67 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/01c79df7409295e1de52845419f7cf91.pdf 17990c60b95e39d99310cc2f00401ab5 PDF Text Text UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States Apia Samoa Email: a.takahashi@unesco.org Abstract This paper will begin by introducing the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted by UNESCO in 2001 in terms of background, guiding principles, international cooperation mechanisms, Annex, as well as benefits and implications of ratification by countries. It will provide progress in its implementation at the global level. It will then provide progress in the Pacific Small Islands Developing States (SIDS), addressing their particular challenges and opportunities. The paper will suggest a possible inter-Convention cooperation for the UCH protection and management in the Pacific by analyzing the recent progress in the World Heritage Convention and the Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention in Pacific SIDS. The paper will conclude by summarizing the significance of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (henceforth UCH) protection and the UCH Convention not only in terms of its contribution to the advancement of knowledge of the history of humanity but also from the perspectives of the environmental protection, sustainable development and ocean governance. Key words: UNESCO, 2001 UCH Convention, Pacific, World Heritage Sites, International Cooperation Introduction UNESCO is one of the specialized agencies of the UN. UNESCO’s mission is to promote peace and the well-being of peoples in the world through international cooperation in education, science, culture and communication. Normative action is one of the core functions of UNESCO. Over the years, UNESCO adopted numerous international instruments. Among them, there are seven important Conventions in culture. These Conventions are: The Universal Copyright Convention (1952, 1971), The Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflicts 1 �(1954) and its two Protocols (1954 and 1999), The Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property Illicit (1970), The Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972), The Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003), The Convention for the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005). The ultimate goal of UNESCO’s normative action is to safeguard the cultural heritage and cultural diversity as the heritage of humanity. As the Preamble of the 1954 Hague Convention states that “damage to cultural property belonging to any people whatsoever means damage to the cultural heritage of all mankind, since each people makes its contribution to the culture of the world”, UNESCO played a pioneering role in promoting the concept of the heritage of mankind that is also the important principle of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). All together, these Conventions provide a comprehensive coverage of the culture sector. International NGOs such as the International Council of Museums (ICOM) and the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) have been playing important roles in their elaboration and implementation. The ambassador of Malta to the UN, Arvid Pardo, in his speech to the UN General Assembly in 1967, raised the question of the sea bed and the ocean floor, which launched a process that led to the third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea during which UNCLOS was adopted in 1982. UNCLOS sets forth the rights and obligations of states regarding the use of the oceans, their resources, and the protection of the marine and coastal environment, while seeking to establish a balance between “Freedom of the Ocean” and “Management of the Ocean”. It also provides a definition of maritime zones. Part XI of UNCLOS established the International Seabed Authorities (ISA) to allow States Parties to organize, control and administer activities and resources in ocean areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, commonly referred to as “the Area”, through the common heritage of mankind principle. It entered into force in 1994 and is supplemented by the 1994 Deep Seabed Mining Agreement and the 1995 Agreement regarding Fish Stocks. UNCLOS obliges States Parties to protect UCH under the term “archaeological and historical objects”. UNCLOS includes two provisions concerning 2 �UCH; i) Article 149 that stipulates the UCH protection in the Area and ii) Article 303 that sets out a general obligation for States to protect their UCH. These articles, however, were felt by cultural experts to be unsatisfactory and incomplete without providing details of the measures to be taken especially in the space beyond the Contiguous Zone, the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the Continental Shelf. Moreover, Article 303 paragraph 3 leaves room for the commercial destruction of UCH and creates a legal vacuum concerning the protection of UCH. With this as background, the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (herein after the UCH Convention) was prepared and adopted with the main goals to complement the provisions in UNCLOS for strengthening UCH protection. Acknowledging that “the importance of underwater cultural heritage as an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a particularly important element in the history of peoples, nations, and their relations with each other concerning their common heritage” in its Preamble, the UCH Convention provides the working definition of UCH as “all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character, which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years”. Generally speaking, UCH, undisturbed in situ, is better preserved as compared to land-based cultural heritage. This is the reason why UCH is often called as a time capsule holding invaluable information for historians, archaeologists and scientists to reconstruct past cultures. The UCH Convention protects UCH from being commercially exploited for trade or speculation. The UCH Convention provides the linkages to the 1970 Convention on the actions related to illicit trafficking in cultural objects recovered from the sea. In order to resolve the conflict between ownership claims, salvage claims and cultural heritage interest, Article 4 of the UCH Convention states that “Any activity relating to UCH to which this Convention applies shall not be subject to the law of salvage or law of finds1, unless it; (a) is authorized by the competent authorities, and (b) is in full conformity with this Convention, and (c) ensures that any recovery of the UCH achieves its maximum protection”. The UCH Convention establishes a protection regime for UCH by maritime zones determined by UNCLOS. States parties have the exclusive right to regulate activities in their internal and archipelagic waters and their territorial sea. Within their Contiguous 3 �Zone, States Parties may regulate and authorize activities directed at UCH within their Contiguous Zone. The UCH Convention recognizes the right of the coastal states to prohibit or permit activities directed to UCH in their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the Continental Shelf. Where there is a discovery of UCH or activities directed at UCH in these areas, Article 10 gives priority to the coastal states to act as a “Coordinating State” to coordinate consultations with all other States Parties which have declared an interest. Within the Area, a “Coordinating State” will be designated by the DirectorGeneral of UNESCO after inviting all the countries that declared an interest. The Director-General shall also invite International Seabeds Authorities (ISA) to consultations. In this way, the UCH Convention provides a comprehensive coverage of UCH regardless of its locations, greatly extending the legal protection of UCH. It must be noted that the UCH Convention does not regulate the ownership of UCH. Being aware of the responsibility entrusted to the coastal states especially in the developing world, the UCH Convention emphasizes the importance of UCH training and capacity building, technology transfer and information sharing, as well as awareness raising of the significance of UCH. The UCH Convention provides in its Annex the important principle of the preference for the preservation in situ as well as practical rules for the UCH treatment and research based on internationally recognized best practice and the ICOMOS Charter for the Protection and Management of UCH in 1996. Joining the UCH Conventions, countries can ; i) achieve UCH protection at the same level as land-based cultural heritage, ii) protect UCH from looting and commercial exploitation, iii) ensure comprehensive protection of UCH regardless of their locations through state cooperation system. On the other hand, by joining the UCH Convention, States Parties shall pledge to protect UCH against lootings and commercial exploitations and apply the provisions of the UCH Convention and the Rules in its Annex. There is no financial implication involved in joining the UCH Convention. The UCH Convention entered into force in January 2009. UNESCO provides a forum for the adoption of a common approach of all States Parties towards UCH protection through the Meetings of States Parties and its Scientific Advisory Body (SAB). SAB is composed of twelve expert members nominated by States Parties. They have a 4 �scientific, professional and ethical background in the field of underwater archaeology, international law, materials science or UCH conservation. SAB assists States Parties in the implementation of the Convention and its Annex and the elaboration of the Operational Guidelines, while consulting with International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) through its International Committee for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICPUCH) and other accredited NGOs in its deliberations. UCH in Oceania The Pacific region covers about one-third of total surface area of the Earth, and comprises over one thousand islands and atolls. Reflecting on the long history of human settlements and interactions with other regions, the Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of UCH that spans human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age (UNESCO, 2010). For instance, the Oceania region was populated by the Austranesians, or Lapita people, and traces of their culture remain both above and under water. The Pacific islanders developed fishing infrastructures such as fish traps and fish ponds, unique indigenous UCH. Among the vessels built by the Pacific islanders, the Fijian Duras were double-hull sailing canoes of a length of up to 30 m. In the 17th and 18th century, the Pacific region was explored and “discovered” by navigators such as Magellan, Torres, Tasman, D’Urville, Drake, Cook and La Perouse. The Spanish dominated early Pacific colonizations and there are many shipwrecks related to the Spanish Manila galleon trade. Shipwrecks on the labor trade in the 19th century such as the Fijian sugar and Peruvian guano industries were found in the Pacific, while whalers, missionaries and traders have also left behind a legacy of underwater sites. More recently, the Pacific was among the major theatres of the Second World War. The Pacific holds numerous submerged ships, submarines and aircraft, some of them are war graves still containing human remains that must be approached with respect. The Pacific region has taken a progressive approach to applying the principles and the guidelines in the UCH Convention to the region’s UCH. The First Regional Workshop on the Pacific UCH took place in 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. The Workshop brought together representatives of the cultural authorities in the Pacific SIDS in order to share information on the current status of UCH protection and management in each country. 5 �The Workshop participants identified priority areas for cooperation that included developing systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites, exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites, and developing a training and education program for UCH archaeologists and managers. The papers presented at the Workshop were compiled, edited and published as UNESCO publication "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. As a follow up, a feasibility study on the Pacific capacity building programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO assistance. This study found the advantages of partnering with regional intergovernmental bodies such as the University of the South Pacific (USP) for this task. Palau was the first Pacific island state that organized the UCH Training Course in Koror in 2013 with UNESCO assistance. Progress in UCH protection in the Pacific is being made within the framework of not only the UCH Program but also the World Heritage Program and the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) program. The World Heritage Convention ratified by 190 countries reflects the global recognition of the intrinsic value of our heritage. As of today, 12 out of 14 Pacific member states are parties to the World Heritage Convention 2, which has allowed Pacific countries to formulate a regional action plan and take a coordinated approach. ICOMOS Pacifika and Pacific Island Museum Association (henceforth PIMA) have been formed to provide Pacific perspective for the program implementation. Although the Pacific still remains the least represented region on the World Heritage List, over ten sites in the Pacific Small Island Developing States (henceforth SIDS) and territories are inscribed on the World Heritage List. Already enjoying the high visibility and increase in visitors and revenue from tourism, these World Heritage sites, some of which contain UCH elements, can be ideal places for the actual maritime survey and field work. With regard to the ICH program, the Pacific SIDS out of which 8 countries are now parties to the ICH Convention3 have been developing related cultural policies. The safeguarding of the traditional ship building technologies and navigation systems as part of the Pacific ICH are intimately related to the understanding of UCH. followings are some of the examples. 6 The �Yapese Stone Money Bank (Palau and the Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia) Before and during European contact, Yapese people travelled across the 400 km of open water to the Rock Islands in Palau where they quarried their stone disk money. They were transported back to the Yap Island by canoe. Some of them arrived safely in Yap, while, according to the oral histories transmitted among local communities, the biggest stone disk fell onto the seabed during its transport and remains on the ocean floor between Yap and Palau. Palau and FSM nominated “Yapese Stone Disk” as a trans-border site for inscription on the World Heritage List in 2011. This joint nomination, although deferred, has contributed to revitalizing the collaboration between the two countries, resulting in the establishment of a joint management committee for the heritage sites. On the other hand, “the Rock Islands and Southern Lagoon” that includes some archaeological elements became the first World Heritage Site in Palau in 2012. The government of Palau puts in place an added departure tax to finance local community efforts under the Protected Areas Network in the country. This has been attracting attention as a potential model for a sustainable financing mechanism for protected areas in other Pacific SIDS (UNESCO, 2012). Levuka Historical Port Town (Fiji) Fiji shipwrecks, ranging from sailing ships to steamships, are mainly located around the Lomaiviti Island Group, where Levuka is located. Levuka is the first colonial capital of Fiji ceded to the British in 1874. “Levuka Historical Port Town” became the first World Heritage site in Fiji in June 2013. Levuka developed from the early 19th century as a center of commercial activity by Americans and Europeans who built a colonial port town was influenced in its development by the indigenous community. The buffer zone of Levuka World Heritage site includes offshore waters under which the important UCH are submerged according to the Levuka Maritime Archaeological Survey conducted by the Australian National Maritime Museum in 1998. Bikini Atoll Nuclear Test Site (Marshall Islands) From 1946 to 1958, after the displacement of the local inhabitants, 67 nuclear tests were carried out in the Marshall archipelago by USA, including the explosion of the first H-bomb (1952). Bikini Atoll has conserved direct tangible evidence that is highly 7 �significant in conveying the power of the nuclear tests, including a unique collection of shipwrecks at the bottom of the lagoon. These vessels sunk in 1946 by two separate nuclear detonations were a group of warships from the US Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy that were assembled for Operation Crossroads. Dr J. Delgado, Institute of Nautical Archaeology, USA, states “The sunken test ships, as well as associated aircraft, test vehicles, and test equipment, cables, test bunkers, and the atomic craters (the gigantic Bravo crater) on the sea floor inside the lagoon are a museum of the beginnings of the atomic age, and as such, have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2010” (UNESCO, 2010). The property is protected by the Historic and Cultural Preservation Act (1991). The main threats to the property are the effects of climate change and the presence of stocks of bombs and fuel in the underwater part of the property. Empowering Pacific SIDS for UCH protection Under UNCLOS, Pacific SIDS have sovereign rights over the management of the natural resources, marine scientific research, the protection and preservation of the marine environment in their territorial waters and EEZ that is almost 100 times larger than their total island area. From this perspective, Pacific SIDS are not small but large maritime states and communities. These resources include not only mineral resources, fishery stocks, biological diversity, but also cultural, historical and archaeological resources such as UCH. Unfortunately the current level of attentions and considerations given to UCH in the Pacific is not adequate. This makes Pacific UCH particularly vulnerable to the risks, including commercial fishing, construction of offshore and onshore maritime infrastructure, environmental changes and the rise in marine tourism that may make an adverse impact on UCH protection. Special attention needs to be given to a growing interest in a Deep Sea Mining (henceforth DSM) in the Pacific. Several SIDS have private sector interests actively engaged in their EEZ and in the Area over which ISA has responsibility for approving programs of work. There are 13 programs of work approved for exploration for polymetallic manganese nodules in the Area in the Pacific, including 3 programs of work in “Reserve Areas” for developing countries to sponsor programs of work with private entities. New applications for contracts for exploration for Cobalt-Rich Crusts were 8 �approved by ISA in 2013. The impacts of DSM activities on the marine environment are unknown. Like the land-based mining projects, DSM projects must be carried out after the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) including archaeological and UCH components has been completed. Several projects have been launched notably by the Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific (CROP) in order to assist Pacific SIDS in safeguarding its resources against commercial interests by establishing appropriate measures. With regard to legal protection, EU-funded Deep Sea Minerals (DSM) project implemented by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (henceforth SPC) (2012) through the Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (henceforth SOPAC) advises Pacific SIDS to improve legal frameworks, increase technical capacity and to develop effective monitoring systems. As for UCH, the guidelines advise them to include wording along the following lines: i) Any object of an archaeological or historical nature found by any Title Holder or person conducting Marine Scientific Research within the jurisdiction or control of the [country] shall be reported to the [regulating body] and treated in accordance with its instructions, and shall be safeguarded pending receipt of those instructions and ii) The instructions given by the [regulating body] shall take into account Article 149 and/or 303 of UNCLOS. UNESCO has been in touch with SOPACSPC in order to strengthen the above guidelines and provide technical assistance for countries from the perspective of UCH protection. UNESCO has extended its assistance to a range of activities to enhance SIDS capacities in UCH protection. Besides, as part of its advocacy activity, UNESCO will organize a workshop on UCH and SIDS before the UN 3rd International Conference on Small Island Developing States (Samoa, 1 - 4 September 2014). Following the Conferences held in Barbados (1994) and Mauritius (2005), the 3rd SIDS Conference in Samoa will be held to renew the international community’s commitment to the sustainable future of SIDS and forge a genuine and durable partnership for this endeavor. UNESCO workshop on UCH and SIDS will bring together eminent experts in UCH from SIDS States Parties to the UCH Convention in the Caribbean region and international experts with the aims of enhancing the awareness of the importance of the UCH Convention. It is hoped that this workshop will provide an opportunity for mutual 9 �learning and networking among SIDS, let alone the increased ratification of the UCH Convention by SIDS. Conclusion The Ocean Declaration adopted at the Pacific World Heritage Workshop in Maupiti, French Polynesia, in 2009, emphasizes the cultural link amongst the peoples of the Pacific that extends beyond the artificial boundaries of the current geopolitical system and reinforces the ocean as being intrinsic to the identity, ways of life, values, knowledge and practices of Pacific peoples (UNESCO, 2012). The recent positive progress in the heritage safeguarding in the Pacific as shown in the increased number of the Pacific States Parties to the World Heritage Convention and ICH Convention represents an opportunity for inter-Convention cooperation in UCH protection and management in the Pacific. At the same time, much more efforts are needed to promote the UCH Convention in the Pacific, since to this day among forty-five States Parties there has been no signatory to he UCH Convention from the Pacific4. This situation makes the Pacific region particularly under-represented in the activities related to the UCH Convention. Ratification of the UCH Convention by the Pacific countries would increase the representation of the region as well as bolster the Convention’s universality. It must be noted that, guided by the principles embodied in the UCH Convention as well as its State Cooperation System, the UCH Convention will empower Pacific SIDS by promoting the sharing of duties and obligations among the coastal states and the broader international community. The UCH Convention will also assist them in strengthening its ocean governance by establishing necessary legal frameworks and building capacities. The diversity of UCH linking Pacific SIDS with other countries within and outside the region will also foster cultural exchange, cooperation, mutual understanding and peace. The significance of the UCH Convention and the importance of the participation of Pacific SIDS in its implementation must be understood from this perspective. Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the advice and support from Mr. Etienne Clement, Director of the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, and Dr. Ulrike Guerin, Secretary for the UCH Convention at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris. 10 �Endnote 1The law of salvage is a concept in maritime law which states that a person who saves another person’s ship or cargo from peril or loss at sea is entitled to a reward commensurate with the value of the property so saved. The law of salvage never grants ownership, but grants compensation or the right to retain the objects by way of a maritime link, as long as the salvage award has not been paid. The law of finds has been applied to sunken and abondaned vessels and the finder is granted ownership of the objects. 2Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Marshall islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu. 3Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Nauru, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Tonga, Vanuatu. 4Albania; Antigua & Barbuda, Argentina, Barbados, Belgium, Benin, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria, Cambodia, Croatia, Cuba, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, France, Gabon, Grenada, Haiti, Honduras, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Italy, Jamaica, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Mexico, Montenegro, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, Panama, Palestine, Paraguay, Portugal, Romania, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Trinidad and Tobago,Tunisia, Ukraine. References UNESCO., 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania, UNESCO, Paris. UNESCO., 2012. World Heritage Papers 34, World Heritage in a Sea of Islands, Pacific 2009 Programme, UNESCO, Paris. SPC, 2012. Annual Report of SPC-EU EDF 10 Deep Sea Minerals (DSM) Project, SPC, Suva. Biography Akatsuki Takahashi (高橋 暁), BA in international relations (Tsuda College, Tokyo), Diploma in education (International Christian University, Tokyo), PhD in cultural heritage risk management (Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto) has been the Programme Specialist for Culture at the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States in Apia, Samoa, since January 2010. Previously, she was at the Executive Office of the Culture Sector at UNESCO in Paris (2001-2009), UNESCO Office in Venice (1998-2001) and at the Culture Sector of UNESCO in Paris (1989-1998). Before joining UNESCO in 1989, she worked at the Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) (1986-1989) in Tokyo. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 1: UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Cooperation Description An account of the resource The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the UN. It has 195 Member States. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted in 2001 is the international community’s response to the destruction of submerged archaeological sites by treasure hunters and industrial activities. It reflects the growing recognition of the need to ensure the same protection to underwater heritage as that already accorded to land-based heritage. It provides legal protection, enables States Parties to adopt common approaches to preservation and provides effective professional guidelines on underwater cultural heritage. The Convention and its Annex have been officially endorsed by most professional associations of underwater archaeologists. The 2001 Convention entered into force on 2 January 2009. Today it has been ratified by 44 States. The objectives of the UNESCO session are to: * Enhance understanding of the 2001 Convention in terms of its background, its benefits, its ethics and its potentials for contributing to sustainable development, * Identify a strategy for enhancing capacity in the protection and research of underwater cultural heritage, * Identify a way forward for increasing ratifications of the 2001 Convention by the countries in the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Etienne Clement Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Description An account of the resource This paper will begin by introducing the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted by UNESCO in 2001 in terms of background, guiding principles, international cooperation mechanisms, Annex, as well as benefits and implications of ratification by countries. It will provide progress in its implementation at the global level. It will then provide progress in the Pacific Small Islands Developing States (SIDS), addressing their particular challenges and opportunities. The paper will suggest a possible inter-Convention cooperation for the UCH protection and management in the Pacific by analyzing the recent progress in the World Heritage Convention and the Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention in Pacific SIDS. The paper will conclude by summarizing the significance of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (henceforth UCH) protection and the UCH Convention not only in terms of its contribution to the advancement of knowledge of the history of humanity but also from the perspectives of the environmental protection, sustainable development and ocean governance. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Asia-Pac Session 1 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cb23f50c409a27e78223555e5ce148b9.pdf 11aed85f3ef42e8e2f8d40cb905d417e PDF Text Text UNESCO Regional Capacity Building Programme on Safeguarding the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Asia and the Pacific Ricardo L. Favis1 Abstract In response to the recommendation of delegates and experts during the Asia-Pacific Regional Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Hong Kong, Special Autonomous Region of China, November 2003), The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is implementing a regional capacity building programme on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Asia and the Pacific through the establishment of a Regional Field Training Centre. Supported by the Norwegian Government, the programme aims to facilitate and enable the training of maritime archaeologists and conservation experts from Asia and the Pacific region in the proper safeguarding and management of UCH, in line with the principles of the 2001 Convention and the Rules of its Annex. Operated by the Government of Thailand, the Regional Field Training Centre is attached within the precinct of the Underwater Archaeology Division of the Fine Arts Department in Chanthaburi, Thailand. With the support of implementing partners including International Council of Monuments and of Sites - International Council of Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICOMOS-ICUCH), the Centre has successfully organized since 2009 three Foundation Courses and an Advanced Course on the application of Geographical Information systems (GIS) in underwater archaeology and cultural heritage management. The six-week Foundation Courses aim to bring regional experts of different academic backgrounds to a common level of understanding on the multi-disciplinary nature of UCH management. So far, the regional capacity building programme has benefitted seventy national experts from seventeen countries in the Asia-Pacific Region, including Kenya. This paper will discuss the development of the regional capacity building programme, the training activities and projects in which the Centre is involved, future plans and efforts to sustain the Centre over the long term. Background The threats of treasure hunting and illicit trafficking of artefacts found underwater, as well as commercial exploitation of marine resources were the reasons why UNESCO engaged to take legal and practical action to ensure better protection for the underwater archaeological sites. After four years of intense negotiations, four experts meetings and the participation of more than 100 Member States2, the UNESCO General Assembly finally adopted the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2001 (2001 Convention). More importantly, every Member State agreed that the Annex to the Convention, which sets out very specific rules concerning activities directed at UCH, should be accepted and applied as the reference document for interventions directed at UCH. To introduce and discuss the 2001 Convention among concerned stakeholders in our region, UNESCO organized the Asia‐Pacific Regional Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Hong Kong, Special Autonomous Region of China in November 2003. Eighty six delegates and experts from twenty-three Member States participated in the workshop. Realizing that the 2001 1 2 Project Officer, UNESCO Bangkok Culture Unit Sovereign States that are members of UNESCO. There are currently 193 Member States of UNESCO. �Convention can only be effectively implemented through capacity building in underwater archaeology, a relatively new discipline in the Asia-Pacific region, the participants unanimously recommended the establishment of a regional field training centre. In response, the delegates from Sri Lanka offered to host the centre within the infrastructure of their Maritime Archaeology Unit located in the World Heritage Site of Galle, Sri Lanka. In 2005, a project document entitled Safeguarding the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Asia and the Pacific: Building Regional Capacities to Protect and Manage Underwater Archaeological Sites through the Establishment of a Regional Centre of Excellence Field Training Facility and Programme of Instruction was formulated and submitted to the Government of Norway for their consideration under UNESCO-Norway Funds-in-Trust Cooperation. Approved for funding by the Government of Norway in 2007, project implementation started in March 2009 with a training programme for Sri Lankan archaeologists and conservators to prepare them for their eventual role as trainers of trainees coming from the region. Due to civil unrest in Sri Lanka and lack of facilities and necessary equipment to support regional training activities, UNESCO decided to transfer the venue of the regional field training centre to Thailand in early 2009. The UNESCO regional capacity building programme The regional training platform aims to facilitate and enable the training of underwater archaeological site managers and conservation professions from Asia and the Pacific. It aims to provide a system of embedding this training into the national development planning of participating Member States, particularly the national strategy for capacity‐building and human resource development through the participation of national experts nominated by the relevant national agencies of participating Member States. It focuses on integrated approaches towards the conservation and management of underwater archaeological sites that are participatory and inclusive, and foster social cohesion and peace by promoting intercultural dialogue through the animation of shared heritage. Professional capacity‐building has been identified as the key to successfully safeguard the UCH. Without a concerted and sustained effort to build the region’s capacity to manage it, it is not possible for UCH to be protected in the long term. The development goals towards which the regional project contributes are: (a) the protection of UCH; and (b) fostering peace and social cohesion among participating Member States. The protection of UCH also has an important economic aspect, considering that tourism may develop around underwater sites if properly managed and interpreted in on‐site museums which may be established. Through the establishment of a Regional Field Training Centre in Underwater Cultural Heritage (hereinafter referred to as the Centre), the project aims to achieve the following objectives: 1. To build regional capacity in the protection and management of UCH through professional training in field techniques on underwater archaeological site inventory and mapping, non‐invasive techniques of site identification, inventory �and investigation, museology techniques, and site monitoring and protection according to international professional standards. The application of the provisions of the Annex to the Convention is particularly stressed. 2. To provide a platform for an effective networking among partner Member States by encouraging close collaboration and dissemination of best practices, thereby promoting regional cooperation through exchange of information on the conservation and management of a shared heritage. 3. To prepare Member States in the ratification and implementation of the 2001 Convention and its Annex. Thailand as venue of the Centre The Government of Thailand hosts the Centre within the infrastructure of the Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD) of the Fine Arts Department in Chanthaburi, Thailand. The UAD has a long experience in underwater archaeology since 1974 and has closely collaborated with the Royal Thai Navy, the Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts of the Southeast Asian Minister of Education Organization (SEAMEOSPAFA) and Silpakorn University over the years. UAD has more than adequate human and technical resources to support the training activities of the Centre. It has a professional staff of two maritime archaeologists and a technical diving team of ex-navy personnel. The staff operates under high safety standards, collaborates closely with the Royal Thai Navy and links up with a nearby naval hospital during their diving missions. Just before the first training course was organized, the UAD procured a new fully- �equipped diving boat with a decompression chamber. UAD has also adequate diving equipment including technical diving equipment, re-breathers and trimix. Implementation strategy In April 2008, a Project Steering Committee meeting was convened in Galle, Sri Lanka to discuss and decide how to best implement the regional capacity building programme. Considering that maritime archaeology is relatively a new discipline in Asia and the Pacific, and that expertise in most countries in the region is mainly focused on terrestrial archaeology, the Committee decided to build national capacities through Foundation Courses aimed at bringing national experts of different academic backgrounds from participating Member States to a common level of understanding on the multi‐disciplinary nature of maritime archaeology. The Committee also decided to organize Advanced Courses aimed at training heads of maritime archaeology units and senior UCH managers on specialized topics using state‐of‐the‐art technologies and latest developments. To embed the training programmes into the national development planning of participating Member States, particularly their national strategy for capacity‐building and human resource development, the committee decided that only those who are nominated by national agencies responsible for the protection of their territorial waters are eligible to take part in the training activities of the Centre under the project. Foundation Courses ICOMOS-ICUCH assisted in devising the course curriculum for the Foundation Course. Considering that prospective regional trainees working for relevant government agencies cannot leave their work for an extended period of time, a six-week Foundation Course was decided upon in consultation with the UAD of Thailand and other project implementing partners. Four weeks of the Foundation Course are devoted to lectures, country reports and practical exercises on the following topics: • Introduction to the 2001 Convention and its Annex • Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) Introductory and Part 1 training modules (under license) • Diving safety and project logistics • Iron and steel ship construction and site formation • Desk based assessment • Significance assessment • Material cultural analysis • Archaeological publication • Finds handling and conservation • Public archaeology • Museology • Asian ship technology • Asian ceramics �Trainees also undergo two weeks of training in underwater field survey exercises at the ship wreck site of Ruea Mail. At a depth of 20 meters, the site is located near Mannok Island in Kleng District, Rayong Province, Thailand. The ship is possibly a mail steamboat plying the French colonial coastline from Thailand to Cambodia and Viet Nam about 90 to 100 years ago. Coins dating back to 1917 during the reign of King Rama VI of Thailand were found in the shipwreck. During the underwater field exercises, trainees are taught the following topics and how they are applied. After two weeks of site survey, the trainees are required to prepare a management plan and storyboard on the shipwreck, which they present during the closing ceremonies of the Foundation Course. • Baseline and offsets • Ties to baseline for levelled profile bars • Site datum for vertical depth gauge measurements • Geographical Positioning System (GPS) location using site recorder • Use of photo scales for underwater photographs • Seabed elevation/ profiles survey using depth gauge and site datum • Centreline/baseline elevation survey using depth gauge survey and site datum • Port and starboard hull elevations using depth gauge survey and site datum • Taking sections/ profiles across wreck using levelled profile bars • Drawing using planning frame • Measuring and recording iron ship construction details (frames and spacing, rivets, plating, stem and sternpost dimensions) • Circular searches �To ensure high standards of the Foundation Course, trainees nominated by participating Member States are selected based on the following criteria: • Must have a college degree from a reputable university; • Must be an archaeologist in a scientific institution/agency, a site manager or a conservator in UCH; • Must have interest in the conservation and management of UCH, and must agree to the principles of the 2001 Convention and its Annex; • Must have logged a minimum of 50 dives, of which 20 dives have been conducted under supervision by recognized research/academic/scientific institution, and 5 dives undertaken deeper than 25 meters (applicants are required to submit their dive logs before they can be considered for the Foundation Course); • Must be medically certified to be fit for diving (applicants are required to submit their medical certification before they can be considered); • Must have good comprehension, writing and communication skills in English (applicants are required to submit proof of their English skills before they can be considered). To ensure the safety of the trainees, UNESCO has provided trainees with dive injury insurance coverage and membership with the Diving Alert Network (DAN AsiaPacific) before the start of their training course. Three Foundation Courses of six-week duration were successfully organized in October 2009, March 2010 and February 2011. The three Foundation Courses have benefitted fifty five (55) national experts from 15 countries (Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Fiji Islands, Indonesia, Kenya, Kyrgyztan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam). �Adapted to the Asia-Pacific regional context, the curriculum of the Foundation Course has been developed for the Regional Field Training Centre in Chanthaburi, Thailand. The curriculum will be made available for use by other UNESCO-sponsored training programmes elsewhere in the world. Advanced Courses The Centre also delivers Advanced Courses aimed at training heads of maritime archaeology units and senior UCH managers on specialized topics using state‐of‐the‐art technologies and latest developments identified during the Foundation Courses and recommended by ICOMOS‐ICUCH. Advanced Courses of short duration (one to two weeks) provide the opportunity for national authorities in maritime archaeology to develop strategies for collaborative endeavours. An Advanced Course on the Application of GIS in the Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage was organized during the period from 20-29 September 2010. Nineteen national experts from 13 countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Fiji Islands, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Palau, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam) took part in the training. An Advanced Course on In Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage was organized from 19-26 October 2011. Fifteen graduates of earlier Foundation Courses were chosen by a selection committee. They came from nine participating countries: Cambodia, Indonesia, Kenya, Kyrgyztan, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand. The Advanced Course enabled the selected participants to apply knowledge and skills they learnt during the Foundation Course in in situ preservation, which is the first option in the preservation of UCH under the 2001 Convention. �Expert trainers and resource persons from Australia, Netherlands, Philippines, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States and Switzerland have shared their expertise with the regional trainees during the training courses. They were carefully selected, in consultation with the ICUCH of ICOMOS3 (Footnote: List of Expert Trainers). 3 Karina Acton, Senior Objects Conservator, International Conservation Services, 1st Foundation Course : Finds Handling and Conservation Ross Anderson, President of the Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology, Maritime Archaeologist of nd the Western Australian Museum, 1st and 2 Foundation Courses: Co-Trainer: Underwater Survey Field Exercises Will Brouwers, Development educational programmes Museum het Valkhof, Netherlands, GIS Advanced Course st Somlak Charoenpot, Former Deputy Director General, Fine Arts Department, Thailand, 1 , 2 Courses: Museology nd rd and 3 Foundation Wim Dijkman, Project Leader, Hydrography, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Region Ijssel Lake at Lelystad, Netherlands, GIS Advanced Course �Other project activities “Saving the Underwater Cultural Heritage” Exhibit To bring UNESCO’s message on the need to safeguard UCH to a wider audience, UNESCO Bangkok Office organized the first ever UNESCO exhibition on global UCH in the Asia-Pacific region at the Siam Ocean World Bangkok from 16 August to 31 October 2010. The interactive exhibit featured underwater heritage scenes from around the world, life-sized replica of a Thai shipwreck, showcases of artefacts recovered from the seabed, special demonstrations of maritime archaeologists in action, and various interactive play zones for children. The exhibit was viewed by an estimated 150,000 local and foreign visitors. Exhibit items are now part of the permanent exhibition of the National Maritime Museum in Chanthaburi, Thailand. Project Experience Exchange Asia: 8-16 December 2010 To encourage active networking and experience sharing among graduates of the Centre, UNESCO and the Dutch Government supported the Project Experience Exchange Asia initiated by the Central Cultural Fund of Sri Lanka. The project was a joint survey and research activity to conduct non-intrusive survey on an ancient David Gregory, Conservation Scientist, National Museum of Denmark, Co-Trainer: Advanced Course on In Situ Preservation Martijn Manders, Member of ICOMOS-ICUCH, Senior Maritime Archaeologist, Dutch Cultural Heritage, Lecturer, st nd rd Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands, Lecturer, Saxxion University, Deventer , Netherlands, 1 , 2 and 3 Foundation Courses: Archaeological Resources, Managing UCH, In-Situ Preservation, GIS for UCH; Co-Trainer: Underwater Field Exercises; Co-Trainer: Advanced Course on In Situ Preservation; Coordinator, Curriculum preparation for the Foundation Course Bobby Orillaneda, Museum Researcher II, Underwater Archaeology Section, Archaeology Division, National Museum nd rd rd of the Philippines, 2 and 3 Foundation Courses: Asian Ceramics, 3 Foundation Course: Support Trainer during the Underwater, Field Exercises Charlotte Pham, Bursary of the Ecole Française d’Extrême Orient – Vietnam; Brussels, BELGIUM, 3rd Foundation Course : Asian Ship Technology and Practicum st Sayan Prainchanjit, Dean of the Faculty of Archaeology , Silpakorn University, Thailand, 1 Foundation Course: nd Asian Ceramics, 2 Foundation Course: Public Archaeology and Awareness Raising Mark Staniforth, Director, Maritime Archaeology Programme, Faculty of Archaeology, Flinders University, South st Australia, 1 Foundation Course: Significance Assessment, Desk-based Assessment, Material Cutlure Analysis, Archaeological Publication st nd rd Christopher Underwood, International Development Officer, NAS, 1 , 2 and 3 Foundation Courses: NAS Introduction and Part I; Supervising trainer, Underwater Field Exercises Hans Van Tilburg, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries Regional Maritime Heritage Coordinator for Pacific nd Islands Region, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, United States of America, 2 and 3rd Foundation Courses: Desk-based Assessment, Significance Assessment, Archaeological Publication st nd Erbprem Vatcharangkul, Director, Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 1 , 2 rd 3 Foundation Courses: Asian Ship Technology and Practicum and Andrew John Viduka, Assistant Director Maritime Heritage, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the nd Arts, Historic Heritage Division, Maritime Heritage Section, Australia, 2 and 3rd Foundation Courses: Material Culture Analysis, Introduction to Intrusive Archaeology, Finds Handling and Conservation �shipwreck, located at 31 meters depth in Godawaya, southern Sri Lanka. The ship wreck dates back to the 1st-4th century Anno Domini (AD)4, making it one of the oldest shipwrecks found in Asia. UNESCO sponsored the participation of one Malaysian and one Filipino, while the Dutch Government sponsored the participation of three Indonesians and one Indian. They joined the maritime archaeologists of the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka. All participants including the team from the Maritime Archaeology Unit are graduates of the Foundation Courses. Their joint report will be published in a scientific journal. Implementing partners The Thai Government through its relevant national agency, the Fine Arts Department, has supported the project by hosting the Regional Field Training Centre within the precinct of the UAD of Thailand. It has provided a permanent venue and building to house the facilities of the Centre in Chanthaburi. The Fine Arts Department has designated the Director of UAD to administer and implement the training activities of the Centre, until such time that a Director of Centre can be assigned. UAD has provided its human and physical resources, and logistic support for the implementation of training courses. It has also enlisted the support of relevant Thai government agencies and academic institutions, and arranged for national experts to complement international expertise provided by UNESCO. ICOMOS-ICUCH has assisted in coordinating the preparation of training curricula, and in identifying and providing technical advice to expert trainers and resource persons. The following institutions in the region have supported the regional capacity building programme by providing their experts to share their knowledge during the training courses: • Flinders University (Australia) • International Conservation Services (Australia) • Western Australian Museum (Australia) • Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (Australia) • Bursary of the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient (France) • Dutch Cultural Heritage (Netherlands) • Museum het Walkhof (Netherlands) • Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (Netherlands) • National Museum (Philippines) • Bursary of the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient (Viet Nam) • Silpakorn University (Thailand) • Nautical Archaeology Society (United Kingdom) • NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (United States) 4 Georgian Calendar designation that begins at the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth in year one, with additional years added one by one. �Project sustainability After the Norwegian-funded project expires at the end of 2011, the Fine Arts Department of Thailand has expressed its commitment to sustain the Centre over the long term and to nominate the Centre to be placed under the auspices of UNESCO as a Category II Centre in the near future. To realize these objectives, the Department shall explore long-term collaboration with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA) of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO), Silpakorn University (Thailand) and other institutions in the region to assist in future activities of the Centre. The Department plans to organize one Advanced Course on specialized topics and new technologies on maritime archaeology once every year and one Foundation Course every two years. To take advantage of the relatively low cost of organizing training programmes in Thailand, national and sub-regional training initiatives are welcome to arrange with UAD of Thailand for the use of the Centre’s facilities and to avail of the technical support of the experienced team of UAD. Conclusions Being the first training courses on UCH that are regional in scope, the project has achieved high visibility not only within the Asia-Pacific Region but beyond. As a result of the regional capacity building programme, participating Member States have started to strengthen their existing underwater archaeology units or establish their units. Four graduates of the Foundation Courses have established the Underwater Archaeology Unit in Cambodia. Five beneficiaries at the National Museum of the Philippines have initiated collaborative projects with other government and academic institutions for a shipwreck management program in the Philippines. Amjad Ali of Pakistan (2nd Foundation Course) has submitted project documents on underwater archaeology to funding agencies. Using knowledge and skills learnt during the 3rd Foundation Course, Caesar Bita of Kenya supervised an UCH impact assessment on an underwater fibre optic cable laying project and dredging of a harbor. Eko Triarso of Indonesia (3rd Foundation Course) has mobilized a team to prepare a management and conservation plan for underwater archaeological resources in the Natuwa Waters in northern Indonesia. Chandraratne Wijamunige (2nd Foundation Course) initiated the Project Experience Exchange Asia in Sri Lanka in December 2010, participated by graduates of earlier Foundation Courses from four countries. Beneficiaries working for the Malaysian Department of Heritage have launched an awareness campaign among divers and coastal communities. Nia Ridwan of Indonesia (2nd Foundation Course) has conducted a survey of potential underwater archaeological resources to support the establishment of a Maritime Conservation Area in Bangka Belitung Waters, and a survey of a ship wrecked by tsunami in Mentawai Waters. Other beneficiaries of the regional programme have sent their feedbacks on how they have improved their strategies in the protection and management of their UCH. Considering the multi-disciplinary nature of maritime archaeology and given the limited knowledge and skills acquired by trainees during a six-week Foundation Course, participating Member States are encouraged to support their continuing education and training in established universities offering maritime archaeology courses, and to enable �them to participate in joint underwater research and survey activities in other countries. Relevant national agencies are therefore encouraged to seek bilateral cooperation with countries with expertise in maritime archaeology and financial resources to sponsor the training of their experts. For further information Capacity Building Programme of UNESCO Bangkok Office http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/uch/capacity-building/ Tutorial on the Annex to the 2001 Convention: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/underwaterheritage-tutorial/tutorial/ Code of Ethics for Diving on Submerged Archaeological Sites: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/scubadiving/ 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/ Bibliography Prott, L.V.(Ed), 2006 Grenier, R., Nutley, D., Cochran, I. (Eds), 2006 Finishing the Interrupted Voyage: Papers of the UNESCO AsiaPacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, Leicester, UNESCO/Institute of Art and Law. Heritage at Risk, Special Edition, ICOMOS. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource UNESCO Regional Capacity Building Programme on Safeguarding the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource In response to the recommendation of delegates and experts during the Asia-Pacific Regional Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Hong Kong, Special Autonomous Region of China, November 2003), The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is implementing a regional capacity building programme on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Asia and the Pacific through the establishment of a Regional Field Training Centre. Supported by the Norwegian Government, the programme aims to facilitate and enable the training of maritime archaeologists and conservation experts from Asia and the Pacific region in the proper safeguarding and management of UCH, in line with the principles of the 2001 Convention and the Rules of its Annex. Operated by the Government of Thailand, the Regional Field Training Centre is attached within the precinct of the Underwater Archaeology Division of the Fine Arts Department in Chanthaburi, Thailand. With the support of implementing partners including International Council of Monuments and of Sites - International Council of Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICOMOS-ICUCH), the Centre has successfully organized since 2009 three Foundation Courses and an Advanced Course on the application of Geographical Information systems (GIS) in underwater archaeology and cultural heritage management. The six-week Foundation Courses aim to bring regional experts of different academic backgrounds to a common level of understanding on the multi-disciplinary nature of UCH management. So far, the regional capacity building programme has benefitted seventy national experts from seventeen countries in the Asia-Pacific Region, including Kenya. This paper will discuss the development of the regional capacity building programme, the training activities and projects in which the Centre is involved, future plans and efforts to sustain the Centre over the long term. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ricardo L. Favis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b529e1801d2ecbc7f3598dd2fa22c6af.pdf f49e7ebd2cd59e79eab61d7476e47351 PDF Text Text Uraga Port between Manila and Acapulco Kahoru Suzuki Japan Society for Nautical Research s-k20@nifty.com Abstract Uraga Port at the southern end of the Miura Peninsula, located at the entrance of Tokyo Bay, is formed as a deep cove from the Pacific Ocean; it is less susceptible to weather conditions and is suitable for the natural environment. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Japan opened three international trade ports. Holland and England is Hirado, Portugal is Nagasaki, Spain is Uraga. Ieyasu Tokugawa begins dispatching shipbuilding engineers and miners from Spain and as a result of negotiating with the Philippine Governor General, the Spaniards of Manila visited Uraga Port every year since 1604 and the Franciscan Monastery in the town was built. Ieyasu Tokugawa also sent British William Adams to Manila and negotiated to continue dealing with Spain However, contrary to the intention of Ieyasu Tokugawa, Spain did not convey shipbuilding technology and mining technology. In 1611, Mexican envoy Sebastián Vizcaíno came to Uraga, but only the east coast of Japan was investigated. At the beginning of the Edo period Christianity was forbidden in 1613. Just before the death of Ieyasu Tokugawa, Diego de Santa Catalina came to Uraga, Ieyasu Tokugawa questioned Spain's attitude, banished him to Spain, and the transaction with Spain was completely completed. Japan took an isolation policy and only Uraga Port quietly disappeared as a trade port. Key words: Galleon, port, Manila, Acapulco Introduction When Ieyasu Tokugawa appeared on the political front stage, Japan was isolated from East Asian countries being a disorderly situation both economically and externally. For him, therefore, it was natural trend to �revive the economic infrastructure and turn it into a way to open the country. First of all, Ieyasu Tokugawa started the normalization of diplomacy in Spain, which had been severed by the San Felipe incident. In December 1598, Ieyasu Tokugawa contacted Franciscan missionaries and negotiated to invite a Spanish ship in Manila to Uraga. He sent a letter to the Spanish Governor of the Philippines to dispatch construction engineers of Galleon ship and innovative smelting engineers of Mexico. As a result, the Franciscan monastery was built in Uraga. Since 1604 a Spanish ship from Manila to Acapulco had entered to Uraga every year, which was opened as an international trade port. It is worth noting that William Adams from England was closely involved in this Uraga diplomacy. Today, a number of studies on William Adams conducted by Japanese, Dutch, or British researchers, but on him as a diplomatic advisor of Ieyasu Tokugawa for Spain is not considered at all. Despite the fact that politicians did not usually hire foreigners in Japanese history, reasons why only William Adams was hired were not discussed among scholars. Although Nagasaki and Hirado trades have been investigated a lot, no survey on Uraga trade has been done. Why did Ieyasu Tokugawa abandon the deportation order of missionaries by Hideyoshi Toyotomi and accept Catholicism? Request Spanish Miners and Shipbuilding Technicians �Ieyasu’s negotiations with Spain are not limited to trade. He was trying to invite shipbuilders for western styled Galleon ships and miners. At that time Japan was using troublesome method, called haihuki method, for silver mining. Because of its immaturity, this method led lots of economical loss. On the other hand, Spain used a revolutionary amalgam method in Mexico and Peru that used ‘lead’. This technology was discovered in Mexico in 1557 and was adopted in 1571, whereby Mexico gained a lot of silver. For Ieyasu’s future perspectives on progress of economic policy, introduction of this technology to domestic silver mining had an important meaning. In addition, Japan did not have any construction technologies for large western typed sailing vessels to withstand trans-Pacific voyage, Ieyasu Tokugawa thought that its technological introduction from Spain was important as well. To accomplish his two plans, in December 1598 Ieyasu Tokugawa summoned a Franciscan missionary Jerónimo de Jesús who had experiences of trade-negotiations in Japan since the era of Hideyoshi Toyotomi. Ieyasu Tokugawa proposed for Spain to use Uraga as a trading post and build big ships there. In order to avoid drifting alike the San Felipe issue, Jerónimo de Jesús considered that using another ports in the Far East between Manila and Acapulco passage was useful. To do so, he thought, it was essential to survey the east coast of Japan for safe voyage �around the Far East. Yet, Jerónimo de Jesús explained that he had to request these plans to the Spanish Governor of the Philippines. However, the Spanish side did not intend to accept Ieyasu's request at all. Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia mentioned this issue in his An Account of Japan, 1609 that there were abundant of silver veins in Japan; even though they did not have a good smelting technology, production is surprisingly vast. He also remarked that if Japan had had foreign miners and mercury for production of silvers, wealth of Japan might have become a threat for Spain. As for shipbuilding technologies, Antonio de Morga, an aide of the Spanish Governor of the Philippines remarked about this issue in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, he said that giving technology of shipbuilding to Japan was not a wise decision. Manila did not receive any attacks from Japan before that time because only because Japan did not have any technologies to build large sailing vessels. If Japan became to possess such technologies, Japan would come to Manila by ship to attack the Spanish territories. If those trading posts were attacked by Japanese troops, 500 Spaniards in a castle have no power to fight back. Japanese Laws Regarding Shipwrecks and Extinction of Yawata Ships In Japan it was believed that shipwrecks were caused by Gods of the sea since the ancient times, and cargos and trade goods of the wrecked ships �were legally confiscated by the owner of the coastal land. To ease the anger of the sea gods, thereafter, new temples or shrines were built using sales-profits of such goods from the wrecks. No captain of the ship had any rights to repair the ships or to retrieve properties and cargos from the wrecks. The substantial loss of the San Felipe confiscated by Hideyoshi Toyotomi exceeded 1 million pesos. Therefore, the Spaniards from Manila to Acapulco had to avoid getting stranded in Japan. Ieyasu Tokugawa was concerned that this Japanese custom regarding shipwrecks was a biggest obstacle against the negotiations with Spain. In 1602, Ieyasu Tokugawa noted to the Spanish Governor of the Philippines that ‘in the future we would not confiscate any cargos and trading goods of drifting ships from your country, and Japan should also provide some foods and places to repairs Spanish ships’. The similar political statements were written in the trade patent form with the Netherlands and with England later. In a letter of July 1599, the Spanish Governor of the Philippines requested three issues to Ieyasu Tokugawa, viz. control and punishment of the Yawata ships (Japanese pirates) in the Philippine Sea, prohibiting Japanese from visiting Manila without permission, and not dispatching more than three vessels each year (Ikoku Nikki). Spanish asked for a proof or an insurance of a public trade to Japanese side, and requested as many permission documents (Watanai Seal Imprint) for trading with Ieyasu Tokugawa. According to a study by a Japanese scholar, Ieyasu �Tokugawa enacted an order that any ships having neither seal nor permission document should not allowed to go to the Philippines. This new regulation or red seal system was executed from 1600; the origin of red seal trade system was born from the Uraga diplomacy by Ieyasu Tokugawa. Two Spanish Vessels Drifted into Kanto There were two records of drift incidents of Spanish ships from Manila to Kanto has. The first one is commander Don Juan Esquerra drifted to Otaki Kazusa in the fall of 1601. At this time, Ieyasu Tokugawa provided a sailing ship built by William Adams in Japan and provisions. He successfully returned to Luzon in 1604 (Ikoku Nikki). After that, an ambassador visited to Uraga in May 1606 to display their appreciation for Ieyasu’s treatment on commander Don Juan Esquerra. This visiting was recorded as "Sagami-kun to Miura Odori Hanedai" in 1606. The second wreck occurred in September 1609. The Spanish Governor of the Philippines Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia or Don Rodrigo wrecked at Kanto Iwawada on his return trip to Acapulco. This time, Ieyasu Tokugawa sent William Adams to Iwawada. In An Account of Japan, 1609, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia mentioned ‘Ieyasu’s favorite British officer William Adams brought a passage-permission “salvo conducto” and a red seal “chapa”’. At this opportunity, Ieyasu Tokugawa tried re-negotiating with Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia, regarding the dispatch of miners. The agreements of this negotiation between them were listed below: �1. Providing provisions and foods for Spaniards. 2. Repair for ships shall be provided by Japanese shipbuilders with normal wages. 3. Ambassadors shall be treated respectively in Japan, and accommodations are provided to them. 4. Between 100 and 200 Spanish miners shall be dispatched to Japan. When a vein was discovered by Spanish, half of the smelted silver will be divided among miners, and the remaining half shall be divided into Ieyasu Tokugawa and King Felipe. 5. Priests have to be allowed to stay in Japan for the Spanish miners, and all jurisdictions for them were controlled by Spanish side. 6. When Spanish were attacked by Japanese, the Japanese king shall punish the offenders. 7. Exorcise Dutch from Japan. 8. Permit Spanish to survey on east coast of Japan. The reason why ‘shipbuilders and Galleons’ was not a part of this agreement was that Ieyasu Tokugawa already owned sailing vessels which were built by William Adams and their construction techniques. To Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia, Ieyasu Tokugawa gave a 120 ton ship which was designed and built by William Adams for his return trip. This ship was named San Buena Ventura and, in August 1610, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia left Uraga port for Acapulco. In the maritime history of Japan, the first ship crossed the Pacific Ocean was this vessel built by William Adams. William Adams' Negotiations with Manila Since 1604, Uraga Minato in the Kanto area had been used as a trading post by Spanish mercantile ships every year. On the other hand, Portugal �tried to prevent Manila from its trading with China and Japan. According to Lorenzo Pérez’s Apostolado y martirio del Beato Luis Sotelo en el Japón, following this notion, in May 1606 the Spanish Roundtable Conference was held at the Kingdom of Spain, and the king ordered the Spanish Governor of the Philippines to stop Manila from its trade with Japan. To mitigate and solve this problem, Spanish captain Francisco Moreno Donoso together with a missionary Beato Luis Sotelo visited Ieyasu Tokugawato in order to seek a solution. Beato Luis Sotelo suggested Ieyasu Tokugawa to send William Adams to Manila as a negotiator with Spain. As a result, William Adams visited the Spanish Governor of the Philippines Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia on 15th June 1608 at Manila. This was thirteen years before the beginning of Japan’s commerce with England, i.e. Adams' home country. This was also one year before Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia drifted to Kanto Iwawada on his return voyage to Acapulco in 1609. Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia understood the potential of profits that the Philippines gained from trade and relationships with Japan. On 9th July 1608, he released all Japanese prisoners in order to finish, or get rid of, issues related to Yawata ships (Japanese pirates) which had been pending. Then, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia wrote a letter to Ieyasu Tokugawa on the same day. This letter in Ikoku Nikki, which was translated by one of Ieyasu’s personal scholars, is as follows: �捧 前将軍家康尊公書云 本国伊須波二屋之帝王 当国呂宋為守護拙夫被仰付 今度致渡海 候。然者、前々於守護人 御懇意之段令承知候。到我等、無御異 議候様可恭候 縦雖隔雲山万里候。心中者非其儀候。彌々可申談 候。次又拙夫、此国参着砌 当所数年逗留之日本人徒者共候而 所之騒ニ罷成候之間 当年者壹人も不相残帰国之儀申付候。雖然 毎年渡海之商客 何も無疎意人等候之間 致馳走候。向後別儀有 ・ ・ ・・ 間敷候。如例年 今年も黒船差渡候。則到関東可乗入之旨 安子 申付候。併海路不任雅意候へは 日域中者、皆以御国之儀候之間 何所へ成共 風次第可入津之由申付候 此加飛丹同船中者共 御 馳走奉仰候。兼又貴国居住之ふらて之儀 如前々被加御哀燐候様 是又奉仰候。少進物以目録申上候。奉表寸志而已。恐惶敬白。 慶長拾三年五月廿七日 鈍、ろちりこで 朱印 びへいろ 判也 謹上 日本国御主、大御所様 (Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia, who arrived in Manila was the Governor of the King of the Spanish Kingdom. In order to strengthen the bond for long-lasting relationship with your country (Japan), Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia released all the Japanese prisoners who had been imprisoned in Manila for several years. Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia believed that two nations shall have good relationship and conflicts in �such will not reoccur. This year, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia will send one ship, and he will give an order the ship to enter Kanto, and Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia has already mentioned so to ‘Ange’ and requested provisions and other hospitality for its captain.) The author believes that, together with one captain and one navigator of the ship, William Adams was onboard this ship to Japan in 1608. A person, who was described as ‘Ange’ in the letter, was also known as Miura Anno. Indeed, his person was William Adams. His presence onboard was also described in Lorenzo Pérez’s letter, saying that he ordered William Adams to enter the Kanto area. The Minister of State of Mexico for Japanese and Chinese affairs, C. A. Lera also mentioned and described William Adams as ‘Anjin’. In the book of Ikoku Nikki, additionally, William Adams was written and named as ‘Anza’, ‘Anji’, ‘Ann’, or ‘Anzin’, and in Japanese Travel Book written by John Saris, William Adams was named ‘Ange’. William Adams' trip to Manila, indeed, solved the problems related to Yawata ships (Japanese pirates) that had been causing problems in Philippine waters, and he managed to resume the Uraga trade. In the same year, to avoid unnecessary conflicts, an ordinance was enacted in Uraga that was to forbid Uraga residency to do any violence activities against Spanish people. According to Apostolado y martirio del Beato Luis Sotelo en el Japón, written by C. A. Lera, this ordinance was created based on William Adams’s advice. In Uraga, a Franciscan monastery was constructed in the same year as well which was also based on advice of �William Adams. These generous treatments toward Spanish people in Uraga were not because Ieyasu Tokugawa mitigated his attitude against Christianity but because rather Ieyasu Tokugawa needed to withhold his negative opinions toward Christianity in order to make his business with Spain more successful. Importance of William Adams Why Ieyasu Tokugawa did heavily trust William Adams as a diplomatic adviser? In the history of Japan, his case was extremely exceptional because there were no other cases, except for William Adams. Japanese emperors, shoguns, or important authorities have never used foreigners as their important consultants before. Presumably, indeed, this happened because of the Uraga diplomatic and trading policy by Ieyasu Tokugawa. 1. When William Adams visited Ieyasu Tokugawa first time in April 1600, he asked Ieyasu Tokugawa to give him permission to start business in Japan like other Portuguese or Chinese merchants, but Ieyasu Tokugawa did not give him any permissions, which William Adams recorded in his journal. If Ieyasu’s interest had been to use William Adams for trade purposes with England or the Netherlands, he might not have had been allowed by Ieyasu Tokugawa to trade with Spain. Ieyasu Tokugawa would have asked William Adams on the early stage to look for Dutch or British trading partners as soon as possible. However, the trade with the Netherlands established later in August 1609, nine years after Adams came to Japan and that one with England was established in October �1613, thirteen years after his arrival. In addition, trading agreements were established with the Netherlands and England because these countries needed Japan for their international competitions. Their positive attitudes toward trades with Japan were so much different from the passive or rather negative attitude of Spanish. Ieyasu Tokugawa himself was the person who eagerly invited Spain to Uraga to establish a good economic relationship with Manila or Acapulco. 2. Indeed, Ieyasu Tokugawa never invited any mercantile vessels form the Netherlands and England to enter Uraga. Both nations were only permitted to build commercial halls in Hirado. If Ieyasu Tokugawa wished, Ieyasu he could easily have invited or ordered mercantile vessels from the Netherlands and England to establish trading posts in Unaga, which is very close to Edo, in order to make Kanto as an international economic center. However, only Spain was frequently asked and invited to use Uraga by Ieyasu Tokugawa. 3. Another interesting fact was that Ieyasu Tokugawa gave William Adams a house at Edo, as well as at the village of Hemi where close to Uraga. Ieyase Tokugawa gave even a fief near Uraga to William Adams, too. These facts clearly indicate that William Adams was expected to work as an Ieyasu’s diplomatic advisor for Spanish issues, not for a simple trading advisor with England and the Netherlands. This is obvious because another Dutch diplomatic advisor Jan Joosten only received a house at Edo from Ieyasu Tokugawa. �4. On 15th August 1615 when the ambassador Diego de Santa Catalina, who was sent by the Spanish Governor Mexico, arrived in Uraga on Masamune’s ship, San Juan Bautista, Ieyasu Tokugawa summoned William Adams from Hirado to Uraga. This event also indicated that William Adams was especially expected to work on diplomatic negotiations, in particular, with Spain. It is clear from the above that William Adams was a heavily specialized personal for Ieyasu’s Spain diplomacy. Relationship between Masamune’s European Ship and Sebastián Vizcaíno. In June 1611, to thanks to hospitalities that Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia received from Ieyasu Tokugawa during the wreck incidents on his way returning to Acapulco, Sebastián Vizcaíno, the ambassador of the Spanish Governor of Mexico, entered Uraga. Another mission of his was to survey the east coast of Japan and to discover a legendary island where produced fruitful amounts of gold and silver believed to exist near Japan, and to make this legendary place as Spanish new trading port in East Asia. Not surprisingly, Sebastián Vizcaíno did not manage to find a fictitious gold and silver island, repeatedly encountered storms, and his ship was destroyed eventually and returned to Uraga for repair on 7th November 1612. After Sebastián Vizcaíno returned to Uraga, he asked Ieyasu Tokugawa to lend his help for construction of a new sailing vessel to go home. However, Ieyasu Tokugawa received from him only some �nautical charts and maps of east coast of Japan, not any silver mining engineers. Then, Ieyasu Tokugawa began to realize that his attempt to invite Spanish miners to Japan to improve Japan’s domestic mining system would not be materialized. Instead, Sebastián Vizcaíno asked Masamune Date, a local lord of Oshu, for help. When he visited the east coast of Japan, such as coasts of Oshu, for surveying, he met Masamune Date who said to him that Masmune Date loved to invite mercantle vessels from Mexico. After that, Sebastián Vizcaíno offered a shipbuilding master to Masamune Date and, thanks to this goodwill, Masamune Date later dispatched his embassy to Europe. Accordingly, Ieyasu’s attempt to invite Spanish miners to Japan fell apart without any successes. It was 1st February 1614 that Ieyasu’s new executive order to completely ban against Christian propagations throughout the country was enacted. Thus, his plan to transform Uraga into an international trade port was perished and ended. Conclusion Leyasu 's Uraga diplomacy was exclusively focused on relationship with Spain. Moreover, the port that Ieyasu Tokugawa used to invite Spanish mercantile vessels was always Uraga port. Other ports that Ieyasu Tokugawa used to invite other European nations such as England, the Netherlands, and Portugal were not Uraga but Hirado or Nagasaki. Ieyasu’s true intention was to import and learn new profitable techniques of mining developed in Mexico. For Ieyasu Tokugawa, therefore, William �Adams was a very important diplomatic consultant to negotiate with Spain. To build a friendly relationship with Spain, Ieyasu Tokugawa answered to requests by the Spanish Governor of the Philippines to give permissions with red seals to the limited numbers of Japanese mercantile ships. In other words, the original concept of Ieyasu's red seal trade system was born from his Uraga diplomacy. From the beginning, Spanish did not have any intentions to send their silver miners to Japan. Ieyasu’s mistake was that he could not disclose their intentions. Failure of his Uraga diplomacy resulted in the complete ban on Christianity in Japan. Nearly 300,000 Japanese who believed in teachings of the Society of Jesuit and Franciscan were killed in the end. Consequently, Japan or Tokugawa-Shogunate decided to close the doors to any foreign countries, except for the Netherlands and for China. It could be said that Ieyasu’s Uraga diplomacy with Spain also triggered the 250 years of Japan’s national isolation. References Suzuki, K., 1994. Uraga port opening and intention of Tokugawa Ieyasu. Kanagawa Chiikishi Kenkyu, Vol. 12:1-17. . Suzuki, K., 2010. Diplomatic Relation between Span and Japan by Ieyasu Tokugawa. Shin Jimbutsuourai Sha, Tokyo. Suzuki, K., 2014. Spain diplomacy and Uraga minato. Kanagawa, Vol. 52: 1-20. Regional �Biography Kahoru Suzuki, born in 1946 at the Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan, is a specialized national public servant in the Japanese government, who was decorated with the Order of the Sacred Treasure, Silver Rays in 2016. She is a member of the Japan Society for Nautical Research and the Society of Japanese Historical Research. In 1993 she received her BA in Japanese History from Kokugakuin University. Her books include The Sagami Miura Clan and their History (Shin Jimbutsuourai Sha, 2007), Diplomatic Relation between Span and Japan by Ieyasu Tokugawa (Shin Jimbutsuourai Sha, 2010), or The Mukai Navy and its Surroundings (Shincho, 2014). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Uraga Port between Manila and Acapulco Description An account of the resource Uraga Port at the southern end of the Miura Peninsula, located at the entrance of Tokyo Bay, is formed as a deep cove from the Pacific Ocean; it is less susceptible to weather conditions and is suitable for the natural environment. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Japan opened three international trade ports. Holland and England is Hirado, Portugal is Nagasaki, Spain is Uraga. Ieyasu Tokugawa begins dispatching shipbuilding engineers and miners from Spain and as a result of negotiating with the Philippine Governor General, the Spaniards of Manila visited Uraga Port every year since 1604 and the Franciscan Monastery in the town was built. Ieyasu Tokugawa also sent British William Adams to Manila and negotiated to continue dealing with Spain However, contrary to the intention of Ieyasu Tokugawa, Spain did not convey shipbuilding technology and mining technology. In 1611, Mexican envoy Sebastián Vizcaíno came to Uraga, but only the east coast of Japan was investigated. At the beginning of the Edo period Christianity was forbidden in 1613. Just before the death of Ieyasu Tokugawa, Diego de Santa Catalina came to Uraga, Ieyasu Tokugawa questioned Spain's attitude, banished him to Spain, and the transaction with Spain was completely completed. Japan took an isolation policy and only Uraga Port quietly disappeared as a trade port. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kahoru Suzuki Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Kahoru Suzuki Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/53e747dab4bc7b186e474731863b47a9.pdf 7f9c4a50528db5bafa6664a0403fd4f1 PDF Text Text Urdaneta and the health cargo of the Tornaviaje1 Mr Xabier Armendáriz2 Abstract The aim of this paper is to analyze the food cargo of Urdaneta’s Tornaviaje and it’s direct consequences over the health of his sailors. The paper will focus on health issues on board, specially in view of the unknown route that they would follow to go back to the Americas. We will focus on how Urdaneta planned to overcome problems related to prolonged stays at sea, specially health problems due to lack of fresh food. Through contemporary accounts and diaries, we know that Urdaneta understood the necessity of having fresh fruits on board, and took action to ensure the safety of his crew by introducing local fruits from the Philippines such as coconuts. His efforts were successful, and his perilous trip was made with less than 10% of mortality, with no direct mention to scurvy. 1. Introduction If Friar Andrés de Urdaneta (birth Villafranca de Ordizia, Gipuzkoa, 1508 – death Mexico city, 1568) is known to history is, due to his extraordinary return trip from Asia to Mexico, his deed is a milestone in the history of navigation. On the 8th of October 1565, on board the nao San Pedro, he arrived in Acapulco after a long and difficult journey across the biggest Ocean on Earth. He had just established a secure and passable route to go back to the Americas from the Philippine Archipelago. However, Urdaneta's achievements do not end in his nautical knowledge and his ability to successfully complete the crossing of the Pacific Ocean eastwards. Other aspects of his personality and knowledge as a sailor and as a man of science can be found in documental sources and his own personal comments, such as the comparative analysis made by him regarding the different experiences that arose during these great maritime expeditions of his time. We will discuss exclusively Urdaneta's knowledge of an illness that has ravaged sailors since human populations started conquering the waves: scurvy. That Urdaneta was aware of this disease and that he took measures to fight it can be inferred from the fact that none of the sailors in his ship, the San Pedro, died of it during he return voyage from the Philippines to New Spain - which lasted four long months. 2 . The diet on board during the exploration of the Pacific One of the biggest problems on board ships during the 16th century was the conservation of food. Generally speaking, the small amount of fresh food available - fruits and vegetables - was distributed following a hierarchical order that gave preference to the officers of the ships, not usually reaching the sailors (Mira-Caballos 2010:9; López-Ríos 1993:67), and it had to be consumed during the first days of travel. The deterioration of fresh food was extremely fast, not 1 2 to Mari Society for Basque Studies, SPAIN, info@xabierarmendariz.com �only due to the natural cycle of cellular decomposition, but also due to the storage conditions in the cargo hold. The high temperatures of some areas and the humidity destroyed all food that had not previously been dried, salted or smoked. Even these processes did not guarantee that the food would be preserved for the whole voyage (Fernández Duro 1957:140). The need to submit the food to these processes of preservation limited the type of products that could be carried on board, since not all types of food can receive such treatments. Not many fruits and vegetables can endure the process of preservation, so their presence on board a 16th century ship is extremely rare. The diet of sailors was basically two types: the first one was the navy hardtack, a sort of unleavened bread made with flour and water and baked twice or more to prolongue its preservation (Marañón 1940:220)3. The second group was made up of legumes (chickpeas, lentils, and beans), dried or salty fish and meat, vinegar, oil and cheese. Even when this diet contained a good amount of calories, its nutritional value was very deficient (Mira Caballos 2010:8). The legumes were toasted in the oven to improve their preservation, destroying any vitamins that they might have contained (Marañon 1940:221). The food was weighted carefully and distributed among the sailors by a steward, who could reduce the rations under the captain's orders in times of shortage4. The main course consisted of a bun mixed with a stew of legumes and water. A few days per week,5 salty fish or meat was eaten along with some cheese. The remains of the maggoty hardtack was mixed with water to produce a dull soup that was served for dinner. This soup was known as mazamorra. The only consolation they had was the vinegar, which was served on rare occasions, and the wine, of which the sailors received around one litre (L) per day each. The wine helped to calm the hunger, as well as the thrist produced by the salty rations (Mira-Caballos 2010:10)6. Such diets were rich in carbohydrates and provided some proteins, but it was lacking in vitamins. 3. Scurvy: the disease of the sea Scurvy is the most common nautical disease. The prolongued periods of time spent at sea and the lack of fresh food provoke a general state of avitaminosis in a short period of time, specially vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid). The symptoms start with tiredness and depression, then changes in the gums and in the skin appear followed by strong pain and swelling of the joints. The peak of the disease comes when the gums are so swollen and weakened that the act of eating ends with loss of tooth and a strong smell of rot. Other symptoms that usually accompany scurvy are hemorrhage, edemas, jaundice and high fever. 3 Even though hardtack was more nutritious than the common bread because it was made from bran, its hardness was so great that it had to be soaked in salty water in order to eat it (Marañón 1940 :220). 4 These were unforseen circumstances, like for example bad weather and bad winds that might delay the trip more than expected; or perhaps the inability to call at a port due to political conflicts. 5 The disponibility of meat and fish was sometimes diminished by the damage made by rats, insects and rotting. With some luck, fish was abundant in the seas that the ships were sailing, which was always a great improvement over the poor diet on board. 6 The wine given among the sailors was of low quality, unlike the one provided to the officers on board. However, even the distinction between food qualities was not enough to prevent scurvy among the higher ranks. 2 �Death overcomes the patient between convulsions and shock. Due to the severity of its condition, scurvy was the deadliest nautical disease in long distance navigation (López-Ríos 1993:97-99). References to the disease are common since Classic Antiquity; Hippocrates, Celsus and Pliny wrote about it (López-Ríos 1993:98)7. Vasco de Gama himself lost a hundred men of a hundred and sixty-eight to the disease on his expedition to India; according to his logbook Diario de a bordo (1496-1497) (López-Ríos 1993:99) The disease was so widespread that they were down to eight working men per ship at one point. The symptoms can show up in a span of between one month and a half and three months, depending on the availability of fresh food on board. In general, a person needs around 10 miligrams (mg) of vitamin C per day. The body's reserve of vitamin C is around 1,5 grams (gr) and 3 gr, depending on the health of the sailor prior to embarking. A rough estimate of the lapse of time that it takes to develop scurvy in oceanic expeditions can be made, taking into account that in periods of shortage the maximum loss of vitamin C is 4% (López-Ríos 1993:97-99). Until the mid 18th century, medical science considered scurvy a contagious disease of unknown origin, and that it was most likely triggered by the climate, the digestive system or humorism (López-Ríos 1993:106). It is commonly accepted by the history of medicine that Dr. James Lind (1716-1794) was the first person to cure scurvy. Lind, who was a surgeon on board the Brittish vessel HMS Salisbury, conducted a clinical trial on board, testing changes in the diet of his subjects to see whether such alterations affected the development of scurvy. A few selected subjects afflicted with scurvy kept the standard on-board diet, while two sailors were given cider and two other men were given lemons and oranges8. In his famous book, A Treatise of the Scurvy published in 1753, he described the results of his experiments: the two men who drank cider improved, while the two sailors who were given lemons and oranges made a full recovery (López-Ríos 1993:107). 7 Cited by López-Ríos: Hipócrates: “LIber de internis affectionibus” In Enciclopedia Internacional de Cirugía. Madrid, Moya, 1883, I, p.206.; Celso: De Medicina, II, chapter III; Plinio: Naturalis Historiae. XXV, chapter III. 8 Due to the relevance of his experiment, we transcribe the most enlightening sections: On the 20th of May 1747, I took twelve patients with scurvy, on board the Salisbury at sea. Their cases were a similar as I could have them. They all in general had putrid gums, the spots and lassitude, with weakness of their knees. They lay together in one place, being a proper apartment for the sick in the fore-hold; and had one diet common to all, viz, water-gruel sweetened with sugar in the morning; fresh mutton-broth often times for dinner; at other times puddings, boiled biscuit with sugar, etc.; and for supper, barley and raisins, rice and currants, sago and wine, or the like. Two of these were ordered each a quart of cyder a-day. Two others took twenty-five gutts of elixir vitriol three times a-day, upon and empty stomach; using a gargle strongly acidulated with it for their mouths. Two others took two spoonfuls of vinegar three times a-day, upon and empty stomach; having their gruels and their other food well acidulated with it, as also the gargle for their mouth. Two of the worst patients, with the tendons in the ham rigid, (a symptom none of the rest had), were put under a course of sea-water. Of this they drank half a pint every day, and sometimes more or less as it operated, by way of gentle physic. Two other had each two oranges and one lemon given them every day. […] The consequence was, that the most sudden and visible good effects were perceived from the use of the oranges and lemons; one of those who had taken them, being at the end of siks theis fit for duty. (Lind, J. 1753: 145-148) 3 �4. Andrés de Urdaneta Urdaneta was born in the gipuzkoan village of Villafranca de Ordizia towards the end of 1507 or the first months of 1508. His family was most likely involved in the maritime trade with the recently discovered West Indies, the Spice islands and an area well known to the Basque whalers: Terranova, el mar de los bacallaos - the cod sea (Miguel 2002:21). This link between the sea and Urdaneta's explains his cunning ability in trade. It also sets him within the world of Basque seafaring. Basque sailors who traveled to Terranova in search for cod or whales did not usually suffer from scurvy (Agirre 2004). Contemporary documents show that the most common beverage on board was cider, since wine was too expensive for the Basque shipowners. Cider is a good source of vitamin C, which would account for a reduced number of scurvy cases in Basque ships (Agirre 2004)9. This knowledge was most likely known by Urdaneta. Urdaneta was only 17 when he set sail to Asia with the doomed Loaysa expedition. Of the seven ships that left Corunna on 24th of July 1525, only one managed to arrive in Mindanao (current Philippines). We don't know what Urdaneta's role in the expedition was, but he seemed to have been well considered by the officers of the ships since he signed as a witness in Elcano's last will. Urdaneta and the remaining crew (26 sailors) were stranded in the Spice Islands. He remained in the Pacific region for almost a decade, until he reached Spain on a Portuguese ship, on 26th of June of 1536. During these years he suffered many misfortunes, but he also acquired a vast amount of knowledge. The sources of this knowledge were diverse, but possibly the most interesting was the rescue of castaway sailor Gonzalo de Vigo, from the Magellan expedition. He survived in the island of Guam, and knew the language of the local population. Urdaneta spent most of his years in the Pacific with Gonzalo de Vigo, from whom he learnt that language (Miguel 2002:40-42; Arteche 1943:160). On his arrival to Europe he was captured by the Portuguese, who seized Urdaneta's diaries, in which he wrote about his time in the Pacific. He escaped from Lisbon and upon his arrival in Valladolid, he started re-writing his experiences in Asia-Pacific. Based on his writings, both the diaries and the memorial, it is clear that Urdaneta had a deep knowledge of the Spice Islands, their geography, the people who inhabited them, their customs, wind patterns and so on (Arteche 1943:160-162). This knowledge helped him undertake such a difficult task as the “tornaviaje”, the return trip Westwards to Mexico, and it most likely helped him to control direct health issues that threathened the voyage. 9 Cider has been the alcoholic beverage traditionally consumed in the Atlantic coast of Europe and the south of the British Isles. The humid climate made it difficult to grow vines, but apple trees grow abundantly. There are many references to the Basque custom of drinking cider, but perhaps the most interesting was made by French Inquisitor Pierre de Lancre. De Lancre defined the Basques as bad farmers who prefered life at sea and their women as witches who used the cider from the apple, the fruit of sin: “ne mangent que pommes, ne boyvent que jus de pommes, qui est occasion qu'elles mordent si volontiers à cette pomme de transgression, qui fist outrepasser le commandement de Dieu et franchir la prohibition à notre premier père”. Lancre, Pierre de., 1612. Tableau de l’inconstance des mauvais anges et démons… Livre I, Discours II. Chez Jean Berjon. Paris. 4 �The Tornaviaje Urdaneta's life was quite remarkable. In 1538 he accompanied Pedro de Alvarado to New Spain to help him organize a new expedition to the Spice Islands (Miguel 2002:48). However, after the death of Alvarado, Ruy López de Villalobos took control of the expedition, which was meant to seek a return route to New Spain. Urdaneta was left behind, and Ruy Lopez de Villalobos' expedition failed. Meanwhile, Urdaneta occupied relevant roles related to maritime issues, working in the service of viceroy Mendoza (Miguel 2002:50). In March 1553, Urdaneta's life changed after he joined the order of the Augustinians. Although he led a monastic life, he was mentioned repeatedly in connection with the Spice Islands. In 1560 the new viceroy of New Spain, Luís Velasco, received a letter from king Philip II ordering him to mount a new expedition to the Spice Islands.10 The Spanish king was aware of the need to establish a Spanish presence in Asia, specially in the Philippines after disputes with Portugal arose regarding the ownership of the Maluku Islands. Philip II was also pressed by the need to find an alternative way back through the Pacific Ocean, and not around Africa, which was controled by the Portuguese. In the king's own words: “porque lo principal que en esa jornada se pretende es saber la vuelta, pues la yda se sabe que se haze en breve tiempo” [Translation: because our chief concern of this journey is to find a way back, since the outbound journey is known to take a short time] (Miguel 2002:54). The command of the new expedition was asigned by Gipuzkoan Miguel López de Legazpi. However, the technical command felt in the hands of Urdaneta (Arteche 1943:146), who had mentioned several times his absolute certainty that he would be able to find his way back through the Pacific Ocean to complete the return trip. Each man had different missions: Legazpi was instructed to take control over the Philippines, while Urdaneta was ordered to find his way back to New Spain through the Pacific Ocean in what will be known as the Tornaviaje. It was during the organization of the expedition that Urdaneta showed his deep knowledge of naval medicine gathered from his experience on board the Loaysa expedition and his observations during his stay in the Pacific Ocean. In several letters to Philip II and viceroy Velasco, he insisted on provisioning the ships with kidney beans (which contains vitamins B1,B2,B3,B9), broad bean (rich in vitamins C, A, E, B1, B2) and guarana, a tropical fruit with a high content of vitamine C (Miguel 2007). In a report for viceroy Velasco related to the Tornaviaje, Urdaneta explains the characteristics of a disease that he himself had observed first-hand in the Loaysa expedition: De mas de [e]sto, da una enfermedad en esta Mar de Poniente a los hombres que se les creçen y podreçen las enzias y mueren muchos de [e]sta enfermedad, que a nosotros solo en una nao se nos murieron desde el estrecho hasta las yslas cuarenta hombres y aun a los que an ydo desde a Nueua España para la Espeçieria no les a dexado de dar esta enfermedad empero como la nauegaçion se haze em poco tiempo y lleuan bastimentos frescos, no haze tanta impresión como haze en los que ban desde España por el Estrecho (Miguel 2009: 483-484). [Translation: Besides this, there is a disease in this Sea of Ponente that makes men's gums grow and rot and many die from this disease, in only 10 (Archivo General de Indias (AGI) Section Patronato, 23, 12). 5 �one nao forty men died from the strait to the islands, even those who went from New Spain to the Spice islands have also been affected but since the navigation takes a short time and they have fresh food, the disease does not affect them as much as those who travel from Spain through the strait] Both references indicate without a doubt that Urdaneta knew of the effects of lack of fresh fruit and vegetables in the development of scurvy, even when he was unable to identify the agent that was involved (vitamine C would not be discovered until the 20th century)11. Legazpi's expedition set sail on 21st November 1564, and reached the Philippines in 22nd January 1565, without any loss attributed to scurvy. Urdaneta served as the interpreter for Legazpi on his arrival to the Philippines, and in short he was ordered to start the journey back. The nao San Pedro was ready for her return to New Spain. On 1st June 1565 they set sail from Cebu following a North-East course. In command of the expedition was Legazpi's own grandson, Felipe de Salcedo, who was only 18 years old. However, Urdaneta was in charge of the navigation. The story of the trip was recorded by Esteban Rodríguez, first pilot, and Rodrigo de Espinosa, second pilot. Unfortunately, Urdaneta's account - which can be found in the National Library of Paris - is badly preserved and barely legible. From the pilots' accounts we know that Urdaneta stocked up the vessel for eight or nine months, although he knew that the trip would take around four months at the most. They sailed between the islands of the archipelago until they reached Luzon, and there the pilots wrote that Urdaneta replenished the food they had already and ordered to stock a large amount of coconuts (Miguel 2002:77). After this last call, the ship never touched land until they reached Acapulco. The relevance that Urdaneta places in coconuts is not casual. The coconut can be easily preserved and it lasts for a long time, something he would have known from his experience in the Maluku islands. Also, it is a reliable source of water in case of shortage. Perhaps its most remarkable feature is its great content of vitamin C, which is 3,3 mg (around 6%). The vitamin is present in the pulp, as well as in the water12. It could be argued Urdaneta knew about the use of coconut in the prevention of scurvy during his stay in the Maluku islands. He spoke fluent Malay and Tagalog, and he knew local maritime customs and their types of ships (Miguel 2002:71; Arteche 1943: 160). 5. Arrival in America During the trip, Urdaneta made several tackings to calculate longitude estimates, prolonguing the trip more than necessary. On 18th September 1565, after navigating across the Pacific for three months and a half, they sighted the 11 Albert Szent Gvordyi, Chemistry professor at the University of Budapest, isolated the vitamin C of a green pepper in 1928. He received the Nobel Price of Medicine and Physiology in 1937 for this and other achievements. 12 It is worth noting that the biggest producers of coconuts are currently located in Southeast Asia. The Philippines tops the list with 17 million tons per year. Indonesia and Malaysia, the old Maluku islands, produce 16 million and half million respectively (Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department. The Statistical Devision. (2007) http://faostat.fao.org/ 6 �coast of California, approximately around the island of Santa Rosa. The balance of deaths on board was of 16 out of a 200 men crew, just around 8% of the sailors when most vessels of the same period lost between 33% and 40% of the crew to scurvy, while many more were suffering the last stages of the disease (Miguel 2002:81). None of the accounts that have survived mention scurvy, although they do tell of the bad health that suffered most of the crew - just a few who reached the Americas were fit to work - even under the care of Urdaneta, who also acted as the nurse on board13. Within sight of land, Urdaneta decided to continue to Acapulco, where they arrived on 8th October, two weeks after reaching California. It would have been surprising that Urdaneta would not have stopped for provisions if there had been cases of scurvy on board. That would have meant depriving the crew of the fresh food that he knew was essential against scurvy. He also prolongued the trip to make tacking maneuvers. The sixteen deaths on board and the general exhaustion of the sailors can be attributed to any of the common infectious diseases, tropical maladies or traumatisms that usually affected life on that type of vessel - the nao - (Marañon 1940:223). We cannot forget that these men had been at sea for almost ten months since the outbound trip. Another point that hints at Urdaneta's knowledge of naval medicine comes from a surprising source. A deserter of the outbound expedition, Alonso de Arellano, completed the return trip before Urdaneta on board the patache San Lucas, thanks to the knowledge shared with him by Urdaneta. However, the men that were still alive when they reached the Americas were severely ill with scurvy14. Eleven years after the death of Urdaneta, an augustinian friar called Agustín Farfán, published in 1579 his Tratado Breve de Medicina (Brief Treaty of Medicine). He must have known Urdaneta, since they were members of the same order. In his book, Farfán writes that to prevent scurvy the patient should be administered: “un medicamento con medio limón y media naranja amarga, con un poco de alumbre quemado” [translation: a remedy with half lemon and half orange, with a bit of burnt alum] (Farfán 1579). These observations were made 200 years before Johann Georg, Heinrich Kramer or James Lind made their observations. Once the Manila galleon route was established,15 we find constant references regarding the use of citrics in the galleon's infirmary cabinet: Variedad de naranjas: Lumben, amumontoy, aoson, apugan, caramisca, malcape, cabuagao, opong-opong y samugao, bien naturales o en conserva se cargaban en los galeones. La variedad del limonero biasung, abundante en Visayas fue muy eficaz para evitar el escorbuto (Cabrero 2009: 574) 13 Urdaneta was accompanied by a member of his order: friar Andrés de Aguirre. In contemprary accounts there is an explicit mention by the crew thanking the friars for their care (Arteche 1943: 181) 14 “La gente estaba turbada, que no había quien acudiese ni acertase con cabo ninguno por la grande oscuridad (sic) que hacía y también por estar toda la gente enferma de la grande hambre y sed que han pasado y pasaban y aunque hubieran que comer no podían, porque a todos se les andaban los dientes y les creció mucha carne de la boca, tanto que les tapaban las encías y en tocando en cualquier cosa se les caían los dientes”. (Cuevas 1943) 15 It was also common that upon arrivel on the Californian coast the natives would approach the galleons on canoes to offer the exhausted sailors citrics and other fruits cultivated by the missionaries ( Lyon 1990: 27). 7 �[Translation: “variety of oranges: Lumben, amumontoy, aoson, apugan, caramisca, malcape, cabuagao, opong-opong and samugao, either natural or preserved were stocked in the galleons. The lemon tree variety called biasung, abundant in Visayas was very effective in the prevention of scurvy”] In any case, it seems that not all sailors and explorers serving under the Spanish crown shared this knowledge. It could be perhaps that this information was not transmitted generally among captains of the fleet or the officers responsible of the vessels16. Another possibility is that this knowledge was ignored in lieu of commercial gain in view of cargo distribution and the costs of the quantity and quality of the crew's food. 6. Conclusion Taking into account the Tornaviaje and Urdaneta's knowledge, it is unsustainable to maintain that scurvy was considered a contagious disease up to the 18th century. Contemporary documents show that Urdaneta was a Renaissance man, whose knowledge and experience were taken into account by the Spanish crown. His indications were applied broadly to long oceanic travels, such as the Manila galleon route. On the other hand, Urdaneta's notes about health on board are clear and concise. From them it can be determined that Urdaneta possessed ample knowledge of the nature of scurvy. In fact, if we take into account the language used in his anotations, it could be suggested that this knowledge was shared with other pilots, although it was not a general knowledge among every pilot. The familiarization of Spanish pilots with scurvy and its treatment using fresh food and citrics could have been wider than previously thought. However, as mentioned before, there was not a general education plan that would have guaranteed that every pilot in a Spanish vessel had access to this information. In later oceanic travels scurvy was again present, but it is difficult to determine if this is due to ignorance or to stocking and logistic issues related to supplies and preservation. After reviewing Urdaneta's work, it seems more likely that the latter option was to be blamed. It is not the aim of this paper to establish whether it was James Lind or Urdaneta he conqueror of scurvy, like English literature portrays the former. Instead, our goal is to point out the lack of communication between the navies of the great world powers, which were battling each other for territorial expansion. In this sense, the lack of communication postponed the generalization of the cure against scurvy, which led to the deaths of too many sailors who met a horrific and painful end. Bibliography Agirre, E., “La sidra” In Euskonews & Media. Nº CCLXXXIII. [html], 16 An example can be found in memorial nº 4, that captain Pedro Fernández de Quiros sends to don Luis de Velasco, viceroy of Peru, in 1598. In a long list of the provisions that were needed for his 1605 expedition to the mythic Terra Australis, he lists the required food, giving little relevance to fresh vegetables and a total absence of citrics and other fruits (Fernandez de Quiros 1597-1614: IV, 62-63) 8 �2004 Arizaga, B., Martinez, S., 2006 Arteche, J. de., 1943 Cabrero Fernandez, L., 2009 Cuevas, M., 1943. Farfan, A. Fr., 1579 Fernandez Duro.C., 1857 Fernández de Quirós, F., 2002 Gargantilla, P., 2011 Lind, J., 1753 Lopez-Ríos Fernández, F., 1993 Lyon, E., 1990 Marañón, G., 1940 Eusko Ikaskuntza- Basque Studies Society, Donostia-San Sebastián, available at: <http://www.euskonews.com/0282zbk/gaia28203es.html> [Accessed 20 August 2011 ] Atlas de las villas medievales de Vasconia, Bizkaia, Eusko Ikaskuntza, Donosita-San Sebastián. Urdaneta. El dominador de los espacios del Océano Pacífico, Espasa-Calpe, Barcelona. “Alegría, tristeza y ansiedad en la travesía del Galeón”, in (ed) Susana Truchuelo, Andrés de Urdaneta: Un hombre moderno, Ayuntamiento de Ordizia, Lasarte-Oria. Monje y marino: La vida en los tiempos de Andrés de Urdaneta. Galatea, México. Tratado Breve de Medicina, Ciudad de México. Disquisiciones náuticas. La mar descrita por los mareados, Imprenta de Aribau, Madrid, Electronic edition available at www.openlibrary.org Memoriales de las Indias Australes. Edición de Pinochet de la Barra, O. Crónicas de América 1597-1614, Dastin, Las Rozas. Breve historia de la medicina. Del chamán a la gripe A, Nowtilus, Madrid. A treatise of the scurvy, (ed.) Facs., Edimburgo University Press, Edimburgo,1953. Medicina naval española en la época de los descubrimientos, Editorial Labor, Barcelona. “Track of the Manila Galleons” In National Geographics, Sep.1990. “La vida en las galeras en tiempos de Felipe II” in Ars Médica. Revista de humanidades, From Historia y Vida, Espasa Calpé, Barcelona. Miguel, J.R. de., “Urdaneta, un hombre moderno”, in Euskonews, CDXV, 2007 [html] Eusko Ikaskuntza-Basque Studies Society, DonositaSan Sebastián. Available at: <http://www.euskonews.com/0415zbk/gaia41502es.html> [Accessed 20 August 2011] Miguel, J.R. de., Urdaneta en su tiempo, Sociedad Oceanográfica de 2002 Gipuzkoa, Donosita-San Sebastián. Miguel, J.R. de., “Las dificultades náuticas del Tornaviaje", in (ed.) Susana 2009 Truchuelo, Andrés de Urdaneta: Un hombre moderno, Ayuntamiento de Ordizia, Lasarte-Oria. Mira Caballos, “La vida y la muerte a bordo de un navío del siglo XVI: E., algunos aportes”, in Revista de Historia Naval, CVIII, 2010 Ministerio de Defensa, Madrid. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Urdaneta and the health cargo of the Tornaviaje Subject The topic of the resource Session 9 Spain and the Asia-Pacific region Description An account of the resource The aim of this paper is to analyze the food cargo of Urdaneta’s Tornaviaje and it’s direct consequences over the health of his sailors. The paper will focus on health issues on board, specially in view of the unknown route that they would follow to go back to the Americas. We will focus on how Urdaneta planned to overcome problems related to prolonged stays at sea, specially health problems due to lack of fresh food. Through contemporary accounts and diaries, we know that Urdaneta understood the necessity of having fresh fruits on board, and took action to ensure the safety of his crew by introducing local fruits from the Philippines such as coconuts. His efforts were successful, and his perilous trip was made with less than 10% of mortality, with no direct mention to scurvy. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xabier Armendáriz Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 9 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7512c47f527a62b96d97b981d0d0f61b.pdf a915684fbd11f437885dc4f3e0947a99 PDF Text Text USAT Liberty Shipwreck Site in Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali is Under Threats Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan, Semeidi Husrin, and Gunardi Kusumah Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerabilities Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia Jl. Raya Padang – Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245 Email: niahasanah79@gmail.com Abstract USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province is the most popular shipwreck diving attraction in Indonesia. The shipwreck is well-known throughout the world and brings in many domestic and foreign tourists since the 1980s. This underwater cultural heritage has a historical-archaeological value; it is a US cargo ship that sank during World War II and now the shipwreck functions as an artificial reef and is home to various marine life. This makes the wreck a very important coastal resource of this region and has a significant impact in the local people’s life. The condition of the site is currently considered to be vulnerable due to a variety of damage caused by natural and human factors. Threats due to high water dynamics such as currents and waves that could cause erosion, scouring, sliding, and other changes in the physical environment make this shipwreck site highly vulnerable to a variety of mechanical and physical damage as well as chemical weathering and corrosion. The large number of tourist who dive on this site also threatens the site. The marine archaeological research of 2013 conducted by Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is aimed at study the deterioration of the wreck, to collect hydrodynamics, sedimentation, and water quality data for providing an overview of recent conditions of this underwater site, the ocean dynamics of Tulamben waters, along with the damages suffered by USAT Liberty wreck which threatens its sustainability as an underwater cultural heritage and diving attraction. Identify the different types of potential vulnerabilities would become the basis of policy making for its preservation efforts in the future. Keywords: USAT Liberty shipwreck site, Natural and Human Threats, Vulnerability, Dive attraction, Bali Introduction There are a lot of publications on USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Kubu District, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province that highlights the importance of the site; it is the best known shipwreck diving destinations throughout Indonesia and one of the best in the world. We could find hundreds of thousands posts 1 �mentioning the site on the internet (Fig. 1). The research found also many publications discussing the locals attempt to protect the site traditional by imposing laws, their Awig-awig, local which includes fishing prohibitions nearby shipwreck location and prohibitions of destroying the ship's structure and coral reefs. The rules seemed indeed to be obeyed and nobody dares to intentionally violate this laws. Such matters have been discussed very Fig. 1 USAT Liberty in 1918 and 1941 and Its Wreck Site Location. (US Army Signal Corps Photo SC 131484, comprehensive in the writings US National Archives & Research Institute for Coastal Kamaludin (2002), Supriyatun (2007), Resources and Vulnerability) Noerwidi (2007), and Ridwan (2011) and it has also been confirmed by the elders of Tulamben Village through interviews with Mr. Nyoman Karyasa (Kelian Adat Tulamben)i and Mr. Degeng (Kelian Banjar Dinas Tulamben)ii. However, until now there are no attempts from governments to discuss the vulnerability of USAT Liberty to withstand the effects of the natural environment and human factors. These risks are not covered by studies conducted by relevant institutions and authorities on the site. Thus far, undertaken studies are only focused on the stage of mapping and documenting, as the work carried out by Bali Office for Preservation of Cultural Heritage in 2011 (Tenaya, 2011). Therefore, this paper will discuss the vulnerability of USAT Liberty based on the identification of numerous factors threatening the shipwreck and its ecosystem, both environmental and human. This paper will also discuss what measures need to be considered to prevent further damage that could lead to the destruction and loss of the USAT Liberty. This extremely important issue requires to be addressed because the existence of USAT Liberty and its diving industry are the only basis of the villagers' life. USAT Liberty History According to Radigan (1996), USAT Liberty is American freighter ex AK-35, and ex Liberty (ID 3461), built in 1918 by Federal Shipbuilding Co., Hackensack, NJ with 2 �125.43 x 17 x 8.08 m in dimension, 4,809 tonnage, and equipped with one piece 2500ihp power steam engine. She was launched on 19 June 1918, and the local newspapers at that time mentioned that she was the largest steel freighter ever made. In October 1918, this ship was used by US Navy and was named the USS Liberty (ID 3461). In 1939, it was used by US Army who renamed her as Liberty US Army Transport (USAT Liberty). In May 1941, US Army and US Navy approved the decision that US Navy would return to take over the ship, but then US Navy did not get the personnel to be placed on her so that the ship eventually remains Army’s property. In her journey from Australia to the Philippines carrying railroads, rubber, and logistics for the Allied Forcesiii, USAT Liberty torpedoed by Japanese Submarine I-166 in January 1942 off Lombok Straits. US Destroyer, Paul Jones, and Dutch Destroyer, Van Ghent, attempted to drag her to Singaraja Port but she was already damaged and could not go very far and stranded at last on Tulamben shores (http://pacificwrecks.com; wikipedia). The ship then sank deeper and deeper into the depths and currently resides in a sandy slope at 3 - 30 m depth about 40 m from shoreline. USAT Liberty Shipwreck Dive Attraction Shipwrecks in Indonesian waters are one of the main potential marine resources that could be utilized for marine tourism (Ardiwidjaja, 2007). Under Indonesian regional autonomy law, shipwreck sites could become region’s assets as marine tourism destination, as well as for the establishment of maritime museums. USAT Liberty is the most famous shipwreck dive site in Bali and has been included in the top 12 world shipwreck sites to be dived as noted by scuba diving website. Tourists regard this site as "a giant aquarium" due to the present of ± 400 marine life species which live around the site. There are also ± 100 species of high seas fish which visit the site regularly. Divers can find groups of bumphead parrotfish, barracuda, grouper, pigmy seahorse, nudibranchs, morray eel, jackfish, napoleon, fusiliers, surgeon fish, trevally, bream, anthias mill, batfish, large sweet lips fish, angelfish, butterfly fish, anemone fish, lionfish, scorpionfish, hawkfish, pufferfish, coral trout, the gobies, blennies, shrimps, dottyback, and others. Hard corals and soft corals i.e, giant barrel sponges, giant sea fans, tubastrea, gorgonians can also be found easily at this location. Scuba-mania claimed Tulamben as one of the most beautiful dive sites in Indonesia besides Komodo Island, 3 �Bunaken, Wakatobi, Raja Ampat, Lembeh Strait, Karimun Jawa, Bangka, Banda Sea, and Alor (Pickel, 2010; http://gekodivebali.com; http://scuba-mania.com/). In addition, it is the easiest location to enjoy recreational diving and to enjoy underwater scenery around the shipwreck. All skill levels divers could dive due to its unique positions in the seabed that ranging from shallow water until 30 m. USAT Liberty has brought immense Tulamben benefits people's to lives since 1980s and is closely related to people's livelihoods. It is important not Fig. 2 Characteristics of Tides and Currents in Tulamben Waters. (Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability) only for villagers the but Tulamben also communities in Bali Province because all diving operators in Bali offer diving trips to USAT Liberty to the tourists. Nowadays, there are about 150-200/day tourists diving on the site and communities’ income obtained from fees and services is about 500-1,000 USD/day. Meanwhile, the Tourism and Cultural Agency of Karang Asem noted that its regional revenue from tourism sector in 2012 was 1,200,000 USD and there were 416.363 foreigners came to the region to dive. This number is increasing continuously every year (http://karangasemkab.bps.go.id; Ridwan, 2011). Marine Archaeological Research In 2013, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability conducted research at USAT Liberty shipwreck site in order to determine its significance and current condition as well as to carry out a visual observation of the deterioration and the extent of the damage. The research also aims to find out the physical environmental conditions and its changes as well as to identify the various factors threatening the site. This research result could become a basic reference for further conservation effort and a basis for the establishment of Maritime Conservation Area in accordance with the 4 �Marine and Fisheries Ministerial Decree No. 17/2008 and the Underwater Cultural Heritage Site (UCH) determination in accordance with Law No. 11/2010 on Cultural Heritage. The field survey was conducted in June-July, August, and September 2013. Interviews with local communities, agencies, and relevant stakeholders to obtain data and information on the weather and climate conditions; shipwreck's history, and tourism industry development, had also been conducted. The team performed marine geology, ocean hydrodynamic, and water quality measurements to obtain sedimentation, water quality, and hydro-oceanographic data such as tidal, currents, and wave. Installing Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) equipment at 22 m depth with bottommounted system at USAT Liberty site location is a method to collect hydrodynamics data. Those data above are needed to determine water dynamics surrounding site location and to analyze the environment’s influence on shipwreck sustainability. Threats and Site conditions Natural Factor Nicholas Flemming (2011) said that globally, underwater archaeological sites are vulnerable to variety of damages caused by nature or human. A number of sites are devastated due to waves and erosion processes. Threats to shipwreck sites can be related to the changes in environmental factors due to the ocean dynamics in the region. The currents and winds could spur high waves and cause sedimentation, erosion, shifting, and sliding, thus making shipwreck sites susceptible to variety of physical-mechanical damages, as well as chemical damage i.e corrosion matters. USAT Liberty site is located in an area strongly affected by a very dynamic oceanographic conditions where the currents from Pacific and Indian Ocean meet. Tidal data measured by ADCP has 26.9 days duration commencing on August 29, 2013 until September 25, 2013 with a 10 minute data interval. Furthermore, the data were analyzed by using the T_TIDE processing program (Pawlowicz, 2002). Figure 2 shows the results of data analysis in which the tidal analysis results (predictions) appears closer to the actual data rate of up to 96.5% representation. Dominant tidal constituents are O1, K1, M2, S2, SK3, M4, S4, 2MS6 and M8. Based on the number formzahl (Fz = 0822), the nature of the tides in Tulamben waters is a mixture tidal tends to double 5 �(Mixed predominantly semi-diurnal). ADCP current measurements enables us to see the profile of water mass flow column. Figure 2 shows the flow characteristics of Tulamben waters in the form of scatter plots at 4 different depths from the bottom waters, each 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, and 20 m. From scattter plot, it is clear that the current in Tulamben waters are generally dominant moving from East to West direction. Based on the wind data, other factors that lead to differences in the surface characteristics of the scatter plots clearly caused by currents driven by waves and a longshore. Profile of current flow also show the current tendency to move westward and northward, so that the resultant predominantly direction to is the Northwest. The current results measurements show the maximum current to the North reaches v=1 m/s, while to the West the maximum flow reaches u=0:58 m/s. Volcanic sandy seabed around the wreck and the presence of strong currents at certain times Fig. 3 Extreme Weather Condition in Tulamben Coast on can cause scouring in the Juli 2013. (Nia Ridwan) shipwreck area. The hull section located in shallow waters can be affected by all kinds of weather conditions and there is also a large swell which can destabilize the fragile sections of the ship. The part of USAT Liberty shipwreck at the top is starting from a depth of 3-10 m so they could be affected significantly by the power of waves, currents, and winds at the surface. The weather conditions that are occasionally extreme lately in Tulamben waters most likely caused by climate change phenomenon. In extreme weather condition, wind will drive high waves and strong currents on the surface of Tulamben waters and could put strong pressure and make the ship parts in the shallow areas suffered the damage, became fragile, unsteady, and finally collapsed and fall down to the bottom, or befall the another ship part below it. So that successive events happened will cause even more damage 6 �(Fig. 3). High waves on July 2013 hit Tulamben beach for 3 days and reached 3-4 m in height, and even had destroyed some hotels located right in front of shipwreck location. A few days after storms, we found there are 4 parts of USAT Liberty ship that are collapsed and dislodged from her superstructure: 1 point at the stern area, 1 point at the middle section, and 2 points at bow area. In fact, previously the collapsed parts of the hull have also experienced significant corrosion, so we strongly assumed that the high corrosion rate in these parts has weaken them, added by high waves effect so eventually those parts were no longer capable attached in her superstructure, then detached and fallen down (Fig. 4). In 1998, El Nino caused severe bleaching in the coral reefs of the shipwreck site (Pickell, 2010) and from our observation, nowadays coral reefs attached to the hull are also experiencing stress. Tulamben dive guides stated that at this time many species of fish are disappeared from the site. The strong currents and waves in Tulamben waters also led to high erosion processes. Based on our observation, a process that deposited the USAT Liberty in its current location due to strong coastal erosion that occurs continuosly. While the USAT Liberty initially shipwrecked on the beach, it has been moving to greater depths because the sandy bottom upon which it rests has been eroded by currents, tides, and waves. Athough all existing publications indicate that the tremor from the 1963 Mount Agung eruption was a major contributor to the shipwreck´s current location, our research shows that the erosion is probably the main process responsible to USAT Liberty's current location. Mount Agung tremor may also have affected her movement, but erosion is the most predominantly ocean and coastal dynamic process in that area. The elders of Tulamben Village mentioned that the difference between the distance of the current Tulamben beach and the previous shore line is about 100 m, thus, it can be said that there have been a shoreline change. The Regional Spatial Layout Plan 2012-2032 of Karang Asem Regency on Distribution of Protected Areas nowadays states that Tulamben is one of the coastal areas which is highly vulnerable to coastal erosion. Tulamben beach is covered by black volcanic stones from Mount Agung's eruptions prior to 1963. We presume those stones used to be covered by sand, and then the sand was progressively run out and eroded by waves and currents. Eventually later, the 7 �expanse of volcanic stones previously existed in the layer below the sand are appearediv. Since the erosion process has progressiveley "dropped" the USAT Liberty into the ocean and taking into account its position on a 60%-90% slope, it is highly likely that the USAT Liberty will move deeper into the ocean at depths that are no longer safely accessible by divers (Fig. 5). Human Factor The concept of in-situ preservation in protecting and managing UCH raises the idea of making an underwater museum in the site (Delgado, 2011) and a wreck dive attraction. In fact, the easy access to the shipwreck site for tourists and divers represent a potential threat even though it is an opportunity for archaeologist to present UCH to society. The marine tourism has improved the communities’ welfare; however, the impact of yacht marina construction, coastal buildings, hotels, water sports resorts, touristic scuba diving, and the collection and souvenir sales have also impacted negatively in the preservation of the site (Fleming, 2011). The damage to the shipwreck caused by humans is not as dramatic as the damage caused by nature; however, this damage is cumulative and significant (Viduka, 2006, 62). The excessive use of USAT Liberty shipwreck in Bali is indicated by the large number of divers and their impact on ship preservation and its environment have not been examined by local governments. They do not Fig. 4 The Heavy Corrosion Ship Hull at Bow Section which are Collapsed right after High Wave Event on July 2013. (Nia realize that the large number Ridwan) of divers who perform underwater activities have incurred in a tremendous pressure on USAT Liberty and its ecosystem. Increasing number of divers in USAT Liberty does give a significant 8 �advantage to the development of that area, although on the other hand it could cause environmental damage problems to the sea floor and the shipwreck itself. The concern about its further degradation is actually emerging from the communities and local dive guide lately. They dive with the guests almost every day and they notice that there has been extensive damage to the USAT Liberty and its ecosystem. They also informed that at present time many fish species no longer appear on the site and many coral reefs are damaged and destroyed by the divers' negligence and carelessness (Pickell, 2010). The tourists at USAT Liberty site are not intentionally damaging the site and breaking awig-awig, but it is certain that many divers unintentionally destroy the site. The ability of each tourist diving in USAT Liberty is not homogeneous. Many tourists do not have diving qualifications and they use the site to get their diving certification. Uncontrolled flapping fins, arbitrarily penetration into the hull, hands touching and holding the ship's parts directly could cause damage Fig. 5 The Hypothesis of Tulamben Beach Erosion History that Showing the Chronology of the Fall of USAT Liberty into Her Current Position. (Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability) to USAT Liberty. Moreover, the habit of most divers to feed the fish is also against the rules of fisheries conservation. The large number of divers visiting the site may also lead to exposure of the sandy sea floor in USAT Liberty site. The divers’ fin kicking could agitate the seabed and kill unique animals and destroy some sensitive coral reefsv. Besides physical-mechanical damage, the concentration of oxygen from air released by divers may transform into air pockets trapped in the ship's hull. This will accelerate the oxidation process which will increase the corrosion level and will accelerate the chemical destruction process, and corrosion is one of the most threatening chemical damage to iron objects (Fig. 6.) 9 �Conclusion Nowadays, extreme weather conditions often hit Tulamben area and the estimated effect is fairly severe on shipwrecks and its marine life. Erosion is the most dominant environmental changes in Tulamben which can substantially influence the preservation Liberty. currents, of The the USAT movement tides, high of waves, especially in extreme weather conditions damage causes and physical accelerates the Fig. 6 A Large Number of Divers in USAT Liberty Site. mechanical fragility of shipwreck (Nia Ridwan) that has been previously corroded. Meanwhile, the sedimentation rate is relatively small and does not significantly affect USAT Liberty. Today, awig-awig protection is not sufficient and needs to be strengthened by other preservation efforts, i.e. limiting the number of divers on the USAT Liberty. This may not be easy to apply and there will be disagreeing parties who think it will reduce the community's income. Another solution could be to make the site an exclusive dive sites like SS Yongala in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia which has a limit of 7,000 tourists per year. We can monitor and limit the number of divers and still get a high income for the community by raising the entrance fee. In order to implement these policies, mapping this tourist destination according to its type becomes very important. Tulamben needs to be reviewed whether it is a mass-tourism, limited tourism, or eco-tourism area. Placing fish apartments and sinking another ship nearby can also be performed to build a new artificial reef and to provide an alternative dive site. The use of in-situ preservation methods such as corrosion prevention by cathodic-anodic protection using 10 �sacrificial anode can also be done. Another site stabilization to anticipate problems caused by natural hazards can also be enforced. Depth study, long-term measurements and model analysis need to be done to get the complete of data. Measurement and monitoring the hull's progressinve shift can be performed by regularly benchmarking and photo recording of the site after extreme weather conditions events. Making physical models, and numerical modeling are needed to prove the erosion evolution hypothesis that occurs over a fairly long period in Tulamben beach. References Ardiwidjaya, R., 2007. Pemanfaatan Benda Arkeologi Bawah Air (Shipwreck): Satu Peluang Peningkatan Daya Tarik Wisata Selam. Diskusi Ilmiah Sumberdaya Arkeologi Laut, Jakarta. Delgado, J., 2011. The Impact on and Opportunities arising from Tourism to Submerged Sites. UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on Factors Impacting the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 13th-14th December 2011, Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels. Flemming, N., 2011. UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on Factors Impacting the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 13th-14th December 2011, Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels. Kamaluddin, L., 2002. Pariwisata Bahari dan Konservasi. Pembangunan Ekonomi Maritim di Indonesia, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Noerwidi, S., 2007. Pemberdayaan Masyarakat pada Pelestarian Situs Bangkai Kapal USS Liberty, Tulamben Bali, http://arkeologika.wordpress.com/2007/10/31, retrieval April 5, 2013. Pickell, D., and Wally S., 2010. Diving Bali: The Underwater Jewel of Southeast Asia. Periplus, Singapore. Radigan, J. R., 1996. USAT Liberty ex-AK-3, ex-Liberty (ID 3461), http://navsource.org, retrieval March 19, 2013. Ridwan, N. N. Hasanah., 2011. The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi. In Proceeding on the Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila. Pawlowicz, R., Beardsley, B., and Lentz, S., 2002. Classical Tidal Harmonic Analysis including Error Estimates in MATLAB using T_TIDE. Journal Computers and Geosciences, Vol. 28. Supriyatun, R., 2007. Potensi Obyek Wisata Warisan Budaya Bawah Air di Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem. Varuna, Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, Vol. (1/2007): 00-00. 11 �Tenaya, I. W., Gde Yadnya, dkk., 2011. Laporan Pemetaan dan Penggambaran Situs/Kapal Karam U.S.A.T Liberty, Tulamben Karang Asem. Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Bali, Gianyar. Viduka, A., 2006. Managing Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites: The Yongala as a Case Study. In Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk. http://gekodivebali.com, retrieval July, 2013. http://karangasemkab.bps.go.id, retrieval May 10, 2013. http://scuba-mania.com/tag/indonesia/17, retrieval November 17, 2012. http://pacificwrecks.com/ships/usn/USATliberty, retrieval April 2, 2013. http://wikipedia_USAT Liberty, retrieval October, 11, 2011. Biography Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan is Maritime Archaeology Research Scientist graduated from Department of Archaeology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. Since 2005, she has been working in Ministry of Marine Affairs & Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia in Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability. In 2011, Nia appointed as Head of Research Cooperation & Technical Services Division until present. She has researched several underwater sites throughout Indonesian waters. Her current research focuses to identify the factors threatening shipwreck sites and to examine ways to mitigate it. Nia had attended UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater Cultural Heritage (2010) and In Situ Preservation Course (2011) in Thailand; 3 SEAMEO SPAFA-ICCROM trainings: in Thailand (2010), Singapore (2011), Philippine (2011); The Netherlands Cultural Heritage Agency Course on Managing Climate Risks towards a Sustainable Conservation of Mutual Cultural Heritage in Brazil (2011); and ICCROM Forum on Science in Conservation (Italy 2013). Endnotes i Kelian Adat is community leader who deal with social issues such as funeral rites, marriage ceremonies, rituals and traditional customs regulations. ii Kelian Banjar Dinas is a hamlet head who is in charge in taking care of administrative matters, i.e. making residents identity card, family card, and then passing them to the village office, district office or civil registry office. iii Tulamben residents said that USAT Liberty also carried large quantities of black pepper and eucalyptus oil. iv This is confirmed by the village elders were say that they have no idea where those stones suddenly appeared. Even mentioned that these stones arise because of the "miracle of God". However, this can be explained scientifically associated with coastal erosion processes were fairly dramatic. v In the 90s, a French photographer, who despite professional but was reckless, dived on USAT Liberty and dropped his fairly heavy camera. It hit a poisonous coral reefs attached to ship's hull. Besides destroying the hull and the reef, he and the other divers nearby also experienced severe poisoning (Pickell, 2010). 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource USAT Liberty Shipwreck Site in Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali is Under Threats Description An account of the resource USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province is the most popular shipwreck diving attraction in Indonesia. The shipwreck is well-known throughout the world and brings in many domestic and foreign tourists since the 1980s. This underwater cultural heritage has a historical-archaeological value; it is a US cargo ship that sank during World War II and now the shipwreck functions as an artificial reef and is home to various marine life. This makes the wreck a very important coastal resource of this region and has a significant impact in the local people’s life. The condition of the site is currently considered to be vulnerable due to a variety of damage caused by natural and human factors. Threats due to high water dynamics such as currents and waves that could cause erosion, scouring, sliding, and other changes in the physical environment make this shipwreck site highly vulnerable to a variety of mechanical and physical damage as well as chemical weathering and corrosion. The large number of tourist who dive on this site also threatens the site. The marine archaeological research of 2013 conducted by Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is aimed at study the deterioration of the wreck, to collect hydrodynamics, sedimentation, and water quality data for providing an overview of recent conditions of this underwater site, the ocean dynamics of Tulamben waters, along with the damages suffered by USAT Liberty wreck which threatens its sustainability as an underwater cultural heritage and diving attraction. Identify the different types of potential vulnerabilities would become the basis of policy making for its preservation efforts in the future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Semeidi Husrin Gunardi Kusumah, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Usury in Early Medieval Times Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource R. S. Sharma Ranabir Chakravarti Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author R. S. Sharma Editor Ranabir Chakravarti Item Type Book Section Book Title Trade in Early India Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Pages 370-95 Place New Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Title A name given to the resource Usury in Early Medieval Times India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8e569cbe07a379111ce84b992e44fdd9.pdf 5611ddbb442af71af85f30e7e8912dff PDF Text Text Variable Longline Fishing: The History and Sustainable Innovation of a Traditional Marine Ecological Knowledge Xu Lu (Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society, 1420511969@qq.com) Yu LongFa (Xiamen Fishing Port, 13666084562@163.com) ABSTRACT Amoy variable longline fishing is an efficient, accurate and controllable traditional fishing technique created by Amoy fisherman, which has been popular in the Taiwan Strait and Zhoushan fisheries for hundreds of years. It was replaced by seine and trawl since the 1970s but continues to exist with inshore small-scale fisheries. It is a fishing method based on traditional marine ecological knowledge such as seabed topography, water current and fish migration. It evolves with environmental conditions, and is a living marine cultural heritage. In the past ten years, we have conducted a series of experimental archaeology studies on traditional shipbuilding, traditional navigation and traditional longline fishing. The studies expanded the boundary of marine ecological knowledge. This introduces a special perspective on the effects of climate change towards marine ecology and other external conditions. We aim to explore feasible coexistence with underwater cultural heritage and maritime cultural heritage by exploring the role of Amoy’s longline fishing as an innovative precision fishing technology. We work to teach local communities to use traditional methods to carry out non-destructive, accurate and efficient productive fishing in the complex environment of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). We promote the variable longline fishing for nomination on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding, developed from the UNESCO 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. List of Figure Figure 1: Detected Seabed Topography and Sediment Using a Sounding Lead INTRODUCTION In the past twenty years, we have conducted a series of experimental archaeology studies on traditional shipbuilding and navigation, and have also come into contact with traditional fishing techniques closely related to them. Among them, we conducted a special study on the local history of Amoy longline fishing (Xu 2018) and successfully included it in the local intangible cultural heritage list. However, it is precisely because of being in the East Asian cultural zones where Chinese characters or even certain dialects are used, it is difficult for mainstream academia to understand the field research-based technological history or intangible cultural heritage. As the issue of UCH is increasingly receiving attention to address major global threats, such as climate change, we urgently hope to introduce and promote Amoy variable longline fishing to the world. Its ‘variable’ is an understanding and technical logic that is adjusted to respond to changes in the marine environment and other external conditions. As an easy to learn and localized marine knowledge system, the variable longline fishing can coexist sustainably with underwater cultural heritage in various regions of the world. CASE STUDIES Longline fishing may first appear in the Iron Age after the prehistoric stone tidal weirs and tidal zones gathered. The longline fishing operation is called ‘Banggun’ in Hokkien dialect, which 1 �‘Gun’ refers to a specialized fishing line. The variable longline fishing is based on the data of seabed topography and sediment morphology of the target fisheries detected by iron sounding lead. For fishermen engaged in longline fishing the bottom of the sea has its hills and valleys like the land, and they acquire an intimate acquaintance with its contours and the type of bottom to be expected in each locality. This knowledge is supplemented by the data of wind direction, wind force, tidal direction and velocity, the habits and rules of different water colors, upper, middle and lower water layers, and different fish habitat and migration,; so as to adjust the specifications of longline fishing gear and bait form according to the conditions of the operation site of target fish species. It can avoid catching young fish and non-targeted fish species by no selectivity. This traditional fishing technique involves releasing a main line from a boat into the sea, with a certain number of branch lines tied at a certain distance to the main line, and each branch line ends with a fishing hook with bait attached. Each basket of longline is equipped with sinking stones and buoys at the head and tail, which are used to control the main and branch lines in specific depths of water. This traps adult fish in specific water layers. According to the different fishing layers and fish species, longline fishing can be divided into two types of operations: fixed fishing and floating fishing. According to the combination of fishing vessels, it can also be divided into single vessel operation and barge-carrier operation. Each basket of longline is equipped with more than 10 to 100 branch line fish hooks based on the size of the fish hooks. During operation, first release the first buoy and sinker, then place the longline, with a buoy mark attached between each basket longline, and a tail basket tube mark attached to the end of the last basket longline. In the Wanli year of the Ming Dynasty, it was recorded that fishermen in southern Fujian had already mastered the migration patterns of hairtail fish in the East China Sea by late sixteenth century and pursued shoals of fish. They crossed provinces and transferred to the waters of southern Zhejiang for operation. According to a historical painting from the Himi City Museum collection dating back to 1785 in Japan, long line fishing was introduced to the coastal areas of northern Japan during the Edo period (1603-1615 CE), and was used to catch snapper and cod in offshore areas (Figure 1). 2 �Figure 1: Detected Seabed Topography and Sediment Using a Sounding Lead The earliest professional investigation into the fishing industry in Xiamen began in 1922. Investigators from the Water Obstetrics Department of Jimei School claimed there were 150 fishing boats engaged in longline fishing in Xiamen (Zhang 1922). According to statistical data from 1930 to 1931, Xiamen's fishing industry was particularly prosperous, with fishing boats and boats operating in Xiamen. The annual fishing output was approximately one million yuan silver dollar (Su 1931). Another data from the same period shows there are over 120 fishing boats of all sizes in Xiamen; with over 4000 fishermen, with an annual fishing output worth approximately one million yuan silver dollar (Huang 1933). Amoy variable longline fishing can not only use low-cost simple fishing gear to make small scale producers quickly grasp and benefit, but also combine with modern large fishing boats, fish carriers, echometer, hydraulic and electric winches to achieve relatively high production efficiency. Amoy's variable longline fishing tradition is also rare in the world where women and men work together at sea and get equal payment for equal work. Further, organizing the fishing gear can be carried out on land, providing job opportunities for unskilled laborers. Amoy's variable longline fishing established a deity revered as the ‘Diao Caowang (King of Longline Fishing Vessels)’ during a period of uncertain times. It is enshrined in a specialized temple called the ‘Long Zhu Dian (Dragon Ball Temple)’, forming a unique folk religion. At this location we collected sounding hammers, navigation compasses, stone anchors, sinking stones, buoys and other ancient longline fishing tool remains. In May 2015, the historic home port of Amoy's variable longline fishing, Shapowei, was permanently closed for redevelopment into a tourist spot. Its fishers were told to stay away (Liang 2018). 3 �RESOURCES The variable longline fishing technology mastered by fishermen in Xiamen is also a common technology that’s heritage is based on thousands of years of practical human experience. This tool is simple, easy to learn, scalable, and transferable, which can quickly provide local sustainable blue food to local communities, making a significant contribution to economic benefits. But so far, there has been relatively limited historical research and technical observation, and there has been a lack of fishermen taking the lead and standing from the perspective of fishermen. Since 2015, we established a community of interests with Xiamen longline fishermen who just lost their fishing work. We have systematically sorted out the eight series of methods for their longline fishing gear for the first time, extracted technical logic, and applied for inclusion in the local intangible cultural heritage list. We have organized a technology transfer team to inherit the variable longline fishing techniques of Fujian and Zhejiang from the offshore to the open sea, allowing fishermen to return to the ocean and use friendly fish resources for variable longline fishing instead of net fishing. The veteran fishermen in Xiamen Port are an important component of this team, mainly responsible for technology transfer work, while members of our organization provide project assistance and management work. We hope that based on the success of the project, local fishermen who have made changes due to our help can also become members of our fishermen's technical team to help other regions. At the same time, we also assist them in forming their own teams and copying our solution model to promote variable longline fishing. This returns a common technological heritage of humanity to society. We hope to promote and teach variable longline fishing technology to the world, especially low-income coastal areas. The co-author of this paper, Yu Longfa, is the most famous fisherman in Xiamen longline fishing industry. He has over 50 years of marine fishing experience in Fujian fishing grounds, Zhejiang, and Taiwan Strait, and is also a representative inheritor of Xiamen's intangible cultural heritage of longline fishing techniques. FRAMEWORK The crisis of global marine fish resources is mainly caused by the large-scale and undifferentiated centralized net fishing of recent decades. A 20-year retrospective review of global aquaculture issued at 6th Workshop on Lipid Nutrition and Metabolism in Aquatic Animals of China, aqua feeds are reliant on fish meal and fish oil sourced from wild-captured forage fish. Increasing use of forage fish is unsustainable. About 70% fishmeal and fish oil are used in aquaculture. Currently we do not have exact data on the cost of dozens to hundreds of wild captured forage fish needed to feed an adult cultured fish. Variable longline fishing does allow for accurate numbers of captured adult wild fish. This is undoubtedly better for ecosystem health than aquaculture and other methods of fishing. So where and how is any solution currently being applied? The innovative approach of Amoy variable longline fishing solution is reflected in the following aspects: 1. Technological innovation: a set of strict technical logic. Sort out the key factors and 4 �important links, helping fishermen to develop sustainable longline fishing programs based on local geographical conditions and current status of fishery resources,. This provides innovative paths for the future implementation of the control of total amount in fishery resources. 2. Innovation of promotion methods: the fishermen who master the variable longline technology get better benefits than any other fishing methods as soon as possible. This promotes the replacement of net fishing and other fishing methods. 3. Community friendly Innovation: let local fishermen increase their income. Encourage women and disabled people to participate in learning and production, and support teenager experience. 4. Overall solution Innovation: through the collection and analysis of the first-hand data of the operation site, transformed previous static fishing data into real-time dynamic guidance. The project provides data and technical support for the future fishing traceability, origin certification, format planning, and quota management. 5. Sustainable innovation: studying the sea conditions and fish conditions from local fishermen, setting fishing gear for trial operation, adjusting fishing gear for trial operation again, formulating local operation methods and compiling operation guidelines, teaching local fishermen operation techniques, replacing existing fishing methods with variable longline fishing for offshore production operations to measure the solution impact, write reports and put forward suggestions on utilization and protection of local marine fishery resources. Then the living standard of fishermen in the project implementation area can significantly improve, and the marine fish resources are significantly protected. This is measured annually, and can be expanded to more areas. The operation tradition and future promotion of Amoy variable longline fishing technology adheres to the most restrained environmental footprint, are the first local fishermen to use a small single fishing boat with a length of less than 10 meters for nearshore operation. In contrast, the fishery harvest is family operated, with surplus sold in local markets. Where conditions are sufficient, it is considered to develop into a consortium of fishermen. This uses vessels of 20 meters length, adopts the mode of sub mother-ship operation, takes the location as the center for offshore operation and the catch enters the market circulation system and the online direct-to-consumers sales system. Sailing fishing vessels can be used for the single vessel operation and the production operation of sub and mother-vessels of Amoy variable longline fishing technology. Even if the diesel engine is used as the power engine, it consumes little petroleum fuel. Small fishing boats are usually equipped with two 8 HP engines, with a speed of 5-6 knots and an average fuel consumption of 6 litres per hour. Coastal operations usually consume 6-12 litres of diesel per voyage. For fishing operations up to 20 nautical miles offshore, 60-70 litres of diesel oil are usually consumed per voyage. Take the example of the Amoy variable longline replacement demonstration project of Zhoushan Zhongjieshan islands in 2020-2021 funded by World Wildlife Fund (WWF). We first coached the local government to establish a specialized NGO organization as the specific implementer of the project. Through their collaboration with local marine fishery administrative authorities and marine nature reserve management authorities, we mobilize local fishermen, and 5 �then send a technical team of Amoy old fishermen for technology transfer work. CONCLUSIONS This paper focuses on Amoy variable longline fishing, exploring the history and technical logic of this unique local traditional marine ecological knowledge system. Here, we point out the value of its intangible cultural heritage and physical remains. Based on this, we explore the possibility of continuous innovation as a solution for non-destructive, accurate, and efficient production fishing in complex water bodies. We also seek a solution for sustainable development of marine fish resources and low energy consumption production fishing. We aim to replace other fishing methods that may cause damage to seabed sediments in various water areas including UCH, and support a vital fishing industry for local fishermen including those in the site protection areas. We are concerned about marine cultural heritage in the face of climate change and global economic recession. We also care for marine life and marine livelihoods. Humans need food, and with limited land resources, they naturally turn to huge ocean resources. Human wisdom should be used to develop marine resources in a sustainable manner. Amoy old fishermen said that in the history of longline fishing, there have been more and more fish in the sea. Longline fishing seems to be negotiating with the Dragon King. I'll catch your son and I'll keep your grandson. The young fish won't take the bait. The catch of the hooked fish is far less than the breeding quantity, so the fish will naturally be able to reproduce.’ Bibliography Huang Zhiyan. “Report on the Investigation of the Life of Fishermen in Xiamen Port.” China Construction Monthly (Nanjing) 7, no. 3, (1933): 125-140. Liang, Chenyu,. “So Long, Xiamen Fishers, and Thanks for All the Fish.” Sixth Tone 11 July, 2018. Available through: https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/mFL_NlGfpzkSfgE-EV5_cQ Su Jingyu, Chen Peizhen, and Xie Yunsheng (Eds.), 1931. Guide Xiamen, Chapter 8: Industry, Marine Products. Xin Min Shu She, Xiamen. Xu, Lu. “Amoy Longline Fishing: Going Our or To Flee.” The Paper [Pengpai News] 8 October 2018. Available through: https://m.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_2472837 Zhang Rongchang. “Fisheries in Xiamen.” Fisheries. Alumni Association of Jiangsu Provincial Fisheries School 4 (1922): 39-44. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 1: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference presentation Date Available Date (often a range) that the resource became or will become available. November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Variable Longline Fishing: The History and Sustainable Innovation of a Traditional Marine Ecological Knowledge Description An account of the resource Amoy variable longline fishing is an efficient, accurate and controllable traditional fishing technique created by Amoy fisherman, which has been popular in the Taiwan Strait and Zhoushan fisheries for hundreds of years. It was replaced by seine and trawl since the 1970s but continues to exist with inshore small-scale fisheries. It is a fishing method based on traditional marine ecological knowledge such as seabed topography, water current and fish migration. It evolves with environmental conditions, and is a living marine cultural heritage. In the past ten years, we have conducted a series of experimental archaeology studies on traditional shipbuilding, traditional navigation and traditional longline fishing. The studies expanded the boundary of marine ecological knowledge. This introduces a special perspective on the effects of climate change towards marine ecology and other external conditions. We aim to explore feasible coexistence with underwater cultural heritage and maritime cultural heritage by exploring the role of Amoy’s longline fishing as an innovative precision fishing technology. We work to teach local communities to use traditional methods to carry out non-destructive, accurate and efficient productive fishing in the complex environment of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). We promote the variable longline fishing for nomination on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding, developed from the UNESCO 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu Yu LongFa Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Xu, Lu and Long Fa Yu. 2023. “Variable Longline Fishing: The History and Sustainable Innovation of a Traditional Marine Ecological Knowledge.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Akifumi Iwabuchi, and Kotaro Yamafune.” In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1886 Asia-Pac Session 1 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/29ef072c8ae7264b60fdc5212b28c0be.mp4 ed017ad766770aa57f33f0a199e87ec3 Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with conference chair Dr. Hans Van Tilburg Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/10/2014 Asia-Pac Keynote 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/87cbe8eb246c04ada634f17f3dd9bd76.mp4 ad6d50925a971a265c6819450cb71c83 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development <br /><br /><em>Editor&rsquo;s note: Although Dr. Jeffery refers to Session 2 in his interview it was later changed to Session 3. He also discusses Session 11.</em> Subject The topic of the resource A video interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery about Sessions 3 and 11. Description An account of the resource Description: Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/12/2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development Subject The topic of the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 with links to the papers presented in Session 3. Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Event A non-persistent, time-based occurrence. Metadata for an event provides descriptive information that is the basis for discovery of the purpose, location, duration, and responsible agents associated with an event. Examples include an exhibition, webcast, conference, workshop, open day, performance, battle, trial, wedding, tea party, conflagration. Participants Names of individuals or groups participating in the event. <a title="Link to paper." href="http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1585">Intangible Heritage Approach of Safeguarding Underwater Heritage: A Trans-disciplinary Perspective</a> by Montakarn Suvanatap<br /><br /><a title="Link to paper." href="http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1584">Seabee Junkyard: A Holistic and Locally Inclusive Approach to Site Management and Interpretation</a> by Kalle Applegate Palmer and Bill Jeffery<br /><br /><a title="Link to paper." href="http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1583">The Fiji Museum’s Efforts Towards the Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites</a> in Fiji by Elia Nakoro Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: <br />• Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; <br />• Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. <br /><br /><br /><em>Editor’s note: </em><br /><br /><em>Although Dr. Jeffery refers to Session 2 in his interview that session was later changed to Session 3.</em> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Meretui Ratunabuabua Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 3 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5c47d2ab9b42e78abc9e246e972918ca.mp4 08f22b923999adfdc9a178b79d67d35c Event A non-persistent, time-based occurrence. Metadata for an event provides descriptive information that is the basis for discovery of the purpose, location, duration, and responsible agents associated with an event. Examples include an exhibition, webcast, conference, workshop, open day, performance, battle, trial, wedding, tea party, conflagration. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video Interview with keynote speaker Dr. James P. Delgado Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michelle Damian Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available <a href="http://www.themua.org">The Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a> Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Keynote 2014