69 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c79bd9cbbffd4c481955de83e9e50081.pdf c7da8baf056a35586964d3c3220d2cde PDF Text Text Protection of Catalina Wreck Site in Biak Water and Rehabilitation of the Surrounding Marine Environment Zainab Tahir Abstract Over more than a decade ago a United States of America’s (USA) Air Force aircraft was found underwater off the coast of Biak in West Papua. The aircraft is believed to be Pby Catalina, a WWII amphibious bomber aircraft. When the Papua Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries operated regular monitoring for marine ecosystems in Biak waters the team recorded severe problems with marine life directly associated to the waters surrounding the Catalina Wreck Site. National and Local government have been working together since 2010 to manage the underwater heritage and the marine environment in an integrated way. It is aimed that integrated management of the site will preserve the historical value of the WWII remains and rehabilitate the surrounding marine environment. Rehabilitation involves the establishment of coral gardens surrounding the wreckage of the aircraft. My intention in this paper is to present the plans of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries to recover the coral reef to a healthy condition, to protect the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to manage the area for reasonable use. Introduction Nowadays, the site popularly known as Catalina Wreck Site (CWS) has become one of the biggest attractions to tourists in the West Papua area. It was probably shot down by the Japanese during WWII when the islands of Biak were used as a base by both the USA and Japanese forces. The USA Air Force was based on Owi Island which is less than 10 nautical miles from the Island of Biak where the Japanese were stationed. The sunken aircraft is located between these two islands and is still intact because it is lying in relatively calm water which is only less than 30 meters deep. In addition to the presence of the WWII remains, Biak waters have a variety of marine biodiversity. However, when the team from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries conducted regular monitoring of the marine ecosystem they found severe problems with the underwater life and especially surrounding the CWS. It was assumed this was cased by destructive fishing activities including the use of dynamite. These activities have caused severe damage to the coral reefs, this has left only a remaining 20% healthy coral surrounding the entire Biak Island (Research Center for Maritime Territory and Non Living Resources 2006). �Figure 1. Catalina from the top part (left). General Condition of Coral Reefs Along the Site (right) (photographs taken by Cipto A.Gunawan, 2009) Since 2010 the National and Local Government have attempted to manage the underwater resources in an integrated way. One long-term goal of the management is to set up the area as a Maritime Conservation Area within which the WWII remains and coral reefs would be managed and protected for reasonable use. The practical idea to remedy this particular marine ecosystem is to establish coral gardens. Other advantages of creating these artificial reefs are increasing local economic growth through creating a tourist attraction and raising the awareness of local people and to engender respect for their heritage as well as the marine environment. On the other hand, based on regulations, extending some features surrounding cultural sites means changing the original landscape and this is prohibited. The Governmental Decree No.10/1993 chapter 29 on the Explanation of Law No.5/1992 of Cultural Protection Objects declared that the activities classified as damaging actions are reducing, extending, changing, moving and polluting a protected heritage, however, this policy is not set in stone, the other chapters (chapter 22 and 23) point out that in order to protect and maintain the cultural heritage, development is allowed with certain restrictions, taking consideration of the site and environmental boundaries. Moreover, this is reinforced by the new Law No.11/2010 on Cultural Protection, stating that in order to preserve its sustainability as well as to benefit the community; the development of cultural sites is permitted with strict terms and conditions. Establishing a set of plans is a significant step in order to bridge the regulations, the protection of the CWS and the rehabilitation of the coral reefs. One of the plans is a zoning system. This is a spatial planning approach which divides areas into different zones based on their characteristics and functions. Jon Day (2002:141) pointed out that, “managing marine areas refers to the concept of ‘zoning’ to separate conflicting uses or to keep sensitive, ecologically valuable or recovering areas free from use”. Examples of how to protect a cultural site can be found in the management of terrestrial heritage sites in Indonesia. For example, the Borobudur temple uses zoning plans and other policies on access to better control the impacts of humans or the environment on the site. This World Heritage Listed site is divided into the following five zones: Zone 1 is a strict protection zone at a radius of approximately 200m from the temple; Zone 2 is the �buffer zone established 500m from the core zone and open for visitors, facilities and the office; the other three zones, which are at a variety of radial, contain some protected cultural sites (Baiquni 2009). In Indonesia zoning plans are popularly implemented for terrestrial archaeological sites, land and marine national parks, urban planning and other industries (such as mining). Implementation of this style of management to underwater cultural sites is indeed a new task to all parties, including the government. This country has a huge number of historical submerged sites which are supposed to be protected with the intention for long-lasting future existence and to be managed for its benefit to local communities. Therefore, establishing the plans for the site management is crucial to bring into an action. In this case the Catalina Wreck Site would be a pilot project. “Zoning” is a popular term used for spatial planning. Act No.27/2007 on Management of Coastal Zone and Small Islands defined it as “a spatial engineering technique in dividing zones based on its resources and its “carrying capacity””, and zoning plan is a set of plans ruled whether the activities are allowed or not in the determined zones. Generally, it is divided into three areas: first, the core zone; and second, the protected area, aimed to preserve important objects or ecosystem; third, is a buffer or supporting zone. An example for Zone 2 is David.H. Williamson’s (2004) Marine Park “no take” zone, it is a location allocated only for the preservation of marine biodiversity. In Borobudur Zoning Plans, this zone is multi-functional with particular restrictions located a half kilometer from the temple. It is almost the same as what Day (2002) pointed out about the buffer zone of the Great Barrier Reefs, in that it allows for commercial and recreational activities but restricts shipping, trawling, oil drilling and mining. The third zone is rehabilitation or development; according to the Ministerial Decree of Ministry of Forestry No.P.56/Menhut-II/2006, all rehabilitation activities such as recovering the devastated ecosystems are suggested for inclusion in this zone. Considering these regulations in managing the CWS and rehabilitating the marine ecosystem the following zoning model and coral reef recovering method is presented. Zoning Plans Zoning is a cornerstone of area management. The Great Barrier Reef is a remarkable example for its zoning plans. They are aimed to conserve, to regulate the use of the Marine Park while “allowing reasonable use, to regulate the activities that exploit the resources as well as to minimize the effect of those activities, to reserve the areas for public appreciation and enjoyment, and finally to preserve the resources in its pristine undisturbed condition except for the purposes of scientific research” (Kenchington 1990 in Day 2002). Zoning is also implemented to minimize conflict of use. �Figure 2. The sceme of coral garden (Designed by I Ketut Sudiarta) There are three main objectives in the creation of zones in the CWS. Firstly, protect the underwater cultural heritage. Secondly, conserve the marine ecosystem. Thirdly, manage the reasonable use by visitors and local community. Table 1 (below) illustrates the zoning plans of CWS, divided into four major categories: Activities Coral Transplantation Diving Coral Adopt Memorial Stone Table 1. Zoning Matrix of the CWS Protection Buffer Rehabilitation Utilization Zone Zone Zone Zone No No Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Notes: • • • • Protection Zone is the zone where the UCH “Catalina Wreck Site” is spotted. Strict entry for tourism is allowed in this area, however, fishing and all extensions such as establishing a coral garden are prohibited to a certain width. Strict entry means it is a “look but don’t touch” zone, in which all forms of extraction (including fishing) are prohibited. Buffer Zone, in this area all activities are prohibited in the protection Zone. It provides support to the protection zone. Rehabilitation Zone is part of the area where the marine ecosystems are severely damaged and need to be recovered if it is to continue existence. In this area establishment of coral garden is part of the long-term plan. Utilization Zone. As it seen from the scheme above, this zone is divided into two parts, first is creative zone aimed at encouraging local communities to recruit and grow coral as an coral ornament for aquarium; the second is Catalina Reef Aware concerned in the persuation and introduction to tourists in the adoption of coral reefs. �Rehabilitation William Precht (1998) mentioned two options of recovering coral reefs: first is rehabilitation, “enhancing natural recovery through substrate stabilization”, and the second is restoration, which means, “reestablishing the structural, biological and aesthetical aspect of the reefs”. Helen E. Fox, et.al (2005) suggested that rehabilitation is more practical and costs less than the restoration option. Rehabilitation of the marine ecosystem is a recovery process of the damaged environment to revive its existence. However, restoring damaged coral reefs are complicated. Sometimes specific corals are unsuccessfully transplanted (Clark and Edwards 1995; Harriot and Fisk 1995; Edward and Clark 1998 in Fox, et al. 2005). There are some methods that have been implemented such as cultivation of coral gardens through transplantation (Harriot and Fisk 1995; Rinkevich 2000 in Fox, et al. 2005) and another different technique that accelerates the growth of recruited coral (Hilbertz 1992; Van Treeck and Schuhmacher 1997; Van Treeck and Schuhmacher 1999 in Fox, et al. 2005). According to Mark Baine (2001) “rehabilitation” means creation of artificial coral reefs, protection of coastal areas, conservation of the sea life and providing new tourist attractions (which can generate market impacts to gain local economic growth). National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2007) guide states that, properly constructed, and strategically sited artificial reefs can enhance fish habitats, provide more access to quality fishing grounds, benefit fishermen and the economies of shore communities, increase total fish biomass within a given area, and provide managers with another option for the conservation and management of fishery resources. The term rehabilitation can also be used in the sense to mitigate the loss of the habitats. James Spurgeon and Ulf Lindahl (2000) pointed out that “manipulation” of the coral habitat is a popular experimental option to manage and conserve coral reefs. Relocating and fixing it to the particular substrate is one of the methods to recover this habitat. However, policy of restoring or rehabilitating coral reefs should be standardized by the government. An example of which is what Ministry of Environment in Japan has done by arranging manual for restoration and remediation of coral reefs done by Japan Government (Ministry of Environment, 2004). In the USA, the government has developed an approach that considers biological and economic information to assess the significance of ecosystem restoration, known as Habitat Equivalency Analysis (HEA) (Unsworth and Bishop 1994; Milon and Dodge in press; Spurgeon and Lindahl 2000:132). NOAA’s (2007) guideline established important aspects to consider in the success of artificial reefs “manipulation habitats” such as sitting, material and design, regulatory requirement, construction, management and liability. In the CWS transplantation plans are based on the considerations of the ecosystem recovery, the opportunity to gain local economic growth and raising awareness of the local community, as well as protection of the UCH. The methods which are planned are divided into two major parts. Firstly, the Rehabilitation Base, which is located approximately at 15 to 20 meters depth. �This area has provided for a coral garden. The design is about block writing “CATALINA BIAK”. This consists of two different parts and different material block and writing. The block is formed by a hard structure, while the writing is from specific pipes (Term of Reference of Directorate of Coastal and Ocean Affairs 2010). Figure 3. Models of the artificial reefs structure’s block (designed by Dondy Arafat). The transplant corals, which placed on the block, are taken from rare deep coral species that grow in Biak waters. The types of the species (sp) (hard coral, soft coral dan googonian) are lobophytum strictum, Blastomussa sp, Caulastrea sp, Nepthea sp (Research Center for Maritime Territory and Non Living Resources 2006). Secondly is the involvement of the community base which provides location of creative zone and adopt coral or Catalina Reef Aware to encourage people participating in planting corals. For example, in a creative area located in 3 – 5 m depth the local community is persuaded to grow various types of coral ornaments, which can be managed as an alternative livelihood. It also can generate an embryo or source of the next coral transplantation. However, in the Catalina Reef Aware Zone, located in 5 – 10 m, tourists are offered to buy recruited coral and tag their name in each as personal memories. This method was successfully implemented in Sanur – Bali (I Ketut Sudiarta, 2009). Additionally, as a tourist attraction, coral transplantation also reduces the strength of the coastal current in this area. It must be stated that remarkable achievement of coral rehabilitation could not be generalized due to the different conditions of each environment. The coral reefs recovery program and the protection of the CWS have long-term targets to achieve. All above-mentioned plans are starting points in the recognition of the area as a Maritime Conservation Area. Maritime Conservation Area “Maritime Conservation Area” (MCA), is a title found in Ministerial Decree of Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries No. 17/2008 concerning Conservation of Coastal Zone and Small Islands. It is defined as “certain area which legally stated to protect the existing traditional maritime custom and maritime archaeological �site which is closely related to the conservation of coastal and small islands”. Basically, the concept is a similar to the Marine Protected Area (MPA) as a conservation tool in locations to limit public access in order to improve its sustainability. However, MPAs are mostly used to determine locations where fishing activities are socially and economically important (Sutton and Tobin 2004), while MCAs rely on the presence of the maritime heritage whether its tangible, such as coastal and underwater cultural sites, or intangible, for instance its traditional or local wisdom related to maritime aspects. According to the Ministerial Decree (2008), Maritime Conservation Area is classified into two categories; first is protected area of intangible maritime heritage, and the second is protected area of tangible maritime heritage. The CWS and the surrounding area’s long term goals fall within the second category. Establishing the MCA requires the following systematic stages (Figure 4): • collection of data related to the biophysics of the area and the ecosystems, social economic and culture of the local community, local policies in order to support conservation program; collecting general data such as history, position and boundary of the site, providing thematic and bathymetric map of the site and the related area. • survey and significant assessment aims to verify and collect data from the field, such as climate, coastal and oceanography, social economic of the community, infrastructures, cultural sites and urban development planning. Based on survey results and the available data, significance of the marine ecosystems, social economic and cultural aspects are assessed to measure the feasibility of the establishment of the MCA, as well as, the extent of coverage for the protected area; • public consultation to obtain input from the local community, as well as to educate people about policy of the protection of the marine environment and UCH; • recommendation to the authority whether to endorse or not. All stages above are suggested be done or facilitated by local government who proposes the establishment of the maritime conservation area. In the case of the long term five year program of the CSW, some stages such as collecting data were done in 2010 and the public consultation is planned in this year. However, the involvement of local community still needs to be refined. Maritime Conservation Area Collecting Data Survey and Significant Assessment Public Consultation Recommendation Figure 4. Diagram of the MCA systematic stages (Ministrial Decree 2008). �Conclusion The purpose of the management of the CWS and its surrounding marine environment are to conserve its present state and to preserve its sustainability for future generations. Furthermore, the CWS is part of several significant sites in Biak Island related to the WWII. In consideration of the evidence provided in this paper one could conclude that regional protection is required in this area. However, the plan of this small project is expected more systematic than its current plan to provide an advanced management plan before establishing it as a MCA. Introducing the program to the local community and ensuring their involvement from the beginning should be integrated into part of the plans. Another concern is the arrangement of related guidelines such as artificial reef guidelines and diving in/on the UCH. By managing WWII remains in Indonesia the country’s officials can provide an opportunity for future WWII sites to establish mutual heritage center for WWII remains and conduct a heritage trail join-program between Asia Pacific countries to introduce the existences of the heritage, widely. Bibliography Baine, M., 2001 “Artificial reefs: A Review of Their Design, Application, Management and Performance”, Ocean & Coastal Management 44, pp. 241-259. Baiquni, M., Belajar dari Pasang Surut Peradaban Borobudur dan Konsep Pengembangan Pariwisata Borobudur, Forum 2009 Geografi, Vol 23, no. 1, July 2009, pp. 25-40. Zoning: Lessons from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Day, J. C., Ocean & Coastal Zone Management. Staff Paper 2002-20. 2002 In press Fox, H. E., et al “Experimental Assessment of Coral Reefs Rehabilitation Following Blast Fishing”, Conservation Biology, Vol.19, pp. 2005 98, 1 Feb 2005 I Ketut Sudiarta “Konsep Pengembangan Coral Garden”, Presented in Marine Tourism Workshop, 13 October 2005. 2009 “The Art and Science of Reef Restoration”, in Geotime, 43, Precht, W., 1998 pp.16-20 Spurgeon, J., and Economics of coral reef restoration, pp.132 Lindahl, U., <http://www.oceandocs.net/bitstream/1834/564/1/cesar_12 2000 .pdf>, retrieved at 30 August 2011. Sutton, S. G., and “Recreational Fishers’ Attitudes Towards the 2004 Tobin, R., Rezoning of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park”, Environmental Conservation 36, 3, pp.245–252. 2009 Foundation for Environmental Conservation December 2009. Cultural Protection Act 2010, No.11. The Government of Indonesia 2010 �The Government of Indonesia 2007 The Government of Indonesia 1993 The Ministry of Forestry, the Government of Indonesia 2006 Research Center for Maritime Territory and Non Living Resources, The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, the Government of Indonesia 2006 The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, the Government of Indonesia 2008 The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, the Government of Indonesia 2010 United States Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2007 Williamson, D.H., Russ, G.R., and Ayling, A.M., 2004 Management of Coastal Zone and Small Islands Act 2007, No.27 The Governmental Decree 1993, No.10, the Explanation of Cultural Protection Object Act 1992, No.5. The Ministerial Decree on Zoning Guidelines in National Park 2006, No.P.56/Menhut-II “Inventory of Carrying Capacity of Cendrawasih Bay”, Final Report. The Ministerial Decree on Conservation of Coastal Zone and Small Islands 2008, No. 17 Term of Reference of Directorate of Coastal and Ocean Affairs 2010. National Artificial Reef Plan (as Amended): Guidelines for Siting, Construction, Development, and Assessment of Artificial Reefs. United States Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Athmospheric Administration. “No-Take Marine Reserves Increase Abundance and Biomass of Reef Fish on Inshore Fringing Reefs of the Great Barrier Reef”, Environmental Conservation 31 (2): pp149–159. Foundation for Environmental Conservation 2004. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/94c88484552b33daedb0c74a71388300.jpg 0f91ad9ec3e6de2e3e55ebe4284d91f1 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Protection of Catalina Wreck Site in Biak Water and Rehabilitation of the Surrounding Marine Environment Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource Over more than a decade ago a United States of America’s (USA) Air Force aircraft was found underwater off the coast of Biak in West Papua. The aircraft is believed to be a PBY Catalina, a WWII amphibious bomber aircraft. When the Papua Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries operated regular monitoring for marine ecosystems in Biak waters the team recorded severe problems with marine life directly associated to the waters surrounding the Catalina Wreck Site. National and Local government have been working together since 2010 to manage the underwater heritage and the marine environment in an integrated way. It is aimed that integrated management of the site will preserve the historical value of the WWII remains and rehabilitate the surrounding marine environment. Rehabilitation involves the establishment of coral gardens surrounding the wreckage of the aircraft. My intention in this paper is to present the plans of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries to recover the coral reef to a healthy condition, to protect the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to manage the area for reasonable use. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zainab Tahir Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/708b4dbbe6bc70240824e2adba5ea2c7.pdf 7f76272b6c6a6bc27bc51a651cf0ba4d PDF Text Text Cultural attitude and values towards underwater cultural heritage and its influences on the management actions in Indonesia Zainab Tahir Directorate of Coast and Marine Affairs, Jakarta, Indonesia 10110 zen02zen@yahoo.com Abstract Understanding attitudes and values towards underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is critical element in determining appropriate approaches to a wide variety of planning and management actions. Management actions such as gaining support to protecting historic shipwreck and its associated relics, designing and implementing new management methods depend on an understanding of cultural norms and values of their success. In Indonesia, historic shipwrecks and its associated relics are managed through two different policies. Cultural protection Act 11/2010 mandates protection on cultural heritage including underwater remains, and Presidential Decree 19/2009, regulated commercial management processes, incorporating UCH as marine resources with potential economic value, which might contribute to community welfare. These two paradoxical procedures have raised long debate between stakeholders, including government agencies. Using individual interview, this paper attempts to understand cultural attitudes and values towards shipwreck and its relics in related government agencies in Indonesia, in which resulting the two deferent management approaches. Furthermore, this writing also examines the possible influences of these policies on the current management of UCH in this country. Key words: historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, intrinsic value, commercial interest, private company Introduction Substantial amount of underwater cultural heritage in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are predicted lying off Indonesian Water. This form has lost mainly due to natural or accidental causes. Currently, there are twenty underwater sites documented, spreading from South China Sea to Java Sea.The character of the wrecks varies from one another. For example, the Cirebon wreck, found in Java Sea, is a 10 th century wooden shipwreck containing large amount of artifacts from Five Dynasty Chinese ceramics to glass bottle from Iran, enriched history of an ancient trade in �maritime silk road, while in Tulamben, Bali lies beneath the water a World War II transport ship the USAT Liberty. Each wreck has its story, comprising valuable knowledge, technology and culture from specific periods and place, assigning it not only exceptional and irreplaceable (Smith & Couper, 2003) but also finite. Therefore, some experts assert that historic shipwrecks are human legacy and it deserves protection and management, ensuring these heritage is interpreted and shared with the wide public and preserved for the benefit of present and future generations (Jameson and Scott-Ireton 2007; Spirek and Scott-Ireton 2003 see in (Leshikar-Denton, 2010). However, beside the concern of safeguarding the UCH, there is a distinct-profit interest towards historic shipwrecks. It is likely related to a different value assigned to the objects by different parties. Delgado (1988) examines the monetary benefit provided by historic shipwrecks, in particular its cargoes, besides cultural, historical, archaeological, aesthetic and recreational (Delgado, 1988). Public has witnessed how the Geldermalsen and Vung Tau were priced $16 million and $7,2 million respectively in the auction house. Some people have seen this commercial interestas threat against preservation and protection of the heritage. Kaoru and Hoagland (1994) supported that those values can overlap considerably causing conflict among parties over appropriate use of historic shipwrecks (Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). Overlapping interest towards historic shipwreck and its cargoes become an interesting issue on managing underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia. Legally, there are two distinct policies imposed in regard to managing underwater artifacts. First is a policy places this heritage as significant cultural, archaeological and historical remains required preservation and protection, while the other policy has governed the objects as marine resources with physical value, allowing consumptive use of the heritage �i . Hypothetically, this paradoxical management type is influenced by knowledge, perception and attitude of people in a policy making level. Some studies have shown that people’s perceptions and attitudes towards particular objects or management issues are shaped by their knowledge, educational background, socio economic factors or management intervention (Allendorf et al. 2006; Shrestha and Alavalapati 2006; Xu et al. 2006; Alkan et al., 2009; Shibia 2010 see in (Htun, Mizoue, & Yoshida, 2012).This paper is about to portray and compare perceptions and attitudes of decision making level officers from two institutions in Indonesia, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF), and Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC), towards an underwater cultural heritage and its current management. Both institutions plays significant role in managing UCH in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in this country. The result of the study might provide preliminary insight and support in developing appropriate management strategies towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia Methods Policies towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia Shipwrecks exploration in Indonesian water has a long history, started from the exploitation of the Geldermalsen in 1986. Before this period, there was no specific national mandatory on managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (Tanudirjo, 2008)). Discovery of the Geldermalsen and the fantastic value of its cargoes became an eyeopening reality to the government in regard to the significance of historic shipwrecks, particularly its cargoes (Tanudirjo, 2008). In 1989, the Presidential Decree concerning Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship commanded the government to form a special committee, which has responsibility to manage the cargoes discovered from shipwrecks, included permitting its exploration and exploitation (Decree No. 49, 1989) ii. Since then, the monetary interest of underwater cargoes has become a concern inmanagingthe UCH in Indonesia.Three years later, in 1992, Act concerning Protection of Cultural heritage had been released under Ministry of Education and Culture, and it mandated a protection of cultural resources in land and underwater (Act 5, 1992)iii. The Act was revised in 2010 through Act 10/2010 and this new is clearly prohibited transferring cultural objects to other countries for any purposes but education and research. 815 �However, another new act concerning Coastal Management (Act 27, 2007), released under Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, classifies historic shipwreck and its cargoes as marine resources, in which the protection and economic concerns can be mutually managed. Sample and Data Collection Perception and attitudes of the government officers from the two ministries regarding underwater cultural heritage were measured by a personal interview, using questionnaire. The questionnaires consisted of three sections, first is started questions to identify general knowledge about the valuable cargoes from shipwrecks, answered in Yes, No and Not Sure; the section 2 is 15 major statements covered in 3 parts, part 1 is meant to gauge perceptions on the state of the significance of an underwater heritage, part 2 scales the attitudes towards the current management of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, and the last part is to identify responses on the management implication; then the section 3 is personal information. Perceptions and attitudes were measured by asking respondents to rate statements using Likert-type scale from 1 (Strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (not sure), 4 (agree) and 5 (strongly agree), few statements used strongly unacceptable to strongly acceptable form. The questionnaires were closed type, however few parts of the section 2, the respondents were given space to provide comments. The respondents were gathered using non-probability method, with purposive sampling technique (Kumar, 2013). This paper only examined perception and attitudes of the decision making level officers (i.e. Head of Unit, Deputy Director and Director) from Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) and Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC), focusing to the unit or directorate that has closely responsible in managing underwater cultural heritage. From MMAF, 9 high official members of Directorate of Coastal and Marine Affairs were chosen, while in the MEC, the target respondents were Deputy Directors of Directorate of Culture and Head of the Preservation and Protection of Cultural Resources Office. The total respondents from the two institutions were 18 people. Result The first section, the respondents were asked four general questions with a Yes, No or 816 �Not sure answer to assess their understanding of the status of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes in Indonesia. Respondents who answered “yes” were preceded to the section 2 enquiring their perceptions and attitudes towards management of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes and the implication. In general, as it is written in table 1, all respondents from both institutions distinguished that historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are not only important but also protected. They also have knowledge, that these historic objects are opened for commercial purposes. Table 1. General understanding on the status of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Questions on survey instrument Percentage Yes Do you know about the valuable objects from the sunken ship or commonly known as BMKT? 100 Do you think historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are important? 100 Do you know historic shipwrecks and its cargoes are protected? 100 Do you know some of the cargoes, discovered from historic shipwrecks could be sent off to auction? 94,4 Perceptions of the officers on the significant values of an underwater cultural heritage Concerning the significant value of an UCH in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, the respondents were asked to scale 4 statements. These statements are narrowed to portray perceptions of the officers towards the consumptive use and the non-use value of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (See (Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). The results as indicated in table 2 show the officers from both institutions have strong agreement on valuing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Both of them are aware that there are several different values attached to these entities. Shipwrecks and its cargoes are historically and culturally significant, framing intrinsic quality of maritime past, as many experts support that historic shipwrecks are a closed context reflecting the society of the time; it has the potential to provide information about the people on board, ship construction, navigation technology, and the goods it was transporting; however, beside those essential value, it also have short term economic opportunities gained from this 817 �historic object (See (Delgado, 1988; Huang, 2013; Hutchinson, 1996; Kaoru & Hoagland, 1994). Table 2. Perceptions of the officers on the significant values of the UCH Statement On survey instrument Protecting underwater cultural heritage is important (i.e. historic shipwrecks and its cargoes) because it has historical value By managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes provide livelihood and other economic opportunities. The government should protect historic shipwreck and its cargoes in order to preserve national and cultural identity. Artifacts from historic shipwreck, such as ceramics and jewellery, are highly valuable in the antique market. Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 0 0 0 0 0 0 22.2 0.0 77.8 100 0.958 0 0 0 0 0 0 66.7 6.0 33.3 33.3 0.853 0 0 0 0 0 0 55.6 33.3 44.4 66.7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 22.2 88.9 77.8 11.1 0.160 n1 = 9 (respondent from MMAF), n2 = 9 (respondent from MEC); 1 - 5 = likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = not sure, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree; Correl. = Correlation Perceptions of the officers on the current management of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Currently, private company funds exploration of shipwrecks in Indonesian water. Consequently, they have rights to own 50% of the cargoes or 50% generated from the selling artifacts. The five statements in the questionnaire tried to explore how decisions making level officers perceive the involvement of the third party in exploring historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, auctioning the artifacts, and an appropriate funding source. In response to the statements, as it is shown in the table 3, the respondents from both institutions scaled strongly agree to agree that the government has responsibility to provide funding support to exploring and managing the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. However, interestingly, when they were giving an option whether the fund for exploration should be provided by the government or private, the responses were varied, 33,3% officers from MMAF agreed the exploration should be funded by the government, 33% of it opposed the idea and 22,2% was not sure. 55,6% from MEC preferred the private as fund source, instead of the government, yet 22% strongly agreed if the fund 818 �support is from the state, while 11% was not sure. Even though, more than half of MEC’s respondent agreed the private providing fund for exploration, there were 33,3% of them refused the involvement of the third party would assist to manage and preserve historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Table 3. General Knowledge on the Status of Historic Shipwrecks and its cargoes Statement On survey instrument Exploration of shipwrecks and its cargoes should be conducted and funded by government not by private company. National policy allows private company to perform recovery excavation of historic shipwrecks and auction its cargoes off; then the selling income will be shared between government and private company. We can auction off artefacts discovered from one shipwreck as long as the national museum has pick the Significant Representative Collection. The government has responsibility to provide funding support to explore and manage historic shipwreck and its cargoes To help managing and preserving historic shipwreck and its cargoes in Indonesian water is by involving third party or private company to explore it Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 11. 1 0.0 33.3 55.6 22.2 11.1 33.3 11.1 0 22.2 0 22.2 11.1 56.7 0 0 55.6 22.2 33.3 0 -0.067 0 0 0 77.8 0 0 44.4 11.1 55.6 11.1 -0.24 0 0 11.1 0.0 0 0 44.4 55.6 44.4 44.4 0.970 0 0 0 33.3 22.2 11.1 66.7 44.4 11.1 11.1 0.659 0.476 Furthermore, the biggest difference between the officers from the two institutions is when they were asked their perception on getting the artifacts off to auction. Even though, the unique and rare pieces must be list as state property and prohibit for sale, still 77,8% respondents from the MEC against the idea of selling the underwater artifacts, and only 11% respectively scaled strongly agree and agree to this idea. While, 55,6% and 33,3% of the MMAFs’ officers settled with the notion of commercial interest. They commented, that principally they agree to bring the mass product artifacts off to auction but the rare one must belong to the country.Subsequently, strong negative correlation (See(Rumsey, 2003) between officers existed, when they were asking their 819 �opinion on the current National Policy in which allows private company to salvage and auction the underwater artifacts. There was strongly disagreement towards the policy (56,7% and 22,2%), even though 22,2% of MECs’ officers marked agrees towards it. While 55,6 and 33,3% officers from MMAF were consistently support this involvement. Attitudes of the officers towards the management implication Integrating commercial values of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes into the policy have evolved public perceptions towards the objects. Since 1989, number of private companies permitted to explore shipwrecks in Indonesian water has increased and hundred thousands of artifacts discovered along the shipwrecks (PANNAS, 2012). However, despite the fact that this practice attracts investment to the country, some people criticized the exploration and salvage activities in Indonesia are far concern to the money-making and tend to disregard the intrinsic value of the objects (Tanudirjo, 2008). The International Congress of Maritime Museums mentioned the exploration of the Geldermalsen as an example how commercial salvor destroy the historical value of the cargoes (See in (Hallwood & Miceli, 2005). Six statements in the table 4 examine attitudes and perceptions of decision making officers from two main institutions, that closely responsible for managing underwater heritage, towards the management implication of the current policy. There are some significant differences between the MMAF and MEC regarding the statement that income generated from investment on shipwrecks and its cargoes benefits the country. 66,6% MECs’ respondents resisted that business on shipwrecks is not profitable to the state, contrasting 66,7% of the respondents from MMAF. The correlation between the high official respondents is negative. Similarly, most of the MECs’ do not accept to gain revenue by selling artifacts, while more than half respondents from MMAF (66,7%) consider this policy as an agreeable. Interestingly, when the MECs’ officers were asked about banning the auction, the proportion of MECs’ (44,4%) who agreed and disagreed is similar. Furthermore, a significantly higher percentage of the MECs’ (88,9%) believed the exploration of shipwrecks destroys the context of maritime history, while 56,7% from MMAF disagreed with the statement and one third of them have no knowledge 820 �regarding the issue. From one perspective, it might understandable if the proportion of “not sure” answers were little high considering respondents from MMAF generally come from different study background such as environment and economic. Yet, one MMAF’s respondent stated exploration might destroy the context of history if there is no strong regulation existed. Despite strong agreement from MECs’ about destruction of historical context, there are slightly high proportion of its respondents (44,4%) accepted the exploration done by the private has contributed to the preservation and protection of the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, even though 33,3% of them disagree with this. Some people believe that exploration and recovery of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes might be considered as one way to safeguard the objects from being illegally salvaged and also providing further opportunity of the wide public to access the objects. Table 4. Attitudes and perceptions of the officers towards the management implication Statement On survey instrument Income from business on underwaterartifacts benefits the country. National policy should ban selling the cargoes discovered from shipwreck Exploration of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, done by private, has contributed to the preservation and protection of underwater cultural heritage. Exploration of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, done by private company, has destroyed the context of maritime history Business on shipwrecks and its cargoes attract more investment to Indonesia Government auctions off artefacts discovered from shipwrecks to gain country’s economic income. Respondents-Scale (%) Correl. n1, 1 n2,1 n1,2 n2,2 n1,3 n2,3 n1,4 n2,4 n1,5 n2,5 0 22.2 11.1 66.7 11.1 0.0 66.7 11.1 11.1 0 -0.17 11. 1 0.0 11.1 44.4 44.4 11.1 33.3 44.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 33.3 44.4 11.1 55.6 44.4 0 11.1 0.476 0 0 55.6 0 33.3 0 11.1 88.9 0 11.1 -0.27 0 1 11.1 55.6 22.2 0.0 55.6 22.2 0 11.1 0.036 0 44.4 11.1 33.3 11.1 11.1 66.7 11.1 11.1 0 -0.39 Discussion and Conclusion This survey was conducted to accomplish the main task of determining the perceptions and attitudes of the decision making level officers from different institutions towards historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. As it is predicted, the two institutions showed 821 �negative correlation for particular commercial interest issue. The policy on sending artifacts off into auction becomes sensitive among respondents from the MEC. Kaoru and Hoagland (1994) noticed that some individuals might find commercial attachment to the historical objects is offensive. To inform, all of the interviewees come from similar background, archaeologists and historians. Their knowledge on the historic objects might associate with their perception and attitude. In parallel with some studies resulted that greater in knowledge are associated with greater influence of attitudes on behavior (See (Fabrigar, Smith, Petty, & Crites Jr., 2006). On the other hand, high officers from the MMAF tend to consider the consumptive use over the non-use value of the historic shipwrecks and its cargoes (See Kaoru and Hoagland, 1994). They argue that historic shipwrecks and its cargoes along with other natural ecosystems are part of marine resources, which can be used and managed for the sake of the community wellbeing. Accordingly, the long term development goal of the MMAF are maximizing the use of the resources to achieve prosperity while keeping sustainability towards environment, social, culture, and economic as a based of actions (MMAF, 2007). Therefore, it is not surprising when the officers from this ministry have supported the inclusion of commercial value of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes into their policy. Assumption on the physical benefit of historic shipwrecks, particularly its cargoes is tempted, even though further research is required to justify how much direct and indirect benefit generated from this business until now. In relation to the involvement of private company in funding and exploring historic shipwrecks and its cargoes, apparently, there is ambivalent on the respondents from the MEC. It is realized that, exploring shipwrecks and its cargoes is an expensive project. The government has a limitation to fund the exploration of historic shipwrecks due to the country’s economic development priorityiv; this constraint encourages institution to seek for alternative funding source in order to study and explore more the maritime past. At the same time the private company offers an opportunity to access the historical time capsule on the deep ocean, with mutual benefit sharing mechanism. It often places the government in dilemmatic positions; partnership with the private company or salvors means allowing them to take away their shares, half of the historic cargoes, separating the artifacts as whole context, however, without fund support, the access to explore, to 822 �study and to research are also limited. While, looting and illegal salvage continually threatens the objects. In fact, both respondents are aware of the intrinsic cultural and historical value of the entities, however, they value the objects differently, in which resulting different management. At the end, managing historic shipwrecks and its cargoes requires political willingness. The national government, include both institutions need a comprehensive action to unravel dispute and settle down national strategy on managing the underwater cultural heritage in the form of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes. Bibliography Delgado, J. P. 1988. The value of shipwrecks. In J. W. Murphy (Ed.), Historic shipwrecks: Issues in management (pp. 1 - 10). Washington, DC: Partners for Livable Places. Fabrigar, L. R., Smith, S. M., Petty, R. E., & Crites Jr., S. L. 2006. Understanding Knowledge Effects on Attitude–Behavior Consistency: The Role of Relevance, Complexity, and Amount of Knowledge. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4), 556 - 577. Hallwood, P., & Miceli, T. J. 2005. Economic Analysis of the Legal Regimes Governing Salvage of Historic Shipwrecks. Ocean Development & International Law, 36(4), 323 337. Htun, N. Z., Mizoue, N., & Yoshida, S. 2012) Determinants of Local People's Perceptions and Attitudes Toward a Protected Area and Its Management: A Case Study From Popa Mountain Park, Central Myanmar. Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal, 25(8), 743-758. Huang, J. 2013. Odyssey's Treasure Ship: Salvor, Owner, or Sovereign Immunity. Ocean Development & International Law, 44(2), 170 - 184. Hutchinson, G. 1996. Threats to underwater cultural heritage: The problems of unprotected archaeological and historic sites, wrecks and objects found at sea. Marine Policy, 4, 287 - 290. Kaoru, Y., & Hoagland, P. 1994. The value of historic shipwrecks: Conflicts and management. Coastal Management, 22(2), 195 - 213. Kumar, P. S. 2013. Sampling Design Research Methodology: A Guide for Researchers in Agricultural Science, Social Science and Other Related Fields (pp. 427). India: Springer. Leshikar-Denton, M. E. 2010. Cooperation is the key: We Can Protect the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Maritime Archaeology, 5, 85-95. Management of Coastal Zone and Small Islands, 27 C.F.R. (2007). 823 �Ministerial Decree. Standard Operation Procedures on Survey and Salvage of the Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship, 39 2000. PANNAS, B. 2012. Laporan Perkembangan Pengelolaan BMKT. Annual Report. PANNAS BMKT. Presidential Decree. National Committee of Salvage of the Valuable Objects from the Sunken Ship, 19 2009. Protection of Cultural Heritage, 10/2010. Rumsey, D. J. 2003. Statistics for Dummies. Hoboken: NJ. Wiley. Smith, H. D., & Couper, A. D. 2003. The Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 4, 25-33. Tanudirjo, A. D. 2008. Pendahuluan: Awal Jaringan Pelayaran dan Perdagangan. In B. B. Utomo (Ed.), Kapal Karam Abad ke 10 di Laut Jawa Utara Cirebon (Vol. 1, pp. 1 25). Jakarta: PANNAS BMKT. Biography Zainab is an Underwater Archaeologist working for Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. Zainab received her Bachelor in Archaeology at Hasanuddin University and a Master Degree in Environmental Science, specializing in Protected Area Management at James Cook University, Australia. i Sources are Act 11/2010 concerning Protection of Cultural Objects and Act 27/2007 concerning Coastal Area Management and Small Islands. ii This presidential Decree was revised in 2000, 2007 and 2009 due to the changes of responsible institution, however the substantial content has not been altered. Since 2000, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is the mandated institution to lead the committee. iii In order to harmonize the two legislations, the special committee has imposed a decree ordering the exploration and recovery of historic shipwrecks and its cargoes should be documented and recorded by the contractor. In addition, the unique and rare cargoes must be returned to the state (Ministerial Decree 39, 2000). iv Based on the Indonesia Strategic Framework for Development 2012 – 2016, there are five focus area, renewable energy, disaster risk management, agriculture, human resource development and eastern Indonesia 824 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Cultural attitude and values towards underwater cultural heritage and its influences on the management actions in Indonesia Description An account of the resource Understanding attitudes and values towards underwater cultural heritage (UCH) is critical element in determining appropriate approaches to a wide variety of planning and management actions. Management actions such as gaining support to protecting historic shipwreck and its associated relics, designing and implementing new management methods depend on an understanding of cultural norms and values of their success. In Indonesia, historic shipwrecks and its associated relics are managed through two different policies. Cultural protection Act 11/2010 mandates protection on cultural heritage including underwater remains, and Presidential Decree 19/2009, regulated commercial management processes, incorporating UCH as marine resources with potential economic value, which might contribute to community welfare. These two paradoxical procedures have raised long debate between stakeholders, including government agencies. Using individual interview, this paper attempts to understand cultural attitudes and values towards shipwreck and its relics in related government agencies in Indonesia, in which resulting the two deferent management approaches. Furthermore, this writing also examines the possible influences of these policies on the current management of UCH in this country. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zainab Tahir, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/09ec162c051d0dedc0c46186f1ddfa1d.pdf b3d31a9e18a4facc9dd4bfcb6449fff6 PDF Text Text Anthropogenic Submersion of Terrestrial Cultural Heritage sites leads to their Permanent Destruction and Demise Ms. Zhang Yue (Masters’ Student, Beijing Language and Culture University, Faculty of Foreign Studies) ABSTRACT As human societies continue to expand economically and socially in a divergent manner, the destruction of cultural heritage sites becomes almost inevitable. Since modern times in China, the construction of dams and reservoirs has led to the submersion of numerous valuable cultural relics and ancient sites, which has completely changed their living environment and caused irreversible damage. For example, the construction of the Three Gorges Dam resulted in the permanent submersion of the Fuling White Crane Ridge beneath the reservoir. Such cases are not unique to China but can be found throughout the Asia-Pacific region and even globally, as developing countries inevitably face the dilemma of prioritizing development or cultural heritage protection. If left unchecked, more terrestrial cultural heritage sites will be submerged underwater. This paper will utilize academic resources to focus on theoretical discussions, summarizing cases of anthropogenic submersion of cultural heritage sites and corresponding countermeasures and protective measures. It will further consider what types of human activities are permissible and which are ethically unacceptable when faced with both economic development and cultural heritage protection. The paper argues that when the urgency of economic development is questioned, we should prioritize the protection of cultural heritage and resist the practice of submerging cultural heritage sites underwater, which leads to their permanent destruction. Furthermore, the Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage sets a time limit for the definition of UCH—at least 100 years—raising questions about the scientific basis for this limit. This paper contends that the assessment of UCH should not be limited to this 100-year timeframe but should involve multi-angle, interdisciplinary evaluations based on the scientific, artistic, and cultural value of the heritage. Otherwise, heritage sites like the White Crane Ridge, which have immense value, may not receive adequate protection if they are not promptly designated as UCH after being submerged due to reservoir construction. Therefore, this paper will delve into the ethical issues mentioned above and attempt to offer suggestions for the sustainable development of UCH in the Asia-Pacific region. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage; Hydraulic Engineering; Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage; Sustainable Development INTRODUCTION Cultural heritage protection faces significant challenges during the process of economic and social development, especially in developing countries where irreversible damage often occurs in the pursuit of economic growth. This paper discusses the permanent destruction and demise caused by the anthropogenic submersion of heritage sites during the construction of dams and reservoirs and raises questions about the Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the hopes of offering suggestions for the sustainable development of UCH in the Asia-Pacific region. CASE STUDIES OF HERITAGE SUBMERSION AND ITS IMPACTS During the 1950s and 1960s, China engaged in hydraulic engineering projects, resulting in the submersion of a large number of terrestrial cultural heritage sites underwater. The sudden submersion of these heritage sites due to human activities drastically changed their living environment, causing irreversible damage to the relics and ancient sites. The three gorges dam and white crane ridge The White Crane Ridge inscriptions are the largest and most extensive hydrological inscriptions in existence, known as the "world's hydrological data treasury." They record local low water levels of the Yangtze River from 764 CE to 1909 CE, as well as historical, literary, artistic, and folklore information 1 �during this period. The inscriptions serve as an essential source for the study of the hydrological history of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. The White Crane Ridge inscriptions use a unique method of recording water levels based on Chinese cultural traditions, with the stone fish as the reference point and inscriptions indicating the distance from the reference point. The creators of this unique method transformed dry numerical records into artistic creations rich in cultural and artistic connotations, and combined them with local folk activities like watching the stone fish emerge from the water and predicting harvests. This not only imbues these records with historical value but also turns recording water levels into a conscious action of local people, giving it a lasting vitality. Today, when discussing the White Crane Ridge, one cannot ignore the closely related human activity—the construction of the Three Gorges Dam project. This is one of the largest power stations in China and the world, mainly serving water resource utilization, flood control, and power generation. After the Three Gorges Dam raised the water level to 175 meters, the water level along the Yangtze River significantly increased, submerging the White Crane Ridge inscriptions nearly 40 meters underwater, along with over 300 above-ground ancient sites and 400 underground ancient sites, totaling approximately 800 sites (Huang Wei 2011). Reservoir construction and submersion of ancient villages Technological advancements in the 20th century promoted industrialization, providing continuous vitality for infrastructure construction. Hydraulic engineering projects not only helped solve energy shortages but also served multiple functions such as flood control, irrigation, navigation, and employment, effectively addressing the slow economic and social development faced by developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region. Thus, countries in the region began to engage in hydraulic engineering projects to create economic value. Vietnam began constructing the Hoa Binh Dam in 1979, which was completed and put into operation in 1994 as the largest hydropower station in Vietnam and one of the largest reservoirs in Southeast Asia. The Sesan River Reservoir project in Cambodia, located on one of the two main tributaries of the Mekong River, started in 2012 and began operating in 2017. The Laos government, in cooperation with Thailand and China, began constructing the Pak Beng hydropower station in 2017, which remains under construction. However, while hydraulic engineering projects bring economic benefits, they also cause irreversible damage to the surrounding ecological environment and cultural heritage. Material cultural heritage, such as ancient villages, temples, ancestral halls, and other relics related to local ethnic cultures, are completely submerged with the reservoir's water storage, facing unprecedented challenges in their living environment. Underwater, cultural relics may be affected by water flow erosion, biological corrosion, and chemical reactions, further increasing the difficulty of protecting cultural heritage. From the perspective of intangible cultural heritage, the construction of hydraulic facilities forces some indigenous people to relocate. Over time, the traditional culture, lifestyle, and social structure formed by the indigenous people based on their living environment also change with the alteration of their living environment. This results in a significant loss of intangible cultural heritage passed down from generation to generation, such as social practices, conceptual expressions, and knowledge and skills. Consequently, we lose the opportunity to understand and inherit these unique cultures forever. In addition, reservoir construction disrupts river ecosystems, and water level fluctuations cause erosive geological changes. Water storage in reservoirs leads to sediment accumulation, downstream drought, and worsening saltwater intrusion, all of which negatively impact biodiversity and ecological balance and indirectly affect the preservation of local cultural heritage. 2 �BALANCING HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND UCH PROTECTION From the aforementioned cases, it is evident that developing countries in Asia have continued to construct hydropower projects in the past fifty years, with some completed and in operation, while others still under construction. In the process of economic development, developing countries inevitably face the dilemma of prioritizing development or cultural heritage protection. If left unaddressed, more terrestrial cultural heritage sites may be submerged during hydropower construction and left without adequate protection. Thus, this article will focus on theoretical perspectives to explore how to balance social development and cultural heritage protection, as well as how to make decisions when their interests conflict, in order to achieve sustainable development for both. Conflict between hydropower development and cultural heritage protection Firstly, hydropower development, such as dams and reservoirs, often requires construction in rivers, lakes, and other water bodies. These areas may contain sites and ancient structures of significant historical and cultural value. During hydropower construction, these cultural heritage sites may be submerged, preventing their values from being passed down. Moreover, hydropower development can alter the environment, such as water flow and levels, leading to site erosion, sediment changes, and subsequent effects on site integrity and preservation. Underwater archaeology is inherently more challenging than terrestrial archaeology, and hydropower projects further increase the difficulty and complexity of underwater archaeology conditions (Gribble 2013). The extent and completeness of underwater archaeological work directly influence the protection of UCH. In developing countries, limited economic development results in weak awareness of UCH protection among governments and the public, leading to insufficient investigation, planning, and assessment of potentially affected cultural heritage sites during the early stages of hydropower development. Additionally, limited resource allocation contributes to the challenge of initiating UCH protection efforts. Ethical considerations and UCH protection The conflicts mentioned above force us to confront a series of serious questions. How should we weigh the importance of hydropower development and cultural heritage protection when they conflict, and can their conflicts be reconciled? Through case analysis, we find that most developing countries prioritize hydropower development and seldom develop comprehensive protection plans for related cultural heritage at the early stages of construction. This is closely related to national economic strength and social context at the time. Following World War II, the acceleration of late modernity and globalization processes intensified people's linear experience of the past, resulting in increased vulnerability and uncertainty when facing crises and risks. Heritage and the past became topics of widespread public interest and concern. The heritage explosion around the 1970s further highlighted people's attention to heritage and its cultural core (Harrison 2013). However, this shift occurred during the deindustrialization period, and many already constructed industrial facilities, such as the hydropower projects mentioned in this article, had caused irreversible damage to cultural heritage. While the damage is done and cannot be reversed, it is still essential to deeply explore and analyze the ethical issues underlying this damage to provide theoretical insights for future cultural heritage protection and sustainable development. Developing countries' series of hydropower projects were initially aimed at economic growth and development. While such infrastructure has indeed had positive impacts on societal and national development, it is crucial to consider how to properly preserve and accommodate cultural heritage and historical information during the construction of these projects. Otherwise, the loss of cultural heritage and traditional customs due to human intervention is a cost that neither we nor future generations can bear. 3 �Achieving balance between economic development and cultural heritage protection Ethical considerations concerning the submersion of terrestrial cultural heritage by human intervention can be summarized into two main questions: first, is the damage caused by artificially altering the environment of cultural heritage sites justifiable? Second, has the consent of the public who value the cultural heritage been obtained before submerging terrestrial heritage sites? When conflicts arise between economic development and cultural heritage protection, the optimal solution should involve achieving a balance between the two through sustainable means. The construction of the Three Gorges Dam led to the submersion of Baiheliang, but with the growing emphasis on the cultural industry, relevant departments have made great efforts to protect this precious cultural heritage. The underwater protection project of Baiheliang inscriptions at their original site is the most challenging, technologically advanced, and heavily invested cultural heritage protection project within the globally watched Three Gorges cultural relics protection. Adopting the "pressureless container" principle and constructing an underwater museum for in-situ protection has become the world's first successful example of protecting similar cultural heritage, with UNESCO praising it as the world's first underwater site museum accessible without diving (Jiang Rui 2020). In addition, the site has carried out cultural dissemination and educational work to raise public awareness and protection consciousness for Baiheliang inscriptions. The successful protection of Baiheliang inscriptions demonstrates that although the construction of the Three Gorges Dam inevitably caused damage to cultural heritage, it is an indispensable part of national economic development. Without an economic foundation, how can cultural heritage be protected? Therefore, this article argues that when economic development becomes an obstacle to human survival and social progress, appropriate changes can be made to cultural heritage. At the same time, people should always remember the contributions of cultural heritage to human progress and provide better protection when they have the capacity. However, if the urgency of economic development is questioned, actions that submerge terrestrial cultural heritage in water against ethical principles should be firmly prevented. Furthermore, since heritage began involving the public domain (Lowenthal 1996), public participation has become an essential part of heritage protection and utilization. Decisions on whether to submerge terrestrial cultural heritage in water should not rely solely on official authorities; relevant heritage organizations should conduct thorough public surveys and listen to the opinions of the public. QUESTIONING AND REFLECTION ON THE 100-YEAR TIME LIMIT OF THE UCH PROTECTION CONVENTION This article focuses on a series of ethical issues brought about by human activities such as the construction of water conservancy projects, which cause terrestrial cultural heritage to be submerged underwater. In attempting to seek better protection for such damaged cultural heritage, legal and institutional obstacles have been encountered. The "Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Convention" passed by UNESCO in 2001 is the first international convention on the protection of UCH worldwide (Dromgoole 2013). The convention stipulates that UCH refers to all human remnants with cultural, historical, or archaeological value, such as sites, buildings, artifacts, human remains, ships, and aircraft, as well as their archaeologically valuable environments and natural environments, which have been partially or entirely underwater for at least 100 years, periodically or continuously. According to this provision, cultural heritage with significant historical, scientific, and artistic value, such as Baiheliang inscriptions, is not considered UCH under the convention's definition when submerged underwater due to human activities. Many scholars have questioned the 100-year time limit, arguing that this rigid standard lacks scientific basis and is purely for management purposes to exclude items of more recent origin. However, many countries' cultural heritage laws use this time limit (Ma Mingfei 2018). To more comprehensively and objectively assess the value of UCH, it is necessary to adopt multiple indicators rather than simply relying on the 100-year time limit. This assessment process may involve interdisciplinary collaboration, including experts in fields such as history, archaeology, art history, and environmental science (Forrest 2014). In fact, in some cases, 4 �more recent heritage may have more urgent protection needs, such as the risk of natural disasters or human destruction. Otherwise, a large number of heritage sites will be excluded and not receive effective protection. SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS This article uses academic resources to focus on theoretical discussions, summarizing cases of human-caused submersion of cultural heritage underwater and corresponding countermeasures and protection measures, and further considering what human activities are permissible and which ones are unethical when facing both economic development and cultural relic protection. The paper argues that when the economic foundation threatens human survival and social development, appropriate changes can be made to cultural heritage by fully listening to public opinion and promoting public participation, and better protection can be provided for damaged heritage when the capacity is available. However, when the urgency of economic development is questioned, we should prioritize the protection of cultural heritage and resist actions that deliberately submerge cultural heritage underwater, causing permanent damage. Furthermore, this article questions the scientific and accurate nature of the 100-year time limit for the definition of UCH in the "Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Convention," as this time limit determines the future protection of UCH. The protection of UCH faces many challenges, and seeking a balance between economic development and cultural heritage protection is a complex and important task. We need to make efforts in various aspects, such as improving policies and regulations, supporting scientific and technological research, international cooperation and exchanges, and public participation and education, to better protect and inherit these precious cultural heritages and contribute to the sustainable development of UCH in the Asia-Pacific region and the world. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Dromgoole, S. The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: National Perspectives in Light of the UNESCO Convention 2001, 2nd ed. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2006. 2. Forrest, C. International Law and the Protection of Cultural Heritage. London; New York: Routledge, 2014. 3. Gribble, J. “The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001: An Impact Review for the United Kingdom: Project Design.” Journal of maritime archaeology 6, no.1 (2011): 77-86. 4. Harrison, R. Heritage: Critical Approaches. London; New York: Routledge, 2013. 5. Lowenthal, D. Possessed by the Past: The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History. New York: The Free Press, 1996. 6. O'Keefe, P. J. Shipwrecked Heritage: a Commentary on the UNESCO Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 2nd ed. Leicester. UK: Institute of Art and Law, 2014. 7. 蒋锐. “浅析水下文化遗产保护管理措施及成效——以白鹤梁题刻为例.”自然与文化遗产研究 5, no.1(2020): 114-119. 8. 马明飞. “《保护水下文化遗产公约》在我国研究的回顾与展望.” 水下考古, (2018): 256-265. 9. 黄伟. 三峡大坝建设对奉节旅游影响研究. 重庆师范大学, 2011. 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 25: Environmental implications of underwater cultural heritage degradation and the conservation of marine ecosystems Subject The topic of the resource Session 25 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 25 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Anthropogenic Submersion of Terrestrial Cultural Heritage sites leads to their Permanent Destruction and Demise Description An account of the resource As human societies continue to expand economically and socially in a divergent manner, the destruction of cultural heritage sites becomes almost inevitable. Since modern times in China, the construction of dams and reservoirs has led to the submersion of numerous valuable cultural relics and ancient sites, which has completely changed their living environment and caused irreversible damage. For example, the construction of the Three Gorges Dam resulted in the permanent submersion of the Fuling White Crane Ridge beneath the reservoir. Such cases are not unique to China but can be found throughout the Asia-Pacific region and even globally, as developing countries inevitably face the dilemma of prioritizing development or cultural heritage protection. If left unchecked, more terrestrial cultural heritage sites will be submerged underwater. This paper will utilize academic resources to focus on theoretical discussions, summarizing cases of anthropogenic submersion of cultural heritage sites and corresponding countermeasures and protective measures. It will further consider what types of human activities are permissible and which are ethically unacceptable when faced with both economic development and cultural heritage protection. The paper argues that when the urgency of economic development is questioned, we should prioritize the protection of cultural heritage and resist the practice of submerging cultural heritage sites underwater, which leads to their permanent destruction. Furthermore, the Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage sets a time limit for the definition of UCH—at least 100 years—raising questions about the scientific basis for this limit. This paper contends that the assessment of UCH should not be limited to this 100-year timeframe but should involve multi-angle, interdisciplinary evaluations based on the scientific, artistic, and cultural value of the heritage. Otherwise, heritage sites like the White Crane Ridge, which have immense value, may not receive adequate protection if they are not promptly designated as UCH after being submerged due to reservoir construction. Therefore, this paper will delve into the ethical issues mentioned above and attempt to offer suggestions for the sustainable development of UCH in the Asia-Pacific region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zhang Yue Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Yue, Zhang. 2023. “Anthropogenic Submersion of Terrestrial Cultural Heritage sites leads to their Permanent Destruction and Demise.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Bishnu Pada Bose. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1975 Asia-Pac Session 25 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Asia Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:16:20 Type The nature or genre of the resource Web Page Zotero Item Type Web Page Access Date 2011-10-07 10:16:20 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:16:20 Title A name given to the resource Maritime Asia URL http://www.maritimeasia.ws/ Attachment Title Maritime Asia Attachment URL http://www.maritimeasia.ws/ Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Yomigaeru Dejima 甦る出島 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:19:29 Type The nature or genre of the resource Web Page Zotero Item Type Web Page Access Date 2011-10-07 10:19:29 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:19:29 Title A name given to the resource Yomigaeru Dejima 甦る出島 URL http://www1.city.nagasaki.nagasaki.jp/dejima/index.html Website Title Restoration Work Dejima Attachment Title 甦る出島 Attachment URL http://www1.city.nagasaki.nagasaki.jp/dejima/index.html Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource PEM | Peabody Essex Museum Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:20:32 Type The nature or genre of the resource Web Page Museum Zotero Item Type Web Page Access Date 2011-10-07 10:20:32 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:20:32 Title A name given to the resource PEM | Peabody Essex Museum URL http://www.pem.org/ Website Type Museum Attachment Title PEM | Peabody Essex Museum Attachment URL http://www.pem.org/ Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Murakami Suigun Hakubutsukan (Murakami Suigun Museum) 村上水軍博物館 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:17:59 Language A language of the resource Japanese Type The nature or genre of the resource Web Page Museum Zotero Item Type Web Page Access Date 2011-10-07 10:17:59 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:17:59 Language A language of the resource Japanese Title A name given to the resource Murakami Suigun Hakubutsukan (Murakami Suigun Museum) 村上水軍博物館 URL http://www.islands.ne.jp/imabari/bunka/suigun/ Website Title Murakami Suigun Hakubutsukan Website Type Museum Attachment Title 村上水軍博物館 Attachment URL http://www.islands.ne.jp/imabari/bunka/suigun/ Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:21:39 Type The nature or genre of the resource Web Page Zotero Item Type Web Page Access Date 2011-10-07 10:21:39 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:21:39 Title A name given to the resource Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology URL http://www.h3.dion.ne.jp/%7Euwarchae/english-index.htm Attachment Title English page Attachment URL http://www.h3.dion.ne.jp/%7Euwarchae/english-index.htm Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/919bc67090dc66ba3c101642080785ae.mp4 f3ec1125509be5232ef575d742b328ae Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video Interview with keynote speaker Dr. Sayan Praicharnjit Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/10/2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/29ef072c8ae7264b60fdc5212b28c0be.mp4 ed017ad766770aa57f33f0a199e87ec3 Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with conference chair Dr. Hans Van Tilburg Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/10/2014 Asia-Pac Keynote 2014