7 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/66dc0b30bc7eb962eff33cd521888c91.pdf 5af68724b3ceb7c3955a9bcb0b60f6d6 PDF Text Text Underwater Archaeology in India: Initiatives of Archaeological Survey of India Aprajita Sharma (Assistant Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India) ABSTRACT India is surrounded by a vast coastline and encircled by a terrific riverine system. Due to this travellers and merchants easily managed to reach India through sea and riverine connections along with the land routes. The trade aspect enhanced other integral aspects like cultural interactions and economic exchanges which is why India is known to all other countries since antiquity. Archaeologically, a wide range of studies have been carried-out in India, however, the underwater archaeological studies are quite meagre. The history of India cannot be completed without the inclusion and proper study of its underwater cultural heritage. To complete a wide gap in underwater archaeological studies, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Ministry of Culture (MOC) has been involved in underwater explorations since the 1980s. Collaborations with the National Institute of Oceanography were done initially for studying and analysing underwater cultural heritage in India. During this period, many sites were explored along the west coast in the Arabian Sea and along the east coast in the Bay of Bengal. Sites on the west coast viz. Bet Dwarka, an island in the Gulf of Kachchh, Dwarka, Sopara, Elephanta and on the east coast such as Arikamedu and Mahabalipuram was explored and investigated. Giving the subject a more serious thought, an Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) under the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) officially came into existence in 2001. Thereby several activities commenced viz expedition at Bangaram Island, Dwarka, Mahabalipuram, Loktak Lake (Manipur), Elephanta Island, etc. The topic of this abstract fits best within session ’29. Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums’ because it will highlight the activities of UAW carried out so far in India along with a glimpse of a maritime gallery in the Archaeological Site Museum, Goa and new initiatives and challenges in the field of underwater cultural heritage. Keywords: Underwater Archaeology, Maritime Gallery, Archaeological Survey of India, Chinese porcelain Abbreviations: Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) List of figures Figure 1 Floating huts: Loktak Lake (source: Archaeological Survey of India) Figure 2 Exploration: Elephanta Island (source: Archaeological Survey of India) Figure 3 Maritime Gallery, Old Goa (source: Archaeological Survey of India) INTRODUCTION Underwater Archaeology also known as marine archaeology is a scientific field wherein material remains of humans, and his past activities on the sea or river are studied. Worldwide, several underwater expeditions have been carried out till date, however, in India, it is still a young discipline. Considering a scientific field, it requires specialised training and expertise not only in archaeology but also in underwater related investigations. With the advancement in technology to study the underwater archaeological remains, an investigation for the submerged remnants of Pompoohar, Tamil Nadu was carried out by a team of oceanographers somewhere in 1981 (Vora 1987, 159-164). This survey is regarded as the commencement of underwater archaeological research in India. Thereafter, S.R. Rao, a retired archaeologist from the ASI started a project namely ‘Marine Archaeological Studies in Indian Waters’ (Tripathi 2020, 150). The project gained wide publicity with underwater investigations at Dwarka, Gujarat. Due to stories behind the lost city of Dwarka, underwater archaeology as a discipline became popular in India. This was the moment which became the foundation of underwater archaeology in India. As a result, scientists, oceanographers, and archaeologists of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) joined hands and thereafter collaborated for several other 1 �underwater investigations in India. On the other hand, the project also led to illegal activities and underwater treasure hunting. Even though there is paucity of underwater archaeologists in India, still, the number of works carried out by the Underwater Archaeological Wing (UAW) of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) since its inception in 2001 are noteworthy. To name a few sites related to underwater cultural heritage like Dwarka, Mahabalipuram, Loktak Lake (Manipur), Elephanta Island, etc. were extensively examined by the UAW. Considering the works of UAW, the present paper will highlight some of the significant activities and achievements of the Wing, new initiatives, and challenges in the field of underwater cultural heritage along with a glimpse of a maritime gallery in the Archaeological Site Museum, Goa. A Beginning: Underwater Archaeology Wing A wide range of archaeological studies have been carried-out in India; however, the underwater archaeological studies are quite meagre. The historical past of India cannot be completed without the inclusion and proper study of its underwater cultural heritage. Since the 1980s, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Ministry of Culture (MOC) has been involved in underwater explorations. Initially, ASI joined hands with the National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) to study and analyse underwater cultural heritage in India. During this period, many sites were explored along the west coast in the Arabian Sea and along the east coast in the Bay of Bengal. Sites on the west coast like Bet Dwarka, an island in the Gulf of Kachchh, Dwarka, Sopara, Elephanta and on the east coast such as Arikamedu and Mahabalipuram were explored and investigated. Giving the subject a more serious thought, an Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) officially came into existence in 2001. Same year, UAW carried-out its first underwater expedition in Lakshadweep. First underwater expedition in India by UAW - Bangaram Island (2001-02) After the creation of UAW, the first underwater exploration in India by this Wing was carried-out in 2001 off-Bangaram Island in Lakshadweep. The exploration led to the excavation. In May 2002, ASI collaborated with the Indian Navy for excavating a British shipwreck, Princess Royal, belonging to the 18th or 19th century which had sunk off the coast of Lakshadweep. INS Jamuna equipped with the latest survey equipment was deputed to carry out an underwater survey. The INS Nireekshak was deployed for underwater archaeological excavation. The wreck of Princess Royal was found at a depth of 54 metres (Tripathi 2004, 1246). The Indian navy showed great enthusiasm in the project and extended full cooperation. As a result, it was the first systematic underwater excavation in India conducted by UAW. The excavation was recorded through videography and photography using underwater cameras and latest available technologies like side sonar, echo sounder, magnetometer, gravimeter, and satellite navigation system. The Wing always focused on the in-situ preservation, and which is why the excavation was documented considering all the archaeological norms. This excavation yielded brown glazed pottery (martaban ware) in large numbers, Chinese porcelain along with objects of copper, iron, wood, etc. (Tripathi 2004, 1246-1250). Mahabalipuram (2004-05) Underwater exploration off Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu was carried-out in 2004. In February 2004, UAW along with the Indian Navy carried-out extensive diving and exploration here. The survey ship of Indian Navy, INS Darshak was deputed for the underwater explorations. Divers of ASI and Indian navy 2 �made extensive diving near submerged rocks near the north side of the Shore temple. Though the surveys had to be limited due to the tsunami which occurred in December 2004. In 2005, following the preliminary research UAW decided to do another round of extensive diving in Mahabalipuram (Tripathi 2007, 127-139). The Indian navy again joined hands with the ASI for the work. The entire project was well planned and documented using various means of photography. Several submerged rocks having marks of human activities and architectural members were identified and examined. Besides, areas near the shore temple were excavated wherein remains of temples were observed. The evidence like square sanctum and entrance porch emphasised a temple like structure. Interestingly, a terracotta ring well was also discovered near the temple. The excavations shed a light on change in shorelines and submergence of structures in the sea. Dwarka (2006-07) In 2006, an exploration was conducted offshore and onshore in Dwarka, Gujarat, to understand the submerged archaeological remains. The coastal areas were examined during low tide wherein sculptures, and two stone anchors were discovered. Based on explorations, underwater excavations were carried-out in 2007. The objective of the excavation was to know the antiquity of the site, based on material evidence. In this offshore excavation, the ASI’s trained underwater archaeologists and the divers of the Navy searched the sunken structural remains. Findings like submerged remains, circular structures, scattered architectural members and stones were studied and documented. Apart from underwater excavations, an area near the Dwarkadheesh temple was excavated in January 2007 (Tripathi 2013, 103-124). The entire area was full of successive structures; therefore, due care was taken to document all the features through drawings and photography. Different areas separated by structures were marked and documented in detail. The excavation yielded many antiquities which includes terracotta objects, beads, fragmented bangles, copper rings, iron ingots and pottery. Loktak Lake (2009) Figure 1 Floating huts: Loktak Lake (source: Archaeological Survey of India) 3 �The UAW in 2009 focused the attention on the north-eastern part of India. Considering it, exploration in and around the Loktak lake in Manipur was carried-out in May 2009. The objective of the exploration was to find evidence of old settlements in the lake. Dwellings on floating islands in the lake are known to be quite an old tradition. These dwellings were made of organic materials which deteriorate very fast, and it is difficult to find their remains on land. But at the same time these organic materials get preserved when buried underwater. The remains of ancient dwellings in the lake could only be found through underwater archaeological investigations. Another objective of the exploration was to study ancient sites around the lake to study the changes in the lake and its impact on communities around the lake. As per the plan for the exploration, the team (author of this paper was a part of the team) explored following areas around the Kangla fort, which includes some monuments and a site near the now dried-up Imphal River (Manipur River) where excavation was carried out by the Department of Archaeology, Manipur State. Nearby areas in Bishnupur district were also explored by the team. The most interesting part of the exploration were islands namely Karong and Thanga in the Loktak lake. These are the two most densely populated islands among the 14 islands in the lake. The floating dwellings, namely, phumdi (floating huts/ islands) were also examined and documented (fig. 1). The location of Phubala in district Bishnupur was visited by the team to document a dugout canoe used by the people in the area. Ethnoarchaeological aspects were emphasised during the exploration to understand the culture and society. Elephanta Island (2009) The area around the Elephanta in Maharashtra has a rich historical and archaeological significance. The coastline of Elephanta has evidence of foreign pottery along with ancient coins and other artefacts. Considering the possibility of locating ancient port sites and shipwrecks, the area was chosen for preliminary offshore explorations. The area mentioned in ancient records namely Rajbandar was explored in October 2009 by the UAW in collaboration with the Indian Navy. INS Sarvekshak of the Indian Navy was deputed for the exploration. Divers of the Indian Navy along with the team of ASI (author of the paper was part of the team) explored the entire area using technologies like sonar scanning survey (fig. 2). Samples were collected for further examination and documentation. Figure 2 Exploration: Elephanta Island (source: Archaeological Survey of India) Besides, explorations around the nearby villages - Rajbandar and Morabandar were carried-out wherein foreign potteries like glazed ware, Chinese porcelain, roman amphorae along with semi-precious stones, copper coin, etc. were discovered (personal record). 4 �Maritime Gallery at Archaeological Museum, Old Goa Considered a hub of maritime history, a gallery at Archaeological Museum, Old Goa was planned. It highlights a wooden model of Portuguese ship alongside narrations about the maritime trade activities between Portuguese and Indians. The gallery was made to highlight the underwater cultural heritage of Goa. Though, it is a small gallery but holds plenty of information on the trade and cultural interactions which were carried-out through maritime routes. The gallery is maintained and managed by the Goa Circle of ASI as it is a part of the museum (fig. 3). Figure 3 Maritime Gallery, Old Goa (source: Archaeological Survey of India) Challenges and achievements of Underwater Archaeology Wing UAW has taken-up a few challenging works in India as mentioned above. The hardest part was the lack of underwater archaeologists in India. However, collaborations with the Indian Navy opened a new way and as a result a lot could be done. The much challenging part remains the same – training and expertise in the field of underwater archaeology. The need for training to carry-out proper underwater expeditions have been thought-up meticulously. Considering a young brigade of archaeologists, ASI is in the planning phase of extending training to youngsters. Plan also includes practical training besides theoretical lectures. Attempts are being made to materialise the process of selection of interested candidates and further training. Besides training, the need of awareness among masses towards underwater cultural heritage has also been regarded as necessary. Keeping this aim in mind, planning to include students of archaeology from 5 �different universities for theoretical lectures has been done. This step would encourage youngsters to gain basic information on underwater archaeology which will support in understanding this subject. CONCLUSIONS After the inception of UAW, legal provisions for the protection and preservation of underwater cultural heritage were pipelined. It generated a huge impact on underwater archaeology as a discipline and encouraged research in the field. Carrying out underwater expeditions at several significant sites in collaboration with the India navy was another star on the hat of this Wing. The excavations led to the international conferences wherein officers from the Indian Navy, archaeologists, scientists, and oceanographers discussed best practices. During the underwater archaeological works, UAW had also trained archaeology students and enthusiasts. Though, professional training in diving is the need of hour and collaborations with other organisations to acquire it is being done. More trained professionals mean awareness of this discipline and less illegal practices. UAW established a parameter with well documented underwater explorations and excavations in India which will further be enhanced by training more archaeologists. Bibliography Tripathi, Alok. “Princess Royal – Excavation of ancient shipwreck in the Arabian Sea.” Current Science, vol. 86, no. 9 (2004): 1246-1250. Tripathi, Alok. “Offshore and Onshore Excavation at Mahabalipuram – 2005.” In India and the Eastern Seas, edited by Alok Tripathi, 127-139. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 2007. Tripathi, Alok. “Excavation at Dwarka – 2007.” In Maritime Heritage of Indian Ocean, edited by Alok Tripathi, 103-124. New Delhi: Sharada Publishing House, New Delhi, 2013. Tripathi, Alok. “Underwater Archaeological Research and Heritage Management in India: Inter-departmental Collaboration and Utilization of State Infrastructure.” In Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management on the Historic and Arabian Trade Routes, edited by Robert Parthesius and Jonathan Sharfman, 149-158. Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2020. Vora, K. H. “A Note on Geophysical Explorations for Marine Archaeology off Tamil Nadu Coast, India.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 16, no. 2, (1987): 159-164. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Archaeology in India: Initiatives of Archaeological Survey of India Description An account of the resource India is surrounded by a vast coastline and encircled by a terrific riverine system. Due to this travellers and merchants easily managed to reach India through sea and riverine connections along with the land routes. The trade aspect enhanced other integral aspects like cultural interactions and economic exchanges which is why India is known to all other countries since antiquity. Archaeologically, a wide range of studies have been carried-out in India, however, the underwater archaeological studies are quite meagre. The history of India cannot be completed without the inclusion and proper study of its underwater cultural heritage. To complete a wide gap in underwater archaeological studies, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Ministry of Culture (MOC) has been involved in underwater explorations since the 1980s. Collaborations with the National Institute of Oceanography were done initially for studying and analysing underwater cultural heritage in India. During this period, many sites were explored along the west coast in the Arabian Sea and along the east coast in the Bay of Bengal. Sites on the west coast viz. Bet Dwarka, an island in the Gulf of Kachchh, Dwarka, Sopara, Elephanta and on the east coast such as Arikamedu and Mahabalipuram was explored and investigated. Giving the subject a more serious thought, an Underwater Archaeology Wing (UAW) under the purview of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) officially came into existence in 2001. Thereby several activities commenced viz expedition at Bangaram Island, Dwarka, Mahabalipuram, Loktak Lake (Manipur), Elephanta Island, etc. The topic of this abstract fits best within session ’29. Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums’ because it will highlight the activities of UAW carried out so far in India along with a glimpse of a maritime gallery in the Archaeological Site Museum, Goa and new initiatives and challenges in the field of underwater cultural heritage. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Aprajita Sharma Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Sharma, Aprajita . 2023. “Underwater Archaeology in India: Initiatives of Archaeological Survey of India.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2027 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6c817530f9dced0ca81b0f9cf8aa7b61.pdf a1abec18eb1a0210fc301ba64312fcec PDF Text Text Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India. Deepak Pal (21dphis01@cuk.ac.in) and Arjun Rao Dept. of History and Archaeology, Central University of Karnataka, India ABSTRACT This paper explores the Bhima River's historical significance and navigational potentialities in human settlement from prehistoric to early historical periods. The upper and lower reaches of the Bhima River are home to numerous sites dating back to the prehistoric and Early Historical periods. However, the lower reaches have a large number of sites compared to the upper reaches, where the basin is broad and shallow in the open landscape. The importance of the Bhima River in facilitating short and long-distance navigation likely increased significantly from establishing sedentary villages to the emergence of larger settlements and towns during the Early Historic period (300 BCE-500 CE). The present study is centred on analysing two distinct types of archaeological sites, emphasising their respective geographical distributions. (i) Sites centred within a distance of 1 km from the Bhima River course. (ii) The sites centred within a 10 km radius of the Bhima River course in the lower reaches, spanning from Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) to its confluence with the Krishna River near Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The present study constitutes an initial attempt to identify and establish a plausible connection for understanding the potential influence of navigational pursuits in establishing significant early historical sites, utilising geospatial techniques and analysis, and reviewing published archaeological reports to reconstruct the socio-economic contexts. Keyword: sedentary settlement, early historical, inland navigation, water navigation, Iron age. List of Figures and Tables Figure 1. Course of Bhima River. Figure 2. Distribution of Early Historic sites in the lower reaches of Bhima River. Table 1. Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 1 km (approx.) Table 2. Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 10 km (approx.) INTRODUCTION Throughout history, water bodies have played a crucial role in human settlement, dating back to prehistoric times. The manifestation of this particular role may vary across diverse cultural contexts and stages of development. During the early prehistoric period, specifically the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods of the later Pleistocene and Holocene ages, it is possible to establish a correlation between human activity and water bodies based on the reliance on aquatic remains as a source of sustenance. During the Neolithic Period, a correlation emerged between sedentary settlements and socio-economic activities, primarily agricultural and pastoralist activities. During the Early Historic period spanning from 300 BCE to 500 CE, the relationship between humans and water bodies experienced a notable development. This development facilitated the emergence of early urbanization, characterized by establishing religious sites, particularly those associated with Buddhism. The Bhima River, stretching a distance of 861 km, originates from Bhima Shankar in the Western Ghats at an elevation of approximately 945 msl. It then proceeds in a south-eastern direction, passing through the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka, until it meets the Krishna River at a location called Gundloor (Karnataka) at an elevation of 537 msl. The Bhima River's upper basin traverses an area characterized by a high concentration of clay-rich black soil, whereas its lower reaches flow through a region dominated by Granitic terrain. The catchment area of the Bhima River exhibits significant archaeological potential spanning from the prehistoric to early historic periods. The Bhima River exhibits human habitation dating back to prehistoric and early historic times, as evidenced by the 1 �presence of numerous archaeological sites in its upper and lower regions. The manifestation of human association is evident through the presence of Neolithic ash mounds, rock art depicting cattle images, and the occurrence of ringing rocks in multiple Neolithic and Iron Age sites. These findings suggest the emergence of a community-based settlement and the development of ritualistic practices and belief systems. The lower reaches of Bhima exhibit a relatively higher concentration of Early Historic sites, owing to the broad and shallow basin in the open landscape. A more significant number of archaeological sites can be found on the left bank of the river. The primary objective of this study is to examine the trajectory of the Bhima River, commencing from its location at Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) and extending to its confluence with the Krishna River close to Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The Early Historic phase in South India has a potential archaeological record. It spreads from the early inscriptions of the Pandya dynasty down south to the excavated remains of stupas at Amravati, Kanaganahalli, Nagarjunakonda and the excavated remains of trade sites like Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam, and Pattanam as well as the fortified sites like Satanikota, Sannati, Kondapur and so on. The systematic study of the prehistoric lithic structures and sites in the Bhima basin region was initiated by Taylor. He was the first to discover, investigate and do justice in the systematic archaeological investigation of megaliths found in the catchment area of the Bhima River. He discovered and investigated megaliths sites, especially in the southwestern Gulbarga (Kalaburagi) district and further north comprising the Talukas of Shorapur, Shahpur and Jewargi. (Taylor 1941). It was only in the 1940s when M.H. Krishna and later Wheeler’s excavations at Brahmagiri and Chandravalli (Krishna 1940 and Wheeler 1947) brought a chronological approach to archaeological materials. A number of settlement sites were excavated, such as the Brahmagiri (Krishna 1943; Wheeler, 1948), Maski (Thapar 1958), Kadkal (Yazdani 1935-36a), Piklihal (Allchin 1960), Nagarjunakonda (R. Subrahmanyam 1954-60) Utnur (Allchin, 1961), Palavoy (Rami 1976), Budihal (Paddayya 1991-92), Tekkalakota (Nagaraja Rao & Malhotra 1965), Watgal (Devaraj et al., 1995). These excavations helped further explore and excavate early historic settlements in the region. The archaeological remains from Nagarjunakonda, which is a better documented urban centre in the early historic Deccan, illustrate the high degree of urbanisation that developed in the Deccan during this period. The early historic urban centres were enclosed by fortified walls and had planned roads and residential neighbourhoods surrounding the citadel. A few parameters that led to understanding urban infrastructure are secular and religious remains unearthed at Nagarjunakonda, indicating a thriving society inhabited this city. Bathing ghats and an amphitheatre were civic structures constructed at Nagarjunakonda, and the religious remains found at this site were Buddhist Viharas (monasteries) and Chaityas (stupas) along with Brahmanical temples located on the Krishna River (Chakrabarti 1997, 235-37; Rosen Stone 1994, 9-20). A number of PhD researches were presented on the Neolithic, Iron Age and Early Historic Archaeology (covering Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu), including but not limited to those from Subbarao (1949), Allchin (1954), Seshadri (1956), Nagaraja Rao (1961), Paddayya (1968), Rami Reddy (1976), Narasimhaiah (1980), David Raju (1985), Venkatasubbaiah (1992) and Arjun (2017). 2 �Figure 1. Bhima River. (From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bhima.png) This research aims to study the antiquity of human association with the river Bhima, which includes1. To examine the navigable conditions and study sites centered to the river. 2. To trace the role of it in inland navigation for domestic or trade purposes in early historic society. 3. Mapping the archaeological sites to understand their distribution pattern across the river through Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis. 4. To examine the historicity of the river with early historic settlements, particularly Sannati and its surrounding sites. Overall, this research has tried to understand and evaluate the role of river Bhima (especially in the lower reaches) METHODOLOGY This research is based on the data curated from archaeological reports such as the Indian Archaeological Review (IAR), annual reports from the state archaeology department and excavation reports. The site locations are mapped on the geospatial maps and categorised into cultural periods of the sites and the metrical distance of the site location from the river banks ranging from within 1 km to 10 km. Further, the bathymetric survey reports (IIC Technologies, 2016) on the river Bhima are analysed. 3 �SITES ANALYSIS WITH GEOGRAPHY Table 1 Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 1 km (approx.) S.NO. NAME LATITUDE LONGITUDE 1. Sannati 16°49'39.00"N 76°54'26.00"E 2. Ranamandala 3. Sirwal 16°48'38.00"N 76°53'38.00"E 4. Kanaganahalli 16°51'10.00"N 76°56'20.00"E 5. Benagutti 6. Hasargundgi 16°48'42.00"N 76°54'43.00"E CULTURAL SEQUENCE Ashokan Rock Edict Site Mesolithic to Early historic Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic Early historic site with remains of Buddhist monastery and Stupa. Early Historic Buddhist Stupa Site belonging to Satavahana. Early Historic 7. Hotinmadu 16°53'10.00"N 76°57'4.00"E Middle Palaeolithic 8. Rajwal 16°58'52.00"N 76°56'10.00"E Middle Palaeolithic 9. Budnal 16°32'30.67"N 77°10'17.77"E Neolithic Habitation Site Sannati Sannati (16°49'39.00"N, 76°54'26.00"E) is a complex of sites located on the left bank of the river Bhima. It is surrounded by sites, namely Ranamandala, Kanaganahalli, Sirwal, and Benagutti; they are Buddhist stupa sites with monasteries and brick embankments, suggesting a larger population residing in this area and frequently accessed by a number of pilgrims. It has been identified as one of the prominent Buddhist sites in Karnataka after its discovery by Kapatral Krishna Rao in 1954 CE, which brought into light the remains of the Buddhist establishment. The exploration and excavation of this site yielded stone tools related to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Along with the remains of tools, it also yields sculptural, architectural, inscriptional and stupa remains related to Buddhism. The site got prominence after finding the remains of Ashokan Major Rock Edicts 12-14 and Separate Rock Edicts 1 & 2. Sannati was a fortified settlement during the Satavahana era, as was proven by the discovery of Satavahana’s coins of lead and the excavation of a stupa. Ranamandala In the close vicinity of Sannati, remains of fortification are found which are known as Ranamandala. This site was excavated by A. Sundara in 1986-87 AD, which resulted in the discovery of rectangular bricks (39x20x6.5 cm) and the foundation of a number of small rooms having association with Early historic antiquities of Satavahana period. Ranamandala has an undisturbed chronology from Mesolithic to Satavahana period. 4 �Period Findings at Ranamandala Cultural Remains Mesolithic Non-geometric microliths of Chalcedony, Chert and Quartz. Lunates, Bladelets, Points, Burin-cum-borer. Black & Red ware, Stray Iron Implements. Red ware, Black polished ware, Black and Red ware, Scrubbers, Polished stone pestles, Dumbbell shaped pounders, Stone block and other minor antiquities in the form of Shell bangles, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Bone-arrowheads and Coins. Red ware, Black polished ware, Black slipped ware, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Coins of Maharathi Siri Satavahana. This period marked the beginning of structural activities Red ware, Polished red ware, Stamped pottery, Black slipped ware, Russet coated white painted ware, Rouletted ware, Beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones, Shell objects, Polished pounders, Mullers. Coins of Satakarni and Sri Satakarni made of Copper, Lead and Potin. This period marked the profuse brick structural activities. Megalithic Mauryan Mauryan – Satavahana Satavahana Sirwal Sirwal (16°48'38.00"N, 76°53'38.00"E) is situated on the right bank of river Bhima. The adjacent field near the Sirwal yielded blades made of quartz, jasper, coarse carnelian, and chert belonging to the Middle Palaeolithic period. Along with it, this site also produces a profound number of Mesolithic implements made of quartz and jasper. By analysing excavated material, it can be observed that this site marked a transition phase from Middle Palaeolithic to Mesolithic Period. Kanaganahalli Kanaganahalli (16°51'10.00"N, 76°56'20.00"E) is located on the left bank of river Bhima, approximately five km east of Sannati. During the period of excavation spanning from 1994 to 2002 CE, this site reveals the remains of a massive stupa, many brick-built structures in the form of a chaitya griha, and votive stupas along with the remains of railing, pillars, capitals, Buddha padas, and sculpture of yaksha and four images of Buddha. The sculptural panel portrays various subjects, including Jataka stories, celestial objects, royal personalities, noblemen, traders, and portraits of many donors in singular or as couples servants attending to the royalty and noblemen, monks and the commoner. In addition, this particular location yielded a noteworthy sculpture depicting King Asoka, featuring an inscription in Brahmi script that reads "Raya Asoka". In addition to the sculptural artefacts, plenty of Prakrit language and Brahmi script inscriptions were discovered on the premises of the Kanaganahalli Stupa site. These inscriptions can be dated back to the period spanning from the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century AD. A total of 270 inscriptions were unearthed at the maha stupa, ranging from a five-lettered donator label inscription to an eleven-line epigraph.  Benagutti This early historic site flourished between 300 BCE to 300 CE in the north-west of Sannati on the left bank of river Bhima. It was excavated by the Excavation Branch - I, Nagpur, under the direction of K. Veerbhadra Rao. During the excavation, this site produced evidence of the chaitya-vihara complex, 5 �which suggests labelling it as a Buddhist stupa site belonging to the Satavahana period. The Ceramic culture of this site includes Red ware of medium fabric, Burnished Red ware, Micaceous Red ware, Dull Grey ware, Red polished ware, and Rouletted ware. The discovery of the sherd of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) and a partially preserved inscription on a small stone has resulted in reconsidering the site's chronology, which can now be placed in the third century BC. Based on some fragmentary inscriptions in the Ikshvaku Brahmi script, it can be inferred that the site remained operational until the third century AD. Hasargundgi Hasargundgi (16°48'42.00"N, 76°54'43.00"E) is located on the right bank of the Bhima River, approximately 3 kilometres south of the Chandralamba temple located on the left bank of the same river at Sannati. During the exploration, this site produced several Red ware, Black and Red ware, and a few decorated friezes of railing beside a sculpture of Yaksha. S.NO. 01 02 03 04 05 Table 2 Sites on Lower Bhima Reaches (in the range of 10 km (approx.) LATITUDE LONGITUDE CULTURAL SEQUENCE Jewargi 17° 0'41.21"N 76°46'36.96"E Megalithic, Early Historic Andola 16°57'10.13"N 76°50'9.63"E Megalithic, and Early Historic Tadbidi 16°41'31.79"N 76°58'53.72"E Neolithic Habitation Site Maddarki 16°48'4.74"N 76°47'29.02"E Shahabad 17° 7'46.83"N 76°56'49.28"E Megalithic, Iron Age and Early Historic NAME The town of Jewargi (17° 0'41.21" N, 76°46'36.96"E) is located 5 km south of the Bhima River. The region situated approximately 1.5 km to the north of the town is home to several stone circles from the Iron Age, which are located on a rocky and uncultivated piece of land (Taylor 1941, 8-16). Taylor was the first person to notice and conduct a systematic study of the megalithic culture of this region. After a long gap of time, the Department of Geology of the erstwhile Hyderabad State conducted a study of this region, which resulted in the identification of a stone alignment structure in Jewargi and megaliths in various locations such as Shahabad, Chitapur, Ravur and Ekmai. Andola, situated approximately 8 km southeast of Jewargi, has yielded evidence of Megalithic structure in the surrounding area. Subsequently, further study was conducted by A. Sundara, which includes the various locations previously examined and documented by Taylor in his reports. 6 �Figure 2. Distribution of Early Historic sites in the lower reaches of Bhima River discussed in the paper. 7 �Bibliography Allchin, F.R. Piklihal Excavations. Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Government Publications, Archaeological Series No. 1, 1960. Allchin, F.R. Utnoor Excavations. Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Government Publications, Archaeological Series No. 5, 1961. Chakrabarti, Dillip K. The Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Devaraj, D.V., J.G. Schiffer, C.S. Patil and Subrahmanya. “The Watgal Excavations: An Interim Report.” Man and Environment 20 no. 2 (1995): 57-74. Foote, Robert Bruce. The Foote Collection of Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities: Notes on their Ages and Distribution, Madras: Government Museum, 1916. Howell, J.R. Excavations at Sannathi, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1995. Indian Archaeology 1997 – 1998 – A Review, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2003. Joshi, M.C. Indian Archaeology 1986 – 1987 – A Review, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1992. Khaladkar, Varada. “Archaeological Investigations in the Middle Bhima Basin, Maharashtra: A Preliminary Report.” Puratattva 38, (2008): 24-38. Nagaraja Rao, M.S. and K.C., Malhotra. 1965. The Stone Age hill Dwellers of Tekkalakota. Poona: Deccan College, 1965. Paddayya, K. Investigations into the Neolithic Culture of the Shorapur Doab, South India. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973. Paddayya, K. “Mesolithic Culture of the Shorapur Doab, Peninsular India”. Anthropos, (1974): 590-607. Paddayya, K. “Ashmound Investigation at Budihal, Gulbarga District, Karnataka.” Man and Environment XVIII no. 1 (1993): 57-87. Paddayya, K. “Prehistoric Foundations of Southern Deccan, with Special Reference to the Shorapur Doab” In Emperors, Saints and People, edited by Mohammad Nazrul Bari, R. Arjun, 29-58. Delhi: Primus Books, 2023. Rami Reddy, V. The Prehistoric and Protohistoric culture of Palavoy, South India, with special Reference to the Ashmound Problem. Hyderabad: Government of Andhra Pradesh, 1976. Singh, B.P. Indian Archaeology 1991 – 1992 – A Review, New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1996. Singh, Om Prakash. The Archaeology of Iron and Social Change in Early South India. Delhi: Primus Books, 2019. Soundararajan, K.V. Nagarjunakonda (1954-60), Memoirs of the Archaeology Survey of India No. 75. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2006. Stone, Elizabeth R. The Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas Publishers, 1994. Sundara, A. The Early Chamber Tombs of South India, A Study of the Iron Age Megalithic Monuments of North Karnataka. Delhi: University Publishers (India), 1975. Taylor, Philip Meadows. Megalithic Tombs and other Ancient Remains in the Deccan, Hyderabad: State Archaeological Department, 1941. Technologies, IIC. Final Feasibility Report National Waterways-21, Region VI- Bheema River Gundloor to Hippargi (138.9 km). Gautam Budh Nagar: Inland Waterways Authority of India, 2016. Thaper, B.K. “Maski -1954: A Chalcolithic site of the Southern Deccan.” Ancient India 13 (1957): 114. Veluthat, Kesavan. “The Sannathi Inscriptions and the Questions they Raise”. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 60, (1999): 1081-1086. Wheeler, R.E.M. “Brahmagiri and Chandravalli 1947: Megalithic and other Cultures in the Chitaldrug District, Mysore State.” Ancient India IV, (1948): 81–321. Yazdani, G. “Notes on a Survey of Neolithic Sites.” Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of H.E.H. the Nizam’s Dominions- Appendix A 20, (1935-1936). 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India Description An account of the resource This paper explores the Bhima River's historical significance and navigational potentialities in human settlement from prehistoric to early historical periods. The upper and lower reaches of the Bhima River are home to numerous sites dating back to the prehistoric and Early Historical periods. However, the lower reaches have a large number of sites compared to the upper reaches, where the basin is broad and shallow in the open landscape. The importance of the Bhima River in facilitating short and long-distance navigation likely increased significantly from establishing sedentary villages to the emergence of larger settlements and towns during the Early Historic period (300 BCE-500 CE). The present study is centred on analysing two distinct types of archaeological sites, emphasising their respective geographical distributions. (i) Sites centred within a distance of 1 km from the Bhima River course. (ii) The sites centred within a 10 km radius of the Bhima River course in the lower reaches, spanning from Firozabad (17°5'3.00"N, 76°47'25.00"E) to its confluence with the Krishna River near Gundloor (16°24'39.00"N, 77°17'1.23"E). The present study constitutes an initial attempt to identify and establish a plausible connection for understanding the potential influence of navigational pursuits in establishing significant early historical sites, utilising geospatial techniques and analysis, and reviewing published archaeological reports to reconstruct the socio-economic contexts. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Deepak Pal Arjun Rao Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pal, Deepak and Arjun Rao. 2023. “Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2025 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5a9e43d194aaed55b3ce8474f8be4e1e.pdf 6468dc9e8305d3f7c3c57da15ef7f7ea PDF Text Text Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements Arjun Rao (Dept. of History and Archaeology, Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi India) arjunrao@cuk.ac.in ABSTRACT Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements is focused on the prehistoric and early historic sites located on the perennial rivers of south India. This topic suits Session 22, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums. The region has potential archaeological site-centric data on the cultural heritage of the perennial rivers due to the lack of methodological frameworks we have known least on the inland (short/long distance) water navigation network and the frequent river crossing patterns adopted by the ancient societies. The significance of rivers in inland routes has taken the lesser focus of Indian Archaeology, except for several studies centred on the Ganga-Yamuna rivers and coastal ports of the Indian Peninsula. The rivers Kaveri, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Bhima, origin from the Western Ghats in south India, flow through several ecological regions and plateaus on reaching the Bay of Bengal. At several places, these rivers have broader (1-1.5km in width) and narrow channels cutting through the plains and valleys. Early sedentary villages and larger settlements leading to urbanisation seem connected with the rivers. For example, Neolithic and Megalithic site complexes (T-Narasipura and Koppa, Talakadu and Kaveripattinam on the river Kaveri; Sannati-Kanaganahalli on the river Bhima; Nagarjunakonda on the river Krishna are few sites that hold a prominent discussion in this paper. There need to be more conceptual and methodological frameworks for such topics that pose point-blank-range challenges to research. What archaeological and cultural materials (directly or contextually) can support such studies, and to what extent the geolocations and the local geomorphological characteristics can support the inland navigation are to be assessed. Hence, this paper is the beginning of new research directions and will contribute to developing methodological perspectives towards the cultural heritage of perennial rivers. Keywords: River Crossing, Fords, Ferries, South India INTRODUCTION The Indian rivers are both perennial and non-perennial rivers. Perennial rivers are fed by the Himalayan glaciers, draining Indus, Ganges, Yamuna, and Brahmaputra systems. While connecting to the archaeological site distributions, much of the later prehistoric and early historic sites are reported along the Indus and Gangetic riverine systems. They likely played ecological implications on the rise and spread of the first and second urbanisation of Viz Indus Valley Culture in the second and third millennium BCE and Ganga Valley culture during the first millennium CE. The central and southern part of India is drained by the non-perennial rivers fed by the monsoonal precipitation originating from the Western Ghats, such as the river Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, major river systems traversing various geological formations on their confluence into the Bay of Bengal in the east. Much of the archaeological sites of prehistoric cultures are reported from the near river banks and at their tributary channels. By the early historical period (300 BCE- 800 CE), the concentration of the settlements increasingly happened to be located on the river banks in southern India. Such broad archaeological and temporal distinction is noticeably clear in the geo-cultural studies of the river-based settlement developments in Indian archaeology. 1 �Figure 1: Major Rivers of India. Source:www.mapsofIndia.com CASE STUDIES Case study 1, river Krishna Krishna is another major river of Southern India originating from the Western Ghats and confluences with the Bay of Bengal by crossing 1400 km. The river Krishna has a wider channel in its middle reaches ranging from 1 km to 1.5 km in the region of Raichur (also called Raichur Doab and the north bank is associated with the geography of Shorapur Doab. In monsoonal seasons, the river flows with massive water discharge disconnecting the north and south bank inhabitants. This disconnection and uneasy river crossing is also reflected in mediaeval warfare records. Archaeological studies have reported many prehistoric sites across the river Krishna at the Raichur (see Korisettar 1979; Paddayya 1974; Arjun 2018, 2021). On either side of river banks, the density of middle Palaeolithic and Mesolithic/ microlithic sites are exceptionally higher, ranging from 35-40 areas spreading at the river 2 �stretch of c. 30km. The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic economies were engaged in foraging for food resources and raw materials for their stone tools; their occupational location on the river banks indicates frequent river crossing. Case study 2, river Tungabhadra River Tungabhadra is a significant tributary of Krishna and the region of their confluence forms Raichur Doab in the Raichur and Bellary regions. And this is also a part of the core Southern Neolithic culture developed during 3200-1200 BCE. Of many well-studied Neolithic sites, Halluru can be contextually discussed here. Halluru is located on the left bank of Tungabhadra, a significant Neolithic-chalcolithic site showing potential agricultural development during c. 1400-1100 BCE continues to develop further in the Iron Age phase until the dawn of 100 BCE (Nagaraja Rao 971). Excavations have revealed the cultivation of crops such as cotton, millet, and rice. Though much of the Neolithic settlements were concentrated on the smaller stream orders and isolated hillocks, sites like Halluru, Brahmagiri, and T- Narasipura remain focused on riverine environs. Several Iron Age and Early Historic sites are reported from the riverine areas of Tungabhadra in the region of Hampi. At the outset, Hampi itself was a significant capital city of a mediaeval kingdom, the Vijayanagara. Case study 3, river Kaveri River Kaveri originates from peaks of the Western Ghats in the Coorg Plateau in Karnataka and flows through 805 km and conflux with the Bay of Bengal in the east. The river flows through narrow and steep gorge cutting across the valleys and gains momentum, often causing flash floods in the upper reaches (Kale et al. 2010; Kartika et al. 2018) until it enters a relatively plain landscape in the middle reaches. Recent archaeological surveys in 121 sq. km. of an area on the river bank of Kaveri and its tributary stream Harangi recorded 39 Iron Age period sites (Fig. 1 and Table 1) relatively datable to first millennium BCE (see Arjun et al. 2018; Arjun 2019, 2021). Such a high density of sites on either side of the riverine valleys indicates frequent crossing over the c. 100-150m broad channel river banks. Case study 4, river Bhima Bhima is a tributary river of Krishna, originating in the Western Ghats of Maharashtra and flowing south-east towards Krishna in Karnataka. The confluence region is known as Shorapur Doab. Shorapur Doab is the earliest occupational site in human and cultural evolution, dating to 1.2 million years. Along the Bhima River, the upper and Middle Bhima basin is reported with a number of Chalcolithic and Early Historical sites. At the lower basin, site complexes like Sannati, Kanaganahalli and Ranamandala developed as a marker of early urbanisation in the region with increasing significance for Buddhist monasteries and Stupas. Bhima and further along the river Krishna, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati show the high probability for inland navigation connecting multiple early historic Buddhist sites during the Satavahana reign (100 BCE- 300 CE). In this session, see the paper ‘Geospatial Study of Early Historic Sites and Navigation Potentialities at the lower reaches of River Bhima, South India’ for more details. Overall, this paper attempts to identify major archaeological settlements in Karnataka ranging from prehistoric to early historic periods located on the rivers such as the Krishna, Tungabhadra, Bhima, and Kaveri. Though there is a lack of direct physical evidence for the navigation infrastructure, the geolocation of the sites and socio-economic activities indicates the human association with the river in knowing the fords and engaged in crossing over the riverbanks by foot or using wooden/ thatched ferries depending on the year-round seasons must have been an inevitable part of sustenance. 3 �RESOURCES Research conducted on the line of crossing rivers and fords based on the geolocations of prehistoric and early historic sites are almost nil, except random attempts made by Allchin and Allchin. The archaeology of river crossing by Allchin and Allchin (1962) attempted to identify geographically strategic locations, such as valley passes and river confluences, in the context of trade routes connecting various geographic regions with prominent settlements. They mapped a few megalithic sites on the river of Krishna near the Raichur and discussed the possible activities engaged in crossing over the rivers on ferries likely in the modern period before the advent of rail/roadway bridges. Archaeological sources Large-scale archaeological data is available in the form of prehistoric and historical period sites located along the river banks of Krishna, Bhima, and Kaveri (e.g. Korisettar 1979; Paddayya 1974; Nagaraja Rao 971; Allchin and Allchin 1962; Allchin 1954; Arjun 2018, 2021; Munn 1934; Paddayya 1971; Subbarao 1948; Sundara 1969; Varaprasada Rao 2002). The resources to conduct this research is handicapped by the lack of research conducted on the technology and tradition of river crossing Historical sources Though there are references to trade routes running through the river banks and often crossing the rivers to enter other regions and trading centres, they largely remained at the Ford location to cross over. Often, during the battle, the army crossed the rivers during the low tides, and in the case of high-water flows, they camped on the river banks waiting for the river water to recede. There is a corpus of reports on the trade routes (Lahiri 1992; Begley 1981; Chakrabarti 2010) and places of religious importance (e.g. Seshadri and Sundararaghavan 2012) developed throughout the historical period along the mighty rivers throughout its journey and often indicates prominent locations meant to cross over the rivers. Framework and results on prima facie study As discussed above, direct physical archaeological sources in the form of ferries, anchors or any associated infrastructures addressing river crossing and identification of fords needs novel methodological initiatives. As many sites of different prehistoric and historical cultural phases are reported on the river banks and closure to river banks, it conjecturally indicates a close association of the people with the rivers and crossing over them to move beyond foraging for food resources and procurement of raw materials. During the early historical period, as the trade routes formed throughout the rivers or crossing over the rivers, landmark fords must have begun to play a crucial point of activities during the monsoon and post-monsoon. As the rivers are non-perennial, multiple approaches in the river crossing must have been determined subject to seasonal variations. One can walk through the river bed if the water level is below knee length or on a dry bed, usually during the summer. In the monsoon and post-monsoon, the river may pose suitable conditions to navigate as crossing over by foot is hampered. To cross over the river, the medium of transport must have been likely a smaller ferry made of bamboo and wooden trunks. 4 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Allchin, F.R. The Development of Early Cultures in the Raichur District of Hyderabad, Ph.D. Dissertation. London: University of London, 1954. Allchin, F.R. and B, Allchin. “The archaeology of river crossing by FR Allchin and Bridget Allchin.” In Indian Anthropology: Essays in Memory of D.N. Majumdar, edited by T.N. Madan and Gopala Sarana, 52-65. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1962. Arjun, R. Landscapes and Settlement Pattern of Neolithic and Iron Age Cultures of Raichur Doab, Ph.D. Dissertation. Pune: Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, 2018. Begley, V. “From Iron Age to Early Historical in South Indian Archaeology.” In Studies in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan, edited by J. Jacobson, 299-301. New Delhi: American Institute for Indian Studies, 1981. Chakrabarti, D.K. The Ancient Routes of the Deccan and the Southern Peninsula. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2010. Korisettar, R. Prehistory and Geomorphology of Middle Krishna, Karnataka, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1979. Korisettar, R., D.Q. Fuller and P.C. Venkatasubbaiah. “Brahmagiri and Beyond: The Archaeology of the Southern Neolithic.” In Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Prehistory, Archaeology of South Asia, edited by S. Settar and R. Korisettar, 313–348. New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research and Manohar Publishers, 2002. Lahiri, N. The Archaeology of Indian Trade Routes (up to c. 200BC). New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992. Munn, L. “Prehistoric and Protohistoric Finds.” Journal of Geological Society II, no.1 (1934): 121-135. Paddayya, K. Pre and Proto- Historic Investigations Shorapur Doab, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1968. Paddayya, K. “The Mesolithic Culture of the Shorapur Doab, Peninsular India.” Anthropos 69 (1974a): 590-607. Padma Seshadri and Sundara Raghavan P.M. It Happened Along the Kaveri (A Journey Through Space and Time). New Delhi: Niyogi Books, 2012. Subbarao, B. The Stone Age Cultures of Bellary. Pune: Deccan College, 1948. Sundara, A. Megaliths in North Karnataka, Ph.D. Dissertation. Poona: University of Poona, 1969. Varaprasada Rao, J. Prehistoric Environment and Archaeology of the Krishna- Tungabhadra Doab. Delhi: Bharatiya Kala Prakashan, 2002. 5 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements Description An account of the resource Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements is focused on the prehistoric and early historic sites located on the perennial rivers of south India. This topic suits Session 22, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Maritime Museums. The region has potential archaeological site-centric data on the cultural heritage of the perennial rivers due to the lack of methodological frameworks we have known least on the inland (short/long distance) water navigation network and the frequent river crossing patterns adopted by the ancient societies. The significance of rivers in inland routes has taken the lesser focus of Indian Archaeology, except for several studies centred on the Ganga-Yamuna rivers and coastal ports of the Indian Peninsula. The rivers Kaveri, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and Bhima, origin from the Western Ghats in south India, flow through several ecological regions and plateaus on reaching the Bay of Bengal. At several places, these rivers have broader (1-1.5km in width) and narrow channels cutting through the plains and valleys. Early sedentary villages and larger settlements leading to urbanisation seem connected with the rivers. For example, Neolithic and Megalithic site complexes (T-Narasipura and Koppa, Talakadu and Kaveripattinam on the river Kaveri; Sannati-Kanaganahalli on the river Bhima; Nagarjunakonda on the river Krishna are few sites that hold a prominent discussion in this paper. There need to be more conceptual and methodological frameworks for such topics that pose point-blank-range challenges to research. What archaeological and cultural materials (directly or contextually) can support such studies, and to what extent the geolocations and the local geomorphological characteristics can support the inland navigation are to be assessed. Hence, this paper is the beginning of new research directions and will contribute to developing methodological perspectives towards the cultural heritage of perennial rivers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arjun Rao Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rao, Arjun . 2023. “Crossing the Rivers at Fords in the Prehistory and Later Prehistory: Tracing the Probable and Lesser-Known Movements.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2022 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f7e6c38a8e7a5a8b65c8b42c965735ad.pdf 39c0810e13b97cbd49a14c4b1ef7351e PDF Text Text The missing crafts of Sri Lankan waters Rasika Muthucumarana Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Fort Galle, Sri Lanka, 80000 Email: muthurasika@gmail.com Arjuna Thanthilage Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, 407, Bouddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 00700 Email: arjuna_t@hotmail.com Abstract The artefacts were slowly removed and brought up one by one; certainly, they had been undisturbed for nearly two thousand years. The wreck and some of its cargo were analyzed and radiocarbon dated, and the results make the Godawaya wooden wreck found from the seabed of south Sri Lanka, the oldest shipwreck in the Asiapacific region. The inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. But we weren’t able to find the cargo or the ships that sailed through until 2008. This valuable wooden wreck was first found by two conch divers and later explored by the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka (henceforth MAU). Analyzing and artefact research were done not only to find the chronological order, but also to discover a hidden chapter on maritime activities and ship building techniques used in this region. The artefacts appear to be originally of the Indian subcontinent region; hence, it is possible that the origin of the ship may be traced to this region. A large number of potshards and stone quern indicate that these items may also be part of a trading commodity. The major part of the wreckage needs to be identified and that will reveal the kind of cargo ships used to carry at that time. The paper aims at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the results of analyzing the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012. 1 �Key words: Godawaya, Great Basses, Black & Red ware, Copper ingots, Port city From the past to the future A journey ends with terrifying suddenness, sending a majestic seagoing vessel to the ocean floor, ending the life of sailors and passengers. The wreck is now home to sea creatures, corals and sponges. Years later, detectives in the form of Fig. 1 Remains of the Godawaya shipwreck. (Rasika Muthucumarana) maritime archaeologists locate the wreck and start piecing together tiny bits of information. Like a forensic scientist who attempts to work out the cause of death, they try to unearth the story of that forgotten hulk sitting alone in its watery grave. This story is a small part of a larger one which consists of many – the cement between the bricks that make the whole tapestry of our history. But, what if there is a wreck without a story, or a wreck without any clue or evidence to trace its name, date of construction or when it sank? For the archaeologist, this is the beginning of a whole new episode, imaginary and real, the latter requiring interpretation of small clues – intense detective work. The maritime archaeologist’s task takes on a greater challenge as the wreck ages. The physical evidence that identifies the wreck hides under the sand and, in time, it becomes a sealed tomb. In 2008 archaeologists from Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Galle found an isolated wreck, actually a mound surrounded by hundreds of potshards on the seabed near the Godawaya coast, a small fishing village situated between Ambalantota and 2 �Hambantota in southern Sri Lanka. The site was deep and undisturbed. The team located the site following an alert by two local conch divers from Godawaya area who found the site. When the team reached a dark and cold seabed at 32 m we faced coral mounds and sea plants on a sandy seabed. The artefacts were Fig. 2 View of the Buddhist temple from the sea. slowly removed and brought up one by one. It was certain that those had been (Rasika Muthucumarana) undisturbed for hundreds of years (Fig. 1). This find was a treasure trove for a maritime archaeologist. The potshards and other artefacts found at the site can be traced up to 2nd century BCE, which make this site the oldest shipwreck found in the Asian Pacific region. While there have been reports of several shipwrecks in and around the Indian Ocean countries during the last two decades, these wrecks were dated between the 9th century CE and the early 20th century CE. Thus, there is a paucity of information about early shipwrecks, so the Godawaya shipwreck site has provided much needed import to the maritime archaeology of this region. An inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. The paper is aimed at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the analysis results of the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012. Godawaya: the historical port city Godawaya is a small fishing village, located in the Hambantota district close to Ambalantota near the old estuary of the Walawe River, the fourth longest river of the island. However, the mouth of the river near Godawaya is blocked by sand deposit and now the river is debouching into the sea at Ambalantota, 3 km west of Godawaya. A 3 �Buddhist temple is located on a small rocky elevation on the left bank of the river mouth (Fig. 2). In ancient times, Godawaya was known as Godapavata-patanaha as is mentioned in a Brahmi inscription found in Godawaya dated to the 2nd century AD (Roth et al., 2001: 296), and in Mahavamsa the etymological identifiable term “Gotapabbata” is used (Geiger, 1912: 255). Two inscriptions found from this temple were first examined and reported by E.R. Ayortone in the early 20th century. Later, Professor Senarath Paranavithana published his findings on estampage found in this area (Paranavithana, 1983). The small and unclear inscription (No. 1) and the wellknown inscription (No. 2) were carved on a natural rock north of the Stupa. The inscription No. 2 clearly describes a seaport situated at Godawaya. It consists of two lines, and the letters, which have been clearly incised, are regular in form. These writings can be clearly identified with the first or second century CE (Paranavithana, 1983). The inscription describes the collection of customs duties called Godapavatha collected at this port (Fig. 3). The text of the inscription No. 2 and its translation: 1. Siddham Godapavata patanahi Su (ka) su(ri)yi 2. Raja Gamani Abaya viharata dini “Success! The customs duties of the port of Godapavata, King Gamani Abaya granted to the vihara (temple)”. The name Godapavatha, Gota pabbata or Godawaya refers to a kind of mound with a rounded shape, composed of rock (gota – short and round /pabbata – rock). The small stupa built on a rocky elevation south of the temple is clearly visible from the sea and may have been used as a landmark. Most probably the name Godapawatha could have been a name attributed to those early seafarers. When the excavation team dug a new trench under the rock with the main inscription mentioned above, they found another well-preserved threeline inscription (No. 3), one meter below the old one. It also describes some of the donations to the temple. The earliest archaeological evidence from Godawaya traces the history of Fig. 3 Inscriptions found from Godawaya. 4 (Upper - Inscription no 02/ Lower – Inscription No. 3). (Rasika Muthucumarana) �this region from the Mesolithic period onward. During the last two decades many explorations and excavations took place in and around the Godavaya temple. From an excavation that took place near the fishing village, part of an old maritime structure was found. It appears to be part of a jetty or a bridge built with stone pillars, which are very similar to the stone pillars seen in the shrine room of the old temple. Looking south from the temple, the river flows to the sea to the right and the Godawaya fishing village is to the left. Both of these may have been parts of the ancient seaport. This is not surprising as the bay of Godawaya with its beach with the stone pillars and fishing village is the safest landing place along the coastline of this area. The river mouth and the wide sluggish river also provide suitable access for transportation. Cargo from the vessels may have been transferred inland using boats and barges. The Walawe River flows through ancient settlements and monastic sites such as Ridiyagama, Mahanavulu Pura and the Ramba monastic complex. There are records of coins, mainly thousands of Indo-Roman, from private lands and paddy fields near the riverbanks. In 2003, an old stone anchor was found in the sea near the Godawaya fishing village. It was a granite triangle with a hole in the middle, resembling the stone anchors excavated from Galle harbour. These types of stone anchors are thought to have been used during the Fig. 4 Single hole stone anchor and stone pre-colonial period, especially by Indo- bench like object found from shipwreck site. Arabian and Chinese vessels (Rasika Muthucumarana) (www.mausrilanka.lk). In the following year two local well experienced conch divers (Sunil and Peminda) from Godavaya village found other valuable artefact. On one of their regular deep shell dives they found the area rich with potshards and a small stone object which bore a resemblance to a small bench. They brought it with them and marked the location on their GPS. The bench was handed over to the excavation project and was stored at the Tissamaharama storeroom at the Department of Archaeology. But the incident and bench were forgotten over time (Fig. 4). 5 �A new beginning In October 2008 the MAU started an exploration along the south coast with some funds from the UNESCO Bangkok office. The Godawaya site was at a depth of 30 meters and three kilometres from the shore. The presence of potsherds and artefacts like the stone bench strongly suggested the presence of a shipwreck, which warranted further investigation. The seabed near the site is composed of coralline rocky formations whereas a wide area is covered with thick grained coralline sand towards the northeastern part of the site. Under some mounds, which initially appeared to be a reef, we found Fig. 5 Rim of jar and potsherds at some timber sections. Those very fragile wooden Godawaya shipwreck site. (Rasika parts were covered with a thick layer of corals and Muthucumarana) plants (Fig. 5). Between and around two large mounds there were lots of potsherds. These were scattered over about a 100 square meter area. Other than the potsherds, we found some complete and near complete jars. Some of these jars were huge and encrusted and embedded with corals. This was a clear sign that the site was undisturbed. But it was not easy to understand the site formation, and we were not able to identify any parts of the ship’s construction. Many ships have been wrecked around Sri Lanka but Godawaya is a very unique shipwreck and no parallel has been reported in publications. We did some exploratory studies from which a site plan was derived and artefacts were brought up and studied. Most of the potshards were identified as black and red ware (BRW), a particular type of clay-ware unique to the South Asian region. This type of potteries goes back to the 13th century BCE. According to the comparative typological evaluation (with the typologies of the early scientific excavations in Sri Lanka and India) the shapes and the types found at the Godawaya site, the wreck has been tentatively dated at between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. The symbols carved on the stone bench also belonged to the same era. Many shipwrecks have the potshards 6 �as cooking ware but the high density of the potsherds at this site indicated that this vessel carried pottery as cargo. Further, six glazed blue bun-shaped ingots at site 2 were retrieved for further analysis. These were widely used in the pottery industry. The stone bench was identified as a quern and thought to be used for the preparation of food or medicine onboard. This assumption was discarded when we found another three similar objects in 2010. These items may also be part of a trading commodity. Materials and methods Different types of artefacts and samples have been collected from the site during the field works till 2010 for study and analysis. Some of the samples were analyzed and studied at CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Goa; Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, India and PGIAR (Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology and Atomic Energy Authority), Sri Lanka. These studies were very helpful to date and understand the shipwreck, cargo and its origin. SEM-EDS analysis Clear specimens (size 2-4 mm) of these artefacts are placed on a carbon conductive tape stuck on a nylon stub. Each specimen is mounted on a separate stub in such a way that the surface to be analyzed faces upwards. These specimens are then sputter coated with about 20-nanometer thick gold coating using a Gold sputter coater. Each coated specimen image was analyzed by SEM (model JSM 5600) with an EDS attachment (model JOEL 5800 LV). Radiocarbon dating In order to remove the extraneous material such as carbonate specks within its pores, the wood sample was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid repeatedly and washed thoroughly with de-ionized water. The powdered and dried wood sample was combusted in presence of O2 to yield CO2. The CO2 obtained was converted to benzene for 14C measurement. The 14C activities were assayed using a low background liquid scintillation counter. The calculated 14C ages were calibrated using INTCAL09. Results Copper slag - A small lump of copper was also found from the wreck site; however, the identification of the object is difficult. EDS analysis at nine spots in the copper show that major elemental oxides present in abundance are CuO, SO3 and FeO. The average 7 �weight (%) of CuO, SO3 and FeO in the copper slag is 97.92, 1.95 and 0.293 respectively (Table 4). Interestingly, CuO wt (%) values range with minimum and maximum values of 97.00 – 98.59 while FeO is present only in four spots with an average wt % of 0.293. This shows that the copper sample is not from a slag as we described earlier. The 97% of CuO and the condition of the lump shows it is not a slag. It is almost in a pure combination which is melted and purified (unless it was found from a mine in a pure state). This could be a part of a lump/chunk or an ingot which was used in the ship or transport. We found this copper lump on 15th November 2010 while we were diving at the site for a monitoring purpose. We noticed several lumps of copper on the wooden parts of the main block at the place where we took the sample. Fig. 6 Representative EDS spectrum and SEM photograph of the glass ingot. (CSIRNIO) Glass ingots -The SEM-EDS results of five spots in glass ingot show (Fig. 6) that major elemental oxides present by the abundance are SiO2, Na2O, Al2O3, CaO, FeO, K2O, CuO, TiO2, MgO in the average weight % 62.67, 12.85, 8.10, 8.07, 3.33, 1.76, 1.37, 0.63 and 0.42. Silica Oxide (SiO2) is the major component 62.67% with a narrow range of minimum and maximum values of 60.61 – 64.17 %. Titanium Oxide is present in three spots with an average value 0.63%. These glass ingots weigh about 2-3 kg and having a diameter of about 20 cm (Table 2) Iron concretion The SEM-EDS results of four spots in Iron concretion show that major elemental oxides present in abundance are FeO, SO3, SiO2, Al2O3, MgO, CaO, and K2O with the 8 �average weight (%) of 77.54, 16.48, 7.06, 2.43, 1.39, 0.93 and 0,37 respectively. Iron oxide (FeO) is the major component (Av. 77.54%) with a range of minimum and maximum values of 66.58 – 83.96 %. Conclusion Relative dating and radiocarbon dating from the wood samples shows the site is approximately 1900 years old, which means it belongs to the era in which the inscription was written. There are several questions that remain unanswered: what kind of vessel was it? What was its destination and from where was it sailing? How did it sink and how was it preserved for so long? Until we find answers to these questions we need plausible stories to fill the gaps. The main mound containing the wooden remains can be the best way to find answers. The surface observation indicates that a large part of the wreck is buried in the sediment and the extension of the site can only be determined after a more complete investigation. With the archaeological information so far investigated it has not been possible yet to determine whether this wreckage is belonging to an inbound or outbound vessel to the country. By looking at the cargo the ship was transporting would be an efficient method to get an idea in this regard. Raw ingots of copper and glaze found along with the other findings could possibly be successful indicators in solving the question raised above. Here we are trying to compare the composition of raw copper ingot found from the shipwreck with the already known characteristic composition of locally produced copper in order to determine the destination of this cargo, if possible. Identification of locally produced copper Historical records and chronicles had indicated that Sri Lanka used its own source of copper during the historical period. It is also suggested that the Seruwila is the place which produced the copper (Seneviratne, 1995: 125). The Anuradhapura Gedige excavation had proved that the copper smelting was practiced here as early as 6th – 5th Century BC (Deraniyagala, 1972: 145; Seneviratne, 1995: 123). The use of Seruwila copper for the production of bronze Buddha images during the latter part of the Anuradhapura period has been proven through scientific means which will be described later (Thantilage, 2008: 41-44, 71-76). It has been suggested that the occurrence in metal artefacts of a particular element at an unusually high concentrations may be 9 �characteristic of a particular geographic or mineralogical origin (Reedy, 1997: 83-85; Craddock and Meeks 1987: 132). The compositional characteristics of the local Seruwila copper magnetite ore source had been determined by the Geological Survey Department of Sri Lanka by analyzing the copper ore samples obtained by deep coring and had shown the copper ore from Seruwila, the only known copper deposit in Sri Lanka, contained characteristic high nickel content and cobalt, nickel elemental ratio has been calculated as between 0.43 – 0.55 (Jayawardhana and Padmasiri, 1977). The same cobalt, nickel ratio values has been successfully utilized to identify the possible ore source for some South Indian bronze images (Sirinivasan, 1999 (a) and bronze images of Sri Lanka made out of copper from the Seruwila ore source (Thantilage, 2008: 41-44, 71-76). Because of the high nickel content and consistent copper, nickel ratio the copper artefacts found from the Anuradhapura Gedige excavation are attributed as has been made from ore from the Seruwila deposit (Maliyasena, 1987). Analysis of copper Ingot from Godawaya ship In this backdrop it was decided to analyze the bronze ingot from Godawaya ship wreck for trace elements qualitatively by XRF method using the facilities at the Atomic Energy Authority, Sri Lanka. The analysis proved that nickel, the characteristic indicator of the copper from the Seruwila copper source, is not present in the copper ingot. The absence of nickel in the copper ingot from the ship wreck would be a powerful indicator to exclude the possibility of origin of the copper ingot could be Sri Lankan. If this is the case, the ingot could have been on the way to the region. It has been shown through scientific means the existence of two schools of bronze Buddha image productions during the Anuradhapura period in Sri Lanka in which one school had not used the local copper for its production (Thantilage, 2008: 96-99). The copper ingots suggest that the ship was sailing to Sri Lanka. The wreck was probably a coastal trader that sailed around the country. It may have been making for the Godawaya port aiming to travel further inland towards settlements along the river. One possibility is that cargo was loaded from Godawaya and the vessel may have been heading for the east side or the far south to the Magampura settlements or this vessel may have been involved in international trade. It may have been travelling to the east coast of India or coming from India, or leaving for Southeast Asia or a vessel of foreign origin. To find these answers 10 �we need to inspect the hull remains through the remaining wooden parts. This part needs a detailed investigation not only underwater but also by taking a few samples for analysis. Gaining insights about the shape and size of the hull planking and fastening will provide details about the construction methods and its origins and reveal information about the ships used during ancient trade. If we compare this site with other underwater archaeological sites found so far in Sri Lanka, this is a site of high significance. The wreck is a unique example of this early period from this part of the world. Our conclusions are still a work-in-progress, so dating and cargo are still under investigation. This is an initial attempt and the story of this wreck is still being written and may change as more data comes to light – this is the story of maritime archaeology. Table 1. Detailed dimension and weight of glass ingots retrieved from the wreck site. Table 2. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of glass ingot. 11 �Table 3. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of Iron concretion. 12 �Table 4. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of copper slag. Acknowledgements Special thanks go to the Physical Research laboratory, Ahmedabad and Dr. A. S. Gaur, CSIR- NIO, Goa for analyzing the samples. Authors are also thankful to the funding agencies including the UNESCO and The Netherlands as well to other participants who partook in the exploration of the shipwreck. References Craddock, P. T., and Meeks, N. D., 1987. Iron in ancient copper. Archaeometry, Vol. 29 (2): Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford University, UK. Deraniyagala, S., 1972. The Citadel of Anuradhapura 1969: Excavation in the Gedige Area. Ancient Ceylon No. 2, Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka: 145. Geiger, W., 1912. 1983. The Mahavamsa or the Great Chronicle of Ceylon XXXV, (Reprinted) from London 1980 and New Delhi. Jayawardhana, D. E., de S., Padmasiri S., 1977. Report on the Copper Magnetite at Seruwila Arippu Prospec”, Geological Survey Departmentm of Ceylon, Sri Lanka. Maliyasena, H. B., 1987. Metallurgical and Archaeological studies of some iron objects from the 1969 Anuradhapura Citadel (Gedige area) excavation in Seminar on the Archaeometallurgy of Sri Lanka, September 1987, IFS Kandy. Paranavithana, S., 1970. Inscriptions of Ceylon. Containing cave inscriptions from 3rd century BC to 1st century AD and other inscriptions in the Early Brahmi script, Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 13 �Paranavithana, S., 1983. Inscriptions of Ceylon. Containing Rock and other Inscriptions from the Reign of Kutakanna Abhaya (41 BC-19 BC) to Bhatiya II (140-164 AD), Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Roth, H., Kessler, O., Recker, U., and Wijeyapala. 2001. The Gadawaya Harbour Site. Report on the excavations 1994-97. In H. J. Weisshar, H. Roth, and W. Wijepala (Eds.), Ancient Ruhuna, A Sri Lanka-German Archaeological Project in the Southern Province, Vol. l, Verlag Philipp Von Zabern, Mainz Am Rhein: 291-326. Reedy, C. L., 1997. Himalayan Bronzes Technology, Style and Choices. University of Delaware Press. Seneviratne, S. 1995. The Ecology and Archaeology of the Seruwila copper magnetite prospect northeast Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities, Vol. 21 (1-2), University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Sirinivasan, S., 1999. Lead Isotope and Trace Element analysis in the study of over hundred South Indian metal icons. Archaeometry, Vol. 41 (1): 91-116. Somadeva, R., 2006. Urban origins in Southern Sri Lanka. Department of Archaeology and Ancient History Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. Thantilage, A. 2008. An Archaeo-metallurgical Investigation of Sri Lankan Historical Bronzes, PhD Thesis (unpublished), Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. Biography Rasika Muthucumarana is a maritime archaeologist working at Maritime Archaeology Unit, of the Central Cultural Fund, the custodian agency for the UNESCO world heritage sites in Sri Lanka. He has obtained special Degree in archaeology at the University of Peradeniya, then joined the Avondster Project, which was the first field operation of the MAU. Since then he has been conducting most of the underwater archaeological projects of Sri Lanka and some of the UNESCO field school projects. Apart from underwater explorations, excavations and conservation, he is devoted to developing field archaeology and human resources of the MAU. Rasika is also a professional photographer and a landscape artist who loves to travel and stay close to nature. 14 �Arjuna Thanthilage is a senior lecture at the Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) at the University of Kelaniya. He has got his degree and masters from University of Colombo for Physical Science and Analytical Chemistry, then began his career as a research assistant at the PGIAR and has obtained his PhD in 2008 on Archaeometallurgy. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The missing crafts of Sri Lankan waters Description An account of the resource The artefacts were slowly removed and brought up one by one; certainly, they had been undisturbed for nearly two thousand years. The wreck and some of its cargo were analyzed and radiocarbon dated, and the results make the Godawaya wooden wreck found from the seabed of south Sri Lanka, the oldest shipwreck in the Asia- pacific region. The inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. But we weren’t able to find the cargo or the ships that sailed through until 2008. This valuable wooden wreck was first found by two conch divers and later explored by the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka (henceforth MAU). Analyzing and artefact research were done not only to find the chronological order, but also to discover a hidden chapter on maritime activities and ship building techniques used in this region. The artefacts appear to be originally of the Indian subcontinent region; hence, it is possible that the origin of the ship may be traced to this region. A large number of potshards and stone quern indicate that these items may also be part of a trading commodity. The major part of the wreckage needs to be identified and that will reveal the kind of cargo ships used to carry at that time. The paper aims at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the results of analyzing the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rasika Muthucumarana Arjuna Thanthilage, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Arabia to China: The Oriental Traditions Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jeremy Green Robert Gardiner Arne Emil Christensen Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Jeremy Green Editor Robert Gardiner Arne Emil Christensen Item Type Book Section Book Title The Earliest Ships: The Evolution of Boats into Ships Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Pages Chapter 6 Place Annapolis, Md. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Title A name given to the resource Arabia to China: The Oriental Traditions China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fishing Villages in Tokugawa, Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arne Kalland Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Hawai'i Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Arne Kalland Item Type Book ISBN 0824816323 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 355 Place Honolulu Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Hawai'i Press Title A name given to the resource Fishing Villages in Tokugawa, Japan Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Anabasis of Alexander and Indica Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arrian P.A. Brunt Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-00-83 1976-83 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Arrian Translator P.A. Brunt Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-00-83 1976-83 Number of Volumes 2 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Title A name given to the resource The Anabasis of Alexander and Indica Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Old Friends, New Enemies: The Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arthur Jacob Marder Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford : Clarendon Press ; New York : Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1981-1990 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Arthur Jacob Marder Item Type Book ISBN 0198226047 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1981-1990 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford : Clarendon Press ; New York : Oxford University Press Short Title Old Friends, New Enemies Title A name given to the resource Old Friends, New Enemies: The Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/738da1a7dd3550fbe8c9a4ab52684822.pdf 03523ae1fc652b55b239e7ce856e0f27 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 8: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in South East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract South East Asia is an Asian Sub Region with 11 countries with an area of 8.94 million square kilometres, and its water areas covering the China Sea, the Java Sea, the Sulu Sea, the Philippine Waters, the Celebes Sea, the Banda Sea, the Flores Sea, the Arafura Sea, the Timor Sea, and the Andaman Sea. With a total area of 2.5 % of the surface of all oceans in the world, South East Asia is a large sub region in the world which its waters and coastal areas are very rich in underwater and maritime cultural heritage. Underwater heritage in South East Asia are diverse and come from various times, namely from ancient Southeast Asian kingdoms, the European colonialism period, to World War II, which consisted of traditional ships of the South East Asian countries, Chinese junks China, Spanish Galleons and Naos, ships from the Middle East, VOC and EIC vessels; historic ships, planes, submarines during World War II; and also the remains of human settlements in the past or submerged landscape. The session will explore the richness of maritime history and the legacy of underwater and maritime cultural heritage in the countries of South East Asia. This South East Asian Session also seeks papers to be presented on the current development of underwater and maritime archaeology in South East Asia including the latest results of researches, studies, and projects of protection, preservation, sustainable use of underwater heritage, and the development of innovation and technology applying in the fields of underwater and maritime archaeology in various institutions in South East Asian countries. Moreover, the challenges, current threats, and any shortcomings that are currently being hot issues facing by South East Asian countries regionally, such as massive plundering of historic wrecks, destructive activities on shipwreck sites, natural disasters affecting underwater and maritime heritage, lack of long-term site monitoring and inappropriate management of underwater heritage will also be the focus of discussion in this session. This South East Asian Session also encourages the presentation of studies or projects on community engagement and opening access for the public in managing a sustainable underwater heritage in South East Asian countries, where the role of the local community is significant and can assist in determining the sustainability or the destruction of underwater and maritime heritage sites. Session Organiser: Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Canthik: A Figurehead on Javanese Maritime Culture Description An account of the resource Canthik, the Javanese figurehead, is one of maritime’s archaeological data that is seldom discussed. Less than five of them have been recorded in the archaeological record, and all are kept in the museums. One of these is currently stored in Museum Sonobudoyo, Yogyakarta. To date, the description of the object is limited to a decorated object that is placed on the stern of a boat. The canthik can, arguably, be removed from one boat’s extremity to the other, depends on which one serves as the bow. It has a form of a mythological creature and is believed to bring protection to navigation. This paper aims to discuss the function of the figurehead, as well as the symbol it represents since Canthik has always been regarded as a sacred object in the Javanese community. This paper will further discuss what type of boat the figurehead is associated with and the kind of activities that these boats participated in. A comparison to figureheads from other regions, such as Europe, China, and Polynesia will be presented to explore possible answers to the aforementioned questions. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ashar Murdihastomo Ayu Dipta Kirana Shinatria Adhityatama Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Murdihastomo, Ashar, Ayu Dipta Kirana, and Shinatria Adhityatama. 2021. “Canthik: A Figurehead on Javanese Maritime Culture.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/686 Asia-Pac Session 8 2021 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Introduction Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource M. N. Pearson Ashin Das Gupta M.N. Pearson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1987 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author M. N. Pearson Editor Ashin Das Gupta M.N. Pearson Item Type Book Section Book Title India and the Indian Ocean 1500-1800 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1987 Place Calcutta Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Title A name given to the resource Introduction India