cultural Relics in Southern China . Gao, Y., 2012. Constructon of the White Crane Museum and UCH Management. Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) . National Center of UCH of China. 2013. Introduction to National Center of UCH of China, retrieved 01 20, 2014, from Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage: http://www.cach.org.cn/tabid/169/InfoID/577/frtid/167/Default.aspx Wei, J., 2008. "Nanhai I" Shipwreck Archaeology and UCH Management. Cultural Heritage . Wu, Chunming., 2007. Maritime Archaeology. Beijing, Science Press China. Biography Fan Yiran worked as a news reporter, and started to cover live broadcast of underwater cultural heritage conservation fieldwork since 2000. She changed her career later in 2005 and stepped into UCH business in 2009. She is now working in the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage as the director of the general office. Yiran is the first female underwater news reporter in China. And after her transformation into an underwater archaeologist, she participated in various UCH conservation projects including “Nanhai I” and “Nan’ao I” wreck sites and has led series of UCH survey project in Liaoning, Tianjin and Hebei. 10 �11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Cultural Heritage Conservation and the Convention Practice in China Description An account of the resource China has large number and various types of underwater cultural heritage resources, which altogether forms an essential part of China’s cultural heritage. In order to manage such valuable cultural resources, the nation has been playing the most important, leading role and this state-led working mode is enabled through supports from all aspects: organizational, legal, financial and institutional. Starting from 1970s, underwater archaeology went from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas. Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have also been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a spanking new stage of expanding and transformation. Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, begin surveys in internal waters and get ready for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more international cooperative projects, and actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fan Yiran, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/71370ad13bac87073e6e6674f0b09da8.pdf c7baa8179255d64d143c47cb35c86169 PDF Text Text Seabee Junkyard: A holistic and locally inclusive approach to site management and interpretation Kalle Applegate Palmer University of Guam, University of Guam Marine Lab, Mangilao, Guam 96923 Email: kalleerin@gmail.com Bill Jeffery Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, South Australia Email: billjeffery@gmail.com Abstract The United States of America (U.S.) Navy’s Construction Battalion called ‘Seabees’ were born in January 1942 from the demand for a unique set of both engineering and combat skills: “We Build, We Fight”. The Seabees were instrumental in the Pacific theater, and played a significant role in rebuilding Guam. Known as the Seabee Junkyard due to the dumping of Seabee materials and equipment after the war, the site located within Apra Harbor, Guam is a popular dive site amongst local and visiting divers. Research on the significance of the site has revealed that it also represented the rapid demobilization of U.S. Navy after World War II (WW II). In July 2012, the University of Guam conducted a Nautical Archaeology Society maritime archaeology training course funded by the Guam Preservation Trust, which resulted in the material identification and surveying of the site. Further site investigations have taken a holistic and locally inclusive approach to the management and interpretation of the site. This includes non-disturbance wreck diving and underwater cultural heritage education in association with developing site preservation strategies, and compilation of a nomination to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Additional activities in promoting the site and educating the diving public will include underwater dive guides, development of a comprehensive site plan and an underwater cultural heritage trail. Engagement with various government agencies and community groups are being implemented to gauge their various levels of interest and assistance in managing and interpreting the site. Baseline environmental assessment surveys are to be conducted to determine the differences in natural communities with significant man-made substrates and those without. Further outreach proposals are being investigated to see if it can fulfill a role as an Educational and Interpretive Park. Key words: Seabees, Apra Harbor, Guam, Marianas archipelago, Micronesia Introduction Guam is the largest and most populated island of the Marianas archipelago. Exposed to European contact since the 1500’s and administered by the U.S. since 1898, the island has been heavily influenced by its colonizers. During WW II, Guam came under the 1 �possession of Japan from 1941 until 1944, at which time the U.S. rapidly developed its military facilities on the island including Advanced Base Guam. Largely responsible for this build-up were the U.S. Navy Construction Battalions, popularly known as the Seabees. With the Seabees came vast amounts of equipment required to conduct such a massive and rapid build-up. At the end of the war, equipment was arriving on island in its largest quantities (Hammer, 1947). When the war ended, men on the front and families at home demanded their immediate return. Large amounts of equipment were dumped in the jungles and oceans of Guam. One dump site known as the Seabee Junkyard contains a large and dense area of submerged equipment in seemingly good condition. The site is positioned at the end of the Glass Breakwater of Apra Harbor; of which the building was one of the highest priority projects undertaken by the Seabees upon repossession in 1944. Little is known about the specifics of when and how the equipment was dumped. Much of the material was unidentified until a July 2012 site survey. The large quantity of man-made substrate provides an opportunity to describe and monitor the natural environment in contrast to other sites lacking the unnatural substrates but with otherwise comparable environmental conditions. The site provides a unique opportunity for a first of its kind holistic management and interpretative project on Guam as it is regularly accessed by recreational divers and exposed to commercial and military activities. Sites on Guam are protected from looters and salvagers today through recent legislation, but they have been plagued by them since the end of WW II. The state of such sites is of concern on the island but difficult to manage because of the ease of access to them and lack of on-site regulatory management. The holistic management and interpretative approach would be inclusive of educational outreach, a U.S. National Register of Historic Places nomination pending the confirmation of its historical significance, as well as the establishment of environmental and site baseline monitoring. Historical Overview The Marianas archipelago is a chain of 15 islands in the Pacific which includes Rota, Saipan and Tinian. Anthropological and archaeological evidences support the biological and cultural diversity of pre-contact Micronesia from around 3,500 BCE, which includes the Chamorro group of people (Dixon et al., 2013). Ferdinand Magellan’s arrival in 1521 2 �marked the beginning of Guam’s European contact and colonization. Spain officially claimed Guam in 1565 and occupied the island until the U.S. took possession in 1898 following the Spanish, American War (Rogers, 2011). A seaplane base was established in Apra Harbor, in 1921, where the most suitable anchorage was located (Hammer, 1947) (Fig. 1). In 1938, the Hepburn report recommended Guam as a location for an advanced base, a fortified base with airfields and naval facilities that could be used to keep combatant forces on the move during future wars (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947). The development of Apra Harbor was prioritized, including building a breakwater along the northwest side of the harbor to protect it from exposure to the natural environment and potential attacks (Hammer, 1947). A mile of the breakwater had been completed when the Japanese bombed Guam on December 8, 1941. The attack resulted in the Japanese occupation. Advanced base work was halted (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947) and pre-existing U.S. documents on the island were destroyed by the Japanese (R. Glass, personal communication, 2013). Fig. 1 Apra Harbor including the location of Seabee Junkyard and Sumay Village. (Sean Newsome, 2012) 3 �Guam was liberated on July 21, 1944 and occupational a Japanese presence on the island ended officially on August 10. The liberation of Guam marked the beginning of the end for Japanese forces. Arriving with the Marines and Army Corp of Engineers were conceived to the Seabees, support combat Fig. 2 Seabees at work on Guam in the 1940‘s. (Bill Jeffery, forces while building advanced 2013) bases in military-active areas (Hammer, 1947). Seabees were organized in ‘Lions’ which provided all support needed to build an advanced base, including multiple battalions and great quantities of equipment. Lion Six, the Lion responsible for work in Guam, began movement on May 1, 1944 (Hammer, 1947). Liberation marked the beginning of a rebuilding period for Guam that resulted in the largest base west of Pearl Harbor and the second largest base in the world (Hammer, 1947). Possession of Apra Harbor was among the invasion objectives. The harbor developments resulted in the 17,000 linealfoot breakwater, 7,500,000 cubic feet of inner harbor dredging and 26,000 lineal-foot quay wall (Fig. 2). The Seabees can be credited with 75 percent of the total construction on Guam with 37,000 construction troops used in the completion of the Advanced Base Guam (U.S.N., 1946). Much of the Seabee’s work did not appear to be the product of any pre-planning and consequently was completed regardless of property lines particularly with the production of Marine Corp Drive (one of Guam’s main and longest roads) (Rogers, 2011). Much of the land used by the military was private land and was not properly rented or paid for by the military. Previous occupants of Sumay village actually remained in refugee camps during this time (Rogers, 2011). The ’Magic Carpet’ operations to get troops home began shortly after the end of the war due to demand and public outcry that forces were not needed any longer (Hammer, 1947). The result was a rapid pace and scale 4 �demobilization resulting in disorganization, misconceptions and infighting. The Truman administration sought post war foreign policy aimed at establishing economic not military power. Truman avoided the increase in deficits and military expenditures, prioritizing the balancing of the budget and ’dismantling the military machine’ (Pollard, 1985). At the time of the end of the war, Seabee equipment was being shipped out to the Pacific in its highest quantities and could not be sent back without contributing to the chaos (Hammer, 1947). As they demobilized on Guam, the Seabees dealt with their equipment by dumping tractors in the jungle and tearing roofs off storage sheds, exposing it to the elements and hastening deterioration (Hammer, 1947). Seabees ruined their material for two reasons. The first was that it was too expensive to ship home; many of the Seabee locations during WWII were very far from the U.S. mainland. The second was that not returning it home created the demand for continued production in the domestic market; returning tractors and dozers that could be re-purposed after their use in the war effort did not stimulate the economy (J. Sprengle, Personal Communication, 2013). The Seabees were among those severely reduced in the post war period. By 1946, more than half of the men on Guam had been sent home and the Naval Operating Base was falling apart (Hammer, 1947). At least thirty-one known locations of submerged material are in Apra Harbor. Among them are two Nationally Registered Historic Places (NRHP) and Guam Register of Historic Places (GRHP), Tokai Maru, a Japanese passenger-cargo freighter struck down by a U.S. submarine in 1943 and SMS Cormoran, a German ship destroyed in 1917 (Dixon, personal communication, 2013). A number of sites in the area qualify as NRHP and or GRHP but have not yet been nominated. Natural Environment Guam is 32 miles long and varies from 4 to 8 miles wide. It differs in its natural environment with a higher Fig. 3 Unidentified material at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) 5 �limestone plateau occupying the northern half and red clay volcanic soil in the southern half which is vulnerable during the regular heavy rains. The island is surrounded by a reef system (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947). Changes in the natural environment have occurred since WW II. Apra Harbor has been predominantly used by the U.S. Navy for the naval station and naval supply depot but is also accessed commercially and recreationally. Commercial uses include the Port Authority, the Cabras power plant and recreational uses include diving, snorkeling, fishing, and jet skiing. Recreational, military and commercial activity in the area can be considered a human disturbance that may affect coral reef health. Currently, 27% of the world’s coral reefs are at high risk and 31% at moderate risk due to human disturbance (World Resources Institute, 2013). Confirmed disturbances that are factors at the Seabee Junkyard include coastal development, port installation, recreational activities, tourist facilities, and nuclear activity (Chabanet et al., 2005). The Seabee Junkyard is located at a depth of eight meters, 200 meters inside of Apra Harbor along the Glass Breakwater (Fig. 1). The site covers an estimated two acres of benthic surface area which includes four tractors, an amtrac, ten pontoon outboard motors, cranes, vehicle remains and hundreds of meters of one steel piping (Figs. 3-5). Fish found at the site can include Porcupinefish, Diodon nicthemerus; Moorish idols, Zanclus cornutus; Blue chromis, Chromis cyanea; and Yellow tangs, Zebrasoma flavescens. Invertebrates at the site may include Day octopi, Octopus cyanea; blue Linckia, Linckia laevigata; and Cnidarians including jellyfish and corals. The coral community at the site appears to differ in diversity, quantity and size from those at similar sites without material but this has not yet been confirmed quantitatively. Existing Underwater Archaeological work Since 2002, the National Park Service gave WW II sites a threatened status as a result of the ’significant deterioration, vandalism and looting’. WW II sites on Guam comprise about 20 percent of the islands submerged cultural heritage sites (Jeffery, 2013). Natural and cultural processes at submerged sites ’intermingle’ with each other and may be interpreted and managed simultaneously. Environmental processes which affect a site are specific to the environment they are located in and are inclusive of regional 6 �biology, water movement and quality (Keith, 2004). Multidisciplinary studies surrounding mid-20th century underwater cultural resource sites and the hazards to the environment are emerging. A study on the USS Arizona which was sunk during the battle of Pearl Fig. 4 One of four dozers at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) Fig. 5 Unidentified material at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) Harbor in 1941 was geared towards monitoring the rate of oil release into the ocean as well understanding the nature of and rate of deterioration of the vessel (NPS, 2013). Baseline monitoring was designed and completed to quantifiably assess the changes 7 �over time. Diverse disciplines of research were investigated simultaneously; each related directly or indirectly to overall project objects (Russell et al., 2004). Similarly, an Earthwatch Project in 2006-2008 was completed in Chuuk comparing reef communities, coral and fish diversity, at natural sites with shipwrecks (Jeffery, 2012). Guidelines for monitoring the natural and cultural attributes of submerged historic sites were for the National Historic Preservation Office (HPO) Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei (Jeffery et al., 2007). They were intended for use throughout Micronesia and aimed to promote education and training so that additional culturally significant sites could be studied using the same guidelines. Guidelines encompass maritime archaeology, marine biology, corrosion surveying, site conservation and conservation components and stress regular, locally based monitoring for the best management. The development of a database with files on each submerged site was also among the recommendations from the report (Jeffery et al., 2007). There is no existing comprehensive framework for assessing risk and managing polluting wrecks although a series of regional frameworks exist according to Landquist (2013) which sought to analyze risk assessment methods and suggest a framework for risk assessment. Factors in coral reef and resource decline include complications inhibiting abandoned vessel removal as well as vessel impact resulting from contact with reefs according to a 2003 National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration Damage Assessment Center by Smith et al., 2003. The study promotes the need for a data collection identifying abandoned vessels linked to a Geographic Information System. Risks from WW II wreck pollution exist and continue to increase. Thirteen million tons of vessels are reflected in the Pacific WW II information database that consists of 3,800 shipwrecks. Pollution results from leaking oil, fuel, chemicals and unexploded ordinance. Many of these sites are rapidly deteriorating. The Pacific Ocean Pollution Prevention Program of the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP) developed a regional strategy to investigate ways of minimizing environmental damage resulting from these sites while also preserving site sanctity (Monfils et al., 2006). Creating artificial reefs by sinking de-fouled ships or other materials has been increasingly popular. The Victorian Artificial Reef Society in Australia scuttled the ex HMAS Canberra in 2005 to develop an artificial reef dive site. A biological assessment 8 �of the site conducted in 2006 established that the wreck may still be less diverse than the natural reef in the area nearby although home to multiple fish and invertebrate species. The study was intended as a baseline study for which future assessments could be compared (Schlacher-Hoenlinger et al., 2006). Project Focus In July 2012, the Seabee Junkyard was mapped and surveyed by a Nautical Archaeology Field School at the University of Guam funded by Guam Preservation Trust. The field school recommended the distribution of the site plan (Fig. 6) as well as community outreach, and further historical research to improve site interpretation and management. The site survey resulted Fig. 6 Seabee Junkyard Site Map. (Bill Jeffery, 2013) in the positive identification of WW II Seabee material at the site. Funded by Guam Preservation Trust, an intensive program of community and stakeholder engagement was conducted in July 2013. The program collected feedback on potentially renaming the site as well as further developing it as an underwater educational and interpretive park. This project is being conducted in conjunction with the program. Outcomes from stakeholder engagement included the production of educational and recreational tools for divers, tourists and community members. This project will take a holistic approach to in situ interpretation and management that incorporates the site history, site value, and environmental baseline studies of sites. This will promote protection of both the history and the environment with nondisturbance diving techniques promoted throughout the region. The easy accessibility of the site and diversity of substrates, both man-made and natural as well as its exposure to human disturbances in a relatively protected natural environment provides a unique opportunity for research, monitoring and education. Gaining a better understanding of the natural environment at the site can give insight as to the impacts of the WWII 9 �material on the environment. Studying the secondary depositional process of the salvage of a site after wreckage, predominantly by looters, which alters the archaeological record left since the primary depositional process of the actual wreckage of the material can complement interpretation of the site (Keith, 2004; Muckelroy, 1978). At the site, there is little to no material that may be lifted by hand with much of it removed by local and visiting looters (M. Beggs, Personal Communication, 2013). Local management of these sites has not been effective in preventing the extensive looting from cultural sites and damage to both natural and cultural heritage. In contrast, in Chuuk, dive guides generally help in curbing looting and there for the protection of these submerged cultural heritage sites (Jeffery, 2012). There is some legal protection in place; permits administered by Guam Historic Preservation Office are required to recover material under Title 21 (Real Property) Chapter 76 (Historical Objects and Sites). The U.S. protects the sovereignty of sunken government vessels, aircraft and spacecraft. Recovery of such craft is not allowed without permission (Federal Register, 2004). The U.S. Navy does not allow recovery or disturbance of the material nor alteration of the site which is on land managed both by either the U.S. Navy or the Guam Historic Preservation Office. Studies carried out on the Seabee Junkyard have to be approved by both entities. Methods Establishing and conducting the environmental baseline assessment requires preliminary surveys of the water column and the benthic community will be conducted. The assessment for all categories will record down to the lowest taxon possible. The water column study will be conducted using the Stationary Point Count (SPC) method which is optimal for monitoring large and mobile species. Three cylindrical areas in the research site and the control site will be assigned and fish, mobile invertebrates, and mega fauna will be tallied in the area. The cylindrical area will be five meters in diameter and data collected will reflect all fish in the entire water column with only those penetrating the area recorded for species. Surveying will start with five minutes of observation and species listing before counting for five minutes (Ayotte et al., 2011). Data collected will also include bottom current, visibility, transect depth and 10 �slope. Rugosity measurements will be made dissecting the SPC monitoring zones along a 10 m transect tape. The benthic community survey data will be collected using quadrats and line-intersect transects. Data collected will be in two parts: the substrate type, and what is on the substrate. Categories for substrate type are man-made or natural. Man-made substrates include wood, metal, plastic. Natural substrates include pavement, dead coral, sand patches, rubble, and rock. Growth on substrate may be categorized as live hard coral, soft coral, coraline algae, macroalgae, other, recently killed/dead coral, rubble, pavement, and sand. Benthic community data will be statistically analyzed using a one-way ANOVA and a Cluster Analysis, hierarchically grouping data by similarity, will be applied for the results of the SPC survey. This preliminary analysis is a question driven monitoring framework which will assist in determining the survey design (Houk and van Woesik, 2013). Conclusion In order to meet the project objective of holistically interpreting and managing the site in situ, the following outputs are being developed: U.S. National Register of Historic Places Nomination, Environmental Baseline Assessment, and development of public outreach and education including a dive map, presentations to schools and tourism operators. Research to produce a NRHP nomination for Seabee Junkyard is being conducted to ascertain the site’s historical significance. Interpreting and nominating the site promotes awareness about the lasting effects of WWII dumping, moving undesirable goods out of sight and out of mind at the likely expense of the natural environment. Revealing the site’s history helps to understand the site’s value, which may be utilized as an educational and tourism oriented asset for present day Guamanians. The baseline environmental assessment will provide a snapshot (Chabanet et al., 2005) of the site by describing the benthic community, invertebrate populations, and fish populations. Findings from the site will be compared to that of another site without material but similar conditions, depth and proximity along the Glass Breakwater. Information obtained from the assessment includes fish community descriptors, coral morphological diversity, and the ratio of dead and live standing coral on man-made as 11 �opposed to natural substrates. This comparison which is yet to be undertaken will help to understand the impact of the manmade material on the environment as well the impact of the environment on the material. Questions to be investigated also include the quantity and diversity of species at the site as well as the settlement success of coral on the man-made material. The assessment is intended to establish a method for surveillance monitoring (Houk and van Woesik, 2013) of the site that can be conducted with its continued management. This assessment would be the first of its kind conducted on submerged cultural heritage sites on Guam and can act as a model for future monitoring design on other sites on island and in the region. Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge my graduate advisor, Dr. Laurie Raymundo with the University of Guam Marine Lab and graduate committee member, Dr. John Peterson, Director of the University of Guam Micronesian Area Research Center. Additional thanks to the Guam Preservation Office for funding the July 2012 underwater archaeology course resulting in the detailed survey of the Seabee Junkyard. References Ayotte, P., McCoy, K., Williams, I., and Zamzow, J., 2011. Coral Reef Ecosystem Division Standard Operating Procedures: Data Collection for Rapid Ecological Assessment Fish Surveys. Pacific Island Fish. Sci. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI. Pacific Islands Fish. Sci. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-11-08, 24, accessed online 17 October 2013, <http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov/library/pubs/admin/PIFSC_Admin_Rep_11-08.pdf> Chabanet, P., Adjeroud, M., Andrefouet, S., Bozec, Y., Ferraris, J., Garcia-Charton, J., and Schrimm, M., 2005. Human-induced physical disturbances and their indicators on coral reef habitats: A multi-scale approach. Aquatic Living Resources, Vol. 18: 215-230. Department of the Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks. 1947. Building the Navy’s Bases in World War II: History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps, 1940-46, accessed online <http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/Building_Bases/index.html> 28 February 2013. 12 �Department of State, 2004. Federal Register 69-24, 5 February 2004. Federal Register online via the Government Printing Office, accessed online <www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2004-02-05/html/04-2488.htm> 1 September 2013. Dixon, B., Gilda, L., and Mangieri, T., 2013. Archaeological Identification of Stone Fishweirs Mentioned to Freycinet in 1819 on the Island of Guam. The Journal of Pacific History, Vol. 48 (4): 349-368, DOI: 10.1080/00223344.2013.856666. Hammer, D, H., 1947. Lion Six. United States Naval Institute. Menasha, Wisconsin. Houk, P., and van Woesik., 2013. Progress and Perspectives on Question-Driven CoralReef Monitoring. BioScience, Vol. 63 (4): 297-303. Jeffery, B., Beger, M., MacLeod, I., Richards, V., Hengeveld, M., and Carpenter, J., 2007. Guidelines in Recording and Monitoring the Natural and Cultural Attributes of Submerged Historic Sites in the Federal States of Micronesia. National Historic Preservation Office Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei, September 2007. Jeffery, B., 2012. The future of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged WWII sites. Bulletin of the Australiasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 36: 15-30. Jeffery, B., 2013. Concept Plan, Seabee Underwater Heritage Park. Unpublished Report for Guam Preservation Trust, Hagatna, Guam. Keith, M., 2004. A Model for Studying Wolrd War Ii-era Lcms in the Archaeological Record. Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 3240, accessed online <http:diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd> 12 Dec 2013. Landquist, H., 2013. Environmental risk assessment of shipwrecks: A fault-tree model for assessing the probability of containment release. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, Vol. 9-3: 537-538. Monfils, R., Gilbert, T., and Nawadra, S., 2006. Sunken WWII shipwrecks of the Pacific and East Asia: The need for regional collaboration to address the potential marine pollution threat. Ocean and Coastal Management, Vol. 49: 779-788. Muckelroy, K., 1978. Maritime archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. National Park Service. 8 September 2013. World War II Valor in the Pacific Frequently Asked Questions, accessed online <http://www.nps.gov/valr/faqs.htm> 30 September 2013. 13 �Pollard, R, A., 1985. Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945-1950. Columbia University Press, New York: 20-23, accessed online <https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pollard.htm> 12 September 2013. Rogers, R. F., 2011. Destiny’s Landfall: A history of Guam. University of Hawaii Press, (First edition 1995), Guam. Russell, M. A., Murphy, L. E., Johnson, D. L., Foecke, T. J., Morris, P. J., and Mitchell, R. 2004. Science for Stewardship: Multidisciplinary Research on USS Arizona. Marine Technology Society Journal, Vol. 38 (3): 54-63. Schlacher-Hoenlinger, M. A., Walker, S. J., Johnson, S. T.A., and Hooper, J. N. A., 2006. Final Report on Biological baseline survey of the ex-HMAS Brisbane artificial reef. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): 110. Smith, A., Helton, D., and Zelo, I., 2003. Developing a Database to Support and Prioritize the Removal of Abandoned Vessels Impacting Coral Resources. International Oil Spill Conference: Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration- Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, American Petroleum Institute publication No. I 4730 B: 575-578. World Resources Institute. 2013. Status of the world’s coral reefs. Washington, DC, accessed online <www.wri.org/publication/content/8354> 30 September 2013. Biography Kalle Applegate Palmer is a Master of Science student in the University of Guam Environmental Science Management Program completing her work through the Marine Laboratory. She completed her undergraduate degree at the University of Washington, College of Architecture and Urban Planning in 2006 majoring in Community, Environment and Planning and minoring in History and Finnish Language. Kalle received a certificate in Aquarium Science from Oregon Coast Community College in 2010 and has worked at Oregon Coast Aquarium, Birch Aquarium and Underwater World Guam. She is a PADI Open Water SCUBA instructor, American Academy of Underwater Sciences Certified Diver and currently working on her Level Three Nautical Archaeology Certification. Bill Jeffery has been working as a maritime archaeologist for over 30 years. Bill formulated and coordinated a maritime heritage program for a state government agency, Heritage South Australia from 1981-2001. He went onto working with the Federated States of Micronesia National Historic Preservation Office and completing a PhD in maritime archaeology at James Cook University. He is a consulting maritime archaeologist to ERM Hong Kong, the CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities 14 �and the Hong Kong Maritime Museum and has implemented various types of archaeological and heritage management programs in Australia, the Pacific Islands, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and various countries in Africa. He has conducted maritime archaeology field schools with the Flinders University, University of Guam and James Cook University in addition to teaching Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training programs in nine different countries. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development Subject The topic of the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 with links to the papers presented in Session 3. Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Seabee Junkyard: A holistic and locally inclusive approach to site management and interpretation Description An account of the resource The United States of America (U.S.) Navy’s Construction Battalion called ‘Seabees’ were born in January 1942 from the demand for a unique set of both engineering and combat skills: “We Build, We Fight”. The Seabees were instrumental in the Pacific theater, and played a significant role in rebuilding Guam. Known as the Seabee Junkyard due to the dumping of Seabee materials and equipment after the war, the site located within Apra Harbor, Guam is a popular dive site amongst local and visiting divers. Research on the significance of the site has revealed that it also represented the rapid demobilization of U.S. Navy after World War II (WW II). In July 2012, the University of Guam conducted a Nautical Archaeology Society maritime archaeology training course funded by the Guam Preservation Trust, which resulted in the material identification and surveying of the site. Further site investigations have taken a holistic and locally inclusive approach to the management and interpretation of the site. This includes non-disturbance wreck diving and underwater cultural heritage education in association with developing site preservation strategies, and compilation of a nomination to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Additional activities in promoting the site and educating the diving public will include underwater dive guides, development of a comprehensive site plan and an underwater cultural heritage trail. Engagement with various government agencies and community groups are being implemented to gauge their various levels of interest and assistance in managing and interpreting the site. Baseline environmental assessment surveys are to be conducted to determine the differences in natural communities with significant man-made substrates and those without. Further outreach proposals are being investigated to see if it can fulfill a role as an Educational and Interpretive Park. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kalle Applegate Palmer Bill Jeffery, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 3 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/037e9dc1dc71edc16c2a7236b1eb78c2.pdf 93470beb85bb48c855b9ebe16eb43edc PDF Text Text Intangible Heritage Approach of Safeguarding Underwater Heritage: A Trans-disciplinary Perspective Montakarn Suvanatap 38 Navatanee, Serithai Road, Kannayao, Bangkok, Thailand Email: m.suvanatap@dunelm.org.uk Abstract This paper presents the advantages of incorporating Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) disciplines in the protection of underwater sites. The integrated safeguarding approaches can enhance professional capacity and can lead to a knowledge pool that involves more peoples and gives greater meanings to underwater heritage. The paper critically investigates contemporary policies that redefine “cultural heritage” and raises examples of local and international initiatives that link traditional knowledge to the conservation of heritage sites. Good case studies exist not only in the Pacific and the Mediterranean, but also in the continents. These successful examples imply that intangible aspects of heritage can provide more profound interpretations of value and integrity of tangible heritage, including maritime sites. Despite that, there have been very few works directly addressing intangible heritage among UCH professionals. Main works on underwater heritage protection today are still archaeology-heavy and technology-heavy, as the concern has been to keep pace with looters, environmental change and industrial threats. Managerial professionals have overlooked that understanding the existing community’s cultures can gain them stronger supports for conservation against exploitation. It is time that underwater heritage professionals explore more seriously cross-disciplinary efforts to upscale safeguarding capacity by involving bigger, grassroots communities of heritage stakeholders. Key words: Interdisciplinary approach, Intangible cultural heritage, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Community participation, Public awareness Introduction Public negligence has been determined as one of the main factors to the very real threat of deterioration of heritage sites worldwide. Working with communities is an essential praxis included in capacity-building trainings for underwater archaeologists. There is no doubt of its importance; however, it has not been prioritised in practice. Site conservation that lacks the community involvement can become inefficient and problematic. In the developing world, with the scarcity of public funds for site maintenance, and grassroots communities being prone to commercial exploitation, it is 1 �vital to ensure that public understanding of archaeological works will lead to the better protection of non-renewable cultural resources. It is incumbent on the heritage workers to not only protect the findings, but also to make their intellectual value accessible to average locals. This is indeed easier said than done. It has been perceived that maritime archaeology is a distant realm of the academia only, with little benefit filtering down to the public sector (UNESCO Bangkok, 2009). Information of archaeological projects has been limitedly shared to the public, in fear that they would be “incapable of understanding archaeological principles” (UNESCO, 2013). Low public awareness seems to lie simply within a lack of interest in benefits of conservation. For instance, while experts agree that in situ preservation is the first option to protect underwater sites for future investigations, the public view this as a loss of opportunities to enjoy the site’s legacy. Among various stakeholders concerned, local communities are affected firsthand by activities directed at heritage sites, yet rarely profited from protection schemes. On many occasions, the protection of heritage sites is considered more effective if local inhabitants are involved from the beginning of the project (UNESCO, 2013). Sites are often discovered by fishermen or offshore operators, who may also view authorities and professionals as obstacles to their benefits. By enabling these local communities to be an active part of the site’s protection, they could help monitor risks to the site, which eases the demand of professional human resource. Involving community’s local customs and culture in the communication of heritage value can relay a strong sense of stewardship to the site. This is where Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) principles come into the picture, as a tool to approach and empower communities, whilst expanding the potential to advance heritage protection. This paper explores an approach that may change the perspective of heritage professionals and managers, and enhance their capacity to work with communities. Such approach should not only contribute to better site conservation, but is also in line with the ever-expanding concept of heritage. Paradigm Shifts: From Preservation to Safeguarding, from Teaching to Exchanging Intangible Cultural Heritage encompasses oral traditions, performing arts, norms, rituals, festivals, craftsmanship and beliefs. It is what community group or, in some cases, individual, recognises as a part of their culture. In other words, these activities give them 2 �a sense of identity and continuity, thus have been transmitted for generations, continuously recreated in response to the changing socio-cultural environment (UNESCO, 2003). Seen as ‘living heritage’, ICH forms a closer relationship with the community, more so than other types of heritage. Indeed, the community can also be referred to as a landscape, in which ICH holds an important place within every individual’s life, instilling in their daily routines and influencing their rites of passage. Therefore, it is believed that by valorising the role of local knowledge holders to represent communication, the heritage professionals stand more chance to convince the community to be more open to foreign ideas (Rai, 2013). This also means local people’s perception of heritage must first be recognised. A case study in American Samoa posts an interesting question of whether “cultural properties” by the definition of indigenous people – which extends to some animal species and natural locations associated to local myths – be included in the inventory of their Underwater Cultural Heritage (Van Tilburg, 2011). Presenting animals and places as integral components that constitute and maintain cultural heritage is not a new idea. The mountainous range of Ifugao in the Philippines is seen as a cultural landscape not only for the fact that it cradles the Rice Terraces of the Cordilleras World Heritage site, but also because it keeps alive the episodic Hudhud chants of Ifugao farmers. Falconry has been inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage element, in which a falconer’s way of life and the raptor species have been given high status in society. In protecting cultural places and animals, we can perpetuate valuable arts and traditions, and vice versa. Since the start of the millennium, international discourses have been moving towards a direction that expands the scope of heritage. This was substantiated in forums that resulted in regionally-specific procedural documents. At the ICOMOS 14th General Assembly and Scientific Symposium titled “Place - Memory - Meaning: Preserving Intangible Values in Monuments and Sites”, in Zimbabwe, 2003, Mounir Bouchenaki, UNESCO Assistant Director-General for Culture at the time, said that traditional legal frameworks and administrative measures for heritage protection were no longer appropriate to safeguard the heritage in the contemporary context. Many countries had long realised this, and revised related laws to recognise the intangible heritage. The fact that there are separate UNESCO Conventions to deal with tangible and intangible 3 �heritage may give an outward impression that heritage is divided into clear-cut subcategories with self-ruling principles to protect them. However, through fieldwork there has been a proven and consistent reflection that the archaeological conservation principles alone cannot ensure the protection of all aspects of human’s culture. Integrity and authenticity, in the context of World Heritage, do not guarantee the survival of cultural expressions that always change. Likewise, the procedures of intangible heritage usually require the preservation of instruments and places of activities in order to conduct the practices in their original socio-cultural contexts. Despite criticism that the Conventions’ impacts are heavily State-centric (Cheng, 2010), these international mechanisms at least validate that the heritage is not an evidence of a past civilisation, but a civilisation itself. Heritage protection cannot simply end with preservation of physical state of objects or places; it must involve the provision of a conducive environment for people to continue their cultural activities, despite the change of time (Lenzerini, 2011). This process has been coined “safeguarding”, as different from “preservation”. It also means that present works on heritage involve not only specialists in social and human sciences, but also the actual cultural bearers and practitioners. Bringing these stakeholders together, Shanghai Charter, convened at ICOM’s 7th AsiaPacific Regional Assembly in 2002, emboldens “interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral approaches that incorporate movable and immovable, tangible and intangible, natural and cultural heritage” (Bouchenaki, 2003). The Charter called for the activities that support transmission of traditional knowledge, as well as the translation of ICH elements into referential forms, such as records, inventories, museums, to maintain safeguarding capacity. This implies that the human resource lies within the community. Cultural practitioners, not scholars and professionals, are to determine how the heritage should be perceived, valued and used. This changes the role of the local people from the ignorant to the experts whose experiences are lifelong. Public archaeology has become much more than simply exposing the public to products of archaeological research. The management, communication and decisions should respect and benefit the locals. The core safeguarding approach is to present community-based value of cultural properties. It promotes a rights-based approach, encouraging the documentation of cultural 4 �elements from “multidimensional perspectives” (O’Brien and Marakas, 2009) of varying groups of peoples concerned. A relevant example is the use of narratives from witnesses of historical events, or possessors of traditional skills. Until 2001, exhibitions by the New Jersey Historical Society presented native dances, jargons, jokes, culinary practices, folklores, songs and memories along with artefacts to a wide range of crowds. They altered conventional presentation of history, diversified the audiences, as well as changed collection and staffing structures. More importantly, this method helped create an “identity repository” that does not simply inform distinctiveness of an ethnic group, but also fits the individuality of the New Jerseyan to the United States’ collective history (Yerkovich, 2006). Narratives and demonstration of cultural activities and skills have become effective ways to learning, and have been applied substantially by many museums. It underscores the credence that peoples do not need permission from authorities to speak about their heritage; they fundamentally have the right and expertise to do so. The inclusion of related intangible components of a heritage increases the capacity for peoples to exercise this right. Nara Document on Authenticity (2007) addresses the need for a broader understanding of community’s role. It advances that custodianship of heritage sites should, so far as possible, stay in the hands of the community who has generated it, and whom should be empowered to carry out conservation. The document underscores the importance of respect for other cultures, other values, and tangible and intangible dimensions that form the heritage. There are, as a result, no fixed criteria to judge value and authenticity of a cultural property; rather it must be evaluated within the cultural context(s) to which it belongs. Developed at the regional workshops in Australia and French Polynesia (200809), Pacific World Heritage Action Plan (2005-15) affirms that the interconnection of tangible and intangible heritage must be realised to achieve true heritage protection. The schemes for protection “must be based on respect, understanding and maintenance of the traditional cultural practices, indigenous knowledge and systems of land and sea tenure”(UNESCO, 2009). Before the start of their permanent settlements, for example, Pacific migrants survived long inter-island journey by canoes and navigating sagacity. The pride and knowledge have been transmitted to young native 5 �generations who share ambition of their ancestors in sailing the world with simple canoes (Gardner, 1999; UNESCO, 2004; Genzand Finney, 2006). The action plan also points out a common attribute of the Pacific sub-region that their marine biodiversity and cultural heritage wealth have been managed with traditional practices. It illustrates that there is an inseparable relationship between communities, cultures and environment that underpins sustainable livelihood in these islands. Bearing in mind the community’s original capacity and mechanism to safeguard their heritage, UNESCO developed the community-based inventorying workshop that aims to bring local people into the working group to create national ICH inventories. Local people, together with governmental staffs, are trained to use recording technology, to be knowledgeable of the viability and significance of ICH in different areas and to gain consents from cultural custodians. The workshop’s focus is not simply to teach how to document cultures, but essentially to establish a platform for people of different backgrounds to exchange their experiences and devise locally appropriate approaches to assist in the identification of cultural elements to the inventory. Enforcing this working environment at the national stage will ensure that the ICH elements safeguarded and promoted by international instruments will always reflect the priorities of a civilization. This workshop has also been implemented since 2012 in various countries, in both mainlands and islands, where the issue is discussed under notion of cultural diversity. UCH beyond a Site: Adding Value through Cultural Revitalisation On many occasions, archaeologists are faced with the problem of possessing limited relevant information about a site. The criteria used for determining significance, such as physical conditions, types of found artefacts and their social or historical importance, usually remains partial, hence the reason why most professionals choose to keep it preserved in situ. Meanwhile, many archaeologists turn their attention to the relationship between cultural properties and local traditions of immediate communities, when assessing intrinsic significance, and considering the site’s interpretative value against the present cultures. The Annexes of the 2001 Convention do not specify how to integrate living cultures to underwater heritage protection. The Hoi An Protocols for Best Conservation Practice in Asia, written a few years later, does mention this particular point, suggesting a possible interconnection between approaches under ICH disciplines 6 �and the attempt to extend safeguarding ability for underwater sites. Adopted in 2005 at the ICOMOS General Assembly as an Asia-Oceania regional guideline for public, the protocol pinpoints that artifacts from underwater sites often have significant intangible aspects which should be taken into account in the conservation and interpretation. Cultural and historical values, especially in sites associated with important events, can add layers of meaning to these physical objects, and may also convey a sense of identity or continuity with current seafaring and maritime practices. Studying in situ sites that are connected to a community’s living culture or records of cultural practices can also give strong cultural interpretation and presentation of the heritage, and in doing so, can reduce the need for excavation (Engelhardt and Rogers, 2009). In other words, ICH can add dimensions to the understanding of material culture. By studying living traditions with ethnographic data collection, researchers can better understand boats and artifacts, and reveal unfamiliar aspects of the community under study (Wylie, 1985; Pham, 2012). For thousands of years, the ancient art of manufacturing traditional Iranian vessel, called Lenj, has remained relatively unchanged in terms of techniques. The wooden Lenjes were once known as the fastest ships to sail the seas, and even now can still compete with contemporary rivals. Historically used by Iranian sailors, the vessels are used today in the northern coasts of the Persian Gulf for trading, fishing and pearl diving. The sailing knowledge has traditionally been passed on from father to son. Before the arrivals of compasses, Iranian helmsmen could locate ships according to water depth and positions of the sun, the moon and the stars, using special formulae to figure latitudes and longitudes. Winds, tones of water and heights of waves could forecast weather. Music, rhythms, games and seaside New Year festival are inseparable to the Lenj sailors’ communities. However, these wisdoms and rituals are unfortunately dying away with the disappearance of the Lenjes and their builders. Due to the downtrend of long distance travelling, the need for fast, big ships is a declining truth. Moreover, the wooden materials are continually being replaced by fiberglass substitutes, proving to be cheaper and faster to work with. This has resulted in a mass reduction of wooden Lenj workshops, which can only be found on the island of Qeshm. Few skilled wooden Lenj builders mainly consist of elderly people. 7 �In 2011, the skills of Lenj building and sailing was inscribed in UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding. To fulfill the requirements to be an inscribed element, a national-level safeguarding plan was developed. Financial supports from multinational sources were secured to assist in sustaining all the contributors to the ingenuity of the tradition, including the continuation of the shipcrafting community, the protection of surviving Lenjes and profound documentation of related knowledge. The safeguarding of the Iranian Lenj craft is an example of the positive State’s commitment to international ministration guarantees. But in the wider reality, what must be achieved to gain the recognition of the State and other nations to realize the heritage’s importance? An even more complicated case study presents an attempt that aims to save both the rebuilding of ancient boats and the religious worship that destroyed them. In the coastal town of Komiža, on the Croatian island of Vis, the craft skills and incineration rituals of the ancient wooden sailboats were once under threat of extinction. Komiža people have a long-standing tradition of burning dilapidated traditional boats as an annual offering to St. Nicholas, the protector of seamen. After the burning, the boat owners build new boats to replace the old ones. Nevertheless, when development came to Komiža, the demand for commercially viable boats increased. Modern-designed plastic boats have become a new replacement of the ones burnt in the ceremony, and due to their material, they cannot be practically burnt. It took a long time for people to realize that a Croatian cultural heritage was being sacrificed in vain, confirmed by the cease of new wooden boats (Božanić and Buljubašić, 2012). Soon after Cicibela, the last falkuša boat, was sunk in 1986, local enthusiasts set up a non-profit foundation called ArsHalieutica, dedicated to multidisciplinary research of Croatian boats. The foundation also raised awareness to local people, showing that protecting the old traditions could contribute to the community’s economics. The young Cicibela wreck was excavated for study. Different types of Komiža’s fishing and trading boats were recorded. Historians, ethnographers and linguists were brought in to enhance various aspects of the tradition, including the ancient fishing culture; the relation of Komiža’s incineration ritual to those of Ancient Egypt, Vikings and Portugal; and the interpretative value of the anthropomorphic life 8 �cycle of boats to the social identity of the fisherman. 10 years later, a sacrificial falkušawas set on fire at the Expo in Lisbon on St. Nicholas’ Day. It was called the success of ArsHalieutica in reviving both the material and nonmaterial aspects of this heritage. These examples prove that folk traditions, which are not by meaning the underwater heritage, should nonetheless be included in the safeguarding plan. This approach can reduce dependence on scientific investigations and lower the strain on financial and human resources. It enables the locals to share their experience with the professionals, and possibly result in the revitalization of practices that sustain the heritage in long term. Conclusion When registering the concept of interconnection between tangible and intangible heritage safeguarding principles in the context of underwater heritage, let us think outside the box of the Conventions and their Operational Guidelines. In actual practice, especially when a line separating science from culture is lacking, there is no limitation to indicate that the link between a cultural expression and a site is only physical. A site can bear social and spiritual influence to the deep-rooted worldview of a society, while sunk a thousand miles from its origin. A site may not exist in its original state at all, but instead a precise remake that possesses the emotional, spiritual or intellectual value of its predecessor. The effort in Croatia to safeguard both historical boat-building and the town’s quintessential ritual and livelihood is an obvious example. One may ask why these approaches have not been recognised well enough to form a discipline. Were the results of past undertakings not worth future investments? Or, has it simply been the lack of organisational awareness to create inter-sectoral programmes? The salutation of being included in the UNESCO Lists happens after the safeguarding has already been achieved, or once it has been under the politics-induced attention of the concerned governments. Thus, the actual start point is that the locals and the professionals agree in what is important to their society and take actions. Underwater cultural sites, from island settlers’ canoes to submerged settlements were born from the needs – religious or utilitarian – of the founding peoples. Thus, they bear socio-cultural values before they became historical or archaeological. Archaeological investigation, therefore, should not end at revealing its past functions or filling the gap in history, but should show how its 9 �presence today still answers to the current community’s needs. While we can celebrate discoveries of large imperial vessels that hold expensive masterpieces, we should not forget that there are still ‘treasures’ that exist yet have been neglected – treasures of bigger group of peoples, which can earn one not only a knowledge of the past but also how we can progress our world sustainably. Acknowledgement I would like to thank Dr Tim Curtis and Mr Ricardo Favis who inspired this research, Dr Martijn Manders and Dr Hans Van Tilburg for opportunities to publish my works. My forever gratefulness to my family and my friends for their unceasing supports. References Božanić, J., and Buljubašić, E., 2012. The Ritual of Boat Incineration in the Island of Vis, Croatia: an Interpretation. International Journal for Intangible Heritage, Vol. 7: 15-30. Bouchenaki, M., 2003. The Interdependency of the Tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritage. In The 14th ICOMOS General Assembly and International Symposium ‘Place, memory, meaning: preserving intangible values in monuments and sites’, 27-31 Oct 2003, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. ICOMOS, Paris: 3-7. Cheng, A. C., 2010. All in the Same Boat? Indigenous Property Rights in Underwater Cultural Heritage. Houston Journal of International Law, Vol. 32 (3): 695-732. Engelhardt, R. A., and Rogers, P. R., (Eds.), 2009. Hoi An Protocols for Best Conservation Practice in Asia: Professional Guidelines for Assuring and Preserving the Authenticity of Heritage Sites in the Context of the Cultures of Asia. UNESCO, Bangkok. Gardner, D. F., 1999. Conversations with Papa Tom, Pa TuterangiAriki, Sir Thomas Davis, KBE, MD. The Construction and Voyages of the Two Replica (Pahi, Pai) Canoes of the Southern Cook Islands, Rarotonga: The Takitumu and the Te Au o Tonga (MA thesis). University of Auckland, Auckland. Genz, J. H., and Finney, B. R., 2006. Preservation and Revitalization of Intangible Cultural Heritage: A Perspective from Cultural Anthropological Research on Indigenous Navigation in the Republic of the Marshal Islands. Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 5 (1-2): 306-313. 10 �Lenzerini, F., 2011. Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Living Culture of Peoples. Oxford Journal, Vol. 22 (1): 101-120. Manders, M. R., 2012. Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage. In M. R. Manders, and C. J. Underwood (Eds.), Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific, UNESCO, Bangkok: 64-82. O’Brien, J. A., and Marakas, G. M., 2009. Management information systems (9th edition), McGraw-Hill/Irwin, Boston. Pham, C. M. L., 2012. Asian Shipbuilding Technology. In M. R. Manders and C. J. Underwood (Eds.), Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific, UNESCO, Bangkok: 349-400. Rai, G. S., 2013. Community Empowerment: Heritage Conservation for All. In UNESCO, Asia Conserved II: Lessons Learnt from the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Awards for Cultural Heritage Conservation. iGroup Publisher, Seoul: 66-70. UNESCO, 1972. The Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2001. The Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2003. The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2004. The Canoe is the People. [Compact Disc]. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2012. Traditional skills of building and sailing Iranian Lenj boats in the Persian Gulf. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2013. UNESCO Manual for activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2009. Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2010-2015. UNESCO, Apia. UNESCO Bangkok and EIIHCAP, 2008. Safeguarding Intangible Heritage and Sustainable Cultural Tourism: Opportunities and Challenges. UNESCO, Bangkok. Van Tilburg, H., 2011. A Place to Learn: the Underwater Cultural Heritage in American Samoa. The MUA Collection. 11 �World Heritage Committee, 2007. Nara Document on Authenticity. UNESCO, Paris. Wylie, A., 1985. The Reaction against Analogy. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 8: 63-111. Biography Montakarn Suvanatap is a communication and programme assistant for Culture Unit, UNESCO Bangkok. She has been involving in capacity-building projects for Underwater Cultural Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage. Her works also include planning and promoting UNESCO’s visibility at regional level. Montakarn was awarded a three-year scholarship to research on Asian arts and cultures while completing a Bachelor Degree in English Literature at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. She received a Master Degree in Museum and Artifact Studies from Durham University, UK, in 2011. Her research concerns intangible heritage, ethnographic museology and community based media designing. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development Subject The topic of the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 with links to the papers presented in Session 3. Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Intangible Heritage Approach of Safeguarding Underwater Heritage: A Trans-disciplinary Perspective Description An account of the resource This paper presents the advantages of incorporating Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) disciplines in the protection of underwater sites. The integrated safeguarding approaches can enhance professional capacity and can lead to a knowledge pool that involves more peoples and gives greater meanings to underwater heritage. The paper critically investigates contemporary policies that redefine “cultural heritage” and raises examples of local and international initiatives that link traditional knowledge to the conservation of heritage sites. Good case studies exist not only in the Pacific and the Mediterranean, but also in the continents. These successful examples imply that intangible aspects of heritage can provide more profound interpretations of value and integrity of tangible heritage, including maritime sites. Despite that, there have been very few works directly addressing intangible heritage among UCH professionals. Main works on underwater heritage protection today are still archaeology-heavy and technology-heavy, as the concern has been to keep pace with looters, environmental change and industrial threats. Managerial professionals have overlooked that understanding the existing community’s cultures can gain them stronger supports for conservation against exploitation. It is time that underwater heritage professionals explore more seriously cross-disciplinary efforts to upscale safeguarding capacity by involving bigger, grassroots communities of heritage stakeholders. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Montakarn Suvanatap, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 3 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2963bb29b78f7c5b7fcaf9a015fe093e.pdf 4fb38873c315e1d2814cfd3e3aec8b8f PDF Text Text Influencing the contemporary narrative on whaling heritage Bradley W. Barr National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, 175 Edward Foster Road, Scituate, MA 02066, USA Email: Brad.Barr@noaa.gov Abstract Whaling heritage is a significant part of the world’s maritime history, and its landscape footprint is global. In the 19th Century, the Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters were the epicenter of whaling, where both many of the most productive whaling grounds were located as well as the primary ports that serviced this industry. The most compelling stories of whaling heritage occurred in these waters, and the names of the storied whaling ships, and the perils they encountered, are well known. These are stories that not only illuminate significant events in our collective maritime past, but contain lessons learned that can inform and offer knowledge relevant to current, yet similar, problems we face today. The contemporary whaling narrative is dominated by the more recent history of whaling, and the divisive atmosphere created by the controversy surrounding the few countries that continue to have active commercial whaling industries. Efforts need to be directed at changing this contemporary narrative, perceptions of the public that whaling heritage is more than killing these giants of the sea. Increasing awareness of the many influences, positive and negative, that whaling, throughout its history, has had on shaping our geo-political system, societies, cultures, economies, and even expanding our knowledge of the oceans and their resources is essential. Through this expanded awareness and appreciation of how whaling helped shape the world we know, we can acquire some needed support for continued historical research and documentation of this part of our maritime heritage. Changing this narrative may also help in preserving the significant places in our global whaling heritage landscape, and hopefully inform wiser decisions about contemporary issues through learning from the past. Key words: Whaling Heritage, Global Whaling Heritage Landscape, Contemporary Narrative, Public Acceptance, Lessons Learned Introduction: Blood in the Water The predominant perception of whaling in modern society is all about killing whales, animals viewed as intelligent and social creatures that are brutally murdered for no particularly good reason. Except for a dwindling number of cultures, we no longer kill whales for meat, have little contemporary use of the oil rendered from their blubber, and have persisted in pursuing leviathan largely for political reasons related to preserving 1 �nationalistic prerogatives and traditional subsistence. This perception of whaling is a surprisingly recent phenomenon (Epstein, 2008), arising quite rapidly from a confluence of ideas, and a well-crafted campaign by environmental non-governmental organizations, related to the worldwide emergence of an ecological ethic in the mid1960’s. Epstein (2008) suggests that “Save the Whales” became a syllogism for the idea of saving the environment more generally, which led to this rapid and paradigmatic shift in the prevailing perception of whaling, and its nearly universal adoption by both society and particularly countries that had previously been very active advocates for the whaling industry throughout its history. When we think of whaling, what some see in their mind’s eye is the blood in the water. However, the whaling industry has, historically, contributed much to society and our collective well being. It has given us products that have illuminated our cities at a time when urban crime was epidemic (Starbuck, 1878), made the machines of the industrial age run smoothly and efficiently, and significantly influenced the global geo-political landscape. It was one of the first truly global industries, was a driver for opening up international trade and diplomatic relations, and was an economic engine for the global economy throughout most of the 19th Century. Whalers, somewhat like the Internet today, connected the world, and made it seem a bit smaller. The public learned about the world vicariously through the whalers’ experiences, covered extensively in the newspapers and magazines of the time. The whaling ships brought with them goods from their home countries and infusions of money to ports around the world to supply their operations and service their ships. They took away from these ports both local products and information about these places and their life ways. Popcorn, for example, is likely one of those products brought back to America by the whalers (Smith, 1999). They helped to increase our understanding of not just whales, but the oceans they live in and the other creatures that share these waters, illuminating a deeper knowledge of ocean currents and winds, weather and climate. They were, as described by Rozwadowski (2005), the first blue-water oceanographers. Not all the historical contributions of the global whaling industry were positive. In many far-off ports and places whalers put ashore to resupply, they introduced diseases to aboriginal cultures and often the deleterious effects of alcohol on 2 �these societies were exacerbated by visits from whaling ships. For example, it is believed that, quite unintentionally, the American whaling ship Wellington introduced mosquitos to Hawaii while restocking their water supplies during a visit to the islands in 1827 (Sedgwick, 1901). The introduction and influence of alcohol in Hawaii, after the first whalers began to arrive in Hawaii in 1819, was identified as a increasingly significant problem in Hawaii’s whaling ports through the latter part of the 19th Century, and has been attributed, beyond simply the intoxication of both Hawaiians and sailors, as a contributory factor in colonialism and its effects on Native Hawaiian society in this period (Brown, 2011). And, indeed, whale populations were decimated in many places around the world, leaving a legacy of impacts that remain on still recovering populations, which now face other challenges. In their wake, whalers undeniably left a host of environmental and societal impacts that often had severe and long-term deleterious effects. However, this was balanced, to one degree or another, by the economic benefits and geopolitical implications of their activities in these places. The dominant and powerful contemporary discourse surrounding whaling is quite definitively negative, as Epstein (2008) has observed. Notwithstanding whether the whaling industry is deserving of this widely-held public perception or not, one of the challenges this creates is that it makes raising public awareness about the positive aspects of whaling heritage far more challenging. To achieve some success in effectively reaching contemporary audiences with this more expansive, comprehensive and balanced view of whaling heritage, to help them be more open to receiving information that conflicts, perhaps deeply and with moral and ethical implications, with this prevailing discourse, offering some historical context is essential. To understand and appreciate the past, and to learn the important lessons this history offers, we need to find a way to overcome this contemporary perception of whaling as simply “blood in the water”. Whaling heritage and places Maury’s 1851 map whaling grounds and the more recent map of whaling voyages and species observed by Smith et al., (2012), taken from 19th logbooks and other documents, clearly demonstrate the global geographic reach of whaling in the 19th Century. While the extent of whaling during this period may have been global, it is the 3 �particular places in this landscape that help to tell the story of whaling heritage. The whaling grounds, such as the Japan Grounds, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Western Arctic, were the places the whalers travelled to in search of whales, and spent time at sea catching and processing their quarry. These are places visited when the whales were plentiful and the profits were favorable, and inextricably linked with the storied whaling ports like Honolulu and Lahaina in Hawaii. Such port cities served the industry, offered provisioning supplies, ship repair and maintenance facilities and skilled craftsmen, often men to supplement whaling crews, and other less socially acceptable amenities, like grog-shops and prostitution (Daws, 1967). These ports, and all the whaling grounds, are places where whaling is a part of their history and heritage. As Barr and Delgado (in press) have suggested: ...we live in a world of places, created in the perceptions of people who are often deeply attached to these places and imbue them with special meaning. The landscape of whaling heritage and the significant places that are part of that landscape therefore also warrants some consideration in our collective efforts to interpret and inform, to educate and excite the imaginations of the public, as well as to increase and expand the awareness and appreciation of the importance of whaling heritage in our collective history. To effectively preserve and protect these places, we will need to be aware of and address the prevailing contemporary perception of whaling. Hawaii’s Whaling Heritage: What whaling contributed...... It has been suggested that whaling had a profound effect on the economic, cultural and social history of Hawaii (Barr and Delgado, In Press; Lebo, 2010; Raupp and Gleason, 2010). In the late 18th Century, as whaling began its global expansion, larger whaling ships began to be built that we capable of multi-year trips to new whaling grounds. With the discovery of the “Offshore Grounds” off Peru, the Sperm whaling grounds off Japan (LaCroix, 2002), the “Kodiak Grounds”, off Southeast Alaska (Burcin, 2005), and ultimately the Western Arctic whaling grounds North of the Bering Strait (Bockstoce, 1986), trips from the New England home ports to the Pacific were routinely three to four years by the mid-1800’s (Davis et al., 1987). Given such long voyages to the Pacific, 4 �the Hawaiian Islands were strategically located to provide ports to service this growing fleet. By 1822, approximately 60 whaling ships were routinely visiting Hawaiian ports, and by 1846, almost 600 ships were arriving each year (Juvik et al., 1998). While this impact gradually diminished over the next fifty years (Raupp and Gleason, 2010) it left a legacy of change in Hawaii. During the 1820’s to the 1830’s, the population of Honolulu tripled, from 3000 to 9000, and with this came the building of roads, housing, and other needed infrastructure (Daws, 1967). The waterfront area of Honolulu harbor also expanded: “The harbor made the town...by the middle of the 19th century Honolulu had grown from a tiny village to a busy Pacific port of call, the metropolis of the islands and the capital of the kingdom” (Daws, 1967). Given the substantial quantities of fresh water needed by ships, the first water supply system in Hawaii was installed in Honolulu harbor (Nellist, 1951). The existing water supply in Honolulu had become “impoverished and polluted” (Daws, 1967) and this new water system offered not only potable water to the ships, but to the residents of the harbor area. Whaling became an economic engine for Honolulu and the Islands (Daws, 1968; cf Raupp and Gleason, 2010). One of the most important interactions between the whalers and the Native Hawaiians was their service as crew on these ships. Lebo (2010) reports that by 1860, Native Hawaiians comprised upwards of one half of such crews in the Pacific and Arctic. As the influence of the expressed needs of the whalers for resupply of types of foods familiar to Yankee crews increased, the agriculture of the islands also began to change. The Hawaiian economy of the 1820’s was transformed from a trade-based to cashbased system. While not an uncommon occurrence in colonial systems (Feyrer and Sacerdote, 2006; Settles, 1996), this transition to the cultivation of foods to supply the whaling fleets visiting Hawaii changed the face of Hawaii’s agricultural landscape. One interesting example, offered by Daws (1967), of the impact of changing cultivation practices related to the increase in use, for a period of time in the 1840’s, of the port of Lahaina. Maui had begun to grow white potatoes, which were favored by the whaling crews over the native sweet potato. While there were other factors that contributed to the enhanced use of the port Lahaina, particularly the more liberal nature of the port with regard to prostitution and grog-shops, now that “Lahaina sported both the potato 5 �and the prostitute...the combination was all but irresistible” (Daws, 1967). Daws concludes, “In the mid-50’s, the potato boom ended but the prostitutes remained. Other things being equal, Honolulu's better shipping facilities prevailed again”. Finally, a speculative argument could be made that this change in Hawaii’s agricultural practices may have set in motion later changes, like the rise of the sugar, pineapple, and coffee cultivation that brought even greater political influence of non-Hawaiian interests that ultimately contributed to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893. Daws (1967) discusses the sociological phenomenon of the perception of the working and personal habits of Native Hawaiians, and how this prevailing western perception was used to influence the actions of the American government with regard to Hawaii and its economic future. While clearly there were many other contributory social, cultural, and economic factors that may have had considerably more impact (Kuykendall, 1967), this fundamental change in the political power structure in Hawaii may have been facilitated not only by this change in the agricultural landscape of the Islands to accommodate the visiting whaling fleet, but also the subjugation of the Native Hawaiians that resulted as part of the colonial occupation of Hawaii. There is little doubt that Hawaii, and its essential ports of call, is a critically important place in the global whaling landscape. Not all these stories of the interaction between the whalers and the people of Hawaii may have represented particularly positive contributions, but they undoubtedly had a significant influence on Hawaii and its history. Whaling and Diplomacy The 19th Century was a period in American history that saw the emergence of this new country on a potential trajectory toward becoming a world power, foretelling the political hegemony of the United States in the 20th Century. The diplomacy of this fledgling country at the end of the 1700’s, right after its war of independence with England, was just beginning to develop. However, the American whalers had already been traveling to far off lands, making port calls with their ships, and forging commercial relationships with their counterparts in these countries for many years. As Fredrick Jackson Turner (1920) has suggested, it is the trader, what he called the “pathfinder of civilization”, that most often is earliest at the threshold of the frontier, and in this whaling was no exception. According to Starbuck (1878), the first ships sailing under the new American 6 �flag to enter a British port after the revolutionary war, in 1787, were the whalers Bedford, Industry, and Speedwell, all out of Nantucket. They had gone to England to try and recommence trade in whale oil and bone with the British. Starbuck (1878) also makes mention of another event where whaling was driving American diplomacy (and war). During War of 1812, Peruvian privateers, as allies of England in this war, were seizing US whalers. The US deployed a “diplomatic” envoy to address this issue, but securing the support of the Chilean army, the envoy led the fight to free captured whalers from their captivity in Peru. The history of whaling is rife with stories of first encounters with remote civilizations, sailing into unknown and uncharted waters, forging commercial relationships with ports where no American ship had visited previously. They were, indeed, Turner’s “pathfinders of civilization”. One particularly important event that was largely driven by the need for the whaling fleets to have ports in the North Pacific readily available was the opening of Japan by Admiral Perry in 1853. Burcin (2005) summarizes the event, and the intimate connection between Perry’s mission and the whaling fleets, which ultimately compelled the Japanese to permit vessels from other countries to enter their ports. Burcin (2005) recounts that the contemporary reports of the mission did indeed emphasize the importance of that mission in meeting the pressing needs of the whaling industry, but in subsequent historical analyses of the mission, the connection is often not mentioned or mentioned only in passing. By the mid-1800’s, America had a virtual monopoly on whaling in the Pacific, and with the Russians openly hostile to American whalers in their territorial waters, access to the ports in Japan was strategically essential. Indeed, as Burcin (2005) concludes “Commodore Perry’s expedition relied upon whalers’ experience in Japan not only for information about a little understood society but also as a political justification to sail into Edo Bay in July 1853”. Not only was whaling considered a justification for Perry’s expedition, but also for two previous Naval missions to Japan in 1846 and 1849, and a key justification for the American Exploration Expedition in 1836 commanded by Charles Wilkes (Burcin, 2005). There is little doubt that America’s whaling interests were driving diplomacy in the Pacific region. If American “whaling hegemony” in the 19th Century (Basberg, 2006) did serve an important role in the 7 �development of the American political hegemony in the 20th Century, this is an important story to tell. Conclusion Rudyard Kipling (1941) said, “If history were taught in the form of stories, it would never be forgotten”. Therefore, telling the compelling stories of 19th Century whaling should be an effective way to not only expand the awareness and appreciation of this influential human activity that has helped to shape the modern world, but perhaps assist in empowering the protection and preservation of the essential places in that history for future generations. However, storytelling requires both a good story to tell, and a willing and appreciative audience. There is little doubt that whaling can provide many suitable stories, but finding a willing audience may present a more significant challenge. This may be a bit of an overstatement, as places like the New Bedford Whaling Museum, New Bedford Whaling Historic Park, and Mystic Seaport seem to attract many visitors. Recent books on whaling, such as Dolan’s (2008) Leviathan, have received multiple awards and are bestsellers, while readers young and old continue to be drawn toward Melville’s (2001) story of Ahab and Ismael in Moby Dick. Certainly, the discovery of the Two Brothers near French Frigate Shoals in the Papahānoumokuākea Marine National Monument attracted an extraordinary amount of press coverage and generated considerable public interest. However, while it is one thing to attract visitors, read a bestseller, or follow a news story, its quite another to recognize and act on supporting the preservation of our collective whaling heritage, particularly to actively support protecting the particularly important places in the global whaling landscape. Perhaps encouraging public appreciation that whaling has helped to shape what the world is today, and the many contributions this industry has made to society, our economic well being, and to our rich maritime heritage, is the greatest challenge. There are many things that have happened throughout history, viewed through the lens of today that may not seem something about which we should be very proud. Through these experiences, however, we have learned a great deal and should not dismiss these lessons of history because contemporary perspectives diminish their perceived importance. We, as the conservators of this heritage, should not just tell the stories, but offer some sense of the historic context of the stories we are telling, helping the listener 8 �not only understand and interpret the implications of this powerful contemporary antiwhaling discourse on that history, but to suggest the need for acting to support and encourage the preservation of the global whaling heritage landscape so that what remains is not lost. Time is a powerful enough opponent in the efforts to preserve heritage resources, as they are ephemeral, degrading through natural process in the environment. However, the places in this global whaling heritage landscape, the stories they tell and the lessons they provide, are enduring. They are also worthy of preserving for future generations. Acknowledgements Thanks to Jim Delgado and Hans van Tilburg for helpful comments and advice regarding the ideas presented in this paper. Disclaimer: The opinions expressed here are solely the author’s, and do not reflect the views of the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, NOAA, or the US Government. References Barr, B. W., and Delgado, J. P., (In Press). Preserving whaling heritage: The role of marine protected areas as “museums of the sea”. Presented at the 4th Symposium on Whaling and History, Commander Chr. Christensen’s Whaling Museum, Sandefjord, Norway, 18-21 June, 2013. Basberg, B. L., 2006. Two Hegemonies – Two technological regimes: American and Norwegian whaling in the 19th and 20th century. Presented at the XIV International Economic History Congress, Helsinki, August 2006, retrieval November 29, 2013, from http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers3/Basberg.pdf Bockstoce, J. R., 1986. Whales, Ice, and Men: The History of Whaling in the Western Arctic. University of Washington Press, Seattle WA. Brown, M., 2011. ‘Äina Under the Influence: The Criminalization of Alcohol in 19th century Hawai’i. lili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, Vol. 7: 311339. Burcin, T., 2005. Commodore Perry’s 1853 Japanese Expedition: How whaling influenced the event that revolutionized Japan. Master’s Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, retrieval October 13, 2013, from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05132005 131722/unrestricted/MAThesis.pdf. Davis, L. E., Gallman, R. E., and Hutchins, T., 1987. Productivity in American Whaling: The New Bedford Fleet in the 19th century. Working Paper No. 2477, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, retrieval April 13, 2012, from http://www.nber.org/papers/w2477.pdf 9 �Daws, G., 1967. Honolulu in the 19th Century: Notes on the Emergence of Urban Society in Hawaii. Journal of Pacific History, Vol. 2: 77-96. Daws, G., 1968. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Dolan, E.J., 2008. Leviathan: The History of Whaling in America. W. W. Norton and Company, New York, NY. Epstein, C., 2008. The Power of Words in International Relations: The Birth of an AntiWhaling Discourse. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Feyrer, J., and Sacerdote, B., 2006. Colonialism and modern income – islands as natural experiments. Working Paper No. 12546, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. http://www.nber.org/papers/w12546 Juvik, S. P., Juvik, J. O., and Paradise, T. R., (Eds.), 1998. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Hilo, HI. Kipling, R., 1941. The Collected Works of Rudyard Kipling. Ams Press, Brooklyn, NY. Kuykendall, R. S., 1967. The Hawaiian Kingdom: 1874-1893: the Kalakaua Dynasty. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. HI. Lacroix, S. J., 2002. The economic history of Hawai’i: A short introduction. Working Paper No. 02-3, East-West Center, Department of Economics, University of Hawaii at Manoa, retrieval October 10, 2013, from http://ideas.repec.org/p/hai/wpaper/200203.html Lebo, S. A., 2010. Local Perspective of Hawaii's Whaling Economy: Whale Traditions and Government Regulation of the Kingdom's Native Seamen and Whale Fishery. Coriolis, Vol. 1: 3-37. Melville, H., 2001. Moby Dick: or The Whale. Penguin Classics 150th Anniversary Edition, Penguin Putnam, Inc., New York, NY. Nellist, G. F., 1951. An Early istory of onolulu’s Water System. Board of Water Supply, City and County of Honolulu, retrieval February 26, 2014, from https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10524/11867/1951-NellistEarly-History-of-Honolulu.pdf?sequence=1. Raupp, J. T., and Gleason, K., 2010. Submerged whaling heritage in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 34: 66–74. Rozwadowski, H. M., 2005. Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration of the Deep Sea. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Sedgwick, T. F., 1901. Chickens and their Diseases in Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 1, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, retrieval February 26, 2014, from http://books.google.com/books?id=bfJFAQAAIAAJ. Settles, J. D., 1996. The Impact of Colonialism on African Economic Development. University of Tennessee Honors Thesis Projects, retrieval December 12, 2013, from http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_chanhonoproj/182 10 �Smith, S. F., 1999. Popped culture: A social history of popcorn in America. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC. Starbuck, A., 1878. History of the American whale fishery from its earliest inception to the year 1876. (Reprinted 1989), Castle Books, Secaucus, NJ. Smith, T. D., Reeves, R. R., Josephson, E. A., and Lund, J. N., 2012. Spatial and seasonal distribution of American whaling and whales in the age of sail. PLoS ONE, Vol. 7 (4): e34905. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034905, retrieval October 22, 2013, from http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjourn al.pone.0034905&representation=PDF Turner, F. J., 1920. The Frontier in American History. Henry Holt and Co., New York. Biography Brad Barr received a BS from the University of Maine, a MS from the University of Massachusetts, and PhD at the University of Alaska. He is currently a Senior Policy Advisor in the NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Adjunct Professor at the School of Marine Sciences and Ocean Engineering at the University of New Hampshire, and a Visiting Professor at the University Center of the Westfjords in Iceland. He is a member of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas, the International Committee on Marine Mammal Protected Areas, and IUCN Marine Mammal Protected Areas Task Force. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Influencing the contemporary narrative on whaling heritage Description An account of the resource Whaling heritage is a significant part of the world’s maritime history, and its landscape footprint is global. In the 19th Century, the Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters were the epicenter of whaling, where both many of the most productive whaling grounds were located as well as the primary ports that serviced this industry. The most compelling stories of whaling heritage occurred in these waters, and the names of the storied whaling ships, and the perils they encountered, are well known. These are stories that not only illuminate significant events in our collective maritime past, but contain lessons learned that can inform and offer knowledge relevant to current, yet similar, problems we face today. The contemporary whaling narrative is dominated by the more recent history of whaling, and the divisive atmosphere created by the controversy surrounding the few countries that continue to have active commercial whaling industries. Efforts need to be directed at changing this contemporary narrative, perceptions of the public that whaling heritage is more than killing these giants of the sea. Increasing awareness of the many influences, positive and negative, that whaling, throughout its history, has had on shaping our geo-political system, societies, cultures, economies, and even expanding our knowledge of the oceans and their resources is essential. Through this expanded awareness and appreciation of how whaling helped shape the world we know, we can acquire some needed support for continued historical research and documentation of this part of our maritime heritage. Changing this narrative may also help in preserving the significant places in our global whaling heritage landscape, and hopefully inform wiser decisions about contemporary issues through learning from the past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bradley W. Barr, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/144da149fd45a993c87426b87fb61fa9.pdf 27ba06cc34c03d27f18e7bd37f7a65ee PDF Text Text The Intangible Underwater: Integrating Intangible Cultural Heritage into the Study of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites Suzanne S. Finney Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands (MAHHI) Foundation Honolulu, Hawaii 96830, USA suzanne.finney@gmail.com Abstract Intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH) is an integral component to the understanding of many cultural heritage sites worldwide. While the collection of stories, oral histories and other intangible information to interpret terrestrial sites is increasingly practiced, less so is the collection of this information to identify underwater cultural heritage sites, in particular those sites without material remains. The focus for intangible cultural heritage often seems to end at the shore, and not extend into the waters, for many nations. This presentation discusses the application of ICH for underwater cultural heritage, using examples from the Pacific to illustrate the importance of recording all information for underwater areas in order to ensure adequate protection and interpretation of the significant cultural heritage of many coastal, islands, and other submerged sites. Key words: Intangible, Oral history, Chants, Pacific, ICH Introduction UNESCO describes intangible cultural heritage as, “traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts” (UNESCO n/d). Rather than documenting materials or sites, the ICH list records ‘elements’ of cultures and social practices. Of the 30 elements listed for 2013, only one appears to have any type of marine or maritime focus (Shrimp fishing on horseback in Oostduinkerke, Belgium), and on the total list of 282 elements listed since 2008, only a handful are marine, maritime or underwater oriented 1. The documentation and protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites can, and often does, include the recording of oral histories related to the sites, but this information is usually peripheral to the recording of the material, or tangible, remains, focusing on the collection of 1 �information related to the material remains under study rather than toward an allencompassing cultural understanding of the area. Research in UCH may be expanding beyond the investigation of individual shipwrecks, bridges and ports to larger concepts of regional navigation, seafaring and the like, but a truly holistic examination of the tangible remains associated with most UCH sites, should always include a systematic collection of information about the intangible significance of the sites and the areas where sites are located. This is particularly timely in the face of budget and staff reductions with which many offices charged with the collection and protection of both UCH and ICH must currently contend. This paper offers a brief consideration of how a synthesis between UCH and ICH data collection might be approached, beginning with two examples of research that incorporates both tangible and intangible data. It also explores the idea of collecting information on other research projects, focusing on topics of relevance to the Pacific Islands and those which could possibly lead to additional World Heritage and/or Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity nominations for the region in the future. Example: Sea Turtle Consumption in the Marshall Islands A good example of how a project incorporates the tangible and intangible aspects of underwater cultural heritage is the development of a proposed project involving sea turtle use and consumption in the Pacific. Regina WoodromRudrud, an environmental anthropologist and sea turtle biologist, has drafted a project that would incorporate ethnographic field techniques, sea turtle biology and maritime archaeology to determine the risk to human populations of sea turtle consumption in the Marshall Islands (WoodromRudrud et al., 2007). She and her colleagues contend that the understanding of the potential negative impacts of turtle consumption in the Marshall Islands cannot be complete without understanding the physical environment in which turtles live, feed and breed, including hazards brought on by shipwrecks from World War II and the post World War II nuclear testing in the region. In this case, knowing where and when turtles are hunted and how they are consumed by the Marshallese is combined with learning where turtles hunt for their food, and how the impact of shipwrecks in the water might affect the food chain between turtles and humans. If turtles are being exposed to harmful contaminants, which are stored in their 2 �bodies, then the people eating those turtles are exposed to the contaminants. Maritime archaeology assists with this research by locating shipwrecks in the areas where the turtles forage to determine what types of contaminants may be present. In the conclusion the authors state: We argue that research into this situation is essential as we have found a high probability that there are toxicants remaining in the RMI environment and that due to the long life (50+ years receiving low dose radiation and other contaminants) and normal habits of sea turtles, such as site fidelity to certain resting areas and resting in submerged resources such as irradiated shipwrecks (among others), site fidelity to certain foraging areas and several species eating organisms that may be growing directly on toxic surfaces (such as algae and sponges), and embryo development and metamorphosis taking place a few feet down in contaminated sand, their contamination from those products is highly probable (WoodromRudrud et al., 2007: 17). Example: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument The Papahānaumokuākea2 Marine National Monument is located in the northwest section of the Hawaiian Islands. For years there has been systematic research and investigation into the maritime cultural heritage of the area, and a number of significant historic ship and aircraft wrecks have been identified and recorded. There have also been tremendous advances in the collection and understanding of Hawaiian sites and traditional uses of the area. Much of this information comes from the study of the intangible heritage of the Hawaiians, the chants and histories passed down for generations. There have also been a number of projects involving archaeological fieldwork on Hawaiian sites on the islands, including the collection of intangible information on place names within the Monument. There is not been much evidence to date that this has led to documenting underwater Hawaiian sites, but the importance of collecting intangible information about the area, and incorporating this information into the ongoing research, interpretation and protection of the Monument is also a good example of the holistic approach to understanding underwater cultural heritage by compiling tangible and 3 �intangible information. As described in the maritime heritage management plan for the Monument: Aspects of Native Hawaiian heritage, including fishing, religion, and politics, are links to the kind of broad, interdisciplinary understanding of the heritage of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands that can help management pursue a sustainable direction for this World Heritage Site (Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011: 28). Shipwrecks Raupp, Finney and Gleason (2011) discuss the use of 19th century whaling wrecks for multidisciplinary research in the Pacific, incorporating fields such as history, archaeology and biology. The collection of ICH should also be considered a component of this research. The location of shipwrecks is often learned through oral histories and stories from local inhabitants. Once a location is determined and these wrecks are mapped, the collection of intangible data often ends. Yet the impact of these wrecks can continue on, in genealogies from descendents of the survivors or changes in habits around the location of wrecks. For example, in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, four whaling ships were captured and burned in April 1865 as part of the activities of the CSS Shenandoah during the U.S. Civil War. The whaling crews were all left on Pohnpei while the Shenandoah continued into the Arctic Ocean to look for more whaleships to capture3. By the time a vessel arrived in Pohnpei to rescue the whaling crews, one of the whaleship masters, Captain John Eldridge, had decided to stay on Pohnpei. He raised a family whose descendants still live on Pohnpei. Collecting information from the family during an archaeological investigation of the wreck sites led to more information about the whaling wrecks and the history of the harbor where the wrecks are located. The shipwrecks are not the end of the story; it continues to develop through the history of the family on Pohnpei. This is also true for more recent wrecks. Ship and aircraft wrecks from World War II are often found through written records from the period, but as many maritime archaeologists know, local knowledge is likely to be more accurate in locating wrecks. Stories from eye witnesses and information from fishermen about where nets are snagged, lead to the discovery of new wrecks. A recent survey of one the atolls in the Republic of the Marshall Islands documented several 19th and 20th 4 �century shipwrecks based on information gathered from local informants, including stories passed down about how the ships were sunk (Finney, 2007). The ability to collect this type of information is as important for UCH managers to learn as how to photograph, measure and map these wrecks. Marine Exploitation Marine exploitation, such as fishing, collecting shellfish, or harvesting seaweed, is an ongoing activity throughout the Pacific. Traditional fishing methods are often not easy to detect in the archaeological record, but that is not a reason for UCH managers to discount this essential component of life on the islands. Knowing the importance of primary, seasonal, sacred or taboo fishing grounds, and current fishing practices offer the potential for discovering significant tangible cultural sites in these areas. In a recent article for the Hawaiian Airlines magazine, Michael Shapiro describes efforts to preserve traditional fishing knowledge in a small village on the Big Island of Hawaii (2013). This information could be the starting point for an investigation of the coastline and underwater environment for evidence of underwater historic or archaeological sites related to fishing. In 1996 the University of Hawaii sponsored a maritime archaeology field school that looked at ancient fishing sites off Waikiki on Oahu, where they documented some artifacts that supported the Hawaiian stories of fishing in the area (NOAA n/d). It would be useful for those involved with UCH to develop working relationships with those involved in the promotion of traditional skills such as fishing in order to acquire information on where likely underwater sites might be located. The transmission of knowledge across generations on a variety of marine and maritime contexts can provide excellent information that leads to developments in underwater cultural heritage. Conclusion There is a very clear distinction between UCH and ICH within UNESCO, and this paper does not recommend that this division be altered. However, practical considerations such as budget, staff and time constraints argue for the development of projects that can serve more than one purpose, to collect information on underwater sites, and preserve the knowledge and skills of local populations, or to collect oral histories to 5 �prepare for the survey of underwater sites, integrating tangible and intangible aspects of underwater heritage. UCH has traditionally focused on tangible or material remains, but there is nothing inherent in the concept that should cause us to limit our inquiry to only the tangible aspects of UCH. Within the broader context of UCH, documentation and research should include all evidence, including the intangible. The management of underwater cultural heritage calls for a holistic approach to collecting information, and those who are engaged in UCH should be willing to “think outside the box” or the shipwreck, or the fish trap, and explore ways in which ICH can increase our knowledge of the underwater environment. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the organizers of this conference for the opportunity to present the paper. I would also thank Professor Noelani Arista of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, who provided suggestions and I am grateful for her input. Endnote 1 For example the Watertight-bulkhead technology of Chinese junks (China), or Sanké mon, collective fishing rite of the Sanké (Mali). See www.unesco.org/culture/ich for the full list. 2 See http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/about/name.html for information about this name and how it was chosen for the monument. 3 See Chaffin 2006, Finney and Graves 2002 for more information about this incident. References Chaffin, T., 2006. Sea of Gray: The Around-the-World Odyssey of the Confederate Raider Shenandoah. Hill and Wang, New York. Finney, S. S., 2007. Phase Two Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in Portions of Maloelap Lagoon, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Report submitted to the Historic Preservation Office, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Finney, S. S., and Graves, M. W., 2002. Site investigation and documentation of a Civil War shipwreck thought to be sunk by the C.S.S. Shenandoah, April 1865. Report for the American Battlefield Protection Program, U.S. National Park Service, Washington, D.C. NOAA, http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/maritime/maritime_history.html, accessed on 29 December 2013. 6 �Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011. Maritime Heritage Research, Education, and Management Plan: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Honolulu. Raupp, J., Finney, S. S., and Gleason, K., 2011. Multidisciplinary Research Potential of Whaling Heritage in the Pacific Region. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the AsiaPacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila: 1029-1040. Shapiro, M., 2013. Go Fish!HanaHou. The Magazine of Hawaiian Airlines, Vol. 16 (6), December 2013 - January 2014, accessed at the website http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=1270&Ma gazineID=78&Page=1 (29 December 2013). UNESCO, 2003. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Media Kit, www.unesco.org/culture/ich/doc/src/18440-EN.pdf, accessed on 27 December 2013, p. 3. Woodrom-Rudrud, R., Kroeker, J. W., Leslie, H. Y., and Finney, S. S., 2007. The Sea Turtle Wars: Culture, War, and Sea Turtles in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin, Vol. 21: 3-29. Biography Suzanne Finney is an archaeologist specializing in maritime archaeology. She received her Ph.D. in Anthropology from the University of Hawaii at Manoa and has been involved in fieldwork and projects throughout the Pacific, including Hawaii, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Republic of Palau. Suzanne is President of the Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands Foundation (MAHHI), a non-profit organization chiefly concerned with research, training, and education in maritime elements of submerged cultural resources in Hawaii and the Pacific. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Intangible Underwater: Integrating Intangible Cultural Heritage into the Study of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites Description An account of the resource Intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH) is an integral component to the understanding of many cultural heritage sites worldwide. While the collection of stories, oral histories and other intangible information to interpret terrestrial sites is increasingly practiced, less so is the collection of this information to identify underwater cultural heritage sites, in particular those sites without material remains. The focus for intangible cultural heritage often seems to end at the shore, and not extend into the waters, for many nations. This presentation discusses the application of ICH for underwater cultural heritage, using examples from the Pacific to illustrate the importance of recording all information for underwater areas in order to ensure adequate protection and interpretation of the significant cultural heritage of many coastal, islands, and other submerged sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Suzanne S. Finney, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c0ad6b5f6dcd7ceca973467b768d82f3.pdf 1af71639c6dffb615eb99711239f3cc7 PDF Text Text Underwater Survey at the Ruins of Nan Madol, Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia Tomo Ishimura Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara 630-8577, Japan Email: tomoishi@nabunken.go.jp Kyushu Institute for Technology, Fukuoka 804-8550, Japan E-mail: ura@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp Akira Asada University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan Email: asada@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp Fumitaka Maeda Toyo Corporation, Tokyo 103-8284, Japan Email: maedaf@toyo.co.jp Ken’ichi Sugimoto Windy Network, Tokyo 108-0073, Japan Email: sugimoto@windy-net.co.jp Toshihiro Ogawa, Akio Hikoyama, Yoshinori Matsumoto, Yusuke Sugimoto Windy Network, Tokyo 108-0073, Japan Email: ogawa@windy-net.co.jp; Email: hikoyama@windy-net.co.jp Email: y-matsumoto@windy-net.co.jp; Email: y-sugimoto@windy-net.co.jp Charles Brennan R2 SONIC, Austin, Texas 78735, USA Email: cbrennan@r2sonic.com Tomomi Haramoto TokyoNational Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo 110-8713, Japan Email: haramoto@tobunken.go.jp Augustine Kohler Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government, Pohnpei, The Federated States of Micronesia, FM 96941 Email: kusgoose@hotmail.com Abstract In this paper we demonstrate the results of underwater survey at Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol are the ruins of a megalithic civilization composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made mostly of basalt, situated on a shallow water of Pohnpei Island. The site is now on the Tentative List of the UNESCO World Heritage Site submitted by Federated States of Micronesia. Protection of the site is comprised of both these basaltic islets and the water surrounding them. In addition, there is an oral tradition that a sunken city named Kahnihmweiso is located underwater near the site. The goal of our investigation is to make a map of underwater topography that is 1 �expected to be utilized for the site documentation and the setting of core and buffer zones. The investigation was carried out by using multi-beam sonar and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), as well as manual survey by scuba diving gears. Research has revealed that there is no clear evidence of artificial constructions under the water; however, a detailed map of underwater topography around the site was obtained. Our research also stresses the significance of the sea area as a resource of legends and a component of the intangible cultural heritage of Nan Madol. Key words: Oceania; Federated States of Micronesia; Nan Madol; Multi-beam sonar; Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) Background Heritage Management and Underwater Cultural Heritage in Federated States of Micronesia The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a grouping of 607 small islands in the Western Pacific just north of the equator. They are spread over an area of 2,700 km 2. They consist of four States: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae (from west to east). Their land area is quite small, amounting to approximately 700 km 2. The capital is Palikir, and the largest city is Kolonia; both are located on the island of Pohnpei. All land area is the result of volcanic activity occurred millions of years ago resulting in islands and atolls of incredible variety. Each of the four States constitute one or more main high islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous outlying atolls. Each of them has its own culture and traditions, nevertheless, common cultural and economic bonds are centuries old. Together with the Republic of Palau, the FSM forms the group known as the Caroline Islands and in association with the Mariana Islands, the Marshall Islands and Kiribati they form the group today known as Micronesia. The maritime history of Micronesia spans nearly 4,000 years and is inextricably linked with the wider cultural region. Initial settlement of the area is approximated at 3,500 years based on linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence (Rainbird, 2004). It suggests that the area was first inhabited by groups of Austronesian-speakers who arrived in ocean-going canoes. The inhabitants of each island group developed their own variations of watercraft based on their needs for procuring food and inter-island travel. The people of Micronesia are known to have been some of the most knowledgeable and skilled navigators of the Pacific, a tradition which continues today. 2 �The people of the FSM have a strong bond with their land, sea and reefs. This is evident through the wealth of heritage sites that entail a spiritual association with the sea, which encompasses stories and the determined ownership of the land and water. Many sea and landscape features provide deep-seated connections to history, mythology and settlement of the islands, submerged heritage sites being a powerful and tangible part of society. The variety of submerged cultural heritage also reflects the broad range of activity which occurred in these island states. Shipwrecks from many time periods are known to lie in its waters, as do the remains of maritime infrastructure such as piers, wharves and landings. To date only a few submerged sites have been investigated historically and archaeologically such as the Yap fish weirs (aech) and the World War II relics of Chuuk Lagoon. Among the most exciting and culturally significant partially submerged sites are the indigenous ruins of Nan Madol in Pohnpei (Mckinnon, 2010: 37-42). The ruins of Nan Madol, which belong to a megalithic culture, are composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made of basalt and spread over a rectangular area approximately 1.5 km by 0.7 km. Its construction is said to have begun around 500 AD and continued to around 1600 AD, with royal palaces, temples, royal tombs, and residential districts integrally forming a city complex (Fig. 1). As the largest cultural heritage site in FSM, it is also a precious tourist resource. However, notwithstanding its extremely high significance in terms of academic value and as a tourism resource, no full-scale initiatives have been implemented to date to protect the ruins. Within the Pacific island countries (except New Zealand), there are only five UNESCO cultural heritage sites as of 2013. Even among the countries in the region, FSM is particularly eager to have Nan Madol inscribed on the World Heritage List, as it Fig. 1 Artificial islets of Nan Madol. (T. Ishimura) has no sites on the list at present. The UNESCO Office for the Pacific Region (Apia, Samoa), acknowledging that international support is needed to protect and inscribe the site on the World Heritage List, approached the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural 3 �Heritage (henceforth JCIC-Heritage) regarding the possibility of its cooperation in sending a Japanese survey team to assess the present state of the Nan Madol, as no surveys have so far been conducted regarding its condition and the framework required for its protection. In response to this request, JCIC-Heritage sent a survey team to Micronesia to conduct a survey of Nan Madol in 2011. The team of JCIC-Heritage carried out a survey to assess the present state of Nan Madol, including its preservation condition and the status of policy framework in February 2011 (Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012). Based on this survey, we have presented an overview of the present state of the Nan Madol ruins, and have discussed the framework of the FSM for preserving the site, as well as the results of interviews with relevant stakeholders. When considering the ruins as cultural heritage that is intimately associated with the history and traditional culture of the island of Pohnpei, it is extremely important to avoid development for the sake of tourism, but to promote measures for maintaining this heritage in a sustainable manner while respecting the living culture of the local residents. At JCIC-Heritage, we have continued our cooperation in response to the request of FSM, based on proposals derived from the results of this survey. As a result, certain achievements have been made, and local initiatives for protection of Nan Madol have made steady progress. As a supplement, we introduce the cooperation we have extended based on the results of the 2011 survey. As proposed in light of the survey results, the formulation of a management plan based on a consensus of all local stakeholders is of foremost importance in the effort to protect Nan Madol. To help the stakeholders achieve consensus, a workshop was held in November, 2011 in Kolonia, Pohnpei (Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012: 41). It focused on three main objectives: (1) to gather all stakeholders; (2) to share information on the present state of protection of Nan Madol among all stakeholders, and (3) to provide an understanding of future efforts that need to be made by each stakeholder. In addition to JCIC-Heritage, a Japanese experts team (funded by the Japan Foundation), the FSM HPO and UNESCO (UNESCO/Japan Funds-in-Trust) cosponsored the workshop and fulfilled their respective tasks. The workshop was extremely meaningful in the sense that by bringing together all stakeholders, it allowed 4 �everyone to share information, gain proper understanding of proposals put forth by experts from in and outside FSM as well as tasks needed in future activities, and to mutually verify their concurrent commitment to move forward their initiatives for protection of Nan Madol. However, now that a consensus has been achieved, activities for protection of the ruins and inscription of the site on the World Heritage List are expected to advance steadily. Subsequently, the State Party of FSM submitted a Tentative List including the ruins of Nan Madol to the World Heritage Centre in February 2012, and launched its nomination process for its inscription on the List of UNESCO World Heritage. Through the survey and workshop above, it has been stressed that the establishment of zoning (core/buffer zones) based upon an accurate site map is needed in order to protect the site and implement site management. Following this recommendation, the Japanese team organized a technical consultation workshop for capacity building on site documentation of Nan Madol in Kolonia, Pohnpei in September, 2012, funded by the Japan Foundation (Ishimura, 2013). In this consultation meeting, it has been pointed out that the sea area around the site of Nan Madol should be protected properly and the potential of neglected underwater cultural heritage existence must be scientifically confirmed. Since the artificial islets of Nan Madol were constructed in the inter-tidal zone of a reef flat along the shores of Temwen Island located in the southeastern part of Pohnpei, the gradually submerging monuments, the sea and its landscape are essential components to the sites’ protected heritage. In addition, there is a legend of an underwater city named Kahnihmweiso, sunken in the harbor of Nahkapw, a deep area approximately 50m in depth Fig. 2 Aerial photo of Nan Madol and surrounding area. (T. Ishimura, based on the images from GoogleEarth). in the northeast of Nan Madol (Fig. 2). 5 �Legendary Underwater City in Nan Madol According to the local legend, below Nahkapw Harbor there is the secret “City of the Gods” built before the people of Pohnpei arrived. Nan Madol, the city above water, is actually quite recent, built by two legendary brothers that came from across the sea from the southeast region. One day, “the brothers climbed the mountain to get a view of the country to find a suitable site for their capital city. When they looked into Madolenihmw Bay, they saw the ancient city of the gods, Kahnihmweiso. Here was an important sign to the two brothers.” The brothers then decided to build the city nearest to the one below the harbor in order to be nearer to the gods. Ancient Pohnpeian legend says the builders of Nan Madol selected the site because they saw the submerged ruins of Kahnihmweiso from a high cliff above Madolenihmw Bay, which is between Temwen Island and Nakapw Island. To the east of Nahkapw Island, in about 60m of water, are the ruins of the castle of KahnihmwNankhet, well known to the natives of Pohnpei, but none of the submerged ruins are talked about for fear of spirits who would punish them. For decades divers have reported submerged megalithic ruins of the legendary cities Kahnihmweiso and KahnihmwNankhet, such as some of the megalithic columns and pillars which still stand erect, rising up to 9 m above the sloping sea floor. The possibility of underwater construction at Nahkapw Harbor was first explored by the team of Dr. Arthur Saxe in 1978 (Saxe et al., 1980). Conducting a series of diving surveys, they reported that there were a number of tall stone pillars covered in coral growth which stand some 6 m tall, 0.9-1.2 m wide, at depths of over 25 m and one that even supposedly stood on a "pedestal." The presence of stone pillars is a style of construction which only appears below water surrounding the city in the harbor, and not within any part of the city above. Saxe also wrote about the many legends on the island of two sacred underwater cities believed to exist in the harbor, one called Kahnihmweiso, and the other KahnihmwNamkhet which exists somewhere further east of the reef (Saxe et al., 1980: 47-55). In this report Saxe also explained the mechanism why the city of Kahnihmweiso had been sunken in the sea, referring to the “Blue Hole” hypothesis (Saxe et al., 1980: 126-129). A “Blue Hole” is basically a limestone cavern whose roof has fallen in. The name comes from the fact that deep tropical waters 6 �appear as a darker blue than the shallower waters. In the Atlantic, where they have been studied, such as in the coral reef off Belize, the processes which result in their formation are as follows: A coral reef forms along a shore. During a glacial advance the sea levels drop due to the great amount of fresh water locked up in glaciers. The coral reef, now above sea level, becomes subject to the same processes of erosion and redeposition by fresh water that any land deposit of calcium carbonate is subject to. Rain, falling on the surface, runs underground and gradually dissolves away pockets of calcium carbonate, which is soluble in water. If this goes on long enough, huge limestone caverns can be formed. Water dripping from the roof of the cavern, containing the lime in solution, evaporates forming stalactites. The same water falling to the floor of the cavern evaporates forming stalagmites. Sometimes these meet forming continuous columns from floor to roof, sometimes not. If the process continues long enough, the roof of the cavern may collapse because of inadequate support or the deposition of added weight above the roof of the cavern. This collapse may occur before or after the sea levels rise at the end of the glacial maximum. In any case, once the sea levels are once more above the level of the coral reef, the collapsed limestone cavern appears as a “Blue Hole” from the surface. Blue holes are also characterized by numerous passages or tunnels which tended to link the various “rooms” of the cave when it was a cave. These, when re-submerged, can be subjected to strong current flows when tides are going in or out. Saxe (1980) pointed out the possibility that an earlier Nan Madol Central was built on the reef on what is now Nahkapw Harbor and that its weight caused the cavern roof to collapse. This explanation allows for both a blue hole and underwater columns. It suggests the “first city” as perhaps being Kahnihmweiso. In 1988 and 1989, the team of the University of Oregon conducted underwater investigations around Nan Madol (Ayres, 1993). They carried out an underwater survey at the location in front of Nan Mwoluhsei, a massive wall approximately 275 m long, 8 m wide and 4 to 6 m high that forms an L-shaped configuration south and east of Nan Douwas tomb. They observed that a number of basalt columns were located seaward of the standing portion of the wall. It is likely that these are lost, discarded or fallen building materials, now underwater, of the artificial islets. They also examined underwater pillars reported by Saxe. While no complex features were discovered during this survey, two 7 �clusters of columns were located. They reported that directly east of Nan Mwoluhsei the reef drops off twice, the first at approximately 2 m below the surface and the second at 7 to 10 m below the surface. After the second shelf the bottom falls away rapidly to the depths of Nahkapw Harbor which reach as much as 50 m. The first level of the reef is generally covered with columnar basalt and coral; however, this is replaced on the deeper shelf by a sandier bottom with a much sparser growth of coral. It is on this second shelf that the first of the upright columnar objects was encountered, at approximately 19 m from the north side of Nan Mwoluhsei. This object is roughly rectangular, stands 2.2 m high, and its sides 1.5 m by 0.8 m. Two other columns were located nearby. These appear to be solid coral and lie between six and nine meters below the surface. The second column, 0.9 m high with sides 0.2 m by 0.75 m, was 3.7 m from the first. The third column, 2.3 m high with sides 1 m by 1 m, was 20.3 m from the first. None of the objects had any obvious prismatic shape as would be expected from the basalt building materials of Nan Madol; however, it was possible that this feature was hidden by extensive coral growth. They used a steel bar to drill into the first and second columns in hopes of going through any coral encrustation covering stone. A penetration, approximately 20 cm deep, was made in both without striking stone. Finally, it was decided to raise the small column to the surface for detail inspection. The object was entirely of coral and therefore was not a purposefully positioned stone column. They implied that coral growth and submerged columnar basalt building material may have been interpreted and incorporated into Pohnpeian mythology, and these may have been perceived by the Pohnpeians as evidence for the presence of underwater structures inhabited by spirits. However, the surveyed areas by the team of University of Oregon were limited and their results have not fully refuted the hypothesis of “Blue Hole” proposed by Saxe. Since the legendary underwater city of Kahnihmweiso is believed to be located in the center of Nahkapw Harbor, a detail underwater topography map covering entire part of the harbor must be needed to evaluate the existence of potential underwater cultural heritage, as recommended in the 2012 technical consultation workshop. Following the recommendation, in cooperation with the Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government, we at JCIC-Heritage experts’ team conducted an underwater survey at 8 �Nahkapw Harbor for reconnaissance of potential underwater cultural heritage in February 2013. Research Objective The main objective of our research is to produce the entire map of underwater topography in Nahkapw Harbor, in order to assess the possibility of existence of underwater cultural heritage in this location. In addition, to examine the possible anthropogenic underwater features is also an important task. Research Method First, we used multi-beam sonar (Sonic 2024) to produce an underwater topography map. The multi-beam sonar was equipped to a 25’ boat (Fig. 3). Second, we used a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) (Mini ROV LBV300-5) to investigate underwater features and to carry out video recording. The ROV was controlled and monitored by another 23’ boat (Fig. 4). Third, we conducted a scuba diving survey to examine underwater features by eye observation. Fig. 3 (left) Multibeam sonar (SeaBat 8125) equipped with boat. (Y. Matsumoto) Fig. 4 (right) ROV (Mini ROV LBV300-5) in the sea. (Y. Matsumoto) Research Team Field survey was conducted by Tomo Ishimura (Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties), Tamaki Ura (University of Tokyo, at the time of field survey), Fumitaka Maeda (University of Tokyo, at the time of field survey), Ken’ichi Sugimoto, Toshihiro Ogawa, Akio Hikoyama, Yoshinori Matsumoto, Yusuke Sugimoto (Windy Network), Charles Brennan (R2 SONIC) and Tomomi Haramoto (National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo). Akira Asada (University of Tokyo) and 9 �Augustine Kohler (Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government) contributed to the arrangement and logistics for the survey. The data obtained was processed in a laboratory by Ura, Asada, Maeda, and the team of Windy Network. The multibeam sonar was provided by Brennan and the ROV was provided by the team of Windy Network. The boats, their operators and the scuba diving gear was arranged by the Village Hotel. Period of Research The field research was carried out in the period from 12th to 16th February, 2013. Results By using the multi-beam sonar, we produced an underwater topography map in the entire part of Nahkapw Harbor, except just in front of the Nan Mwoluhsei, the massive wall and entrance to the inside of the Nan Madol complex, due to strong winds and waves. The map indicates that the bottom of the harbor is flat in a depth of approximately 40 to 50 m, and there is no noteworthy complex topography such as stalagmites, passages or tunnels, as the “Blue Hole” hypothesis had expected. In the meanwhile, occasional distributions of block-shaped features are observed along the drop-off between the reef flat and the bottom, in the depth of 20 to 30 m (Fig. 5). Afterward we used the ROV to examine the features of the block-shaped features. Monitoring by the video camera equipped with the ROV, it was clarified that most of these objects are columnar in shape, a couple of meters high with sides of approximately 1m, covered by coral encrustation. By the observation using the ROV, it was not clear whether these columns were coral or basalt, and whether anthropogenic or natural. Then we selected some locations of the clusters of the columnar objects, and carried out scuba diving survey to examine them in detail by eye observation (Fig. 6). We observed that the columnar objects were fully covered by coral encrustation and no exposed surface of basalt was noted. In this survey, no evidence of anthropogenic pillar made by basalt column was obtained. It seems that these objects are equal to the counterparts investigated by the team of the University of Oregon (Ayres, 1993). 10 �Fig. 5 (left) A part of the underwater topography map in Nahkapw Harbor, showing some clusters of features along the drop-off. (University of Tokyo and Windy Network) Fig. 6 (right) An erect, columnar object at a depth of approximately 30m. (T. Ogawa) Conclusion The results of our research do not support the “Blue Hole” hypothesis proposed by Saxe, so it is not probable that the “first city” was built on the former cavern in Nahkapw Harbor and which then sunk in the sea due to the collapse of the cavern roof by its weight. Neither does our research provide any evidence that the underwater columns are man-made structures. However, the results of our research do not necessarily deny the possibility of the existence of the legendary sunken city. The people of Pohnpei may have seen the bizarre feature under the sea and interpreted it as remains of a sunken city, and created a legend of the “City of Gods” inhabited by spirits. As a cultural heritage, the value of Nan Madol is not only limited to its tangible aspects such as architecture and archaeological remains but also in its intangible aspects such as legends and oral traditions associated with it (Hadley, 1987). The legend of Kahnihmweiso, including the story of the establishment of Nan Madol, is also an important component of the cultural heritage of Nan Madol, and the site of Nahkapw Harbor is closely associated with the legend. Therefore, the legendary site of Kahnihmweiso must also be protected as a component of intangible heritage of Nan Madol. We recommend that the sea area of Nahkapw Harbor should be included in the 11 �zoning (core/buffer zones) plans for protection and management of the ruins of Nan Madol. Acknowledgements The field research was funded by the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage. Ken’ichi Sugimoto, the president of Windy Network and his team, and Charles Brennan from R2 SONIC, voluntarily participated the research and kindly provided their equipment. The Embassy of Japan in FSM, JICA Micronesia Office, H.E. Dr. Rufino Mauricio (Secretary, Ministry of Education, FSM National Government), and His Majesty WasalapalapaIsipahuKerpetHebel (NahnmwarkiMadolenihmw) kindly understood and supported our research. References Ayres, W. S., 1993. Nan Madol Archaeological Fieldwork. Final Report. A Research and Historic Preservation Project 1987-1990: 1-108. Mckinnon, J., 2010. Federated States of Micronesia. In U. Guérin, B. Egger and V. Penalva (Eds.), Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania, UNESCO, Paris: 37-42. Hadley, M., 1987. Nan Madol: Spaces on the Reef of Heaven. (Ed. & Tr.), Paul M. Ehrich.Nan Madol Foundation, Pohnpei: 1-126. Ishimura, T., 2013. Report of the Technical Consultation Workshop for Capacity Building on Site Documentation of Nan Madol (in Japanese). Unpublished Report, The Japan Foundation: Tokyo. 1-12. Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012. Survey Report on the Present State of Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. 2010 Survey for International Cooperation Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, Tokyo: 1-50. Rainbird, P., 2004. The Archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1-314. Saxe, A. A., Allenson, R. A., and Loughridge, S. R., 1980. The Nan Madol Area of Ponape: Researches into Bounding and Stabilizing an Ancient Administrative Center. The Trust Territory Historic Preservation Office, Saipan: 1-145. Tomo Ishimura, the first author, is a Researcher at the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Japan. His specialty is archaeology in Oceania. He graduated from the Department of Archaeology, the Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto 12 �University in 2004. He completed Ph.D. degree in 2009. He has been in his present position since 2006 and is engaged in international cooperation projects for cultural properties in several countries including Afghanistan, Cambodia, Federated States of Micronesia, Myanmar, and Viet Nam. Tamaki Ura is a Professor of Kyushu Institute for Technology and an Emeritus Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering, especially remotely operated vehicle (ROV). He graduated from the Graduate School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo and completed doctoral degree in 1977. He held a position in the University of Tokyo from 1977 to 2013, and was a former Director of Underwater Technology Research Centre, the University of Tokyo. He moved toKyushu Institute for Technology in 2013. Akira Asada is a Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering and marine acoustics. He graduated from the Faculty of Engineering, Waseda University in 1977 and had worked for Japan Coast Guard as an Investigator from 1979 to 2000. He completed doctoral degree in the University of Tokyo in 1995. He has been in his present position in the University of Tokyo since 2000. Fumitaka Maeda is a Sales Engineer of Marine and Ocean Measurement Department, Toyo Corporation, and former Assistant Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering and marine acoustics. He completed MA degree in the Graduate School of Science, Osaka University in 2004, and completed doctoral degree in the University of Tokyo in 2010. He was in a position of the University of Tokyo from 2006 to 2014, then moved to present position in 2014. Ken’ichi Sugimoto is the President of Windy Network; a private company specialized in surveying, 3D scanning and underwater topography. He graduated from the Faculty of Law, Aoyama Gakuin University in 1971. His company has been engaged in a variety of UCH research, including surveys on a sunken transport craft of stones for the Edo citadel in the 17th century in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan, and on underwater aircraft in WW2 at the Towada Lake in Akita Prefecture, Japan. Toshihiro Ogawa is a Senior Managing Director and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from Hamamatsu Technical Institute for Civil Engineering in 1974. His specialty is marine engineering, especially hydrography, underwater photography and ultrasonic wave analysis. Akio Hikoyama is an Executive Director and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from Shimoda-Kita High School in 1982. His specialty is information and communication technology. Yoshinori Matsumoto is a Manager and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Chuo Kogakko Institute in 1994. His specialty is marine engineering, hydrography and technical diving. 13 �Yusuke Sugimoto is a Manager and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from the Faculty of International Information, Shizuoka University in 2002. His specialty is marine engineering and hydrography. Charles Brennan is a Chief Hydrographic Engineer of R2 SONIC, a production company of equipment for marine engineering. His specialty is hydrography, especially a creation and development of hydrographic equipment such as multi-beam sonar. He graduated from the Department of Geology, the University of South Florida, and has worked for several companies as a surveyor and hydrographic engineer since 1972. Tomomi Haramoto is a Research Fellow, Center for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, Tokyo National Research Institute for Cultural Properties. Her specialty is international relations and safeguarding cultural heritage. She completed MA degree of the Graduated School of International Public Policy, Osaka University in 2004. She has been in her present position since 2009. Augustine Kohler is a National FSM Historic Preservation Officer at the Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, National Government of the Federated States of Micronesia. His specialty is archaeology. He completed BA of Anthropology and Pacific Studies, the University of Auckland in 2005. He formerly worked for the Pohnpei State Historic Preservation Office, then shifted to the present position in 2011. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Survey at the Ruins of Nan Madol, Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource In this paper we demonstrate the results of underwater survey at Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol are the ruins of a megalithic civilization composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made mostly of basalt, situated on a shallow water of Pohnpei Island. The site is now on the Tentative List of the UNESCO World Heritage Site submitted by Federated States of Micronesia. Protection of the site is comprised of both these basaltic islets and the water surrounding them. In addition, there is an oral tradition that a sunken city named Kahnihmweiso is located underwater near the site. The goal of our investigation is to make a map of underwater topography that is expected to be utilized for the site documentation and the setting of core and buffer zones. The investigation was carried out by using multi-beam sonar and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), as well as manual survey by scuba diving gears. Research has revealed that there is no clear evidence of artificial constructions under the water; however, a detailed map of underwater topography around the site was obtained. Our research also stresses the significance of the sea area as a resource of legends and a component of the intangible cultural heritage of Nan Madol. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tomo Ishimura Akira Asada Fumitaka Maeda Ken’ichi Sugimoto Toshihiro Ogawa Akio Hikoyama Yoshinori Matsumoto Yusuke Sugimoto Charles Brennan Tomomi Haramoto Augustine Kohler, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5d54c49c94b4eaf859c5d005ee1b042a.pdf f197e10839385a7748049588499783ca PDF Text Text The underwater cultural heritage of the Federated States of Micronesia Bill Jeffery Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, South Australia Email: billfjeffery@gmail.com Abstract Of all the United Nation member states, the Federated States of Micronesia’s (FSM) total land area is one of the smallest (191st out of 193 UN member states), yet the length of its coastline connecting its 607 islands ranks 21st in the world - after India and Chile. The people from the FSMare world-renown navigators and boat builders and they have developed and maintain many cultural practices, customs and legends associated with the sea. The FSM contains a variety of tangible heritage related to their traditional use of the sea and coast, material remains of foreign traders, pirates, colonial powers, and from World War II. This presentation will provide details about this significant heritage related to the sea and the FSM’s recording and training programs, in context with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001, and the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003. Key words: Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei State, Underwater cultural heritage, UNESCO Background The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a recently formed nation - formally recognized by the United Nations in 1990 - comprising the island states of Yap (9º30’N; 138ºE) in the west, Chuuk (formerly Truk), Pohnpei (comprising the FSM capital, Palikir), and Kosrae (5º20’N; 163ºE) in the east. It covers an area in the Western Pacific of over three million sq km, of which only 702 sq km is land and is home to about 110,000 people (Fig. 1). ‘Micronesia’ is a recent (c.200 years old) European term given to some of the many tiny islands in the western Pacific Ocean to differentiate them from Melanesia and Polynesia (Meller, 1998: 1). The Micronesian region includes the group of islands known as the Caroline Islands (the FSM and the Republic of Palau), the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Republic of Nauru and the Republic of Kiribati. These islands have been occupied at various times dating back to about 3,500 years ago (Dixon et al., 2013: 351). Starting with the Spanish, Micronesia has had a succession of colonial rulers 1 �Fig. 1 Location of the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae. (Magellan arrived in Guam in 1521). From 1919, Micronesia was formally recognized as a mandated territory of Japan by the League of Nations. Following World War II, the US was granted a strategic trusteeship of the region by the United Nations (UN), and the region became known as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI). Over the next 40 years, the Marshalls, Palau and the North Mariana Islands left the federation, leaving Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae to form the FSM, accepting a Constitution in 1979 and entering into a Compact of Free Association with the US in 1986. Tangible and Intangible Underwater Cultural Heritage Many of the initial inhabitants of the FSM were coastal dwellers living in stilt houses (Rainbird, 1993). They have been building and using canoes for short and long distance voyaging for a long time, providing Micronesians with a ‘certain cohesiveness’ (Kiste, 1999: 434). The FSM coral atoll dwellers are some of the most renowned Pacific Island navigators and many cultural practices, customs and legends are associated with building and sailing canoes. They include the early settling of places such as Chuuk, which is reputed to have been settled from either Pohnpei or Kosrae, ‘from whence the 2 �first woman arrived pregnant, sailing on a coconut frond’ (Gladwin, 1970: 4). Dances, chants and storyboards convey information of these many Micronesian legends and customs (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Dancing is carried out in all the FSM states - this one is of Yapese dancing and chanting near a (Faluw) men’s meeting house/stone money bank. (Bill Jeffery, 2009) Tangible UCH in the FSM range from c. 2,000 year old indigenous habitation sites; sacred, cultural sites; fish weirs; seventeenth century Spanish ships; 19th century trading and whaling vessels; and Japanese and American World War II remains (aircraft, naval and merchant ships) (Bailey, 2000; Carrell, 1991; Hezel and Graham, 1997; Jeffery, 2012a) (Fig. 3). Some of the oldest underwater cultural heritage sites (stone tools) have been found off Fefan (an island in Chuuk Lagoon, which Rainbird (2004: 89) dated between 2350 and 1650 years ago, and Craib (1997: 13) argues that they are the oldest pottery-bearing sites in central and eastern Micronesia. Pacific Island countries have pointed out that their UCH is extensive and argued for international recognition and protection of this wide remit of UCH at a UNESCO Meeting in Vanuatu in 1999: "Protection of Underwater Heritage", within the Pacific, at the moment seems to refer more often to underwater wrecks from World War II, despite the existence of other underwater sites such as sacred cultural sites existing in many areas of the 3 �Pacific. The meeting urged the protection of these sites as well as those on land that may be protected by the World Heritage Convention (UNESCO 1999) (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 World War II Japanese aircraft in the hold of the Fujikawa Maru. (Bill Jeffery, 2004) FSM Underwater Cultural Heritage programs and legislation The FSM states are committed to maintaining their traditions and customs, in addition to using them to preserve terrestrial and underwater cultural heritage sites and they have enshrined relevant provisions in their Constitutions and state codes. Some examples of these aspects can be found in Pohnpei State where the Government of Pohnpei respects and protects the customs and traditions of Pohnpei1. In Yap, two councils made up of traditional chiefs, the Council of Pilung and Council of Tamol, have been established to advise the governor and legislature, and to promote and preserve the traditions and customs of the people of the state in a manner consistent with the Constitution of the FSM and the Constitution of the State of Yap2. The Kosrae State Code 1997 (Title 11: Land and Environment, Chapter 14: Antiquities) provides for impact assessments on ‘antiquities and traditional culture’ located on land and in state waters to be reported to the governor3. In Chuuk, in addition to the protection of local customs and traditions and the roles of traditional leaders,’ the Chuuk 4 �State Constitution recognizes all traditional rights and ownership over all reefs, tidelands, and other submerged lands subject to legislative regulation of their reasonable use4’. The only specific UCH law in the FSM is found in Chuuk. It forms part of the Chuuk State Code and is known as Title 25: Maritime and Marine Resources, Chapter 8: Chuuk Lagoon Monument5. This law applies only to Japanese World War II sites located underwater, whereas the other FSM state laws are generic ones that cover the identification, protection and preservation of indigenous and non-indigenous sites and traditions on land and underwater. To assist the FSM in implementing UCH activities, the US Submerged Resources Unit spent some time in Micronesia and the FSM during the 1980s and early 1990s primarily conducting site surveys and developing a catalogue of sites and strategic plans for site management in association with the National and State Historic Preservation Offices (HPO) (Carrell, 1991). More recent UCH programs including capacity building programs have been carried out by the authorin Guam from 2006 to 2012 (Jeffery 2012b). Additional UCH surveys have been implemented (see Applegate-Palmer this volume), by the author (Jeffery and Drew, 2007; Jeffery and Moran, 2007) and a number of other types of UCH surveys and research have been implemented such as that on fishing and the associated intangible and tangible heritage (Dixon et al., 2013; Jennison-Nolan, 1979). Building and using traditional Guamanian and Micronesian boats is being maintained by a Traditional Seafaring Society in Guam (Cunningham et al., 2006). In Chuuk, through the FSM National Historic Preservation Office a program of documenting Chuuk’s UCH has been implemented by Jeffery (2006, 2007). This has included the development of tourism/community awareness raising through production of signs and a booklet, as well as building the capacity of staff at the Chuuk HPO although the office has now been closed (Jeffery, 2003, 2004b). Staff from Pohnpei, Kosrae and Yap HPO also participated in this training which included development of a document in recording and monitoring the natural and cultural heritage values of UCH sites as well as the corrosion/conservation aspects, and all four offices gained equipment to assist in implementing these activities (Jeffery et al., 2007). From 20062008, an Earthwatch Institute funded project was implemented in Chuuk to assess the values and health of the submerged World War II sites and to assist the Chuuk 5 �government in their management (Emslie et al., 2007; Jeffery, 2012a: 25-28). This included discovery of oil leaking from one of the shipwrecks, an issue the President of the Federated States of Micronesia, H.E. Emanuel Mori raised at the 66th United Nations General Assembly in New York on 23 September 201 (Jeffery, 2012a: 27-28). As a result of this work in Chuuk, three television documentaries have been produced and shown world-wide about the values and issues associated with the World War II sites (Prospero’s ‘Shipwreck Detectives’; the French television series ‘Thalassa’ and the Australian Broadcasting Commission’s series ‘Foreign Correspondent’). In recent times, canoes built in the traditional manner, and a traditional canoe house have been built in Chuuk (pers. comm., Meter, T., 2011). In Pohnpei, reconnaissance surveys have been carried out on some its fish weirs and the remains of whaling activities (Jeffery, 2013), and extensive research and surveys have been implemented at Nan Madol. Covering an area of about 100 ha, located in the inter-tidal area on the eastern coast of Pohnpei, the complex of 90+ enclosures (islets) built of massive column-shaped basalt rocks, is considered to be an important political, residential and ritual center that dates back about 1,000 years BP (Ayers, 1983) (Fig. 4). The site is being documented for World Heritage listing together with the Lelu ruins on Kosrae. Traditional canoe building is also being revived in Pohnpei. In Yap, in association with the HPO, a comprehensive survey has been implemented on its extensive fish weirs (aech), a program that was directed by HPO and aimed at reviving their construction, use, maintenance and associated cultural practices (Jeffery and Pitmag, 2010; Jeffery, 2013) (Fig. 5). Maintaining Yap’s traditional boatbuilding, navigation and sailing heritage is being supported by groups and are a feature of annual event ‘Yap Day’, and the Yap Traditional Navigation Society hold an annual two-day celebration of building and sailing traditional canoes (Fig. 6). Yap and Palau HPO are working together on a World Heritage nomination of the Yapese stone money quarries (in Palau), and banks (on Yap, and underwater between the two islands which are still greatly valued by people in Yap). In Kosrae, where 19th century whaling and trading era shipwrecks form the majority of the shipwrecks, the SRU implemented a survey of ‘pirate’ Bully Hayes’s vessel Leonora to confirm its identity and recommend a management strategy. Kosrae also contains Lelu, a basalt built rock settlement similar 6 �to Nan Madol located in the inter-tidal area and consisting of about 100 enclosures (islets) that were used by the chiefs, as mortuary compounds, and for commoners from about 800 BP. There are still strong known oral history connections with this site, although as with Nan Madol, the construction techniques used are not known. Fig. 4 One of the dominant enclosures at Nan Madol. (Bill Jeffery, 2004) Fig. 5 Fish Weir (Aech) Daqoloch in Gagil, Yap. (Bill Jeffery, 2008) Issues arising from FSM programs in context with UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 The FSM’s Historic Preservation Offices, supported by the US National Park Service’s Micronesia and American Samoa Historic Preservation Program implement a range of historic preservation activities, including UCH, archaeological and anthropological research and surveys, which have been published with the assistance of a Micronesian NGO6. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 (2001 UCH Convention) at March 2014 has been ratified by 46 countries and is aimed at preserving ‘”Underwater cultural heritage” [being] all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years…’ Some of the main aims of the UNESCO Convention 2001 are to preserve sites in situ, as a first option; to stop commercial exploitation of sites and artifacts; facilitate international collaboration; encourage public access; maintain sovereign rights; and to ensure that - where excavation is permitted - it is carried out in accordance with international best practice, i.e. the Rules contained in the Convention’s Annex. These 7 �aims are consistent with how sites in the FSM and particularly the World War II sites in Chuuk should be managed given dive tourism is an important industry in the economy of the region. In fact, it could interpreted that the management of shipwrecks is the overriding aim of the 2001 UCH Convention, even though the term ‘shipwrecks’ is not used in it. ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage’ is used in an attempt to have the 2001 UCH Convention cover all types of UCH although many of its aims do not seem appropriate to non-shipwreck sites. There are a number of other issues in how potentially inappropriate the 2001 UCH Convention is to the FSM, greater Micronesia, in fact many other countries that value traditional sites over colonial shipwrecks (see Jeffery 2004a, 2006, 2011), although this needs to be considered on a case by case or country by country basis. For example in Chuuk the Japanese World War II shipwrecks are not valued historically by local residents - there is no sense of place or belonging to these sites. They are valued economically through dive tourism, souveniring, and through the fish that can be caught using dynamite - causing considerable damage to the shipwrecks and the environment. Souveniring has contributed to many artifacts being removed from Fig. 6 Drawing of Yapese transporting stone money from Palau to Yap using a traditional canoe. (Unknown Yapese artist) the shipwrecks and the Chuuk government, even with their legislation, seem powerless to control it. In Palau, souveniring of the Japanese World War II shipwrecks has brought swift legal action and two individuals were fined and imprisoned for this activity in 20067. The government of Palau regards these sites as an important part of their history and heritage and warrant protection. Neither the FSM nor any other Pacific Island nation has ratified the 2001 UCH Convention. The FSM ratified the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003 ICH Convention) on the 13 February 2013, and the Republic of Palau, ratified it on 2 November 20118. In the 2003 ICH Convention, the definition of intangible cultural heritage is seen as ‘the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, 8 �skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage’ (emphasis by the author)9. Some of the main aims of the 2003 ICH Convention are to: safeguard the intangible cultural heritage through ‘the identification, documentation, research, preservation, protection, promotion. This heritage is ‘constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity’ (emphasis by the author). On its own, the 2001 UCH Convention would not appear to be an answer in terms of managing FSM’s diverse UCH given much of what FSM and other Pacific Islanders value is intangible heritage associated with the sea and UCH. Even some tangible sites which have strong intangible aspects, such as fish weirs, if they are in use, may not be ‘protected’ under the 2001 UCH Convention (pers. comm. Azner-Gómez, M.J., 2013). Western constructs of heritage and the separation of intangible and tangible heritage in research and management, much like the separation of natural and cultural heritage is not appropriate with Pacific Island nations. A way forward for UCH management in FSM Effective management of UCH in the FSM should be implemented in context with the broad tangible and intangible heritage of FSM. This would give relevance to all the different types of UCH and assist in their management. Development of a strategic management plan outlining how this could all come together and be implemented would be a good first step. Given the doubts about intangible cultural heritage and the associated objects of UCH being covered under the 2001 UCH Convention (such as fish weirs), but their appropriateness under the 2003 ICH Convention, the strategic management plan should outline the most pragmatic approach to managing UCH incorporating the most appropriate laws and agreements. The World War II shipwrecks and aircraft located throughout the FSM, particularly in Chuuk Lagoon, should be promoted and managed in context with the broad history of the region, in addition to their management as dive tourism sites, something which is catered for in the 2001 UCH Convention. This could mean the FSM developing agreements with Japan and the 9 �US about the best way to manage the sites, which should mean gaining a better understanding of all the different values from the three stakeholder perspectives. In 1989, the US National Park Service implemented the Truk (Chuuk) Lagoon Historical Park Study and made a number of recommendations about the future management of the shipwrecks (USNPS, 1989) which I believe are still relevant today. This report appears to be the first document which discusses any social values of the submerged World War II sites and the war in general from a Chuukese perspective. It concluded that Chuukese had been overlooked in commemorating their losses from the war: ‘unfortunately nothing tangible remains of this aspect [how the war affected Micronesians] of World War II except the graves of the Nauruans on Tol. The establishment of an historical park provides a means to preserve these intangibles and, through interpretation, pass them on to others’ (USNPS, 1989: 64). An aim of the study was to consider if the Chuuk Lagoon sites would meet the criteria for designation as a Historical Park within the USNPS system, and it found a number of management issues that needed to be addressed. It was concluded that the submerged WWII sites ‘are utterly unique’ and ‘for the sunken wrecks, the establishment of a historical park or reserve seems to be particularly appropriate in light of the long-standing concerns over looting and vandalism’ (USNPS, 1989: 61). The report recommended that a national park management agency and approach at a FSM national level be adopted given the significance of the submerged WWII sites. This could mean establishing a group of FSM employees to manage the park in the same manner as the Conservation Rangers of the Palau Rock Islands Southern Lagoon World Heritage area, a system that appears to be working very well. The idea of World Heritage listing of the Chuuk Lagoon World War II shipwrecks is an issue that the author and the Chuuk government have considered (Jeffery, 2004a, 2012: 28).Combining aspects of the 2003 ICH Convention that is community focused, takes a holistic perspective (natural and cultural heritage), and assists in providing a sense of identity, with aspects of the 2001 UCH Convention, would help to develop a relevant and beneficial underwater cultural heritage program for the FSM. 10 �Acknowledgement I would like to thank the people of Chuuk, Yap and Pohnpei for their assistance in this study and the staff of the Historic Preservation Offices in Chuuk, Yap, Pohnpei and Palikir. Endnote 1 Constitution, Article 5, Section 2: see http://www.fsmlaw.org/pohnpei/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 2 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/yap/code/index.htm Chapter 4 of Title 5 of the Yap State Code, known as "State Historic Preservation Act of 1989" (accessed 12 January 2014). 3 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/kosrae/code/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 4 Nimeisa v. Department of Public Works, 6 FSM Intrm. 205, 209 (Chk. S. Ct. Tr. 1993) (accessed 12 January 2014). 5 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/chuuk/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 6 See http://www.mehp.org/(accessed 12 January 2014). 7 See http://pidp.org/archive/2006/May/05-24-12.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 8 No other northern Pacific Island country has ratified the 2003 ICH Convention, although the Philippines, Indonesia, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, Vanuatu, and Papua New Guinea have ratified it. 9 See http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00006 (accessed 7 January 2014). References Ayers, W., 1983. Archaeology at Nan Madol, Ponape. Bulletin of Indo- Pacific Prehistory Association, Vol. 4:135-142. Bailey, D.E., 2000. World War II Wrecks of the Truk Lagoon. North Valley Diver Publications, Redding. Craib, J. L., 1997. Truk Archaeology: An Intensive Archeological Survey of Pwené Village, Dublon, Truk State, Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesian Resources Study, United States National Park Service, San Francisco. Carrell, T., 1991. Micronesia: Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment. Submerged Cultural Resource Unit, National Park Service. Santa Fe. Cunningham, L., Kranz, W., and Sikau, M., 2006. Restoring Traditional Seafaring and Navigation in Guam. Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 5(1-2): 314-319, accessed at http://marshall.csu.edu.au/MJHSS/Issue2006/MJHSS2006_119.pdf on 7 January 2014. 11 �Dixon, B., Gilda, L., and Mangieri, T., 2013. Archaeological Identification of Stone Fishweirs mentioned to Freycinet in 1819 on the island of Guam. Journal of Pacific History, Vol.48 (4): 349-368. Emslie, M., Jeffery, B., MacLeod, I., and Maynard, J., 2007.Chuuk Lagoon World War II submerged sites: Earthwatch project report, July 30 to August 11 2007. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Gladwin, T., 1970. East Is a Big Bird: Navigation and Logic on Puluwat Atoll. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Hezel, F., and Graham, C., 1997.Truk Underwater Archaeology. Micronesia Resources Study. United States National Park Service, San Francisco Jeffery, B., 2003. War in Paradise: World War II sites in Truk Lagoon. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Jeffery, B., 2004a. World War II underwater cultural heritage sites in Truk Lagoon: Considering a case for World Heritage Listing. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 33 (1): 106-121. Jeffery, B., 2004b. World War II sites in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia: A survey of underwater and terrestrial sites. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Jeffery, B., 2006. Federated States of Micronesia. In S. Dromgoole (Ed.), The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: National Perspectives in light of the UNESCO Convention 2001, MartinusNijh off Publishers, Leiden: 145-159. Jeffery, W.F., 2007. War graves, munition dumps and pleasure grounds: A post-colonial perspective of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II sites. Doctoral dissertation, James Cook University, Townsville, http://eprints.jcu.edu.au/2068/ Jeffery, B., 2011. Rocks wrecks and relevance: values and benefits in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. In M. Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings of the inaugural Asia-Pacific regional conference on underwater cultural heritage, Asian Academy for Heritage Management, Manila: 527-539. Jeffery, B., 2012a. The future of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II sites. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 36: 15-30. Jeffery, B., 2012b. Report on Guam’s Maritime Archaeology Field Schools, 2009-2012. Guam Preservation Trust, Guam. 12 �Jeffery, B., 2013. Reviving community spirits: furthering the Sustainable, Historical and Economic role of fish weirs and traps. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 8 (1): 2957. Jeffery, B., Beger, M., MacLeod, I., Richards, V., Hengeveld, M., and Carpenter, J., 2007.Guidelines in recording and monitoring the natural and cultural attributes of submerged historic sites in the Federated States of Micronesia. National Historic Preservation Office, Pohnpei. Jeffery, B., and Drew, T., 2007.Report on Surveys of Submerged and Maritime Archaeology Sites in Guam. Report for Guam Historic Preservation Office, Agana. Jeffery, B., and Moran, V., 2007.Report on the development of Guam’s Submerged and Maritime Archaeology sites databases. Guam Historic Preservation Office. Agana. Jeffery, B., and Pitmag, W., 2010.The aech of Yap: A survey of sites and their histories. Yap State Historic Preservation Office. Yap, Federated States of Micronesia. Jennison-Nolan, J., 1979. Land and lagoon use in prewar Guam: Agat, Piti and Asan. MARC Working Paper No. 15. Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam. Kiste, R.C., 1999. A Half Century in Retrospect. In R. C. Kiste, and Mac Marshall (Eds.), American Anthropology in Micronesia. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: 433-467. Meller, N., 1998.‘The Congress of Micronesia’ in D. Hanlon Remaking Micronesia. University of Hawaii Press. Rainbird, P., 1993. Report on the Cultural Resource Management in the Coastal Area of Chuuk Lagoon. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Rainbird, P., 2004. The Archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. UNESCO, 1999.Second World Heritage Global Strategy for the Pacific Islands Region, Port Vila, Vanuatu (24 to 27 August 1999). United States National Park Service (USNPS), 1989. Truk Lagoon Historical Park Study. Draft Report for Federated States of Micronesia, State of Truk. Photocopy from Micronesian Seminar, Pohnpei. 13 �Biography Bill Jeffery has been working as a maritime archaeologist for over 30 years. Bill formulated and coordinated a maritime heritage program for a state government agency, Heritage South Australia from 1981-2001. He went onto working with the Federated States of Micronesia National Historic Preservation Office and completing a PhD in maritime archaeology at James Cook University. He is a consulting maritime archaeologist to ERM Hong Kong, the CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities and the Hong Kong Maritime Museum and has implemented various types of archaeological and heritage management programs in Australia, the Pacific Islands, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and various countries in Africa. He has conducted maritime archaeology field schools with the Flinders University, University of Guam and James Cook University in addition to teaching Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training programs in nine different countries. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The underwater cultural heritage of the Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource Of all the United Nation member states, the Federated States of Micronesia’s (FSM) total land area is one of the smallest (191st out of 193 UN member states), yet the length of its coastline connecting its 607 islands ranks 21st in the world - after India and Chile. The people from the FSMare world-renown navigators and boat builders and they have developed and maintain many cultural practices, customs and legends associated with the sea. The FSM contains a variety of tangible heritage related to their traditional use of the sea and coast, material remains of foreign traders, pirates, colonial powers, and from World War II. This presentation will provide details about this significant heritage related to the sea and the FSM’s recording and training programs, in context with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001, and the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014