66 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/92d31d0b842b7defd22c8258f4a2c4df.mp4 5af8066f7b0f08ccd33336ecd96a5588 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo and Brian Fahy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d4100cb1385a1b2a506484fd4a32f2f9.pdf e2721cdf259ec65199999370d26d4d91 PDF Text Text In Situ Preservation – Application of a Process-Based Approach to the Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Vicki Richards1 Abstract Over the past few decades, the archaeological community has been moving away from the more traditional methods of excavation and recovery of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) towards a less intrusive management approach, essentially involving the preservation of sites in situ. Over the years, different remediation strategies have been utilised in order to protect these sites in situ and most of the techniques involve reburial of sites. Reburial may be an appropriate means of stabilising and decreasing the deterioration rate of a site, however, there needs to be a holistic approach to the study of the environment, before and after reburial to gain a full understanding of the changes that are occurring on the site and determine the effectiveness of the technique. This paper outlines a process-based approach to the development of appropriate long-term management strategies for UCH sites. Introduction Over the past 50 years, technology has advanced at such a rate that the development and exploitation of the seabed has increased exponentially, which has, in turn, led to the discovery of increasing numbers of UCH sites. Conditions often exist in these underwater environments that favour the long-term preservation of archaeological remains and valuable information regarding our past can be gained through comprehensive archaeological investigation of these submerged sites. In more recent times however the archaeological community has moved away from the more traditional excavation and recovery methods and further towards on-site examination and in situ preservation of UCH sites. This trend has been politically galvanised in the recently ratified United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001: Article 2), that states as a fundamental principle, ‘the preservation of underwater cultural heritage in situ should be considered as a first option’. However, this does not preclude partial or even total excavation and recovery of sites if they are considered under threat. Nonetheless, concerns have been raised regarding the application of in situ preservation techniques as a management tool for UCH sites. Those opposing in situ preservation often argue that the sites are ‘out of sight and out of mind’. This is probably true to some extent and under certain circumstances, however increasingly, post stabilisation site monitoring is becoming an integral part of any on-site management programme (Caple 2004; Hogan et al. 2002; Nyström Godfrey et al. 2011; Richards et al. 2009). Others claim that the ability to preserve sites in situ has not currently been proven and that more scientific investigation is required (The Institute of Field Archaeologists 2008). Although this may be an accurate statement if the suitability of such practices are to be properly evaluated it is essential that more, not less, in situ preservation projects are initiated in order to provide information that will ultimately lead to a better understanding of this technique. Reburial of an archaeological site following exposure either by natural causes, industrial interference or archaeological excavation may be an appropriate means of stabilizing and decreasing the overall deterioration rate of our underwater cultural resource 1 Department of Materials Conservation, Western Australian Museum, Shipwreck Galleries, 45-47 Cliff St, Fremantle, WA 6160, Australia, TEL: +61 8 9431 8472: FAX: +61 8 9431 8489: email: vicki.richards@museum.wa.gov.au �by limiting dissolved oxygen, nutrients, etc and minimising the effects of water movement. This should ultimately decrease physical, chemical and biological degradation of the site. Unfortunately in the recent past, when sites were reburied there was often little, if any subsequent monitoring to determine the effectiveness of the technique (Gregory 1999). It is imperative that there be a holistic approach to the study of the environment, pre and post burial to gain a full understanding of the changes occurring in the reburial environment and the associated deterioration of the archaeological material (Caple 1994; Hogan, et al. 2002). This, in turn will allow an accurate assessment of the success or failure of the adopted remediation strategy on the long-term preservation of the site (Godfrey, et al. 2004; Godfrey, et al. 2005). In order for any in situ preservation strategy to be successful the following points must be addressed in the overall management plan: 1. Ascertain the extent of the site. 2. Assess the most significant physical, chemical and biological deterioration processes occurring on the site. 3. Assess the pre-disturbed local burial environment and the major factors affecting the long-term stability of the site. 4. Identify the major material types present on the site and their extents of deterioration. 5. Implement an appropriate in situ preservation strategy to mitigate continued deterioration and stabilize the site long-term. 6. Implement a long-term monitoring programme to evaluate the efficacy of the implemented in situ preservation strategy. 7. Provide alternative plans and procedures if the implemented in situ preservation strategies are unsuccessful. 8. Provide resources for the conservation and storage of any recovered artefacts. Each of these points will be discussed in more detail below and are integral to a process-based approach when assessing UCH sites and establishing successful long-term management plans. Point 1 The first point to be addressed in preparing any in situ preservation plan is the extent of the site that is to be stabilised. Many wreck sites are not conveniently contained within the confines of the remaining hull structure and are often spread over a wider area. These problems become even more apparent when parts of the wreck assemblage lie buried in the sediment. Simple mechanical probing with long stainless steel rods and dredging of test trenches can be used to define the area of a site, however these techniques are time consuming and would not be suitable for sites dispersed over a large area or deeply buried. In addition, excavated areas must be adequately reburied post investigation. More commonly, marine geophysical instrumental techniques, such as side-scan sonar, magnetometers and multi-beam sonar, which can be deployed over large areas, are used to detect sites exposed above the seabed. However, the use of sub-bottom profilers in conjunction with side-scan sonar has enabled the detection of both exposed and buried wreck material (Quinn, et al. 1998). These techniques can also provide invaluable information regarding the broader-scale sedimentary processes occurring onsite (Quinn 2006). Consideration of this type of information is vitally important when designing an appropriate long-term in situ preservation strategy for a site. Point 2 The synergistic physico-chemical and biological processes that naturally occur underwater can significantly threaten the integrity of archaeological sites. For example, many sites are at risk of physical damage by exposure through dredging or sediment erosion. The �exposed material is subjected to increased wave movement and elevated levels of dissolved oxygen, which lead to increased physical, chemical and biological deterioration. Biological attack of organic materials is primarily dependent on the concentration of oxygen in the surrounding environment. When a site is disturbed, the increase in oxygen, water and nutrient contents will almost certainly lead to a more aggressive environment. Importantly, this also applies to the recent reburial environment. Under these conditions, marine borers will be excluded due to the limited supply of dissolved oxygen within the recently deposited sediment however, degradation would continue through fungal and bacterial attack, that are able to tolerate much lower oxygen levels (Björdal and Nilsson 2002). If the reburial sediment remains stable and is not subjected to continued or seasonal erosion then microbial processes will eventually consume the oxygen and near anaerobic conditions will prevail where organics will only be subjected to the relatively slow action of erosion bacteria (Nilsson 1999). Due to the manner of this microbial attack the strength of the organic structure is reduced but little archaeological information is lost. Mary-Lou Florian (1987) reported that anaerobic bacteria only survive to a depth of approximately 60 centimetres (cm) in undisturbed sediments and other authors have shown that the extent of biological degradation of organic materials decreases significantly with burial depths greater than 50 cm (Björdal and Nilsson 2002; Gregory 1999; Nilsson 1999). This is directly related to the decrease in oxygen levels with increasing sediment depth. Lower oxygen levels adversely affect the activity of aerobic and facultative microorganisms that cause significantly more damage than anaerobic bacteria that are more prominent at greater sediment depths. Chemical processes can also affect the integrity of archaeological metal objects. One of the most common is the corrosion of iron and other metals. While it is generally accepted that the corrosion rates of most metals are significantly reduced under anaerobic conditions microbially induced corrosion of ferrous alloys can still be an issue in anoxic environments. It is important to understand the natural deterioration processes occurring on underwater archaeological sites in order to reduce these effects and obviously the depth of burial and the stability of the local environment are two of the most important factors to consider when developing appropriate remediation strategies. Point 3 The physico-chemical and biological characteristics of the pre-disturbed local environment should be assessed prior to excavation and/or reburial to assist in determining the inherent stability of the site, the major degradation mechanisms occurring on-site and the effect the local environment will have on buried materials. In addition, this pre-disturbance information will be used as baseline data to determine if and when the reburial environment returns to its original pre-burial state and the rate at which this occurs following the changes that necessarily accompany reburial. For example, during reburial via dredging, previously anaerobic sediments will be exposed to increased oxygen concentrations and an influx of nutrients when the sediments are initially deposited. This will lead to increased chemical and microbiological deterioration of the reburied materials before the sediment attains conditions that are conducive to long-term preservation again. The critical parameters to measure include the chemistry of the seawater, pore water and sediments [pH; redox potential (Eredox); dissolved oxygen, total iron and organic contents; sulphide, sulphate and carbon dioxide concentrations; nutrient levels], the type and nature of the sediments (loss on ignition; particles size distribution; porosity) and the level and type of microbiological activity within the sediment (Nyström Godfrey and Berstrand 2007; Richards, et al. 2009). It is also strongly recommended that the broad scale and localised sediment and water movement is monitored at regular intervals over an extended period of time. As �mentioned previously while some of this information may be obtained via marine geophysical techniques it is imperative that the current strength and direction, turbidity, tidal period, etc are also monitored. Extensive assessment of these site-related coastal processes and the physico-chemical and biological microenvironments present on the site will provide information regarding the major factors governing the stability of the site so that successful site specific in situ preservation strategies may be developed. Point 4 It is important to obtain a full understanding of the extent of deterioration of the major material types present on a site when considering in situ preservation. For instance, if the remaining hull structure, whether constructed of wood, iron or a combination of both, is extensively degraded it may not be able to withstand the weight of large quantities of sediment required for reburial in order to minimise further deterioration. Similarly, totally corroded iron is not amenable to in situ preservation by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. Moreover, it is essential to collect this baseline data for long-term comparative analysis to quantify the effect the mitigation strategy has on the reburied materials. Knowing the state of preservation will also enable conservators to choose the optimal treatment regimes in those cases where the recovery of material is necessary. In order to assess the extent of deterioration of the major material types a comprehensive on-site pre-disturbance conservation survey should be conducted. The range of measurements and analyses that are recommended is summarised below. Metals In Situ Measurements corrosion potential (Ecorr), pH, total depth of concretion and corrosion (dtotal), total depth of corrosion (dc), water depth and temperature at the measurement point. Organic Materials In Situ Measurements Visual inspection, simple probing, pH profiles, pilodyn measurements, sample collection for ex-situ analysis. Ex-situ Analyses Maximum water content (Umax) – measure general extent of deterioration. Microscopic analysis - wood species identification, measure extent and identify the type of microbiological attack. Point 5 If the initial assessment of the pre-disturbed environment indicates that the site is unstable, the archaeological remains are severely degraded and at risk of exposure and further damage resulting in significant loss of the submerged archaeological record then different mitigation strategies need to be considered in order to ameliorate these problems. It is at this planning stage that an overall evaluation of whether it is both practically and economically feasible to leave the site in situ should be discussed. In situ preservation of a site in its original position is only one option. Dependent on the nature of the local environment, the effects of residential or industrial developments and the archaeological significance of a site, the entire site or parts thereof, may need to be excavated, recovered and possibly conserved or re-deposited in another area under similar or preferably �improved environmental conditions. In the end the measures taken are always a compromise between the archaeological value of the site, the expected effects of the in situ preservation strategy, the time span over which it has to be effective, the effect on the local environment and the resources required. There are a number of different in situ preservation techniques, or more commonly, combinations thereof, that may be used to protect underwater archaeological sites. • Stabilization by land reclamation • Reburial/backfilling by dredging surrounding sediment • Sandbags – canvas, polymeric • Deposition of rock, gravel, sediment • Stabilisation after sediment deposition (e.g. using geotextile fabrics, shade cloth, rubber matting) • Sediment encapsulation (e.g. cofferdams of wood, sheet metal, polymeric crash barriers filled with sediment) • Sediment trapping (e.g. geotextile fabrics, shade cloth, debris netting and artificial seagrass used to trap suspended sediment through natural water movement) • Cathodic protection of ferrous elements (sacrificial anodes, impressed current) Obviously, simple reburial options are preferred but often they are fraught with postdeployment problems. For example, one potential problem with the sediment drop option is lateral dispersion of the sediment on dumping, which will significantly reduce the overall depth of coverage leading to a reburial area considerably larger than the actual wreck itself. Another issue with this option is, unless the physical environment on-site is relatively benign, that even short periods of increased water movement can cause significant loss of deposited sediment unless the reburial mound is stabilised by layers of geotextile or rubber matting (Manders, et al. 2008; Richards, et al. 2009). Sand bags are often used to stabilise underwater archaeological sites, however the choice of materials (e.g. cotton versus ultra-violet (UV) stabilised polymeric sand bags) and the method of deployment are very important. Therefore, under most circumstances the use of sand bags is not recommended for the medium to long-term preservation of a wreck site (Gregory 2010; Manders, et al. 2008; Richards, et al. 2009). The more complicated techniques include sediment trapping methods, which rely on trapping suspended sediment in the water column resulting in the formation of an artificial sediment mound or sediment encapsulation methods where a cofferdam, usually made from wood, steel sheet or polymers, is filled with sediment to the required depth and covered with geotextile to minimise sediment loss during periods of high water movement. Notable examples of the sediment trapping techniques are the use of artificial seagrass on wrecks, such as the William Salthouse (Figure 1) (Harvey 1996; Hosty 1988), the James Matthews (Figure 2) (Richards, et al. 2009) and the Hårbølle wreck (Gregory, et al. 2008) and different types of netting (shade cloth, debris netting, wind netting) used on several wrecks in the Netherlands (Manders 2004), Sri Lanka (Manders, et al. 2004) and also trialled on the James Matthews (Figure 3) (Richards, et al. 2009) and the Hårbølle wreck (Gregory, et al. 2008). The use of sediment encapsulation techniques utilising cofferdams is not common as their deployment is complicated, labour intensive and usually expensive. In addition, cofferdams constructed of timber or steel sheet can deteriorate rapidly and adversely affect the delicate balance of the wreck ecosystem. However, Trevor Winton and Vicki Richards (2005) proposed the use of environmentally inert polymeric ‘crash barriers’ that interlock into a ring-like arrangement that can be placed around the periphery of a site and filled with sediment to the required depth. It is currently being trialled on the James Matthews site (Figure 4) (Richards, et al. 2009). This negates the need to increase the reburial area which is common with the sediment drop method and toe scouring problems that can arise with the other sediment trapping techniques. �Formatted: Centered Figure 1. Successful application of artificial Cegrass® on the William Salthouse, six weeks after installation. Photo: Heritage Victoria Formatted: Centered Figure 2. Unsuccessful application of artificial seagrass on the James Matthews, five years after deployment. Photo: Western Australian Museum �Formatted: Centered Figure 3. Successful application of a sediment trapping mat on the James Matthews, five years after deployment. Photo: Western Australian Museum Formatted: Centered Figure 4. Polymeric ‘crash barrier’ cofferdam trialled on the James Matthews, three years after installation. Photo: Western Australian Museum Alternatively, if the local on-site environment is not conducive to in situ stabilisation of a site then excavation and reburial in another more suitable area may be necessary. Notable examples of this procedure are the San Juan in Red Bay, Canada (Stewart, et al. 1995; Waddell 2007), the Day Dawn in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia (Moran 1997) and the reburial of artefacts recovered from the Fredricus in Marstrand Harbour, Sweden (Berstrand, et al. 2005), which was the catalyst for the collaborative reburial research project, “Reburial and Analyses of Archaeological Remains” (RAAR) (Nyström Godfrey and Berstrand 2007; Nyström Godfrey, et al. 2011). Finally, the corrosion rates of iron hulled vessels or structural features can be significantly lowered through cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. The anodes, usually zinc or aluminium alloy, corrode in preference to the iron, effectively protecting the ferrous alloys from rapid decay. This technique has been used widely on many iron shipwrecks, with Australia being one of the world leaders in its application (MacLeod 1986; 2010; Heldtberg, et al. 2004). Point 6 Good organic and metal preservation depends on the maintenance of a stable chemical environment characterised by an anoxic, reducing environment, with near neutral pH, low porosity, organic content and bacterial activity. Hence, long-term monitoring of a reburied site is a critical component of the overall management plan. The sediment levels and the biological and physico-chemical environment of the reburial mound should be monitored at regular intervals. Ideally, the same suite of analyses should be performed on these post reburial sediments as was previously described in point 3 for the pre-disturbed environment. As destructive sampling of reburied archaeological materials is contrary to the aims of reburial, it is recommended that sacrificial modern wood and metal samples be included in the reburial mound and retrieved and analysed (see point 4) at regular intervals (Gregory 1999; Richards, et al. 2009). The results of the biological and physico-chemical analyses can then be correlated to the extents of deterioration of the sacrificial samples and extrapolated to the condition of the reburied archaeological material thereby allowing �the effectiveness of the adopted mitigation strategy on the long-term preservation of the wreck site to be properly assessed. Point 7 An alternative and fully costed contingency plan must be developed in the event that the adopted in situ preservation strategy is unsuccessful. Point 8 A provisional budget must be allocated for the conservation of any recovered artefacts that are deemed unsuitable for reburial. Conclusion Application of this process-based approach should hopefully provide a better understanding of the major deterioration processes occurring on-site and assist in the application of the most appropriate in situ preservation strategies customised to accommodate the unique qualities of each site. Long-term monitoring feeds back into this system, quantitatively evaluating the effectiveness of the remediation strategy and providing evidence for alternative measures to be sought if the chosen technique is unsuccessful. In this way, the current uncertainties surrounding in situ preservation as a management tool for UCH sites can be addressed and ultimately lead to a better understanding of this technique in the future. Bibliography The Institute of Field Archaeologists, 2008 The Institute of Field Archaeologists, Maritime Affairs Group Bulletin. Winter 2008, United Kingdom. Available at: <http://ifamag.wordpress.com/mag-bulletins/> Bergstrand, T., Björdal, C.G., Bohm, C., Christenssen, E., Gregory, D., MacLeod, I.D., Nilsson, T., Nyström, I., Peacock, E., Richards, V.L., Turner, G., 2005 Björdal, C., Nilsson, T., 2002 “Reburial as a method of preserving archaeological remains. 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Huisman (eds), Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten (RACM), Amersfoot, pp. 113-160. “Reburial of the Red Bay Wreck as a form of preservation and protection of the historic resource”, in Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology IV, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 1994, Mexico, Vol. 352, pp. 791-805. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Paris. “Timber reburial”, in The Underwater Archaeology of Red Bay. Basque Shipbuilding and Whaling in the 16th Century, Volume I Archaeology Underwater: The Project, Robert Grenier, MarcAndré Bernier and Willis Stevens (eds), Parks Canada, pp. 149152. “In situ containment of sediment for shipwreck reburial projects”, in Proceedings of the 9th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Copenhagen, 7-11 June 2004, Per Hoffmann, Kristiane Strætkvern, James Spriggs and David Gregory (eds), The International Council of Museums, Committee for Conservation Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 77-89. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In Situ Preservation - Application of a Process-Based Approach to the Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource Over the past few decades, the archaeological community has been moving away from the more traditional methods of excavation and recovery of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) towards a less intrusive management approach, essentially involving the preservation of sites in situ. Over the years, different remediation strategies have been utilised in order to protect these sites in situ and most of the techniques involve reburial of sites. Reburial may be an appropriate means of stabilising and decreasing the deterioration rate of a site, however, there needs to be a holistic approach to the study of the environment, before and after reburial to gain a full understanding of the changes that are occurring on the site and determine the effectiveness of the technique. This paper outlines a process-based approach to the development of appropriate long-term management strategies for UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/674c7f4c5129063426008a5a99efa1ca.pdf 4f4c925bbfb63b654fb281e57eb5aa6f PDF Text Text The Boats and Ships in the Indian Paintings: Examining the Commercial and Domestic Aspects in Maritime Activities Vishi Upadhyay (Curatorial Associate, Bihar Museum, Patna, India) vishi.arch@gmail.com ABSTRACT Paintings are visual artefacts and one of the significant art narratives supplemented as a primary source in the construction or reconstruction of social and cultural lifeways of different periods since the Early Historic period—for example, the murals of Ajanta, Cholas, Vijayanagara, and the Mughal School of paintings. Among the diverse visual content, the Indian paintings consist of the depiction of the relationship between the water and humans in the forms of navigation activities through boats and ships of various kinds. Such images are further connected with social and economic aspects, which need to be examined and analysed to differentiate between domestic and commercial functioning. The analysis has been much on identifying trade-related activities and largely has ignored the other side of the social construct with the paintings bearing the marine activities. For example, the sailors and pilgrimage are on the riverside temples, and the boats and sailors in recreational activities. Which have been lesser known and studied. In this paper, the paintings in the collections of museums in Bihar shall be examined to narrate the visual craftsmanship surrounding the identity of boats and ships in detail, including but not limited to their forms/ models, designs, and their functions. Further, they are categorically examined and studied for commercial (interstate trades) or private uses (personal rides). The paintings in Rajput, Mughal, Patna Kalam, Boondi, Pahadi, Rajasthani, Kagada and Delhi School of Art, representing the beautiful boats and ships in different fabrics and shapes, are the focus of this study. This paper is well fitted to session-29 because of the discussion on the riverine craft and associated activities. The paper deals with riverine craft i.e. boats and ships, which are illustrated on paintings of Rajput school of art, Patna school of art and Banaras school of art. Boats and ships are the obligatory part of marine activities and this paper well describes the function of boats along with design and discussion of similar riverine craft in ancient text. INTRODUCTION The association of human and water have been represented in different expressions like art, literature, Numismatic, epigraphy and travelers’ accounts. Depicting boats and ships is a very prominent and favorite part of Indian art as well as a strong representation of Indian tradition. How boats and ships are imperative in Indian society could be seen in votive boat tradition in Odisha (Tripathi 2011, 1084), boat race in Kerala and so on. Out of these, Paintings are visual artefacts and one of the significant art narratives supplemented as a primary source in the construction or reconstruction of social and cultural lifeways of different periods since the Early Historic period. The purpose of this paper is to accomplish a comprehensive study of paintings in collections of Patna museum and Bihar museum for detailing out the types and functions of boats in Indian society. CASE STUDY Types of boats The only recorded Sanskrit Sastric treatise which includes a section on ships, their classification and technical features and functions, is the Yuktikalpataru, preserved in the Calcutta Sanskrit College Library and first examined for its nautical interest by R. K. Mookerji in his pioneering 1912 publication A History of Indian Shipping and Maritime Activity from the Earliest Times (Mookerjee 1912). The Yuktikalpataru is a compilation of information on a variety of subjects, under the authorship of Bhoja Narapati. The identity of the author is unknown, but the extent to which the information it contains conforms to riverine boat type’s points to an eastern Indian, probably Bengali, origin. It is believed to date from the fourteenth century but, like other prescriptive Sastric books of this type, no doubt embodied much older knowledge. An extensive list of boat types is provided, classified according to their size and to their suitability for different sailing conditions. The critical 1 �distinction is between two classes of vessels, Samanya or "Ordinary", that is, river craft and Vishesa or "Special", that is, ocean-going vessels. The Samanya are subdivided into ten categories: Ksudra, Madhyama, Bhima, Capala, Patala, Bhaya, Dirgha, Patraputa, Garbhara, Manthara (Mukherjee 1912, 15). The boat which forms the subject of this paper broadly fits the Madhyama category under the river craft classification. This describes a vessel with a cabin in the centre (when it is identified under a further subdivision as Sarvamandira and Madyamandira), used as a pleasure boat by the king and suited for the rainy season. The Yuktikalpataru also details the appropriate colour for the masts, materials for metal fittings (gold, silver, copper), and the choice of figureheads drawn from the animal world, and the use of garlands to festoon the prows (Guy 1999, 106). These features can be seen clearly in a Bengal boat depicted in a nineteenth century Bengali patta painting of The Story of Gazi (Guy 1999, 110) as well as the paintings of Patna school of Art also known as Patna Kalam. Sastric sources refer to the organization and regulation of both riverine and ocean trade. The Arthashastra of Kautilya, for example, names the official post of Navadhyaksa, the Superintendent of Ships, whose duties included the customs control of ports, the provision of toll ferries and the assisting of vessels in distress. Other Sanskrit texts which concern themselves with ships and sailing are the Abhidhanaratnamala and the Vaijayanti. The activities of traders from such eastern Indian centres as Kausambi, Varanasi, Pataliputra, and Campa are recorded in the Buddhist Vinaya texts and Jatakas, supplying the Bengal port of Tamralipti (Ramachandran 1970, 79) on the mouth of the Ganges for the Southeast Asian trade. From the Gupta to Pala eras eastern India maintained large navies, and many battles were fought on the Ganges and its delta. The dual stimulus of commerce and warfare must have ensured a high level of ship building technology and skills in eastern India. Royal Pleasure boats The boats in this category are prolific in numbers in paintings of Patna Kalam. The deck of such boats has a number of interesting features with animals and birds’ heads. Author found the boats with the shapes of peahens, lions, sea monsters or crocodile and hoarse. A decorated cabin is erected on the centre of the vessel, where royal persons are enjoying the trip. A flag is flowing at the last corner of each ship and may represent the province. At the bottom of the flag oarsmen are stirring the pedals and moving the ship ahead. A whisk man is blowing the whisk and his face is toward the prow (Fig. 1). These types of boats represent the Survmandira type of ships as per the Yuktikulptaru.( Mookerjee 1912:18) Such kinds of boats have the largest cabin extending from one end of the ship to the other and are used for transport royal treasures, horses and women. The text gives elaborate information for decorating and furnishing such kinds of vessels. The prows of ships admit of a great variety of fanciful shapes and forms: these comprise the heads of lion, buffalo, serpent, elephant, tiger, birds, such as duck, peahen, or parrot, the frog, and man thus arguing a great development of the art of the carpenter or the sculptor. Other elements of decoration are pearls and garlands of gold to be attached to and hung from the beautifully shaped prows (Mookerjee 1912, 17). Four kinds of metals are recommended for such kinds of ships: gold, silver, copper and compounds of all three. 2 �Figure 1 : Peacock shaped royal pleasure boat, in collection of Patna Museum The convention of having an animal, natural or mythical, as a figurehead is a feature of ceremonial vessel design from the earliest times in India, as witnessed by the relief on the western gateway at Sanchi Stupa no. 1, in which a sandstone relief medallion depicts a pleasure boat with a pavilion, the bow represented in the form of a mythical winged gryphon, and the raised stern as the tail of an aquatic creature. It is interesting to note that it records the involvement of the Satavahana king Satakami through an inscription left by his chief of works (Harle 1986, 34, n. 37). The Satavahana dynasty of the western Deccan actively supported the maritime ventures of their Buddhist merchants and clearly pleasure boats were a part of royal life in this early period (Ray 1986). The earliest depiction of a boat in Indian sculpture, to be found in a decorated roundel of the Bharhut stupa railing of the second century ВС, shows two vessels (one disappearing into the jaws of a ferocious sea-monster or makar) with steeply rising prow and stern sections, constructed of broad planks of timber secured with what appear to be metal staples but in reality was more probably fibre stitching. The vessel is without masts and appears only to be propelled by two oars not dissimilar to those seen in our model. One can surmise that this scene depicts the perils of sea travel as undertaken by enterprising Buddhist and other merchants (and monks) in the Mauryan and Sunga periods (fourth-first centuries ВС) and recounted in the Buddhist canonical literature, notably in the Vinaya Pitaka, and in the later Buddhist literature, including the Jataka stories1 (Guy 1999, 107). In one of Patna Kalam paintings, a big vessel resting at the bank of a river along with attendants of some royal person, might be waiting for their lord/queen with a decorated palanquin. Boat comprises a single mast and a big cabin with a golden throne. Shapes of such boats show the function of pleasure trips. In another painting, there is a big boat being ridden by a royal man and his subordinates. The royal person is sitting at the centre of the cabin and others are sitting around him. Prow of the hull portion is in the shape of a mermaid. Boat is a single mast which is topped by a flag and a sail. Two helmsman are shown in boat, one is maintaining the sail as per the direction of wind and another one is stirring a long handle peddle at other last corner of the boat. 1 Judging from the frequent references to stitched hull construction as a feature of Indian ship building, it may be assumed that this is the method being employed in the Bharhut relief. 3 �Figure 2: Royal pleasure boats, in collection of Patna Museum In figure 2, there are nine decorated boats with a single cabin at centre, single mast and sail. These colourful boats perfectly show a scene of pleasure trips in river Ganga. The painting of Banaras school of art must show the scene of Banaras Ghat (Bank of the river Ganga) Royal ceremonial boat Shape and design of boat in fig no 3 best fits it with the Madhyamandira category as per Yuktikulptaru which are used by kings (Mookerji 1912, 18). The painting of Rajput school of art represents a scene of some festival. In the courtyard of the palace, royal women are preparing for ritual and decorating idols of goddess (Parvati?) few are keeping the idol over their head and blowing fly-whisk. Another beautiful part of this painting is a royal boat which is made of wood and painted red in colour. It is surmounted by an open pavilion which is in the shape of chatari (umbrella) and resting upon the four columns. Three decorated staircases are connected to the pavilion to rest part of the boat. A King is sitting under the pavilion and looking at the ceremony/festival, he might have come to attend the ceremony. Oarsmen are stirring the boat and a helmsman is standing at the last corner of the boat. Two umbrella and palm leaf fan bearers are up righting between the oarsmen and helmsman. The Stern section is in the shape of a swan. However, a relief sculpture of a similar boat in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, throws light on the identity of this device. The relief has an umbrella bearer mounted on the standing figure of an elephant, both of which have royal affiliations. It may be that this device is not a vase but an attempt to represent the umbrella (chattari) in the round (the sculptor has obviously not dared to cut away the stone around the umbrella's post). The elephant figurehead is flanked by two attendants, one holding a fly-whisk (chamar), the other a palm-leaf fan (taal pakka). The final feature of this vessel is the mandapa-type super-structure, a pavilion supported by four turned columns and a two-tiered pitched roof with capping finial. This covered pavilion houses three seated figures: a warrior with a bow (on the port side), a bearded priest holding a rosary (facing starboard) and a figure in princely attire in the centre, facing the prow. Interestingly, in the Calcutta relief, the side of the pavilion depicted shows the warrior figure. I shall return to the possible symbolism of this ship and its royal passenger, but first I want to situate this vessel in the long tradition of Indian royal pleasure barges reaching back at least to the Satavahana period of the early centuries AD (Guy 1999, 107). 4 �Figure 3: Royal ceremonial boat, in collection of Patna Museum Merchant, Rider boats Paintings of Patna Kalam are designated by the merchant and rider boats. The hull of merchant boats looks huge. In fig no 4 merchant boats are shown with single mast and sail and overloaded with goods, along with that two rider boats appear with elongated cabins at the centre. Roof of the cabin is downwards. Rider boats are useful for river traffic and that are the lifeline of contemporary societies. One of the rider boats in the painting shows an interesting feature. A medium size boat is resting at the bank of the river. Boat has a single mast which is topped by a flag and another flag erects at the other last corner which shows its possession by high class. Two mariners are sitting upon the deck of the boat and other three are cooking food at the surface of the river bank. 5 �Figure 4: Merchant and Rider type boats, in collection of Patna Museum Fishing boats Fig. No 5 in paintings, represents the living scenes of fish boats in different river banks of Bihar. Such kinds of boats are small in size and sometimes show a small cabin at the centre. Figure 5 : Fishing boats, in collection of Patna Museum RESULTS Describing the marine activities through the narratives is an exciting part as it echoes the context. Paintings of Patna Kalam, Rajput school of art and Banaras school of art well captured the scenes of marine activities and river crafts. Colorful and enormously designed boats show the passion of artists and classifications of classes in contemporary society as well as the occupations. Animal headed boats show the affluent classes. Horse, sea monster, mermaid, peacock, lion headed boats are instances of wonderful craftsmanship. This is noteworthy that most of the artist in Patna Kalam paintings captured the scenes of decorated boats with pleasure trips by royal persons, an eye catchy view of boats could be the reason for so but the unvarying marine activities like riding boats for ordinary people, merchant boats and fishing boats also could get a space in painting. The comparative study of these boats in paintings with prescribed boats in ancient text gives a consolidation to this paper. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Guy John. 1999, A Boat Model and State Ritual in Eastern India. In: Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient. Tome 86. Harle, J.C. 1 986,The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, Harmondsworth, Penguin Mookerji, R.K. 1912, A History of Indian Shipping and Maritime Activity from the Earliest Times, London, Longmans, Green, [repr. Allahabad. Ramachandran, K.S. 1970, Ancient Indian Maritime Ventures , in L. Chandra et al. (eds.), India's Contribution to World Thought and Culture, Madras. Ray, H.P. 1986, Monastery and Guild: Commerce under the Satavahanas, Delhi, Oxford University Press. Tripati Sila, 2011, Ancient Indian maritime trade in eastern Indian littoral, current science Vol 100, no 7, Current Science Association, Bengaluru. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Boats and Ships in the Indian Paintings: Examining the Commercial and Domestic Aspects in Maritime Activities Description An account of the resource Paintings are visual artefacts and one of the significant art narratives supplemented as a primary source in the construction or reconstruction of social and cultural lifeways of different periods since the Early Historic period—for example, the murals of Ajanta, Cholas, Vijayanagara, and the Mughal School of paintings. Among the diverse visual content, the Indian paintings consist of the depiction of the relationship between the water and humans in the forms of navigation activities through boats and ships of various kinds. Such images are further connected with social and economic aspects, which need to be examined and analysed to differentiate between domestic and commercial functioning. The analysis has been much on identifying trade-related activities and largely has ignored the other side of the social construct with the paintings bearing the marine activities. For example, the sailors and pilgrimage are on the riverside temples, and the boats and sailors in recreational activities. Which have been lesser known and studied. In this paper, the paintings in the collections of museums in Bihar shall be examined to narrate the visual craftsmanship surrounding the identity of boats and ships in detail, including but not limited to their forms/ models, designs, and their functions. Further, they are categorically examined and studied for commercial (interstate trades) or private uses (personal rides). The paintings in Rajput, Mughal, Patna Kalam, Boondi, Pahadi, Rajasthani, Kagada and Delhi School of Art, representing the beautiful boats and ships in different fabrics and shapes, are the focus of this study. This paper is well fitted to session-29 because of the discussion on the riverine craft and associated activities. The paper deals with riverine craft i.e. boats and ships, which are illustrated on paintings of Rajput school of art, Patna school of art and Banaras school of art. Boats and ships are the obligatory part of marine activities and this paper well describes the function of boats along with design and discussion of similar riverine craft in ancient text. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vishi Upadhyay Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Upadhyay, Vishi . 2023. “The Boats and Ships in the Indian Paintings: Examining the Commercial and Domestic Aspects in Maritime Activities.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2028 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ee0dcde5a414cef137ceb81ca8b906cf.pdf 3bfe2b775402a899e65a240302d5b991 PDF Text Text An Investment for the Future – Maritime Archaeological Explorations in the Post-War regions of the Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka W. M. Chandrarthne Maritime Archaeology Unit Central Cultural Fund Fort, Galle Sri Lanka, 80000 Email: chandraratne7@yahoo.com Abstract The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. During the last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011. They had gone through series of trainings such as swimming, snorkelling, life saving, first aid and basic diving. They were introduced to the fundamentals of underwater archaeology. They were encouraged to start their post graduate studies and to gain their international diving license, such as PADI or the SSI. After a year of training they were directed to carry out an underwater archaeological investigation along the East coast of Sri Lanka, from 13th of June to 26th of August 2012. The exploration was scheduled at a favourable moment to test their skills and training. The trainees were under the supervision of four senior maritime archaeologists. The north and east parts of the country were rescued after thirty years of terrorism in 2009. More than two years were taken to secure the area from post war hazards such as land mines. For the whole MAU team this was a new experience and an opportunity to search this area after many years. The team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites and 4 underwater archaeological sites in the region. 1 �Key words: Archaeology Graduates, Maritime Archaeology, MAU, East Coast, Sri Lanka Research History The beginning of maritime archaeological studies in Sri Lanka goes back to as early as 1960s, but systematic field and research activities started with the Galle harbour project in the year 1992. Under the guidance of maritime archaeologists of Western Australian Maritime Archaeological Museum, Australia and Amsterdam Museum of Netherlands diving activities began with the help of the local organizations. Combining the Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka, University of Kelaniya, Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) and Central Cultural Fund (CCF) various projects were carried out to develop and enhance maritime archaeology in Sri Lanka. Most of the exploration work was based inside the Galle harbour. During this exercise, steps were taken to train a local diving team and ten archaeological graduates from various disciplines between 1995 and 1999. The training activities continued over several weeks, and after finishing training the trainees were again sent to their usual land archaeological projects. Accordingly, a new Maritime Archaeological Unit was created with the background of undertaking the exploration of the Avondster Project which started in 2001 and continued until 2004. The primary exploration was the foundation for creating MAU and in 2001 the trainee graduates who had participated in the Avondster Project were permanently absorbed in the MAU. The maritime archaeologists and divers had the opportunity to work with many foreign abroad maritime archaeologists and learn from their expertise. However, due to circumstances caused by the Tsunami disaster, most of the data and artifacts that were discovered in previous years were totally destroyed. After a few years, some maritime archaeologists and conservators who had trained with the unit left and as a result in 2010 the number of divers remaining in the unit was reduced to four. The remaining team was not sufficient to recover our history from the sea around our motherland, or to properly manage our heritage. Therefore that team organized a number of workshops in order to uplift the human resources in this field. Over a period of time a number of field schools sponsored by UNESCO, ICCROM and CCF were conducted both nationally 2 �and internationally. During the workshops conducted by the MAU, graduate students of archaeology from national universities got the opportunity to participate and work with the maritime archaeologists. This was considered to be a valuable step in the process of uplifting human resources for the future of the MAU. Progression of Human Resource in the field The dangerous terrorism over the last 30 years finally ended in May of 2009. Maritime archaeological explorations that were previously limited to the Southern and Western coasts of the Island could now be carried out all over the country. With this need of excavating the post war regions, a team consisting of ten members was taken into the unit. The main qualification for membership was that the member should have been previously engaged in a field school. After selecting ten such candidates, they were considered as the trainee graduates of the MAU. They were then trained in swimming, snorkelling, life saving programmes and finally they were recommended as licensed divers internationally by giving them international diving licenses. After completing those stages some of the trainees were trained in conservation activities. The trainees were then enrolled in the MSc degree in Archaeology conducted by PGIAR, and also supported in improving their English and Tamil language skills to better communicate with other communities within and outside Sri Lanka. During their training period, the candidates were taught how to referring to library items, use internet resources as well as studying the documents of the Department of Archives. Boat handling, compressor usage, and diving gear maintenance were practical activities that trainees had to perform. In addition surveying, photography, shooting underwater video footage, as well as survey techniques were taught to them using practical events on land. After that, they trained in map reading, communication and navigation which were conducted by the College of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering. New trainees were trained for about a year and they were guided to work in maritime archaeological sites of the eastern coast of the Island between June 13th and August 26th of, 2012, with explorations over 3 main districts in eastern Sri Lanka. There they discovered new maritime archaeological sites at which time a sequence of experiments were conducted. The trainees were able to explore the new found sunken wrecks and they recorded another 4 archaeological sites during their excavations. 3 �Aims of the explorations Recording data of maritime archaeological sites of the eastern coast and surrounding areas was the basic goal of these explorations. Other goals of the project were to protect the archaeological heritage of the explored areas and motivate the public regarding the above idea to find out other sites which are recorded but not presently recognized. Exploring these sites both physically and by using remote sensing techniques was also a major aim of this project. Referring literary and electronic sources Before the explorations, the libraries of Galle and National Archives were used by a number of members of the exploring team to search for primary and secondary literary sources that discussed the various sites. The team was divided into two, one engaged in referring to information obtained by diving at the sites and the other team engaged in observing the archaeological facts of the surrounding areas. Using the side scan sonar equipment graciously lent to the National Aquatic Resource Agency (NARA) team from the donated - the artefacts of the Trincomalee seabed were discovered. Uppuveli and Irakkandi areas which belong to Trincomalee were totally explored during the project. During the field recording, photography, video films, sketches and site plans under sea were done by the new explorers themselves with the guidance of senior archaeologists. Background of the Exploration The Maritime Archaeological explorations over the eastern province of Sri Lanka According to the estimate of 2012, it was decided to carry out an exploration along the eastern coast of the Island. Explorations were carried out in the district of Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara of the Eastern province region between 13th June and 26th August 2012, adopting following 3 steps: 1. Exploration of the Trincomalee District 2. Exploration of the Batticaloa District 3. Exploration of the Ampara District Exploration over Trincomalee Districts The exploration related to the Area was done from the 13th of July until the 31st of July, 2012. There, archaeological sites into wrecks were located; one each from Uppuveli 4 �and Irakkandi. Additionally, the sea between Koneshwaram Hindu Temple and the Harbour which is known Swami Rock was also explored. The wreck HMS Diomede which was found in the Uppuveli area Our team was able to discover the ruins of a wreck at 140 feet depth, 3 km away from the coast of Uppuveli, an area particularly called Silver Beach. While the explorations were ongoing in the area, valuable information was discovered by our team doing library research. Further information was found through internet sources, according to which this wreck was ordered on the 14th of August, 1779. It was built by the institution of “James Martin Hill Fig. 1 Artifact found from HMS Diomede in Uppuweli. (W. M. Chandraratne) House”. After finishing the construction, its first sailing was on the 18th of October, 1781. This wreck was specially built for coastline services during the American Renaissance war period. Two missions done by this vessel have been recorded. One was the capture of the South Carolina in 1782 and the capture of the Indian Ocean in 1794 (Clerk and Wilson, 1964: 200). Records of HMS Diomede wreck include photography, videography, survey, and drawing sketches. About 18 cannons were scattered around the vessel. A large number of small cannon balls were scattered around the site, as well as a large number of broken bottles and timber and metal parts (Fig. 1). The wreck found from Irrakkandi area This wreck was discovered at a distance of 2.5 km away from Irakkandi lagoon in the Nilaveli region known as Coral Islands. And it was located at a depth of 7 m. Here also the exploration included photography and sketch drawing. But as the wreck had sunk in accessible 5 Fig 2 Irakkandai Shipwreck. (W. M. Chandraratne) �shallow waters, a lot of damage occurred to the wreck. Therefore evidence which could be used to identify the wreck was destroyed by treasure hunters, and by explosives used to kill fish in the sea. The wreck was built using iron and it was about 90 m in length. The bow and the stern could be identified easily, as also the propeller. Though the hull had been broken in to some parts had been well preserved. The parts of the engine were scattered in many places. Three anchors were identified, but no records were found regarding the owners of the vessel (Fig 2). Swami Rock near the Koneshwaram Hindu Temple During the exploration over this area a huge amount of valuable evidence was discovered. Among the evidence found were the tips of stone pillars, and polished stone slabs. This evidence was discovered after two days of diving activities. According to the history of this place, a religious place constructed of 1000 stone pillars was situated here. During the Portuguese period it had been demolished by them and the ruins dropped away from the rock into the sea. 1. Exploration over Batticaloa Districts SS Lady McCullum During the exploration of the Batticaloa District a small area called Kayankerni, in the Vakare region was explored. Three kilometers away from Kayankerni coast there was an iron wreck scattered on the seabed. A local diver named Mr. Kolabage Jagath Lal gave the team the information regarding the wreck. According to the information obtained from the fishermen of the area, this wreck was identified as the “SS Lady Mc Cullum” which had sunk during the British rule in Sri Lanka, but future explorations could change this idea. The explorations over other naval sailings discovered in this area were explored only for 2 to 3 days. The main goals when accessing the region was to identify the nature of wrecks scattered around the sea bed, survey the wrecks, draw sketches, photograph and videotape the wrecks, and calculate the GPS values of the sites. This wreck was scattered on the seabed at a depth of 17 m and many parts of the site were totally destroyed. The saved parts were scattered over a large area, but the bow and the stern were easily identified. The propeller and the shaft were preserved as well. Two boilers and 3 iron anchors were found there, the anchors being from the bow, 6 �the stern and from the middle part of the wreck. From the remaining evidences it could be calculated that the length of the wreck was about 71 m from bow to propeller, while the width was about 13.8 m. The British Sergeant wreck Five km away from the Kayankerni coast of Vakare area in the Eastern province, another wreck was found scattered at a depth of 25.5 m. By the information that came from local villagers, it was considered that this is the wreck, the British Sergeant, sunk during British rule, therefore during the same period as the SS Lady McCullum. This may also change as a result of further investigation. This wreck was the most protected wreck of all the wrecks explored in eastern province from Trincomalee to Baticaloae by the MAU team during this project. The ship was broken in to two parts; one part was 75 m long, while the other part was 52.8 m. Its width of the stern was about 16 m. Since the exploration was done in three to four days; only sketches, photographs and survey plan were completed during that time. According to the fishermen in this area, the wreck sank because of bombing attacks during the Second World War. Other archaeological heritages around Kayankerni Stone Bridge This is located across the Kayankerni lagoon in the Vakare region between Baticaloe – Tricomalee A 15 road. It was constructed from west to east and at eye level. Stone pillars of the bridge lay scattered up to about a 200 m distance. Some pillars have fallen down across the lagoon. The pillars have sunk below the lagoon water up to a certain level. Wrecks around Pasikuda Three wrecks were identified during the exploration over Pasikuda coast line. The naval wreck was identified at a depth of 9 m. Parts of the vessel were scattered in many areas and many were destroyed, but the propeller and the propeller shaft were well protected, while the bow and the stern of the vessel could be easily identified. During the observations over the wreck another iron wreck which was somewhat larger was discovered. From the explorations done up to now, the name of this vessel could not be identified. 7 �Pasikuda Boiler Wreck 1 The above mentioned wreck was situated 3 km away from Pasikuda coast at about 6 m in depth. It was built with iron and steam-powered. Among the remaining evidences of it there were three boilers found and the propeller and propeller shaft were well protected. Two iron anchors situated near the bow of the wreck and another anchor at the middle of the wreck. During the excavations the team surveyed, drew sketches, photographed, videographed and calculated the GPS value of the site. Pasikuda Boiler wreck 2 The above mentioned wreck was located 50 m away from the previously mentioned boiler wreck 1. Three boilers were discovered there, but one was almost destroyed. The propeller and the propeller shaft were also present. There were four other archaeological sites around Pasikuda. Several architectural items which belong to the Dutch period were identified around the Pasikuda coast, among them the remains of a jetty and the base of a warehouse. During the explorations in Kayankarni and Pasikuda areas the fishermen of the area Misters S. Novil, Eeshwaran Prabhu and Velmurugan Arunlath helped the archaeological team greatly. Wrecks around Batticaloa Batticaloa boiler wreck 1 This wreck was located in the Navaladi area of Batticaloa. This wreck was found 3 km away from the Nawaladi lagoon, at a depth of 9 m. Of the boiler wrecks explored during MAU explorations, this was the only wreck which was powered by five boilers. Here also, the propeller and the propeller shaft were well preserved. The evidence of the wreck was scattered on the sea bed protected well enough to identify the bow and stern. The maximum length of the wreck was about 102.8m (Fig. 3). 8 �Fig. 3 Sketch plan of Baticaloe boiler wreck-1. (W. M. Chandraratne) SS Brennus The Nawaladi lagoon situated in the Nawaladi area of Batticaloa is very close to Silamunei coast of the eastern province. The wreck lies at a depth of 7 m, and is 3 km from the Nawaladi lagoon. The people in this area use the word “Sakkara Kappal” to name this vessel. Here ‘sakkara’ means jaggery and ‘kappal’ refers to the ship according to Tamil language. Boilers could be seen in the wreck and there is also the propeller and the propeller shaft present. The wrecks around Kalmune The explorations carried from Kayankarni area of Batticaloa were taken up to Kalmune coast of the Ampara district. From the explorations done there, four wrecks were recorded. Two of them were in the deep sea and due to bad weather during the time our team was unable to explore those two. However we were able to explore the other two wrecks during that time. Kalmune boiler wreck This above mentioned wreck was located in the Kalmune-1 coastal area of the Kurundedi village in Kalmune area of Ampara district. Three km away from Kalmune-1, on the coast line facing the Kodieththam mosque. The wreck lay at a depth of 12 m. This wreck was found in the deep sea. The remains of two propellers, a propeller shaft and three boilers were identified. The length of the wreck was about 102.80 m and the width was about 33.7 m. 9 �Kalmune iron wreck This wreck was recorded at a depth of 9m and located 50 m away from the Kalmune boiler wreck. The engine parts could be easily identified among the greatly destroyed wreck. 1. Explorations around Potuvil area in Ampara district As the third step of the eastern coast exploration project carried out by MAU of Galle, the team moved to Potuvil area in Ampara from Batticaloa. From the explorations done during the 19th to the 24th of August, 2012, facts regarding five wrecks were recorded and archaeological evidence regarding the religious place of Potuvil Muhudu Maha Viharaya was discovered during the exploration. Akkareipattu boiler wreck This is located in the Attalachchene area of Ampara district. This wreck was powered by steam.. The wreck had sunk very close to the coast line and therefore half of the wreck was covered with sand near the beach while the other half was covered with sea water. Although a permanent exploration was not done there, during a snorkelling survey the remains of the ship were identified. Several boilers were found and in the future further exploration should be done related to this site. There the guidance of Mr. J. Yogarasha was a great help for our activities. Wrecks around Tirukkovila Tirukkovila boiler wreck This wreck was located two km away from the Tirukkovila coast in the Vinayagapuram area of the Tirukkovila region of Ampara. It lies on the seabed at 7 m. Due to the bad visibility of the sea water and with survey time being only relegated to one day, the shape of the wreck was not identified but certain facts regarding this wreck were discovered. This boiler wreck was powered with four boilers according to our initial discoveries. Tirukkovila iron wreck This wreck was also identified from the Vinayagapuram area of the Tirukkovila region of Ampara district. Certain parts of the wreck could be seen above the surface of the sea water and those parts had been destroyed by the treasure hunters of the area. From the 10 �information collected from the villagers it was recognized this wreck had sunk in the recent past. Wrecks around Potuvila Komari boiler wreck At four km away from the Komari coast of Potuvila region in Ampara district, this wreck lies at a depth of 8 m. The visibility was poor and as a result only three boilers were found, but later it was observed that the propeller and the rudder were also present. Due to the bad weather conditions we were unable to record any photographs, drawings or surveying regarding this archaeological site. Omari boiler wreck In the region where the above mentioned Komari boiler wreck is situated, about five km away from Omari coast line this wreck was found. Photography recording and drawing sketches were done here. The bow of the wreck is located at 7 m depth, and the stern lies at a depth of 18 m. During the exploration facts regarding the three boilers were identified and parts of the wreck were scattered over a large area. Unfortunately many parts were greatly destroyed. Maritime Archaeological activities around Muhudu Maha Viharaya in Potuvila The major objective of the exploration during the 20th to 24th of August 2012 was to discover facts regarding the Buddhist archaeological ruins of the religious place “Muhudu Maha Viharaya” which was considered to have sunk in the sea. There, from folk stories related to this fact it appears that at a certain period ‘Buddha statues’ and other architectural items could be seen above the surface of the sea. Therefore our team was in a hurry to dive in this area. Another story of the area tells us that the great lady “Viharamaha Devi” had landed on the island from this place. We started our explorations in the hope of verifying the truth or falsity of these stories (Weerakatiya, 2011: 1-10). Experimented Region The Experimented Regions were decided by the initial diving done before the explorations. And this region was 11 Fig. 4 Exploration team-1. (W. M. Chandraratne) �located 400 meters away from the temple to the east and 500 meters away from the coast line in the shallow sea. The depth of the region was between five and seven meters. The area consisted of huge rocks. The wind was blowing from east to west. Throughout the exploration, a rough nature could be seen in the sea. This roughness was increased in this region because of the stone pillars lying in the area. Method The simplest method used here was snorkelling and duck diving using the equipment we had in the experimental region. The basic method of ‘swim- in- line’ and through that duck diving was used. If we got any record of archaeological evidence or identified a place for further experimentation, a buoy was attached to the area. We entered the experimental site after swimming about 500m wearing diving equipment. The areas that were identified by a buoy during the initial snorkelling survey, detailed exploration were then started from that point. There the divers went throughout the site and were able to collect some photographs and videos with ecofacts related to the site. Results After the explorations a few items having architectural value were identified. There was a circular shaped place which was considered to be a man made creation was which was highlighted by a buoy. Much evidence which could be considered as being created by humans was identified by the basic snorkelling survey. In further conservations, these evidences were found to show the shapes of moonstones, balustrade stones as well as bricks which are closely related to the construction of Buddhist temples and their architecture too matches the idea of temple items. Unfortunately, facts or evidence to prove this idea were not found; for those questions further exploration is required. Conclusion The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. Last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011(Fig. 4). The terrorism over the last 30 years finally ended in May of 2009. Maritime archaeological explorations that were 12 �previously limited to the Southern and Western coasts of the Island could now be carried out all over the country. Explorations were carried out in the district of Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara of the Eastern province region between 13th June and 26th August 2012, adopting following 3 steps: Exploration of the Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Ampara Districts. The well trained team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites, such as HMS Diomede wreck, Irrakkandi wreck, SS Lady McCullum, British Sergeant, Pasikuda Boiler Wreck 1, Pasikuda Boiler wreck 2, Batticaloa boiler wreck 1, SS Brennus, Kalmune boiler wreck, Kalmune iron wreck, Akkareipattu boiler wreck, Tirukkovila boiler wreck, Tirukkovila iron wreck, Komari boiler wreck, Omari boiler wreck and 4 underwater archaeological sites (Muhudu Maha Viharaya in Potuvila, Kayankerni Stone Bridge and Swami Rock near the Koneshwaram Hindu Temple) in the region. Acknowledgement Author is thankful to Professor Gamini Adikari, Director General, Central Cultural Fund, Department of Culture and the Arts for encouragement and guidance and to the excavation team of the Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka for their support and cooperation. References Clerk, A., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Treasure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York, p. 200 Karunarathna, M., 2013. New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka. In Punkalasa - National Archaeological Symposium 2013, Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage, Sri Lanka, Colombo: 217231. Mahawamsha. 2004. Buddhist Cultural Centre, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. Panabokke, C. R., 1996. Soils and Agro-Ecological Environment of Sri Lanka. Natural Resources, Energy, Science Authority, Colombo. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the two decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit 1992-2013. "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium, Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle: 3-5. 13 Maritime �Silva, R., and Ariyaratne, P. A., 2007. The Natinal Atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department of Sri Lanka, Colombo. The Ceylon Observer. (September 28, 1908). Weerakatiya, Y., 2011. Mahaurumaya (in Sinhala). Tilak Printers Ltd, Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: 01-10. Biography W. M. Chandraratne (b. 1968), working as a Research Officer of Maritime Archaeology and Officer- in- charge of the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka since 1994. He has participated in several workshops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 20 research articles both in reputed local and international journals. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An Investment for the Future: Maritime Archaeological Explorations in the Post-War regions of the Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka Description An account of the resource The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Central Cultural Fund (CCF) is actively involved in protecting the UCH of Sri Lanka, since it was founded in 1992. During the last few years essential steps have been taken to develop the infrastructure and the human resources of the unit or just use MAU. Six archaeology graduates who did a special training under the MAU were recruited in 2011. They had gone through series of trainings such as swimming, snorkelling, life saving, first aid and basic diving. They were introduced to the fundamentals of underwater archaeology. They were encouraged to start their post graduate studies and to gain their international diving license, such as PADI or the SSI. After a year of training they were directed to carry out an underwater archaeological investigation along the East coast of Sri Lanka, from 13th of June to 26th of August 2012. The exploration was scheduled at a favourable moment to test their skills and training. The trainees were under the supervision of four senior maritime archaeologists. The north and east parts of the country were rescued after thirty years of terrorism in 2009. More than two years were taken to secure the area from post war hazards such as land mines. For the whole MAU team this was a new experience and an opportunity to search this area after many years. The team uncovered over 16 shipwreck sites and 4 underwater archaeological sites in the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource W. M. Chandrarthne, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1257bc0d9c32ea0e55f0b7a75e208d04.pdf 24a6b748ec4fc4bc38c21eeabc5f0fd6 PDF Text Text Expedient Field Modifications of a WWII Amphibious Landing Craft in Saipan W. Shawn Arnold1 Abstract The June 1944 the United States of America's (USA) invasion of Saipan was the largest amphibious invasion of a Pacific island up to that time. Specialized craft constructed specifically for this invasion were utilized in order to deliver American forces across Saipan’s fringing reefs and lagoons to shore with relative safety. Although these amphibious craft, known as Landing Vehicles Tracked (LVTs), were designed for this particular incursion, the troops operating these vehicles found it necessary to modify their vessels to better suit anticipated combat needs. Modifications of this sort have been termed field expedient armor modifications (Boal 2006). Field expedient armor modifications to LVTs influenced future production designs following the launch of the first model and can be traced through archaeological and historical records. These modifications are demonstrated in an LVT (A)-4 archaeologically recorded in Saipan and are testament to the ingenuity and survival instincts of the crews that operated these machines. Introduction This study focuses on a LVT(A)-4 (Figure 1) located in Tanapag Lagoon, Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CMNI). The aim of this paper is to further understand the significance of amphibious vehicles used during World War II (WWII), particularly in relation to the Battle of Saipan. The advent of amphibious watercraft such as the LVT for use during WWII is directly responsible for saving numerous USA lives. The ability to drive invasion forces through the water, over shallow reefs and deliver them on shore prevented considerable causalities, as it prohibited the invasion force from having to wade hundreds and sometimes thousands of meters across lagoons under heavy enemy fire (Bailey 1986). Unfortunately, these machines have been nearly forgotten through time and have taken a back seat to other technology such as the planes and tanks of the era. 1 Marine Archaeologist, C&C Technologies, shawn.arnold@cctechnol.com �Figure 1. Comparison of an early and late production model LVT(A)-4 (Mesko 1993). The LVT, also known as the amphibious tractor or Amtrac, was the workhorse for USA forces during WWII in the Pacific region. Their unique ability to travel both in and out of the water provided them an advantage other vehicles lacked. LVTs were called upon to perform a wide array of tasks including delivering assault troops to the beach, evacuating wounded, delivering supplies, and acting as mobile command posts and mobile weapons platforms (Croizat 1953). The LVT The acronym LVT and name Amtrac are general terms referring to an amphibious vehicle that is propelled on land and in the water by a tracked propulsion system. Following the military designation LVT is a number, which signifies the production model. An “A” in parenthesis signifies that the LVT is an armored version. The title "armored" can refer to the fact that the LVT in question is covered in armored plates for assault purposes or that it is equipped to operate as a mobile artillery unit. The artillery versions are easily recognizable because they have a large caliber weapon mounted on the top. The LVT was one of the first true amphibious vehicles. These vehicles have a single engine propulsion system consisting of tracks mounted on both the port and starboard sides. The vessel’s tracks mount cleats known as grousers (Figure 2). These grousers act as paddles in order to propel the vehicle through the water and provide traction while crossing reef flats and shoreline terrain (United States Marine Corps Air-Ground Museum 1997). LVTs were constructed of steel and kept afloat by air contained in pontoons on both sides of the vehicle. �Figure 2. LVT grouser assembly (Department of the Army 1951). Carrying capacity and the intended mission of the LVT changed through time and design modifications reflect these changes in LVT manufacture. The versatility of the LVT allowed for the easy adaptation of a wide range of roles in amphibious warfare. The first military production model is known as the LVT-1, which saw its first combat action during the Solomon Islands campaign in 1943 (Croizat 1999). LVTs were intended to only carry cargo to the landing zone once the Marines secured a beachhead; however, because the fringing reef was too shallow for the traditional landing craft to deliver the Marines close to shore, LVTs were used to ferry the invading forces to the shoreline (Croizat 1999). Thus began the LVT’s life as a troop carrier and assault craft. This change in its role affected military doctrine for the remainder of WWII in the Pacific region. Military leaders recognized the potential for the implementation of the LVT as an amphibious assault vehicle from its first combat use (Bailey 1986). Invasion forces added additional machine guns to their existing LVTs and placed orders for more LVTs with pre-mounted weapons (Bailey 1986). As the war continued on, it became apparent additional modifications were needed and the production of diverse special purpose designs commenced. As a result, a definite seriation of LVT design exists from cargo carrier (LVT-1) to armored troop delivery systems (LVT (A)-2 and LVT-4 [Armored Cab]) to armored artillery platforms (LVT [A]-1 and LVT [A]-4, also known as Amphibious Tanks or Amtanks). Interestingly, the people who operated these machines devised ways to improve the LVT with field expedient armor modifications in order to prolong not only their own lives but also the life of their LVTs (Baker 2004). Boal (2006: 5) defines “field expedient armor modifications” as changes made to a vehicle after it has left the production facilities. These improvisations have been documented by historians and are observable on the LVT (A)-4 site in Saipan. Further, these �modifications are the specific focus of this paper in relation to individual and troop action as demonstrated in the archaeological record. Approach Utilizing a holistic approach to explore the use of LVT (A)-4s in the Battle of Saipan, archaeologists set out to identify processes that may have affected this site in order to determine the conditions under which it formed. Muckelroy pioneered site process evaluation for maritime archaeological sites in his book Maritime Archaeology (1978). Since that time others have expanded the method of process evaluation. Ward, Larcomb and Veth. (1999) expand on Mulckelroy’s site formation process model by including environmental, chemical and biological factors. Richards (2002) identifies site signatures that provide researchers with clues to the types of salvage, discard, reuse, scrapping and abandonment behaviors that may have occurred at a site. Gibbs (2006) identifies the importance of the relationships between documentary, archaeological and oral data sets in order to recognize discrepancies. Jung (2009) recognizes WWII wreck site patterns in determining site formation processes on sunken aircraft. Process analysis has not been used previously to evaluate an archaeological site involving an amphibious vehicle. Thus, there is no model for what a salvaged versus un-salvaged LVT should look like, or the signature of a site lost in battle opposed to one deposited in the water post-battle. The amphibious nature of LVTs yields the possibility that the craft my have been catastrophically lost on shore and then discarded in the water. Process analysis has been particularly useful to maritime archaeologists studying historic period sites who often use this method for the purpose of determining site formation where historic records are conflicting or non-existent (Gibbs 2006; Jung 2009). Understanding the various cultural and environmental processes that may have influenced the formation of this archaeological site is key to determining the reason for its location. Site signatures presented in the work of Muckelroy, Ward et al., Richards, Gibbs and Jung were used to determine the nature of the site and the extent of salvage efforts conducted on it. Gibbs’s process model is also useful in relation to pre-impact questions of modification and behavior. The works of Muckelroy, Ward, Richards, Gibbs and Jung as they apply to loss and salvage were used to create a process model (Figure 3) for better understanding the site formation of amphibious vessels. �Figure 3. Process model for Evaluating LVT Sites (Arnold 2010). Historic Research In-depth historical research was conducted concerning WWII in the Pacific islands campaign, and more specifically, amphibious warfare and the use of LVTs. Primary documents concerning the Battle of Saipan describe in detail how forces fought the battle and the terrain troops encountered. Troop movements and obstacles that hindered them are described in numerous historic accounts and in some cases are supplemented by detailed maps (Headquarters Fourth Marine Division 1944; Gugeler 1945; Bartholomees 1948; Adams 1950; Bailey 1976; Croizat 1992). These maps were used to demonstrate the dynamics of the battlefield and how terrain influenced the use of LVTs. This information was used to evaluate possible battle locations near the LVT (A)-4 site in Tanapag Lagoon. Perhaps the most important primary source for understanding potential processes that may have affected this site is the Department of the Army’s Technical Manual for LVT (A)-4s (1951). This manual provides instructions for the LVT’s operation, maintenance, armament and storage, as well as its destruction to prevent it falling into the hands of an enemy. Of particular interest are guidelines for the evacuation and/or destruction of essential parts once an LVT is disabled in combat. After all usable items have been evacuated from the �vessel these procedures go on to include descriptions of how to dispose of the LVT by means of sinking, burning, demolition and gunfire. Works by Alfred Bailey (1976) and Dale Barker (2004) give firsthand accounts of LVT crews conducting field expedient armor modifications to LVTs as preparations before engaging in battles in the Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands, and the Mariana Islands. This information facilitated creation of a list of items to be investigated on the Tanapag Lagoon LVT (A)-4. Pre-Impact Threats, Strategies and Assessments As Identified in the Historic Record In order to clearly demonstrate the need for and use of amphibious landing craft in the Battle of Saipan, it is necessary to first identify the pre-impact threats, strategies and assessments of USA forces. The USA invaded Saipan from the western side of the island (Ministry of Defence 1995), and in doing so positioned itself to intercept Japanese counter attacks and resupply efforts. This decision was based on intelligence reports which gave a good indication that the Japanese fleet was near the Philippines, west of Saipan (Ministry of Defence 1995). Additionally, the USA learned through aerial reconnaissance that Saipan’s western beaches were not as heavily fortified as the rest of the island (Goldberg 2007). Earlier air and naval bombardments eliminated the threat from key areas on the western side of Saipan, such as aircraft standing by on airstrips and large caliber weapons located on Managaha Island. However, the beaches chosen for the invasion possessed a fringing reef roughly 1500 meters offshore of the chosen landing sites. This reef was far too shallow for traditional landing boats to cross and would have left the invading troops completely exposed while walking toward the beach under concentrated enemy fire. The fringing reef and lagoon were not the only challenging features of the terrain. The western beaches contained Japanese fortifications in the form of reinforced concrete bunkers containing artillery and machine guns, as well as dense vegetation further inland. Additionally, range markers were located throughout the lagoon allowing Japanese artillery and mortar crews the ability to rapidly and effectively fire on the arriving USA forces (Adams 1950; Goldberg 2007). These factors obviously influenced the decision to modify LVTs by means of field expedient modifications. Overcoming Threats and Creating Strategies through Technology and Modification The Landing Vehicle Tracked (Armored)-4 (LVT [A]-4) was designed specifically to destroy Japanese reinforced bunkers in response to the pre-impact threat phase of planning the operation (Mesko 1993). The USA air and naval bombardment ceased once the landing vehicles neared the beach. The LVT (A)4s provided the only close-in, large calibre weapons support for troops arriving �behind them (Barker 2004). These amphibious tanks led the way for the waves of landing forces coming ashore. These vehicles had the job of being the first in the line of enemy fire, it is no wonder that the crews operating them chose to modify their vehicles for better protection. Crews learned from previous battles that LVT armor is relatively thin. However, the manufacturer never corrected this weakness due to buoyancy requirements at sea and speed requirements on land set forth by the USA Department of the Navy. It is noted historically that the LVT crews regularly added sheets of steel boilerplate to the bows of their craft because the armor was so thin that coral would often puncture it while crossing shallow reefs (Barker 2004; Mesko 2004). Also documented is the fact that the armor was incapable of preventing small caliber rounds from penetrating to the interior of the vehicle (Bailey 1976). This fact is acknowledged by the adoption of a policy to carry wooden plugs for the purpose of plugging any holes while the vessel was underway (Bailey 1976). The addition of sandbags across the deck added a layer of extra protection for the men inside (Barker 2004). Vehicle modifications were not just limited to the exterior; some crews covered their radios with ponchos and rolled condoms over the microphones as makeshift waterproofing (Barker 2004). Archaeological Investigations The LVT(A)-4 site in Tanapag Lagoon was originaly noted by Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc. (SEARCH) in a survey report in 2008 (Burns 2008). No further archaeological investigation was conducted by SEARCH beyond positive target identification. In July 2009 Students and staff from Flinders University conducted initial site investigations on the LVT (A)-4 to assess the feasibility of including it in a WWII maritime heritage trail. This work was conducted in partnership with not-for-profit organization Ships of Exploration and Discovery (SHIPS), to which the USA National Park Service provided funding through a grant under the American Battlefield Protection Program. Saipan’s Historic Preservation Office (HPO), Coastal Resource Management (CRM), and Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) provided support in the form of survey equipment, boats and personnel. The remainder of equipment and staff were provided through Flinders University. In February 2010 students and staff from Flinders University and SHIPS conducted further investigations at the site. The purpose of this survey was to record the site in detail in order to complete an accurate site plan (Figure 4), record field expedient modifications and possible evidence of salvage as well as gather any additional data that may yield clues as to why this LVT is in its present location. In order to expedite this process, scaled drawings of a LVT (A)-4 were scanned from World War II AFV Plans: American Armored Fighting Vehicles (Bradford 2007). The existing portions of the site were then traced from the images on to Mylar™ and attached to slates so divers could more easily and accurately record what they were seeing. This information was intended to not only record the site in its present condition but also aid with monitoring changes �to the site and its environment in the future. No cultural material was removed or disturbed. Figure 4. Profile and plan view of LVT (A)-4 site. (Arnold 2010). �The LVT (A)-4 is resting at a slight angle in a depth of between 0.6 meters (m) and 3.1m of water on a sandy area between patch reefs in Tanapag Harbour, Saipan. The lower superstructure is mostly intact however the majority of exterior armor plating and superstructure is missing from the upper portion of the craft around the turret. Also missing are the armor track covers and the armor covering of the cab as well as some engine components. Other notable damage includes large, jagged holes in the bow armor and in the ballast area (pontoons) on both sides of the LVT (A)-4. Researchers also noted that modifications were made to this vessel. Archaeological Evidence of Field Expedient Armor Modifications It is reasonable to assume that the crews operating these machines were the first to notice design flaws and set about modifying the LVTs in order to compensate for the lack of armor and armament prior to the amphibious assault on Saipan. These features undoubtedly influenced the design of later production models of LVT (A)-4s. In-depth analysis revealed this LVT possessed many field expedient armor modifications. Both the upper and lower bow had been reinforced with 3/8 inch(inch?) boilerplate. A 0.30 calibre machine gun was added to the cabin at the radio operator’s seat. A steel shield had been welded around the commander’s turret and a pintle machine gun mount was added to the port side of the turret. The modifications of this particular LVT are significant because they reflect the mindset of individuals responding to pre-impact threat processes during WWII. The crews of these vehicles were confronted with difficult missions and design limitations that are reflected in the archaeological record. Extensive field expedient armor modifications for the sake of self-preservation were deemed necessary by LVT crews in order to accomplish the many tasks they faced. Conclusion Following the process model established by Muckelroy (1978) and Richards (2002), the archaeological signature of this site demonstrates that it has been heavily salvaged. There are no loose materials in or around the site and no ammunition of any kind (spent or unspent) was located. The site appears to have been subjected to primary salvage due to the lack of howitzer, machine guns, turret elevation machinery, optical sights, electronic devices and weapons as outlined in the USA Army’s technical manual for LVTs. It is unclear how much, if any, secondary salvage has occurred. To date no historic records have been located that tie this site to any actions of use, disposal or loss. It is reasonable to assume that this LVT was damaged in battle; however the lack of any debris field(s) suggests that this LVT (A)-4 was not damaged at its current location but discarded after salvage efforts occurred elsewhere. �The 1951 Army technical manual (USA Department of the Army 1951) describing the proper disposal of LVTs appears to have been followed. All sensitive equipment and weapons were removed and the vessel was sunk. Although this manual is dated after WWII there was likely to have been an earlier version. The inability to acquire an LVT technical manual preceding 1951 makes it unclear if the disposal methods were set forth prior to, or established as a result of, the Battle of Saipan. The study of field expedient armor modifications, as they relate to the process of pre-impact threat assessments, presents the basis for understanding the degree of modification standardization between units and services, by both the USA and other nations. These modifications have provided insight into the mindset of those operating LVTs and have illustrated a direct influence on the seriation of later production LVT models. A process model for LVT sites enables researchers to quickly and more accurately interpret LVT site formation). Further study of LVT sites will allow archaeologists to develop a site signature for both the catastrophic loss and the deliberate disposal of LVTs. Bibliography Adams, R.E., (ed.)., 1950 Armagnac, A.P., 1945 Arnold, W.S., 2010 Bailey, A.D.M.U.R., (ed.)., 1976 Barker, D.L., 2004 Bartholomees, J.B., 1948 Boal, M.A., 2006 The Operations of Company "B", 715th Amphibian tractor Battalion During the Assualt Landing Of Saipan Island, 15 June 1944 (Personal experience of Company Commander), unpublished manuscript, The Infantry School Fort Benning. "Meet the LVT's: Beach Busters", in Popular Science, 147, 3, pp. 121-124. Investigations in Invasion Innovation; The Archaeological and Historical Study of a WWII Landing Vehicle Tracked in Saipan, master’s thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide. "Alligators, Buffaloes, and Bushmasters: The History and Development of the LVT through World War II", in The History and Museums Division Headquarters, United States Marine Corps, Washington D.C. Hitting the Beaches: The First Armored Amphibian Battalion in World War II (United States Marine Corps), First Armored Amphibian Battalion, Atlanta. Operations of the 773D Amphibian Tractor Battalion (Attached to the 27th Division) in the Operation on Tanapag Plains, Saipan, 7-8 July 1944 (Western Pacific Campaign) (Personal Experience of Battalion Executive Officer) unpublished manuscript, The Infantry School Fort Benning. Field Expedient Armor Modifications to US Armored Vehicles, master’s thesis, Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth. �Bradford, G., 2007 Burns, J.M., 2008 Croizat, V.J., 1953 Croizat, V.J., 1992 Croizat, V.J., 1999 Department of the Army, (ed.)., 1951 Gibbs, M., 2006 Goldberg, H.J., 2007 Gugeler, R.A., 1945 Headquarters Fourth Marine Division, 1944 Jung, S., 2009 Mesko, J., 1993 Ministry of Defence, 1995 Muckelroy, K., 1978 Richards, N., 2008 United States World War II AFV Plans: American Armored Fighting Vehicles (World War II Armored Fighting Vehicle Plans), Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg. Archaeological Survey Of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Site report submitted to Historic Preservation Office, Saipan Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., Gainesville. "The Marines' Amphibian", in Marine Corps Gazette, 37. Across the Reef: The Amphibious Tracked Vehicle at War, Marine Corps Association, Washington D.C. "Battle Honors of the Marine Amphibian II. Offensive Defense", in Marine Corps Gazette, 83. "Tracked Landing Vehicle MK 4 (LVT [4]), Tracked Landing Vehicles (Armored) MK 4 (LVT [A] [4]) and MK 5 (LVT [A] [5])", Department of the Army, Washington. "Cutural Site Formation Process in Maritime Archaeology: Disaster Response, Salvage and Muckelroy 30 Years on", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 35, pp.4-19. D-Day in the Pacific: The Battle of Saipan,Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Army Amphibian Tractor and Tank Battalions in the Battle of Saipan 15 June-9July 1944, unpublished manuscript, 1st Information and Historical Service. Fourth Marine Division Operations Report Saipan: 15 June to 9 July 1944, declassified document, Fort Leavenworth. "Site Formation Process (Wing Inversion) at Catalina Flying Boat Wreck Sites Lying in Roebuck Bay, Broome, WA", in Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 33: (19-31). AMTRACS in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., Carrolliton. The South-East Asia Operations and Central Pacific Advance, Ministry of Defence, London. Maritime Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Ships' Graveyards: Abandoned Watercraft and the Archaeological Formation Process, University Press of Florida, Gainsville. The Alligator Amphibian, American Society of Mechanical �Marine Corps Air-Ground Museum, 1997 Ward, I.A.K., Larcombe, P., and Veth, P., 1999 Engineers International, Quantico. "A New process-based Model for Wreck Site Formation", in Journal of Archaeological Science, 26, 5, pp. 561-570. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3f124e1adf8bd7864425d468ce554883.jpg 6aeff8f62930952a26fceae6b4c20e94 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 760 Height 575 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Expedient Field Modifications of a WWII Amphibious Landing Craft in Saipan Subject The topic of the resource Session 1: Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource The June 1944 the United States of America's (USA) invasion of Saipan was the largest amphibious invasion of a Pacific island up to that time. Specialized craft constructed specifically for this invasion were utilized in order to deliver American forces across Saipan’s fringing reefs and lagoons to shore with relative safety. Although these amphibious craft, known as Landing Vehicles Tracked (LVTs), were designed for this particular incursion, the troops operating these vehicles found it necessary to modify their vessels to better suit anticipated combat needs. Modifications of this sort have been termed field expedient armor modifications (Boal 2006). Field expedient armor modifications to LVTs influenced future production designs following the launch of the first model and can be traced through archaeological and historical records. These modifications are demonstrated in an LVT (A)-4 archaeologically recorded in Saipan and are testament to the ingenuity and survival instincts of the crews that operated these machines. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource W. Shawn Arnold Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Event and Process in the Founding of Japan: The Horserider Theory in Archeological Perspective Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Walter Edwards Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Summer, 1983 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Walter Edwards Item Type Journal Article DOI 10.2307/132294 ISSN 00956848 Access Date 2009-02-08 07:19:31 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Summer, 1983 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: Summer, 1983 / Copyright © 1983 The Society for Japanese Studies Issue 2 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 265-295 Publication Title Journal of Japanese Studies Short Title Event and Process in the Founding of Japan Title A name given to the resource Event and Process in the Founding of Japan: The Horserider Theory in Archeological Perspective URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/132294 Volume 9 China Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d03b1430702bee611b268707b868c420.pdf c07b2b3455c1fe1782e96bee932e3831 PDF Text Text 1 Conservation Research and Treatment Programs: Case Study of Ancient Boat Site in Rembang Regency Waluyo Agus Priyanto1 Abstract th The ancient boat was made around the 7 century A.D. It was found on July 26, 2008 at 07.30 p.m. at Punjulharjo Village, Rembang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. The boat site is covered by soil as deep as two metres and is located at the southern of coastline with a distance of 0,5 to 1 km. When the ancient boat was found, the shape of the boat was still intact. Size of the boat is 15 metres length and 5 metres width. Not only the shape is relatively intact but also the disclosure of data of the archipelago's unique technology could be held within this boat that was almost complete. Tambuku is the type of palm fibre rope, pegs was used in the boat and other components that have never been encountered before is really a remarkable data essential for the development of maritime archaeology, especially in Indonesia. The ancient boat has important value for history, science, technology, and culture. As an important cultural asset and potential, its existence must be well managed and sustainable by optimizing in situ conservation. Conservation research should be conducted to identify the ancient boat such as the kind of materials for making a boat, condition of boat materials, the site condition of the boat, and environmental condition. Conservation method should be based on the results of diagnosis in the laboratory as well as in the field. In situ conservation is another important approach to preserve the ancient boat, which simultaneously give positive impacts to tourism aspects and development to the region. 1. Introduction The finding of an ancient boat found on July 26, 2008, in the Punjulharjo Village, Rembang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia has significant value for the history, science, technology and maritime State of Indonesia. The condition of the boat is that it is still relatively intact and shows characteristics of the archipelago boat in terms of materials, shapes, sizes, and technology. Radiocarbon dating tests were conducted in 2009 at the University of California on the sample of fibers used as a binder of boat parts and indicate the boat is aged to approximately 660780 AD (Siswanto, et al. 2010). Rembang Regency is located in the north eastern part of Central Java Province, latitude is 111 °, 00 '- 111 °, 30' E and 6 °, 30 '- 7 °, 00' S. It is a very complete topography of coastal areas, lowlands, highlands and mountains, the soil type consists of Mediterial, Grumosal, Alluvial, Andosal 1 Directorate of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Directorate General of History and Archaeology, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Indonesia �2 and Regasal. Rembang Regency has an area of 1014.08 km2, and flanked on the north Java Sea and the North Kendeng Mountains in the south (Kusumastuti, et al. 2010). Location of the ancient boat is about 0,5 to 1 km at the southern coastline. The main ingredient of the ancient boat components are the hardwood materials. The nature of the properties of the wooden materials are derived from living things. It has a fibrous and cellular structure composed of cellulose, lignin, resins, sugar and some other hydrocarbons, that can be categorized as organic materials. As a solid matter, it has many pores and channels in its body, which, in its green state, are mostly filled with water. When freshly cut, wood has plenty of water, it starts drying out it when left in the open air. This loss of water continues until it reaches the stage where the moisture retained is in the equilibrium with the atmosphere. Wood is hygroscopic and as a result its cell walls have the capacity to absorb moisture when atmospheric conditions are wet, and to release it out when conditions are dry. When wood has lost all its free water, which is the water held by its pores and channels, its water content is in equilibrium with the atmosphere. Wood is also anisotropic, which means that the capacity for elongation and shrinking is not the same in the three directions of its cut: longitudinal, radial, and tangential. The unequal gain and loss in these three sides of the wood also result in distortion. Wood stabilizes in moist conditions (Agrawal 1977:9, 72-73). As an organic material, wood normally decays under combined biological and chemical degradation when buried in earth; it may, however, survive prolonged exposure to extreme dryness or wetness. In shipwreck sites, the wooden components of the hull and small artifacts of wood often survive in good condition, albeit thoroughly waterlogged. Successful conservation of wooden artifacts is dependent upon one’s knowledge of wood structure and types. Trees are divided into two broad categories: hardwoods and softwoods. Hardwoods are classified as angiosperms, which refers to broadleaf trees which are usually deciduous. Angiosperms are referred to as 'porous' woods because they have vessel pores. In many instances it is equally important that a wooden object’s species type is identified in order to successfully conserve the waterlogged wood. Through the loss of moisture, freshly cut, sound wood will generally experience a radial shrinkage of 3-6 percent, a tangential shrinkage of 510 percent, and a longitudinal shrinkage of about 0.5 percent. Proper conservation treatments can control the amount of shrinkage experienced by waterlogged wood during drying. In practice, a particular conservation technique is often selected because it is known that the treated wood will shrink a desired amount. The manner in which a plank of wood was originally sawn from a log will have an effect on how the plank, or an object manufactured from the plank will shrink (Hamilton 1999 :1,22-24) after undergoing any conservation treatment. In most environments the �3 primary factors for the degradation of wood include: (1) physical action (changes in temperature, fluctuations in relative humidity), (2) insect attack, and (3) fungal decay. Fungal decay can be eliminated as long as the wood is kept in an environment with a relative humidity of less than 65 percent. In anaerobic waterlogged environments, however, wood undergoes profound chemical changes and alterations that result in a significant loss of strength while retaining overall shape. Research activities and conservation planning of the ancient boat is based on national and international regulations as follows: a. According to The Law of The Republic of Indonesia number 11 of 2010 concerning items of Cultural Property especially in the article 76. Article 76 has been mandated in paragraph 1 -3. In the paragraph first it mentions that maintenance is done by conserving of cultural heritage to prevent and overcome the damage caused by natural influences and- /- or human actions. In the second paragraph it also mentions that the maintenance of cultural heritage referred to in paragraph 1 may be performed at the original location or elsewhere, after first being fully documented. In the third paragraph it mentions that the treatment is referred to in paragraph 1 is carried out with the cleaning, preservation, and repairing the damage with respect to the authenticity of the form, layout, style, material, or workmanship of the cultural heritage. b. The In UNESCO 2001Convention on The Protection of The Underwater Cultural Heritage, Paris, France comprises of: - Acknowledging the importance of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) as an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a particularly important element in the history of peoples, nations, and their relations with each other concerning their common heritage. - Realizing the importance of protecting and preserving the UCH and that responsibility therefore rests with all States. - Convinced of the importance of research, information, and education to the protection and preservation of UCH. - Convinced of the public’s right to enjoy the educational and recreational benefits of responsible non-intrusive access to in situ UCH, and of the value of public education to contribute to awareness, appreciation and protection of that heritage. c. According to the first article concerning the fundamental principles in the ICOMOS Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage (1996), Sofia, Bulgaria it mentions: - The preservation of UCH in situ should be considered as a first option. - Public access should be encouraged. - Non-destructive techniques, non-intrusive survey and sampling should be encouraged in preference to excavation. - Investigation must avoid unnecessary disturbance of human remains or venerated sites. - Investigation must be accompanied by adequate documentation. �4 2. Materials and Methods The artifact of the ancient boat at Punjulharjo village is a very important cultural heritage and it is the object of cultural heritage that must be protected. Therefore, the ancient boat Punjulharjo Site should be developed into a maritime cultural landscape area to be conserved and used for fertilization of national pride and character development of the nation, as well as the public welfare. In order to get a better understanding of degradation and deterioration problems of the ancient boat, a thorough intensive investigation has been conducted, both in the field as well as in the laboratory. In situ observations were made to study the types of deterioration agents that could be visually observed. To determine the type of material making of the ancient boat should be conducted laboratory research. The materials and equipments required to research are: Chemicals: PEG 400 and 4000, aquadest, Ethanol, Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid (EDTA). Tools in the field: Thermohygrometer, pH meters, salinity meters, scalpel. Tools for conservation experiment in the laboratory: Scales, tray, soaking tub, shaker, pH sticks, hot plate with stirrer, glassware and so on. In the conservation research of the ancient boat in Rembang Regency, the following procedures of work will be done: 1. Field observations a. Observation of the environment Observations carried out on soil environment, and water. b. Climate measurements. c. Observation of the damage level and deterioration boat. Direct observation should be done on the object and recorded the damage that occurs and the factors that influence it. d. Sampling Soil and wood materials should be taken for further analysis. 2. Laboratory experiments a. Cleaning wood samples Wood samples have been taken are grouped according to estimates by type of wood. Each timber is cleaned with caution because the condition is very soft. Cleaning is done with plain water assisted by hand and brush. b. Desalination sample Clean samples that have been soaked in fresh water to remove salt dissolved. In order to the end result does not change the color of the wood, then the samples were stored in EDTA solution. c. Chemical test for wood dimension stabilization The chemical used is a Polyethylene Glycol (PEG). The reason of using the PEG in the experiments, because it is the most effective result over other materials. Variations in the concentration of PEG 400 �5 usage was 20%, 30%, 40% (Cahyandaru, et al. 2010), and continued by PEG 4000 on the outer layer of the wood. Research on the effectiveness of the use of PEG 4000 is still ongoing at Borobudur Conservation Research Laboratory, Magelang. 3. Results and Discussion The results of microscopic tests conducted by the archaeological office in Yogyakarta and the Faculty of Forestry Gadjah Mada University on the structure of ancient boats have identified three types of wood Scorodocarpus borneensis, Palaquium javense, Eucalyptus alba, and the rope fibers. The field test results indicate waterlogged wood in visually fragile condition. Fragile condition can be observed directly as the hardness of the wood components are relatively low. This was tested by the pressure of our thumb nails showed deep imprints; as well as the bond between a loose wood fiber. It is indicated by wooden damage that are cracked, broken, and split (Suranto 2010). There are two main factors of degradation and deterioration processes on the components of the ancient wooden boat that it was due to the influence of internal and external factors: a. Internal Factors Natural properties of waterlogged wood include the material quality and structure of the wood. This will determine the resistance of the object's interactions with environmental factors. b. External Factors External factors are environmental conditions where underwater archeological remains are located, both for still being in sea water and having been excavated (Cahyandaru, et al. 2010) Based on the process, the degradation that occurs on the waterlogged wood can be grouped into four: the process of mechanical damage, physical damage, chemical deterioration and biotic deterioration. Fluctuations in humidity and temperature can cause both chemical and biological damage. Fluctuations of humidity can cause the dissolution of salts, and high temperatures can cause rapid chemical reactions. Moisture can accelerate chemical reactions that cause the decomposition of organic material, especially an ancient boat. The ancient wooden boat has long been submerged in salt water, soaking of the boat has been going since the seventh century. As a result of soaking the wood moisture content increased even reaching the watersaturated conditions. Water saturated conditions lead to the development dimension and the timber having the water volume at maximum levels, even reaching the level of swelling of the wood. Swelling of the wood until it reaches maximum volume indicates a disintegration of the wood components. Disintegration of wood �6 components take place at various levels, both at the tissue level, cellular, and in the level fibrils, even at the chemical level. Disintegration of wood components will carry consequences for the form of wood that has been missing all the basic properties of wood. Its chemical properties, physical properties, mechanical properties, and natural durability properties have been degraded so that the trait has been detached from the timber, unless the nature of the structure still exists (Suranto 2010). Disintegration at the tissue level can be seen from the presence of cracks, breaks, and even splits on various timber for boat preparation. For example, a part of the timber separated from the ancient boat. Disintegration at the cellular level can be seen from the fragility of wood in the longitudinal direction on a variety of wood making up the boat. Disintegration at the level of the chemical can be proven through further research activity of organisms to analyze the chemical properties of wood using the equipment in the laboratory. More generally, the disintegration of the chemical components of wood can be seen from the texture of wood. Wood that has disintegrating components can be seen in acute texture, namely that the wood does not have the ability to reflect light again, the wood is not shiny. In other words, the timber as part of the components of the boat looked bleak (Suranto 2010). Based on the above data, the right technology for the handling of an ancient boat in Rembang Regency is the technology of preservation and dimensional stabilization of wood technology. The growth of fungus appeared in the field observations. Fungus is microorganism that have no chlorophyll and so can not make their own food. Therefore to survive it rides on other living things, in this case a boat whose condition is already fragile as a medium for the growth of fungi. Hyphae into the wood fiber so that the wood becomes softer. Marine worms is a marine borer organism that can degrade the quality of wood to be softer. Based on the results of laboratory tests conducted by the Centre for Conservation of Borobudur, Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia in 2010 are as follows. Based on field measurements showed the following results i.e: outside temperature. 24,8ºC (at 6 a,m) -31,4(at 11.30 a.m), outside humidity: 59 -85%, wind speed 1,6 -27,4 km/h, in temperature 24,8 ºC 34,5 ºC. While based on the results of laboratory studies on the water content of wood before treatment is equal to 326%, after immersion in PEG 20% moisture content to 106%, after immersion of PEG was increased to 30% moisture content to 54%, and levels of immersion in PEG 40% moisture content to 18% as an equilibrium moisture content. Its experiment of immersion duration is four weeks. �7 Table 1. The observation of the condition of the wood components of an ancient boat.(Kusumastuti, et al. 2010) No. Parameter Results 1. Fungi 80% 2. Crack > 30% 3. Humidity 100% 4. Hardness Very soft No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Table 2. The results of chemical analysis of soil samples (Kusumastuti, et al. 2010) Parameters are Samples analyzed (%) S1 S2 SiO2 89,30 77,63 Ca 1,60 1,60 Mg 1,46 1,95 Al 2,58 2,49 Fe 1,79 1,34 SO4 3,07 3,07 Cl 0,79 0,99 Remarks: S1: grayed soil samples S2: yellowish soil samples Results of measurements of soil permeability indicate that the soil around the boat has a -3 -5 low permeability with rate speeds of between 10 - 10 is in the form of fine sand. Table 3. Salt content of wooden components on an ancient boat (Kusumastuti, et al. 2010) No. Phase Salinity pH Temperature Remarks Sea water >1,641 ppt Chemical analysis 1 1th Desalination Process 1,641 ppt 7,67 20 ºC 2 3 4 5 6 7 2nd 3th 4th 5th 6th Tap water 1,517 ppt 1,045 ppt 427,3 ppm 326,8 ppm 276,1 ppm 239,6 ppm 6,18 6,90 6,59 6,90 6,65 6,51 Salinity meter 24,2 ºC 22,7 ºC 24,4 ºC 24 ºC 24,9 ºC 24,8 ºC Therefore, treatment programs of ancient boat should be done by the following method: �8 a.Desalination Desalination should be done, because the wood in the sea water contains very high levels of salt. Salinity can disrupt the process of conservation, if not removed. Desalination process is carried out by immersing the waterlogged wood in plain water or mineral-free water. Soaking is done in stages with running water, so that the soluble salts can be removed from the soaking tub. Desalination is done until the soaking water is not saline. Salinity can be monitored with a measurement tool or with the analysis of levels of chloride Cl ). The most damaging salt is sodium sulfite. b.Cleaning Cleaning is done simultaneously with desalination. During the cleaning, water continues to flow so it carries away salt impurities. Common impurities in the waterlogged wood is soil / mud, sand and other impurities. Impurities in the form of soil or sand are relatively easy to clean manually. The surface is very soft wood and because of this during cleaning one should use a soft tool like a paintbrush. Careful cleaning by hand can also be done because the surface of the skin of the hands can touch and feel the part that is still dirty, and the required pressure level can be set with professionally attuned touch. Wood is often found under the sea overgrown with corals and marine animals (sea crabs, marine worms). Corals are extremely hard, harder than artifact. Therefore, in situ cleaning of the wood must be done manually with caution. The use of chemicals can harm the object if not careful. Manual cleaning is assisted by means of a scalpel, needle, taper pliers, small hammer and others in a very careful manner so as to not damage the object. c.Impregnation and Stabilization The process of impregnation and stabilization is needed in the conservation of waterlogged wood in situ. Impregnation is the process of inserting chemicals into the cell structure of wood so that it is filled by the chemical and free water pushed out from the cell, so the wood becomes more stable. The chemical used is Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) 400 as well as 4000 with the formula H2OCH (CH2OH2) CH2OH. Before implementation of soaking one must first prepare a watertight soaking tub. Due to high cost for ancient boat conservation at this moment their is limited state budget in Indonesia to make and appropriate shell or soaking tub for the boat. So the chosen alternative is in situ conservation, because to transfer the object to another place to make the shell is very expensive. Besides explanation above, in 2011 will be made the preparation of Master plan of Ancient boat sites and Area Preservation and Development Punjulharjo surroundings. Master plan preparation purposes is an ancient boat handling, and preparing the Grand Design Museum Ancient Boat Punjulharjo. This activity will be conducted by Regional Government of �9 Central Java Province, Indonesia in the three terms level i.e. short term, medium term, and long term. 4. Conclusions Based on experiments that have been done in order to conserve the ancient boat in Rembang regency can be summarized as follows: a. Water affects the condition of the boat where it is located on sandy soil with low permeability rates and high salinity. b. The existence of both temperature and humidity fluctuations. Outside temperature is 24.8 °C in the morning and temperature reached until maximum is 31.4 °C at noon. The air humidity showed inverse ratio with the air temperature. If the air temperature increases, then the humidity goes down. c. Results of observations indicate that the condition of the boat is very serious level of damage. The wooden components of the boat is very soft, and it is very suitable as a medium for the growth of fungi. In addition there are also other organisms of fungi namely marine worms (Marine borer). Marine worms is that the longer an animal borer will decrease the strength of the wood itself. Condition of the wood has cracks more than 30%. Wood cracking was evident on the first layer. d. Conservation methods used are desalination, cleaning, impregnation and stabilization. e. Development and utilization of sites Punjulharjo boat is done in three terms: short term, medium term, long term Figure 1. Condition of the ancient boat on November 2008, by Waluyo Agus P. �10 Figure 2. The boat was covered by wet cotton flannel. This photo was taken by Waluyo Agus P. on the last September 2011. Figure 3. Environment of Punjulharjo ancient boat site on the last September 2011. It was taken by Waluyo Agus P. 5. Bibliography Agrawal, O.P., 1977 Cahyandaru, N., Swastikawati, A., Brahmantara, Kusumawati, H., Atmaja, Y., 2010 Conservation and Preservation of Museum Objects, National Research Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Property, New Delhi, pp.72-76 Laporan Hasil Kajian Konservasi dan Konsep Pengembangan Perahu Kuno Rembang, Balai Konservasi Borobudur, Magelang, Jawa Tengah, Indonesia �11 Methods of Conserving Archaeological Material from Underwater Sites, Conservation Research Laboratory, Center for Maritime Archaeology and Conservation, Texas A & M University. Charter on The Protection and Management of ICOMOS, Underwater Cultural Heritage. 1996 The Law of The Republic of Indonesia number 11 Kemenbudpar, of 2010 concerning items of Cultural Property, p.58. 2010 Kusumastuti, H., Hasil Sementara Studi Konservasi Terhadap Wahyuni, S., Perahu Kuno Rembang, Varuna Jurnal Arkeologi Atmaja, Y., Bawah Air, Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air, 2010 Direktorat Jenderal Sejarah Dan Purbakala, Kementerian Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata, Indonesia. Siswanto, Abbas, Ringkasan Hasil Penelitian Situs Perahu N., Punjulharjo, Kabupaten Rembang, Varuna Jurnal 2010 Arkeologi Bawah Air, Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air, Direktorat Jenderal Sejarah Dan Purbakala, Kementerian Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata, Indonesia. Suranto, Y., Sumbangan Pemikiran Bagi Penanganan Perahu 2010 Kuna Punjulharjo Rembang, Varuna Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, Direktorat Peninggalan Bawah Air, Direktorat Jenderal Sejarah Dan Purbakala, Kementerian Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata, Indonesia. Covention on The Protection of The Underwater UNESCO, Cultural Heritage. 2001 Hamilton, D.L., 1999 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Conservation Research and Treatment Programs: Case Study of Ancient Boat Site in Rembang Regency Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource The ancient boat was made around the 7th century A.D. It was found on July 26, 2008 at 07.30 p.m. at Punjulharjo Village, Rembang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. The boat site is covered by soil as deep as two metres and is located at the southern of coastline with a distance of 0,5 to 1 km. When the ancient boat was found, the shape of the boat was still intact. Size of the boat is 15 metres length and 5 metres width. Not only the shape is relatively intact but also the disclosure of data of the archipelago's unique technology could be held within this boat that was almost complete. Tambuku is the type of palm fibre rope, pegs was used in the boat and other components that have never been encountered before is really a remarkable data essential for the development of maritime archaeology, especially in Indonesia. The ancient boat has important value for history, science, technology, and culture. As an important cultural asset and potential, its existence must be well managed and sustainable by optimizing in situ conservation. Conservation research should be conducted to identify the ancient boat such as the kind of materials for making a boat, condition of boat materials, the site condition of the boat, and environmental condition. Conservation method should be based on the results of diagnosis in the laboratory as well as in the field. In situ conservation is another important approach to preserve the ancient boat, which simultaneously give positive impacts to tourism aspects and development to the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Waluyo Agus Priyanto Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/49930b45db7e90226999b355c41c2ed9.pdf fa7982c3988e4735ab59b2773cb3c268 PDF Text Text The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect Wen-Yan Chiau (National Taiwan Ocean University & National Sun Yat-sen University, Chair Professor; Apconf-5, liaison for Taiwan) Email: chiau0717@gmail.com ABSTRACT In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in 2015 Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA). Although the law has been in force for seven years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and the raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. It is believed that the experience of Taiwan may serve as a reference to other countries concerned. Key words: underwater cultural heritage (UCH), Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA), Taiwan. 1. INTRODUCTION In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention), Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA) in 2015. Although the law has been in force for several years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will introduce the recent activities at UCH, illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. 2. RECENT ACTIVITIES IN UCH Since 2006, the Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) of the Ministry of Culture has promoted the “Project for the General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas of Taiwan”. This has included the investigation of waters surrounding the Penghu Archipelago (Pescadores), Green Island, Matsu Islands, Dongsha (Pratas) Atoll, and Taiwan Island. The project has already progressed through four stages of assessing the overall value of UCH in the waters of Taiwan. As of the end of December 2019, a total of 90 specific targets had been found through underwater verification by the underwater archaeology team led by Dr. Cheng-Huan Tsang. Of these, 20 objects have been identified as shipwrecks and other specific target objects. Six of these have complete underwater cultural inventories (Shy 2016; Underwater Cultural Heritage Network 2022). 1 �3. ISSUES IN THE IMPLIMENTATION OF UCHA Taiwan’s UCHA consists of seven chapters and 44 articles. The chapters cover general provisions, rights attribution and international cooperation, activities directed at UCH, in situ preservation of UCH, excavating out of the water, penalty provisions, and supplementary provisions (Kuo et al 2017). The Act was adopted in 2015 and amended in 2022 with minor revisions. Although the law has been in force for several years, it has not yet been fully implemented. The key issues are summarized as follows. 3.1 Enforcement capacity of competent authority Article 2 of the UCHA clearly stipulates that “the competent authority of this Act is the Ministry of Culture (MOC).” Operationally, its subordinate agency – BOCH – is the responsible authority for day-to-day management. Under the BOCH, there are four divisions and a research institute. Of these, the “Underwater Cultural Heritage Section” of the “Division of Antiquities and Archaeological Sites” is the body that is responsible for all relevant UCH affairs (BOCH 2021). However, the BOCH is essentially a land-based authority that is located in downtown Taichung in the City of Taiwan, and it is without any vessel or port facilities for enforcement of the UCHA. In addition, the BOCH is also in lack of underwater archaeology professionals due to the limitation of budget and manning quotas. 3.2 Establishment of the national UCH research institute Taiwan has long anticipated the establishment of a research institute dedicated to UCH. Referring to similar foreign cases (e.g., the National Research Institute of Maritime Culture Heritage (NRIMCH) in Mokpo, Korea (UNESCO 2023); the Department of Underwater and Marine Archaeological Research (DRASSM) in Marseille, France (Ministère de la Culture 2023), Article 7 of the UCHA stipulates that the BOCH may “designate” a dedicated organization for the preservation of and research on UCH. However, UCH is a new concern for Taiwan and as yet there is no such research institute. In this regard, the former legislators Wen-Yan Chiau and Yi-Hua Lin proposed an amendment bill to amend Article 7 of the UCHA to say: “The competent authority may ‘establish’ or designate a dedicated organization for the preservation of and research on underwater cultural heritage, to perform any necessary investigation, research, excavation, restoration, education, promulgation, international cooperation, and other activities with respect to UCH.” This amendment bill was passed on 15 November 2022 (Liberty Times 2022). Even with the legal support, the establishment of national UCH research institute still needs more supports from the central government. 3.3 In situ preservation and UCH protection zones Echoing the spirit of the 2001 Convention, Article 27 of the UCHA expressly stipulates that “the preservation of UCH in situ shall be the first option considered, before any activities directed at this heritage are allowed or commenced.” Further, the proper means for in situ preservation may include record management, protection zones, or other proper preservation measures. When the review committees decide that it is necessary to designate a specific UCH protection zone, according to Article 28 of the UCHA, the BOCH should consult with the relevant authorities to designate and publicize it within the relevant area to preserve the UCH in situ. To allow for public engagement, Article 28 also stipulates that the authority should hold a public hearing or explanation session inviting civilians or groups with an interest in the area to attend. Since Taiwan still does not have a UCH protected area, it is necessary to learn from countries that ratified the 2001 Convention some time ago, in planning and management matters in the future. 2 �3.4 Conditions for UCH excavation In principle, the UCH should not be removed from the water. Pursuant to Article 34 of the UCHA, exceptions are limited to the following situations: (1) the UCH is related to the historical status or recognition of the nation; (2) if the UCH were absent, it could preclude a full understanding of human history; (3) the UCH is of substantial commercial value that could not be protected without removing it from the water; (4) excavation is necessary for investigating and conducting research on the UCH; (5) the UCH could not be sufficiently preserved, protected, or managed without being removed from the water because of an emergency or changes in the existing environment; (6) other situations in which the competent authority deems it necessary to remove the UCH from the water. When excavation is to be undertaken, pursuant to Article 35 of the UCHA, a preservation and maintenance plan for the UCH should be proposed at the same time. In this plan, “nondestructive technology and survey methods should be used preferentially.” In addition, people with expertise in underwater archaeology, underwater operations, and preservation science should collaborate to design the measures for the excavation or emergency response. For more than a decade, nevertheless, the UCH affairs in Taiwan have focused on general surveys, and there are still no plans to excavate UCH from its waters. Many opportunities for UCH research and presentation were missed due to the overly conservative mentality of officials, lack of largescale funding, and the expansion of in-situ conservation to a no-excavation concept, which made it difficult to excavate. 3.5 Public education on UCH Article 12 of UCHA stipulates that “the competent authority shall promote the underwater cultural heritage education at each level of school. After consulting the Ministry of Education, the competent authority shall stipulate regulations related to the implementation and encouragement of the aforesaid education.” Although the authorities have organized many popular science exhibitions, special lectures and training of underwater archaeologists in recent years, the promotion of UCH at all levels of schools has not yet been launched. 4. STRATEGIES FOR BETTER PRESERVATION OF UCH In response to the above issues and challenges, a number of strategies are proposed to strengthen the protection of UCH in Taiwan. 4.1 Raising the public awareness on the importance of UCH In addition to the aforementioned education about UCH at all levels of school, it is necessary to raise awareness of the importance of UCH among the general public. The BOCH has held many underwater archaeology exhibitions in recent years, and has also used new technologies such as Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality, which have attracted many people (Tung 2020). However, the popularity of these exhibitions is still insufficient; In particular, in order to properly protect UCH, it is necessary the public understand that underwater archaeology is not treasure hunting, but protection of the common heritage of mankind. 4.2 Involving the stakeholders and designating UCH protected areas The Regulations on Delineation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones are derived from Articles 28, 30, and 31 of the UCHA. Multiple stakeholders (e.g., diving associations and tourism companies) will be highly interested in the nominated UCH waters. Therefore, before designating UCH protection zones, negotiation among stakeholders, nongovernmental organizations, and relevant agencies is essential to 3 �promoting UCH preservation and management. The BOCH already held a first-ever workshop on March 28, 2023 in Green Island, Taitung County on the delineation and management of “Green Island Wreck No. 1”. To win support from the local stakeholders it is recommended that the BOCH organise more workshops, explanation sessions and public hearings. 4.3 Conducting a pilot excavation project of important shipwreck In regards to the multiple purposes of research, restoration, training, education and exhibition, Taiwan needs to go further to identify a valuable shipwreck for excavation. Surely, this activity shall meet the requirements of excavation regulated in Articles 34 and 35 of UCHA. UCH professionals from other countries could initially provide guidance on the excavation projects. 4.4 Facilitating the international cooperation on preserving stone tidal weirs Based on recent investigations, there are approximately 600 stone weirs in the waters of Taiwan, nearly 350 of which are in the Penghu Archipelago (Penghu National Scenic Area Administration 2022; Stoneweir.info 2023). This example of UCH is important because these are included in the project “Indigenous People, Traditional Ecological Knowledge, and Climate Change: The Iconic Underwater Cultural Heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs, ID 180”. This project forms part of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021–2030 (IOC 2021). In this regard, Taiwan is urged to actively participate in this international cooperation project to preserve its abundant stone tidal weirs. 4.5 Establishing the national research institute of cultural heritage Pursuant to Article 7 of the UCHA, the Ministry of Culture may establish or designate an institute responsible for UCH preservation, protection and management. It is believed that this national-level institute can best integrate various research resources, including technologies, professions and budgets. As mentioned earlier, the French DRASSM is a national-level research institute of 50+ years. Equipped with research vessels and many professionals, the DRASSM has participated in various international UCH projects and achieved fruitful results with stable budgets and operations. In 2009, the NRIMCH was established in Korea to promote the country’s maritime culture and exchange research results with other international research institutions or museums. These institutes are all worth referring to as Taiwan establishes its own. In 2022, Penghu County Government entrusted Dr. Cheng-Hua Tsang of the National Tsing Hua University to conduct a project to establish the National Underwater Cultural Museum. The first step is to establish a research institute for the museum. 4.6 Integrating the planning and management of all marine protected areas The marine protected areas (MPAs) is an umbrella name which may include national parks, fishery resource protected areas, national scenic areas, national monuments and marine sanctuaries. However, the administrative jurisdiction of MPAs is scattered among Taiwan's numerous agencies. As the Government is drafting a bill on the Marine Protection Act, there is an opportunity to integrate planning and management of marine protected areas, including natural and cultural heritage. 4.7 Actively participating the international organizations and related meetings Although Taiwan is not currently a member of the United Nations, many laws and policies still follow international treaties and initiatives. UCH is an emerging matter, and Taiwan does not have enough experience in this regard, and needs to absorb the experience of other countries. Therefore, Taiwan should actively participate in international organizations and 4 �relevant meetings and cooperate with other countries or regions to jointly protect the UCH. 5. CONCLUSION In 2015, Taiwan adopted UCHA in accordance with the spirit and intent of the 2001 Convention. The passage and enforcement of UCHA represents Taiwanese determination to preserve, protect and manage this common heritage of mankind. As UCH is a new affair in this country, Taiwan still lacks experience in law enforcement, professional manpower, related technology, protected area designation and underwater archaeology excavation. In particular, better planning and stable funding support are needed for school education at all levels and the establishment of specialized research institutions. Eight years after the enactment of the law, therefore, it is necessary for Taiwan to review its UCH protection performance, learn from countries that ratified the 2001 Convention some time ago, and formulate the steps and projects to promote UCH protection. Bibliography [1] Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture (BOCH), Republic of China (Taiwan) (2021), Organization Chart, https://www.boch.gov.tw/home/en-us/Chart (Accessed 1 April 2023). [2] Kuo, C-C., Liao, C-P., Chiau, W-Y., Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Taiwan: Legislation and Challenges, paper presented at the Third Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 2017. [3] International Oceanographic Commission (IOC), UNESCO, Letter to Dr. Akifumi Iwaqbuchi, Ref.: IOC/VR/21.362/JB/AC/ml, 6 October 2021. [4] Ministère de la Culture, Department of Underwater and Underwater Archaeological Research (2023), https://www.culture.gouv.fr/en/Thematic/Archaeology/Actors-training/Archaeology-services-at-the-Ministryof-Culture/Department-of-Underwater-and-Underwater-Archaeological-Research (Accessed 3 Marc 2023). [5] Liberty Times, Adoption of the Third Reading of the Amendment to the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, the competent authority may establish a dedicated institution, 25 November 2022, https://news.ltn.com.tw/news/politics/breakingnews/4123994 (Accessed on 4 April 2023) (in Chinese) [6] Penghu National Scenic Area Administration, Twin-Hearts Stone Weir, 12 May 2022, https://tinyurl.com/yvfh4nnm (Accessed 25 May 2022) [7]Shy, G-L., The preservation and reuse of underwater cultural heritage, In: Chiau, W-Y., and Huang, H-W., Blue Economy and Marine Conservation, The Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Ocean and Taiwan, 2016, 310-338. [8] Stoneweir.info, The Records of the Stone Weirs, https://stoneweir.info/List?M=CAT001&S=All&P=1 (Accessed 10 April 2023). [9] Tung, Y-Y., A Review of Taiwan’s underwater cultural heritage dissemination works and future prospects, Journal of Cultural Heritage Sep. 2020 (53): 7-26. [10]Underwater Cultural Heritage Network, Taiwan’s Promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) of Ministry of Culture, 2022, https://uch.boch.gov.tw/AboutHeritage/Promote (Accessed 4 April 2023). [11] UNESCO, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-roadinstitutions/national-research-institute-maritime-cultural-heritage (Accessed 28 April 2023). 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 17: The 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ Subject The topic of the resource Session 17 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 17 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect Description An account of the resource In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in 2015 Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA). Although the law has been in force for seven years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and the raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. It is believed that the experience of Taiwan may serve as a reference to other countries concerned. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wen-Yan Chiau Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chiau, Wen-Yan. 2023. “The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Mariano Azna. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1910 Asia-Pac Session 17 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8b42dd9a4a8bf469993b953e6b8fa67b.pdf 729d33e7a75141aec36f66fcaa5c8b84 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 4: Heritage Preservation and the Journey of the Sailing Vessel Free China Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A study on historical evidence and its implications of the “Free China Junk” crew landed Diaoyutai Island in 1955 Description An account of the resource Diaoyutai Islands are a group of islands affiliated to Taiwan. There are many discourses on the sovereignty and legality of claim on the islands. This article firstly introduces the history of Taiwan's only ancient Chinese junk "Free China", describes its tortuous voyage and the process of salvaging it back to Taiwan, and highlights the importance of this cultural heritage. Following that, this research proves with historical evidence that the crew of the ship had visited the Diaoyutai Island in 1955 and to restore its image that it was an are of long held traditions for Taiwanese fishermen to to sail and fish. This article hopes that this historical study will provide alternative views and arguments for the discussion of Diaoyutai sovereignty and related issues from the perspective of cultural heritage preservation, traditional territory and sovereignity themes. The article also discusses the relocation of Free China from the National Museum of Marine Science and Technology (NMMST) to the National Taiwan Ocean University (NTOU) in 2019. Finally, it proposes several suggestions for future study on historic evidences and ship preservation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wen-Yan Chiau Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chiau, Wen-Yan. 2021. “A study on historical evidence and its implications of the “Free China Junk.” crew landed Diaoyutai Island in 1955.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/678 Asia-Pac Session 4 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/42d3bb4331fdaee5225d43ffecac2fac.pdf c7539150aca2cedea33c1749fdf361c5 PDF Text Text Excavation Methods and Results of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea Whan Suk MOON (Visiting Professor, Korea National University of Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT The excavations of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Korea are conducted mainly after surveying the waters where they are found, which is only conducted by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH). Excavation of Sinan shipwreck (1976-1984) was the starting point of academic excavation on UCH. At that time there were no professional divers, technology and equipment, so it was entirely dependent on the support of the Navy (SSU), until the first season underwater excavation of Bianndo at Gunsan (2002). However, from the second season excavation of Biando, when support from the navy became difficult, an excavation team was formed within the NRIMCH to acquire underwater investigation techniques and establish a specialized investigation system. Now its expertise in underwater excavation is improving by operating an exclusive ship for underwater excavation, researching an investigation technique according to the sea environment, and establishing an underwater excavation, conservation, and exhibition system at Taean. Keywords: NRIMCH, underwater excavation, removing mud, Taean site. List of Tables and Figures: Table 1 Summary of method for representative underwater excavations Table 2 Excavation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea (Dec. 31. 2022) Figure 1 Excavation of underwater artifacts by the Navy Figure 2 Exposure status after removing mud INTRODUCTION Academic underwater excavation in Korea has been begun with the excavation of Sinan shipwreck (1976-1984). The discovery of six pieces of Chinese pottery caught in a fishing net served as an opportunity for investigation. No professional divers, technology and equipment existed, which made it entirely dependent on the support of the Navy (SSU), until the first season underwater excavation of Biando, Gunsan (2002). After the second season excavation of Biando, when support from the navy became difficult, an excavation team was organized within the NRIMCH in order to acquire underwater investigation techniques and establish a specialized investigation system. Recently, with operation of an exclusive ship for underwater excavations, research of exploration technique by targeted areas, and establishment of system of underwater excavation, conservation and display of Taean, expertise in underwater excavation has improved. In addition, it reveals new information not indicated in the historical records, which triggered great interest on the underwater excavation. This paper briefly introduces accomplishments of the NRIMCH and how it became the one and only institute specialized in underwater excavations in Korea. UNDERWATER ENVIRONMENT AND EQUIPMENT IN KOREA Underwater environment of Korea The sea of Korean Peninsular has been a place of life and a transportation route to the outside since prehistoric times, in particular, since the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), when the shipping system through the sea route was established, and grains and special products gathered in the provinces were transported by sea or river to Gaegyeong or Hanyang, the capital of the time, rather than land transportation. However, considering the sea conditions of the Korean peninsula, which is high in the east and low in the west, the southwest coast has many islands and reefs are scattered. The current is also fast, causing 1 �many difficulties in sailing. As a result, marine accidents of ships likely occurred frequently. Fortunately, mud flats have developed in the West Sea, which was the gateway to maritime traffic, and has an environment in which the history of our ancestors, the by-products of these marine accidents, can be preserved. However, in the West Sea, where most of the underwater excavations take place, the tidal difference is large, more than 4 meters (m). Underwater visibility is close to zero because the bottom of the seabed is tidal flat, and the current is fast. In addition, the water temperature drops in the winter season from November to April, making diving surveys difficult. Excluding Taean and Jeju, most of the sea areas excavated so far were in adverse sea conditions, where visibility was not secured and currents were fast, requiring investigation only during the platform tide. Excavation equipment and methods The governmental organization called the Underwater Archaeology Division was established in 2007, which made the frames of managing cultural heritage led by the government. Since then, for scientific and systematic underwater excavation, the NRIMCH has secured a Multibeam Echo Sounder and developed the vacuum soil removing system. This suits our underwater environment, it safely collect fine millets from underwater. Excavations are carried out using the Nurian Ship or barge. Table 1 indicates a brief summary of the equipment used for underwater excavation and method for major underwater excavation areas so far. Table 3. Summary of method of representative underwater excavations No. 1 2 3 4 Site Excavation Methods Underwater Conditions Sinan -Iron grid installation: area excavation -Underwater work: Ship Salvage Unit of Navy -Artifact classification: Qurator -Mud discharge method: air lift, etc. -Surrounding survey: Circular -Field of view: 0 m -Tide: 3.5 knots -Average water depth: 23 m Wando -Rope grid installation: area excavation -Underwater work: private divers (veterans participating in Sinan excavation) -Artifact classification: qurator -Mud discharge method: air lift, etc. -Surrounding survey: circular -Field of view: muddiness -Tide: 2-3 knots -Average water depth: 15 m Gunsan Biando -1st excavation: navy (underwater work) -2nd-5th: first self-excavation by the NRIMCH -Survey by area: recovering exposed artifacts (in abandoned waterways) -Field of view: muddiness(>1m) -Tide: 2-3 knots -Average water depth: 16 m Gunsan Sibidongpado -Rope grid installation: area excavation -Underwater work: qurator etc. -Mud discharge method: water jet, air lift -Underwater camera recording, drawing -Lifting a ship using a crane -Field of view:1-4 m -Tide: 1-2knots -Average water depth: 15 m 2 �5 Gunsan Yamido -Rope grid installation: area excavation -Mud discharge method: water jet, air lift, vacuum pump. etc. *Development of vacuum control system for mud Removing (low water depth) -Underwater camera recording, drawing *2006 year: recovering exposed artifacts *2007-09: excavation of re-buried artifacts *Large barge - diving facility, mud removing system, workroom etc. *Survey ship: on-site operation “Seamuse” -Field of view:1-4 m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: >10 m 6 -Rope grid installation: area excavation -Mud discharge method: water jet, air lift, Taean shipwreck -Underwater camera recording, after laboratory drawing *Small barge-diving facility, workroom etc. 7 Taean Mado no. 1-3 shipwrecks -Rope or iron installation: area excavation -Vacuum control system for mud removing -Underwater camera recording, after laboratory drawing *Large barge-diving facility, workroom etc. -Field of view: 2-3 m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: 5-19 m 8 Taean Mado no. 4 shipwreck -Underwater Excavation ship “Nurian (290ton)” *Diving facility, mud removing system, workroom etc. -Field of view: 2-3m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: 17 m 13 Jeju Shinchangri -Small boat-mud removing, diving -3D drawing -Nurian ship: resident support -Field of view: 10 m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: 3-5 m -Field of view: 2-3 m -Tide: 1-2 knots -Average water depth: 12 m RESULTS OF UNDERWATER EXCAVATIONS The results of underwater excavation at each site are summarized in Table 2. [Table 4] Excavation of UCH in Korea (Dec. 31. 2022) No. Site Year Recovered Artifacts 1 Sinan shipwreck 1976-84 22,000 pieces of porcelain, one Chinese trading shipwreck, 28 tons of coins in the fourteenth century 2 Jeju Shinchangri 1980,1983, 1996, 2019-2021 Metal accessories, 1,294 pieces of Chinese porcelains in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries 3 Taean Peninsula 1981-87 About 40 pieces of Goryeo celadons, Joseon white porcelain, etc. 4 Wando shipwreck 1983-84 About 30,000 pieces of porcelains, crew supplies in the twelfth century 5 Jindo shipwreck 1991-92 One Chinese Log shipwreck in the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries 3 �6 Muan Doripo 1995-96 638 pieces of Goryeo celadons with gray inlay in the fourteenth century 7 Mokpo Dalido shipwreck 1995 One Goryeo shipwreck in the thirteenth to fourteenth centuries 8 Gunsan Biando 2002-03 2,939 pieces of Goryeo celadons in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries 9 Gunsan Sibidongpado 2003-04 8,122 pieces of Goryeo celadon, one Goryeo shipwreck in the twelfth century 10 Boryeong Wonsando 2004-05 Celadon incense burner, etc. in the thirteenth century 11 Sinan Anjoado shipwreck 2005 Four pieces of Goryeo celadons with gray inlay, one Goryeo shipwreck in the fourteenth century 12 Gunsan Yamido 2006-09 4,547 pieces of Goryeo celadons in the twelfth century 13 Ansan Daebudo shipwreck 2006 Pieces of shipwreck in the twelfth to thirteenth century 14 Taean Taean shipwreck 2007-08 25,043 pieces of Goryeo celadons, one shipwreck in the twelfth century 15 Taean Mado no. 1 shipwreck 2008-10 940 pieces of Goryeo celadons, one shipwreck in the thirteenth century 16 Taean Mado no. 2 shipwreck 2009-10 974 pieces of Goryeo celadons, one shipwreck in the thirteenth century 17 Taean Wonan Beach 2010 531 pieces of Goryeo celadons in the twelfth to thirteenth centuries 18 Taean Mado no. 3 shipwreck 2011 336 pieces of Goryeo celadons in the thirteenth century 19 Taean Mado 2012 2014 956 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc. 20 Incheon Yeongdeungdo shipwreck 2010, 2012∼13 723 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc., one shipwreck 21 Jindo Myeongryangdaecheop 2012-14 2016-17 2019-21 1101 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc., in the first to twentieth cneturies 22 Taean Mado no. 4 shipwreck 2015 400 pieces of inlaid porcelains, one shipwreck in the fifteenth century 23 Ansan Daebudo shipwreck 2015 76 pieces of Goryeo celadons, one Goryeo shipwreck 24 Taean Dangampo 2017-18 65 pieces of Goryeo celadons 25 Yeonggwang Nakwoldo 2018 30 pieces of Goryeo celadons 26 Taean Mado 2018 2019 159 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc. 27 Gunsan Seonyudo 2022 570 pieces of Goryeo celadons, etc. no. 2 4 �Sinan Site Excavation of Sinan shipwreck took place from 1976 to 1984. This was the beginning of underwater excavation in Korea. The discovery and report of six pieces of Chinese porcelains caught in the fishing net triggered the excavation. At the time, because of the thought that such high-quality celadons could not be recovered from the sea, illegal robbery occurred before the excavation, and in the process of interrogating the robbers who were smuggling, it was recognized that more artifacts were buried, which lead to underwater archaeology excavation. Figure 1. Underwater excavation by the Navy The 11 seasons of excavation projects were conducted for nine years with the support of naval divers. As a result excavations uncovered about 20,000 pieces of porcelains from the Song and Yuan Dynasties of China, 28 tons of coins, and about 1,000 pieces of rosewoods (premium wood) including the ship hull. The weight engraved with Gyeongwonro (Ningbo, Zhejiang, China in today) became the critical resource that identified where the ship was departed. Also, a wooden tablet with the reign of the Yuan Dynasty (Jichisamnyeon 1323), Japanese names, and Japanese temple names were discovered, which was helpful to identify the year of sail and destination. Considering the characteristics of artifacts, the Sinan ship was wrecked near the coast of Korea in 1323 CE while sailing from Ningbo, China to the Port of Hakata in Kyushu, Japan. The excavation of Sinan Shipwreck clarified the shipbuilding technology and trading ships of the medieval times which had only been assumed based on historical records and told us the seaborne trades of East Asia. Taean site Major underwater excavation projects were conducted at the Taean. As a result of the excavations, five shipwrecks and 29,344 pieces of artifacts were discovered. In the waters of Mado, whenever divers went down to the water exposed artifacts are recovered, which helped to set excavation zones for annual excavation projects. In May 2007, after receiving the news of the discovery of Goryeo celadons by webfoot octopus (amphioctopus fangsiao) in Taean Sea, an urgent survey was conducted immediately. As a result, nine pieces of celadon were collected from underwater at a depth of about 12 m and scattered celadon sherds. In order to prevent robbery and damage from fishing activities, as the targeted area was known to the public, it was selected as a cultural heritage protection zone to prevent public diving. Celadons were excavated in 2007 and the shipwreck and relevant artifacts in 2008. In the excavation, Goryeo celadons, which occupied most of the artifacts, were packed with a wooden containers and buffer straw, and wooden tablets written in black ink were also found. We interpreted the records to find out that celadon were sent by someone who lived in Tamjin (today’s Gangjin) and the recipient lived in Gaegyeong. The wooden tablets showed us the production area of celadon, as well as the departure port, the trade relations, the transporter, and the loading units. 5 �In 2009, the excavation of Mado no. 1 shipwreck discovered the cargo tags that recorded the kinds of grains, wooden and bamboo tablets, bamboo products, salted seafood, dried seafood, shipping and departure dates, ports of departure, positions and names of senders and recipients, which indicates the features of the shipwreck and artifacts. The information told us that the Mado no. 1 shipwreck was a transporting ship of the Goryeo Dynasty that collected grains and salted seafood from Haenam, Naju, Jangheung, and Yeongam between the winter of 1207 CE and the beginning of 1208 CE and transported them to the government officials in Gaegyeong. Figure 2. Exposure status after removing mud In the excavation of Mado no. 2 shipwreck in 2010, various types of artifacts were found, including a transporting ship from the Goryeo Dynasty, a celadon prunus vase, grains, wooden products, and bamboo tags that recorded the type and recipient of the cargo. The neck of the vase had a bamboo tag that stated ‘Jung Bang Do Jang Gyo Oh Mun Bu / Taek Sang Jeong Mil Seong Jun Bong重房都將校吳文富/宅上精蜜盛樽封’, which means filled with honey and sealed for Oh Mun Bu, Dojanggyo (low-class government officer) of Jungbang. This told us that prunus vases were called Jun and used to store and transport valuable ingredients such as honey and sesame oil. As a result of excavating the Mado no. 3 shipwreck in 2011, the NRIMCH discovered various artifacts including 32 wooden tags, 28 pieces of porcelains, grains, deer antlers, Korean chess stones, salted seafood, dried seafood, and textiles. This is also a transport ship from Yeosu in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula to Ganghwadoseong (provisional capital during the war with Mongolia). The Mado no. 3 shipwreck is 12 m in length, 8 m in width, and 2.5 m in depth. It is the most well-preserved shipwreck hull including the bow and stern, the sail pole, and the structure that fixes the sail, which provides details of ship structure and the shipbuilding technology of Goryeo Dynasty. In 2015, we excavated another shipwreck at Mado, Taean. All four ships excavated at Taean belong to the Goryeo Dynasty, but 111 pieces of white porcelain of the eighteenth century were discovered right next to them and they were highly likely to belong to the Joseon Dynasty. As a result of excavating the Mado no. 4 shipwreck, it was found that the celadon with gray inlay and the wooden tags indicate the ship was wrecked in the fifteenth century (1417-1421 CE). This is 300 years earlier than white porcelain. We concluded the Mado no. 4 shipwreck was wrecked first and another ship transporting the white porcelain was wrecked later. The wooden cargo tags indicate the port of departure was Yeongsanchang, Naju and the ship transported grains to Gwangheungchang, Hanyang. All excavated shipwrecks of the Goryeo Dynasty had one mast at the center of the hull. The exception is the Mado no. 4 shipwreck, which had mast holes at the bow and center for two sails. Also, the ships of the Goryeo Dynasty had one level of Dangabbul (used to fix the sail), but the Mado no. 4 shipwreck had five levels of Dangabbul on each Garyong (reinforcement material for the outer plank). This shows the robust development of shipbuilding techniques to fix the mast. As a results of broad survey to Mado site, various artifacts such as pottery, anchor stones, and metals 6 �from different eras and countries such as Goryeo, Joseon, Song, Yuan, and Qing dynasties were recovered. What is noticeable is the anchor stones. We have excavated 153 pieces of anchor stones used to anchor the ships. Most stones were natural stones, but three pieces were artificially dressed stones. Dressed stones were anchor stones mostly used in China. Also, we found a large number of porcelains marked Jeong (鄭), Ju (朱), or Gang (綱), indicating the international merchants of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, to show that Goryeo traded with the Song and Yuan Dynasties and prove the historical fact that this sea route was critical for international trade. CONCLUSIONS It has been 46 years since the start of scientific underwater excavation in Korea. With the researcher's active challenging spirits and the full state-led excavation system, it produces great results. In the research, UCH is described as a time capsule that represents specific time and region and provides information not recorded in historical records. NRIMCH is the one and only UCH institute mandated to investigate the waters of the Korean Peninsula, doubling the size of or country, it is still insufficient to meet the demand for research. Deep-sea surveys are still inaccessible, but through training and securing rebreather diving equipment, a foundation is being laid to expand the research area from the coastal waters to the deep seabed. In order to accomplish the goals, it is seeking to acquire deep-sea survey technology through international exchange. In addition, as a four-year project from 2022, the design and field operation of unmanned ASV (Autonomous Surface Vehicles) that detects UCH is being promoted. All of these are expected to serve as a foundation for expanding UCH research efforts, such as the relationship with maritime culture and the investigation of the maritime silk road, beyond discovering the potential UCH of the sea. Bibliography Bowens, Amanda, Underwater Archaeology - The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice 2-10. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2009. Babits, Lawrence and Tilburg, Hans Van, Maritime Archaeology 7-8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Cultural Heritage Administration, Wando Underwater Relics, Seoul: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1984 (In Korean). Cultural Heritage Administration, Sinan Underwater Relics, Seoul: Cultural Heritage Administration, 1988 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Underwater Relics of Doripo, Muan, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2003 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Underwater Relics of Biando Island, Gunsan, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2004 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Underwater Relics of Sibidongpado Island, Gunsan, Daejeon: National Maritime Museum, Daejeon, 2005 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum and Sinan-gun, Anjoaseon Excavation Report, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2006 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum and Gunsan-si, Yamido Island, Gunsan Underwater Excavation Report, Gwanju: National Maritime Museum, 2007 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Wonsando Island, Boryeong Underwater Excavation Report, Gwanju: National Maritime Museum, 2007 (In Korean). 7 �National Maritime Museum, Daebudoseon, Ansan Underwater Excavation Report, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2008 (In Korean). National Maritime Museum, Yamido Island, Gunsan Underwater Excavation Report, II, Seoul: National Maritime Museum, 2008 (In Korean). NRIMCH and Korea Rural Community Corporation, Yamido Island, Gunsan Underwater Excavation･Maritime Cultural Excavation Report, III, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2009 (In Korean). NRIMCH, “Treasure Ship of Goryeo Celadon Ⅰ and Ⅱ” In Daeseom Island, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2009 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado no. 1, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2010 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado no. 2, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2011 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado Waters, Taean Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2011 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado no. 3, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo:, 2012 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Wonan Beach, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2012 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Chinese Porcelain from the Mado of Taean, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2013 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Yeongheungdoseon, Incheon Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2014 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Myeongryangdaecheopro Waters of Jindo, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2015 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Mado no. 4, Taean Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2016 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Daebudo no. 2, Ansan Underwater Excavation Report, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2016 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Korea’s Treasure Ship-Opening a Time Capsule, Mokpo: Gongmyeong Publishing Co., 2016 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Myeongryang daecheopro Waters of Jindo, II, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2018 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Nakwoldo Waters of Yeonggwang, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2019 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Dangampo Waters of Taean, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2019 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Myeongryang- daecheopro Waters of Jindo, III, Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2021 (In Korean). 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Excavation Methods and Results of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea Description An account of the resource The excavations of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Korea are conducted mainly after surveying the waters where they are found, which is only conducted by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH). Excavation of Sinan shipwreck (1976-1984) was the starting point of academic excavation on UCH. At that time there were no professional divers, technology and equipment, so it was entirely dependent on the support of the Navy (SSU), until the first season underwater excavation of Bianndo at Gunsan (2002). However, from the second season excavation of Biando, when support from the navy became difficult, an excavation team was formed within the NRIMCH to acquire underwater investigation techniques and establish a specialized investigation system. Now its expertise in underwater excavation is improving by operating an exclusive ship for underwater excavation, researching an investigation technique according to the sea environment, and establishing an underwater excavation, conservation, and exhibition system at Taean. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Whan Suk Moon Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Suk Moon, Whan. 2023. “Excavation Methods and Results of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in Korea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1928 Asia-Pac Session 2 2023