65 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/350f886b04c6a769c804e263a7084103.pdf 639150c0e38d541f16505be487aa426d PDF Text Text The Past, Present, and Future Regeneration Opportunities of Stone Tidal Weirs - The Case of Taiwan Tung Ying-Ying ABSTRACT Stone Tidal Weirs can be found all around the world and were once an important way for our predecessors to sustain their livelihood through fishing. However, in recent years, due to technological advancements, stone tidal weirs have lost their economic value and many have been left to deteriorate and collapse. Studying stone tidal weirs has become an obscure topic. Nevertheless, stone tidal weirs were an important fishing method for coastal residents in human history, and have had a significant impact on human culture in tangible and intangible ways. Although there are few surviving "live" stone tidal weirs today, as they periodically appear above sea level, they are an underwater cultural heritage that the public can see and access without diving. They are one of the best materials for advocating and promoting education on protecting underwater cultural heritage. Taiwan has many beautifully shaped and numerous stone tidal weirs around its periphery. The government has made significant efforts in subsidizing restoration, cultivating talent for building stone tidal weirs, and researching and promoting education in hopes of preserving Taiwan's precious stone tidal weirs. Local communities and organizations in Taiwan are also making efforts to combine the cultural landscape of stone tidal weirs with tourism, utilizing the unique features of local stone tidal weirs to create diverse new opportunities for reuse. By combining the efforts of local residents and tourists, the shape and good condition of stone tidal weirs can be preserved, and the beauty and fishing culture of stone tidal weirs can be passed down to future generations, allowing them to exist sustainably. Keywords: Stone tidal weirs, fishing, underwater cultural heritage, Penghu List of Figures Figure 1. 2018 International symposiums poster (left), 2023 International symposiums poster (middle), 2021 4th APCONF web site (right). Figure 2 Research results of the Stone tidal Weir investigation provided. by Professor Lee, Ming-Ju. Figure 3 Jibe Stone Tidal Weirs. Figure 4 Research project results list. Figure 5 Publication (left), Media report (right). Figure 6 Xinwu Stone Tidal Weir Story House DB (left), The "Isle. travel” Studio facebook (right). I. INTRODUCTION This article, "The Past, Present, and Future Regeneration Opportunities of Stone Tidal Weirs The Case of Taiwan," is most suitable for the 12th topic of this conference, "Sticks, Stones, & Old Fish Bones: The Role and Cultural Heritage of Fish Weir Traditions in the Asia-Pacific Region." Stone tidal weirs were built by coastal residents in the intertidal zone, where they worked together to construct embankments to trap fish using the ebb and flow of tides. This was a way for the village to share their fishing harvest and a marine life culture. Taiwan has the most stone tidal weirs in the world, with over 574 in Penghu County alone. Some stone tidal weirs can even be traced back over 300 years ago. However, with the development of technology and the introduction of new fishing equipment, such as trawling, stone tidal weirs have easily been replaced in economic value. The decline of stone tidal weirs is a problem faced by all countries around the world. Nowadays, many countries leave their stone tidal weirs abandoned and collapsed. Stone tidal weirs require collective effort to build, maintain, restore, distribute fishing harvests, and manage registrations, but modern people are reluctant to invest labor and funds. Taiwan has numerous stone tidal weirs, many of which are still "live," meaning that they can still catch 1 �fish and are operational. This article explores the decline and revitalization methods of stone tidal weirs in Taiwan, which is in line with the 12th topic of the conference. II. CASE STUDIES The case studies being examined pertain to the many well-preserved stone tidal weirs in Taiwan, which serve as a great example of how proper utilization can not only preserve them but also transform them into new cultural heritages, resulting in a win-win situation. Therefore, we are pleased to share Taiwan's methods for preserving stone tidal weirs, particularly in the face of the issues of revitalization and sustainability. This article explores Taiwan's case studies, which include: 2.1 Accepting the fact that stone tidal weirs are in decline. 2.2 Ways to revitalize stone tidal weirs - Using Taiwan's preservation of stone tidal weirs as a case study. 2.3 Transformation and regeneration of stone tidal weirs. III. RESOURCES 3.1 Data collection: historical records and research reports on the preservation of stone tidal weirs in Taiwan over the years. 3.2 Interviews: scholars who have studied stone tidal weirs in Taiwan and local historians and cultural workers involved in the reuse of stone tidal weirs. 3.3 Policy making and budget allocation: the government's initiatives towards the preservation of stone tidal weirs. IV. FRAMEWORK 4-1 Facing the decline of the stone tidal weirs 4.1.1 The fishing yield is no match for modern fishing The economic benefits of stone tidal weir fishing are poor. The catch difference between stone tidal weir fishing and modern fishing boats is too great. In the past, small fishing boats had poor safety and could not go out to sea in bad weather, so they relied heavily on stone tidal weir fishing. Nowadays, fishing boats are safer and can catch more fish, so residents naturally give up the laborious way of catching fish through stone tidal weirs. 4.1.2 The technology for building stone weirs is gradually becoming lost. The construction of stone tidal weirs requires the participation of a certain number of villagers, and the repair of stone tidal weirs also requires the timing of the ebb tide. Whether under the scorching sun or in strong winds… building, repairing, and patrolling the weirs are all high-labor, outdoor work. It is not the best job option for young people nowadays, and they are unwilling to take over. The lack of inheritance of stone tidal weir construction and repair skills has resulted in a technical gap. 4.1.3 Stone tidal weir fishing cannot become a major job. The return on investment is not proportional, and it cannot become the main source of income for residents, resulting in intergenerational gaps. All declining industries in the 2 �world are due to the development of technology and changes in social lifestyles. Those engaged in the industry cannot obtain sufficient income to support their lives, and therefore turn to developing industries that can provide for their basic needs. The catch from stone tidal weirs is small, and after the investment, no one is willing to invest in the construction and repair of stone tidal weirs again. The decline of stone tidal weirs is an inevitable result of the operation of the times. 4-2 Ways to revitalize the stone tidal weirs 4.2.1 The government values the protection of stone tidal weirs. 4.2.1.1 Value the cultural status of stone tidal weirs and restoration techniques (1). Since 2006 and 2008, the Penghu County Government has successively logged the "Double Hearts Shihu"(雙心石滬 ) (2)and the "Jibe Shihu Group"(吉貝石滬群)(3) as a cultural landscape (Figure 1). In 2009, "Penhu Shihu Group" was selected by the Ministry of Culture as one of the 18 Potential World Heritage Sites in Taiwan(4). In 2010, the Ministry of Culture designated the "Penghu Marine Culture Association - Jibei Baohu Team"(石滬修造技術)(5) as a national cultural heritage preservation and technology preservation group. Since 2015, the Houlong WaiPu Stone tide Weirs group( 後龍外埔石滬群)(6) have been registered as a cultural landscape in Miaoli County. The preservation and maintenance of Stone tide weirs is an important project in the preservation of cultural heritage in Taiwan. The government actively subsidizes the restoration of stone tidal weirs throughout the country and holds local and international symposiums in 2018 and 2023 (Figure 1). In 2021, Taiwan hosted the Asia-Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference, with stone tidal weirs as the main topic (Figure 1). In recent years, the awareness of preserving underwater cultural heritage has gradually increased, and the study of stone tidal weirs has expanded to include the perspective of underwater cultural heritage. Figure 1. 2018 International symposiums poster (left), International symposiums poster (middle), 2021 4th APCONF web site (right) 4.2.1.2 Funding is being allocated to encourage scholars to research and restore Stone tidal weirs. Taiwan has a large number of scholars studying stone tidal weirs, and their research can inspire young students to participate, achieving the goal of passing down knowledge (Figure 2). The government provides funding for repairing damaged stone tidal weirs and hiring personnel for restoration work. Hosting international conferences can help understand the current status of stone tidal weir preservation in different countries, facilitate knowledge exchange, and promote the belief of protecting stone weirs among Taiwanese people. 3 �Figure 2 Research results of the Stone tidal Weir investigation provided by Professor Lee, Ming-Ju. 4.2.2 Research achievements and tourism performance establish confidence. 4.2.2.1 "Taiwan has the world's most densely distributed and beautiful stone tidal weirs. With over 600 households of stone tidal weirs, the ones in Penghu have unique shape and structures such as the fish trap houses(滬屋), which have become a popular tourist attraction due to their stunning and distinctive appearance. The public takes great pride in Taiwan's beautiful stone tidal weirs, enhancing their confidence.(Figure 3) Figure 3 Jibe Stone Tidal Weirs. 4.2.2.2 Teachers from schools located near stone tidal weirs actively participate in research. This encourages students' curiosity and awareness, as well as a culture of research. Such as Tamkangz University(淡江大學) and National Central University(國立中央大學) in northern Taiwan, and Tunghai University(東海大學) investigate Miaoli area. National Penghu University of Science and Technology(國立澎湖科技大學) conducts research on stone tidal weirs in Penghu. Through these research efforts (Figure 4), people gain a deeper understanding of the history of stone tidal weirs, community management methods, interactive approaches, and the unique characteristics of these structures. This 4 �makes stone tidal weirs a familiar and beloved part of our culture. Figure 4. Research project results list 4.2.2.3 The revitalization of stone tidal weirs brings tourism benefits. The largest quantity and most beautiful stone tidal weirs bring local characteristics and tourism benefits to the region. In order to revitalize the stone tidal weirs, young people have returned to their hometowns and combined tourism with innovative ideas to turn stone tidal weirs into new tourist attractions. This has not only created job opportunities for themselves but also brought in tourists to benefit the local community, creating a win-win situation and allowing for the preservation of the stone tidal weirs to continue. 4.2.3 Community involvement creates value for the revitalization of stone tidal weirs. 4.2.3.1 In regions of Taiwan where stone tidal weirs are alive, there is a commitment from local historians and young people to preserve them. including Tamsui(淡水), Sanzhi(三芝), Xinwu(新屋), and Houlong(後龍) in Taiwan island, as well as on the outlying island of Penghu. In addition to the 七美雙心石滬in Qimei(七美)Penghu, Jibe Village in Baisha Township(吉貝白沙鄉), Penghu boasts 116 stone tidal weirs, which are highly concentrated and beautifully shaped, earning it the title of "the land of stone tidal weirs." In these areas, young people have returned to their hometowns and, under the guidance of their elders, work diligently to learn the lost technology of building and repairing stone tidal weirs. They also bring new vitality to the stone tidal weirs through innovative marketing techniques that are unique to their generation. 4.2.3.2 The active reporting and publishing by non-governmental media and NGO are crucial for the preservation and maintenance of local cultural heritage in Taiwan. In addition to government efforts, the involvement of the private sector is the most stable force. NGOs publish various books introducing stone tidal weirs (Figure 5), and major media outlets report extensively on the history and characteristics of Taiwan's 5 �stone tidal weirs(Figure 5), making them more than just a term. Through media coverage of the history and unique features of stone tidal weirs, a strong momentum is created for the promotion of stone tidal weir preservation by the private sector. Figure 5 Publication (left), media report (right) 4.2.3.3 Active promotion of combining tourism with stone tidal weirs to create new economic value. Stone tidal weirs have become a source of pride for local people, and young people are willing to return to their hometowns to revive and operate them. By combining the preservation of stone tidal weirs with tourism, a new way of thinking about stone tidal weir tourism is created, making it possible to turn the preservation of stone tidal weirs into a viable and sustainable occupation. This approach leads to a win-win situation for the preservation of Taiwan's stone tidal weirs and the development of local tourism. 4-3 Transformation and Regeneration of Stone Tidal Weirs It is not only about reviving and preserving the technology of stone tidal weirs, but also about reviving the cultural value of stone tidal weirs that have lost their fishing value, creating new economic value, and transforming them into a sustainable industry. 4.3.1 Xinwu Stone Tidal Weir Story House(新屋石滬故事館)(7) is a converted old Police watchhouse and dormitory building by the seaside, where local cultural and historical workers introduce the history and stories of stone tidal weirs, exhibitions, and local cuisine. The locals are also invited to help restore the stone tidal weirs, which has gained their recognition. In addition, one-day tours and accommodation experiences centered around the stone tidal weirs have been developed, which are highly favored by locals and tourists alike (Figure 6). 6 �Figure 6 Xinwu Stone Tidal Weir Story House DB. (left), The "Isle. travel” Studio facebook(right) 4.3.2 Young people returning to their hometown, Penghu, establishing The "Isle. travel” Studio"(離島出走)(8) bringing an experienced local master to teach them how to build and repair stone tidal weirs while also documenting each step of the process to preserve the precious techniques of the master. Also they organize unique and exclusive stone tidal weir experiences for in-depth travel, setting themselves apart from other travel agencies. Promoting the experience of repairing stone tidal weirs, led by the local stone masters, to rediscover the craft of stonemasonry. By restoring the stone tidal weirs, it awakens people's memories and emotions towards the ocean, and helps them understand the island culture of stone tidal weirs (Figure 6). V. CONCLUSION As human civilization progresses, our way of life has undergone significant changes. With the advent of large fishing vessels, the income generated by stone tidal weirs can no longer compete with that of offshore fishing. As a result, many stone tidal weirs have been abandoned, collapsed, gradually disappearing beneath the sea. Without economic incentives, these stone tidal weirs have ceased to be popular topics of discussion, and many have quietly disappeared. However, in Taiwan, stone tidal weirs face the same challenges but are seen as important historical and cultural heritage. They were vital constructions for coastal communities hundreds of years ago, serving as important hubs for social interactions. Thanks to the efforts of scholars, government support, and active participation from the public, young people are willing to invest in the preservation and revitalization of these stone tidal weirs. They have become not only exclusive terms for seaside communities but also a unique tourist attraction where visitors can experience the traditional practices of carrying and stacking stones and fishing inside the weirs. Through innovation and regeneration, the history and features of these stone tidal weirs have spread across all walks of life, and the young people invested in their preservation have found meaning and value in them. Therefore, the regeneration of stone tidal weirs in Taiwan can be passed down from generation to generation and become a unique landscape feature that protects these historical structures. We hope that Taiwan's stone tidal weirs can become a world heritage list, and other countries can also value their preservation. Acknowledgements 7 �I appreciate the assistance provided by the consultant Rich Giomanni Wan and ChatGPT in translating. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. National Cultural Heritage Website國家文化資產網 https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/cultureOverview(Accessed 3 April 2023). https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/overview/culturalLandscape/20061027000001, National Cultural Heritage Website, "Double Hearts Shihu" logged as a cultural landscape. (Accessed 3 April 2023). https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/overview/culturalLandscape/20080602000001National Cultural Heritage Website, " Jibe Shihu Group " logged as a cultural landscape. (Accessed 5 April 2023). https://twh.boch.gov.tw/taiwan/intro.aspx?id=13&lang=zh_tw#ad-image-0, Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture Website, " Jibe Shihu Group " logged as a cultural landscape. "Penhu Shihu Group" was selected as one of the 18 Potential World Heritage Sites in Taiwan. (Accessed 5 April 2023). https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/overview/ptp/20100630000005, National Cultural Heritage Website, "Penghu Marine Culture Association - Jibei Baohu Team" designated as a national cultural heritage preservation and technology preservation group. (Accessed 8 April 2023). https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/overview/culturalLandscape/20151104000001,”Houlong Waipu Stone Tide weirs group” logged as a cultural landscape. (Accessed 16 April 2023). https://travel.tycg.gov.tw/zh-tw/travel/attraction/1607, Xinwu Stone Tidal Weir Story House Website. (Accessed 5 May 2023) https://www.facebook.com/isle.travel.TW/, "Isle. travel” Studio facebook website. (Accessed 5 May 2023). 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Past, Present, and Future Regeneration Opportunities of Stone Tidal Weirs - The Case of Taiwan Description An account of the resource Stone Tidal Weirs can be found all around the world and were once an important way for our predecessors to sustain their livelihood through fishing. However, in recent years, due to technological advancements, stone tidal weirs have lost their economic value and many have been left to deteriorate and collapse. Studying stone tidal weirs has become an obscure topic. Nevertheless, stone tidal weirs were an important fishing method for coastal residents in human history, and have had a significant impact on human culture in tangible and intangible ways. Although there are few surviving "live" stone tidal weirs today, as they periodically appear above sea level, they are an underwater cultural heritage that the public can see and access without diving. They are one of the best materials for advocating and promoting education on protecting underwater cultural heritage. Taiwan has many beautifully shaped and numerous stone tidal weirs around its periphery. The government has made significant efforts in subsidizing restoration, cultivating talent for building stone tidal weirs, and researching and promoting education in hopes of preserving Taiwan's precious stone tidal weirs. Local communities and organizations in Taiwan are also making efforts to combine the cultural landscape of stone tidal weirs with tourism, utilizing the unique features of local stone tidal weirs to create diverse new opportunities for reuse. By combining the efforts of local residents and tourists, the shape and good condition of stone tidal weirs can be preserved, and the beauty and fishing culture of stone tidal weirs can be passed down to future generations, allowing them to exist sustainably. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tung Ying-Ying Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ying-Ying, Tung. 2023. “The Past, Present, and Future Regeneration Opportunities of Stone Tidal Weirs - The Case of Taiwan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Paul Montgomery, and Bill Jeffrey. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/34ac6c1e58d3d45d3d72a1fc5d7f679e.pdf d159a4b3c2c916039b59f95bd2004ea2 PDF Text Text Ports and Trade Networks of the Tamiraparani Delta of Tamil Nadu V. Selvakumar (Associate Professor, Tamil University) ABSTRACT The deltas of Tamil Nadu in southern part of India have several ports that acted as nodes of maritime networks. Evidence of prehistoric hunter-gatherers is found in the Tamiraparani delta in the red sand dunes of Teri in the form of microliths. In the Iron Age the Tamiraparani region witnessed megalithic settlements with burial sites. The famous urn burial site of Adichanallur is located in this region. Evidence for early historic trade interaction is found at the site of Korkai, which has been identified as the center of the early Pandyan kings. The port of Korkai is discussed in the early Tamil literature and archaeological excavation has revealed evidence for urban activities. In the Medieval period, Kayal became an important port of trade and it is referred to in the medieval textual sources. It was a major center for horse trade and the temple of Tiruppudaimaraudir in the Tamiraparani region has evidence of Arab horse traders in the form of mural paintings. The region is well connected with the Western Ghats and a trade route connecting Kerala and Tamil Nadu region. The main research problem of the paper is to understand the nature, function and foreland and hinterland networks of the ports of Tamiraparani valley. The paper discusses the archaeological evidence of ports of the early historic and medieval periods (Korkai and Kayal) and the maritime networks that connected with these ports using textual and archaeological sources. The data sources are collected from the author's fieldwork, critical study of primary sources and collection of secondary literature. Keywords: Korkai; Indian Ocean Trade; Indo-Roman Trade; Kayal; Horse Trade INTRODUCTION The Tamiraparani delta lies in the southern part of Tamil Nadu, adjacent to the Palk Strait that separates India and the island of Sri Lanka. The Tamiraparani river originates near Agastiyakoodam in the Western Ghats mountains and meets the Gulf of Mannar, which is part of the Bay of Bengal, near the ancient port of Korkai and south of the modern port of Tutukudy/Tuticorin. The Tamiraparani river valley is one of the historically important regions of Tamil Nadu with the evidence of the cultural remains of the Microlithic, Iron Age, Early Historic and historical periods. This paper discusses the ports and trade networks of the Tamiraparani delta mainly in the Early Historic and Medieval periods. ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND The Tamiraparani river valley lies between Latitudes 8º 21’N and longitudes 9º 13’ N; and 77º 10’ E and 78º 15’ E. The river flows for about 130 km towards the east before joining the Gulf of Mannar and it is known as Porunai in the Tamil texts and inscriptions (PAN 2021, 19-23). Tirunelveli, district headquarters in the west, and Tutukudy (Thuthukudy), district headquarters and port in the east, are the important centres located in the river valley. The popular name of the river “Tamiraparani” is known as Tambapanni in Prakrit language, and is cognate with the name of Sri Lanka, which is referred to as Tambapanni in the inscriptions of Asoka (Sen 1956, 66). The Korkai bay, which is near the coast, abounds in tanks and backwater-bodies now. It has been argued that the river Tamiraparani might have flowed further north, from its current course, in the early historic period and then moved southwards (Arunachalam et al. 2006, 278-280). Kayal was another port that developed in the medieval period and is located further east of Korkai in the Tamiraparani delta. Geological investigations reveal that the Korkai bay must have been a prominent feature adjacent to the coast, in the early historic period (Arunachalam et al. 2006, 278-280). 1 �The trenches excavated at the site of Korkai as part of archaeological excavation by Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department in 2021 revealed water-logging in the lower level, below 1.5 m from the surface level (Tangadurai, Personal Communication, 2023) suggesting possible lower sea-level in the early historic period. Although the Tamiraparani river valley forms a distinct drainage system, south of the Tamiraparani river flows the Nambiyar, which originates near Tirukkurungudi and flows parallel in the south, can also be treated as part of the broader cultural region of the Tamiraparani river valley. The Gulf of Mannar is famous for pearl fishery and marine shells are abundant in this region (Athiyaman 2000, 1-5; Arunachalam 2011, 1-8), the river valley is suitable for agrarian produce, and the Western Ghats has rich forest resources including spices. Figure 1. Map of Southern Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka with important Sites, by Shika Rai HISTORY OF RESEARCH Arch Bishop Robert Caldwell published on the history of this region (1881). He excavated the sites of Korkai and Kayal and identified urn burials (1887, 80-82, 82-83, 279-290). Based on the study of the urn burials and the human bones, it has been argued that the people who were buried in the urns were physically similar to the contemporary population of Tiruneveli region. Robert Bruce Foote explored this area and identified microlithic sites and the Mesolithic formations of the Teri Sand dunes (Foote 1884, 1-98) and artifacts of microliths have been identified by Zeuner and Allchin (1956, 4-20). Alexander Rea explored several megalithic burials sites in this river valley and excavated the famous urn burial site of Adichanallur and unearthed voluminous cultural materials (Rea 1915, 1-40). Mangudi in Sankarankoil 2 �Taluk further north of the Tamiraparani valley excavated by Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology exposed microliths beneath the Iron Age-Early Historic remains (Shetty 2003, 1-3). Subsequently, the urn burial site of Adichanallur was re-excavated by Archaeological Survey of India in 2005 (Satyamurthy 2007, 55-66; Bhadreenath 2021, 1-15; Nambirajan et al. 2009, 57-61). Archaeological excavation is ongoing now to establish the site museum at Adichanallur and the task is undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India from 2021 (Arunraj et al. 2022, 6-13). Tamil Nadu State Department undertook excavations at the habitation site in the village of Adichanallur in 2021 and also at Korkai (PAN, 2021). An archaeological survey of Tamiraparani region has been undertaken by Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department in 2021-2022 and they have identified several archaeological sites (Tangadurai, Personal Communication, 2023). The Megalithic burial site of Sivakalai in the Tamiraparani delta has been excavated and dates of ca. 1155 BCE has been obtained on the urn burials (Rajan et al. 2021, 57-86). N. Athiyaman has discussed the importance of the ports of southern Tamil Nadu, mainly in the Gulf of Mannar region (Athiyaman 2014, 1-15). This region has paintings and sculptures related to the maritime activities in the temples and they have been studied by Athiyaman (2015, 99-111). The excavated materials from Adichanallur, especially the copper-bronze artifacts have been studied for their metallurgical contents and it has been found that these artifacts have high tin content as found in other megalithic bronze artifacts (Paramasivan 1944, 87-93; Srinivasan 2017, 807-812). KORKAI IN LITERATURE Korkai is spoken in early Tamil as well the Greek literature as an important port and centre for marine resources, especially pearl and chank (Turbinella Pyrum). This section describes the poetic narration of Korkai in early Tamil literature. Tamil Literature The Tamil Sangam texts are generally placed in the early centuries of the Common Era and a few of these texts could extend to the early medieval period (Zvelebil 1974, 1-50). While the information and composition of some of these poems were undertaken in the early period, these texts were compiled into a corpus in the early medieval period, ca. sixth to ninth centuries CE. Marine Resources of Korkai The Sangam Tamil texts often refer to the importance of the town of Korkai for pearl fishery and marine shell industries. Akananuru (poem 27) mentions that the large port (perunturai, Peru = large and turai = port, in Tamil) of Korkai was protected ethically and peacefully by the Pandya king who was involved in bloody, violent battles. The town was famous for pearl fishery, and the pearls from the town are compared to the teeth of the heroine in the poem. Akananuru (poem 201) refers to the shining pearl of Korkai munturai (Mun = front and turai = port, in Tamil), and conch (Turnbinella pyrum). In the famous town of the Pandya, who were victorious with the support of elephants efficient in warfare and the women of the fisher-folk, who wear leaf dress, deposit pearl and the Turbinella pyrum with the opening on the right-side. The chank shells with the opening on the right-side are considered rare and more valuable. Such chanks are known as valampuri in Tamil and are highly priced even today. 3 �Narrinai refers to the front port (munturai) of Korkai as yielding pearls (Narrinai 23:5). Here the Tamil term of munturai used to refer to the port is interesting. Some scholars suggest that munturai as a front port, which was very close to the mouth of the river and perunturai (large port or main port) was in the interior. Munturai might have referred to the actual port or ferry context nearby the river, while Perunturai referred to the town in a broad sense. Aingurunuru (185, -2) poem mentions the munturai port of Korkai where neytal flowers (Nymphaea nouchali) and pearls are scattered and they resemble the teeth of the heroine. The poem narrates that the waves bring the shining pearls onto the shore and the pearls trouble the hooves of the moving horses. She wears the fine shell bangles cut out of Turbinella pyrum, by a sharp tool. Such poetic narrations are exaggerations that speak about the abundance of pearls in the region. Cilappatikaram, an epic work in Tamil, mentions the pearl from the Korkai perunturai (14. 180). Maduraikkanchi, another text of the Sangam corpus, has a more vivid narration. Pearls, and the bangles cut from Turbinella pyrum, and the various commodities of Paratar, and the salt, the dry fish supplied by those who drove the timil boats, and the sailors of navai and kalam who brought horses reached Madurai (Maduraikkanchi, 316 – 325). Here navai and kalam are two types of seagoing watercraft used by merchants, while timil was the boat often used by the fisherfolk. The same text talks about the quarters where the bangle makers lived (Maduraikanchi 134–138). The literary narratives are very clear that pearls and marine shells were extensively exploited in the region of Tamiraparani delta. Political Control of the Pandyas An important category of information from the literature pertains to the political control of the port of Korkai. Although the existence of strong political control in the early historic period was a matter of debate (Gurukkal 2012, 1-20), the poems are very categorical that the port of Korkai was controlled by the political power of the Pandyas. Akananuru poem 130 refers to Korkai as narrer Valuti Korkai munturai, which means the front port of Korkai, belonged to the king Vazhuti, who had fine chariots. Aingurunuru (185:1-2) poem is clear that the port of Korkai was controlled by the Pandya king Vazhuti. Several Pandya kings had the title Vazhuti; for example Ukkirapperuvazuti and Maran vazhuti. Coins of the early historic period with the name “vazhuti” have been found in Tamil Nadu. The title Korkai Koman (Sirupanarruppatai 62-63), which means the headman of Korkai and another title ‘Korkai Ventu’ (Cilappatikaram 10, 65), which means the ‘chief of Korkai,’ strongly suggest that the Pandya king controlled Korkai. Greco-Roman Literature The Periplus Marei Erythrea mentions Korkai as Colchi and it also refers to the pearl fishery here was undertaken by condemned criminals. It also states that the town was under the control of the Pandyas (Schoff 1912, 46). The text of Ptolemy which is dated to the second century CE also speaks about Korkai as ‘Kolkhoi’ and also as an emporium (Renou 1925, 6). While describing the area north of Korkai it says “Beyond Colchi there follows another district called the Coast Country, which lies on a bay, and has a region inland called Argaru. At this place, and nowhere else, are bought the pearls gathered on the coast thereabouts; and from there are exported muslins, those called Argaritic.” (Schoff 1912, 46). The identity of this settlement and interior region is not certain. The place of Argaru was identified with Uraiyur, the capital of the Cholas lying further north, and based on the excavation and the finding of tanks identified as dying-vat (Raman 1988, 1-5); it is argued that such 4 �clothes were produced at Uraiyur. Since pearls and other marine resources were brought to this town, it could well be the area near Alagankulam (Sridhar et al. 2005, 1-5) and the hinterland could be the region east of Madurai. Keeladi in this region could be a potential early historic urban settlement associated with textile production (Amarnath Ramakrishna et al. 2019). The name Argaru could be the contemporary name of Arrankarai near the mouth of the river Vaigai or the ancient name of Aruppukkottai, which is famous for the textile industry. The textile class of aruvai referred to in the early Sangam texts (Athiyaman and Athithan 2018, 41-50) could have been the original name of argaru of the Periplus. IMPORTANT ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN THE TAMIRAPARANI VALLEY Archaeological surveys have revealed several prehistoric, Iron Age and Historical sites in the Tamiraparani valley. This region is also rich in historical settlements, inscriptions and temples. Some of the important historical settlements related to maritime activities are discussed here in this section. Exploitation of marine resources in the Tamiraparani region might have begun in the mid- second millennium BCE, although archaeological evidence has not been identified in this region. Excavations at Molapalayam near Coimbatore have produced marine shells of Turbinella pyrum and Oliva sp. used as ornaments in 1600-1400 BCE context (Selvakumar et al. 2022). Such shells are found in the Deccan Chalcolithic and Southern Neolithic cultures of India suggesting the early exchange in marine shells (Deshpande-Mukherjee 2006, 259-83). Evidence of Iron Age settlements are found in large numbers in the Tamiraparani river valley. Korkai Korkai is in Sri Vaikuntam Taluk of Tirunelveli district and lies in the delta of Tamiraparani valley. Adichanallur lies about 15 km further inland and the microlithic site of Sawyerpuram lies three km from the site. Korkai was excavated by Tamil Nadu Archaeological Department in 1968-69 and in 2020-21. Based on the excavations, three cultural periods have been identified and they can be described as Early Historic, Early Medieval and Mid-Medieval (Majeed 1987, 73-77; Sridhar 2004, 48). Brick architectural remains, urns, ring wells, soakage jars, pottery with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, cut pieces of shells and bangles, beads of semi-precious stones, Northern Black Polished Ware, rouletted ware fragments have been excavated at the site (Figures. 2-3). A radiocarbon date of 785 BCE was obtained from a trench (Sridhar 2004, 56). The re-excavation of the site in 2021 produced similar findings. 5 �Figure 2. A ring well or Soakage Jar (?), Korkai, Courtesy: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department 6 �Figure 3. Brick Structure, Korkai, Courtesy: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department Sivakalai Sivakalai is an urn burial site in Tamiraparani valley. The areas of Srimoolakarai, Sivakalai Parambu. and Parakiramapandi Thiradu have been excavated by Tamil Nadu State archaeology department in 2020 onwards. They have found evidence of urn burials, human skeletons and evidence of rice husk. An AMS date of 1155 BCE (PAN 202, 16-171; Rajan et al. 2021) is available for the site. The early date suggests the possible beginning of the Iron Age in the late second millennium BCE. Adichanallur Adichanallur was an important Iron Age burial site in this region which has been investigated for more than a century since 1877 (Rea 2015, 1-40; Satyamurthy 2007, 55-66; Bhadhreenath 2021; Arunraj et al. 2022, 6-13). The burial site has produced a vast quantity of grave-goods including iron objects, copper bronze artifacts and gold objects indicating the establishment of agricultural and pastoral communities. Although the habitation site associated with the burial site has not been identified, the evidence proves that the Tamiraparani valley was extensively occupied by the Iron Age communities, who were involved in rice cultivation and had some degree of craft specialization from early first millennium BCE (Table 1). The diverse varieties of metal objects suggest possible long distance trade. 7 �Kayal Kayal area with a cluster of settlements variously known as Pazhayakayal and Kayalpattinam was the port of the Medieval period from about 12th century CE and it is mentioned as Cail and Qail in the literary accounts. Marco Polo, Wassaf and the Arab sources (Dayalan 2019, 28-29) and the Chinese accounts (Roderich 1993) mention the port and its activities. Kayalpattinam has evidence of medieval Islamic architecture (Shokoohy 1993). Kayal was famous for trade in horses and it was a major centre for Arab traders (Anas Babu 2015, 1-15). Marco Polo describes it as an important port and says "all ships touch that come from the west, as from Hormos and from Kis and from Aden, and all Arabia" (Roderich 1993, note 2). The continued importance of Kayal in the later period indicates the strategic location of the Tamiraparani delta in the maritime trade routes of the Indian Ocean network. Tiruppudaimarudur Tiruppudaimarudur is a settlement with a temple depicting the paintings of Arab ships (Athiyaman 2015, 99-111). While Tiruppudaimarudur is in the interior at the confluence of the Kadana river with the Tamiraparani river, the depiction of theme of an Arab ship loaded with horses indicates the predominance of the horse trade and its impact on the overall political and social developments in the Later Medieval period and more particularly the role of this region in the maritime trade associated with horse trade. Tirukkurungudi Tirukkurunkudi is another medieval temple with sculptures of an Arab ship and maritime activities (Athiyaman 2015, 99-111). Tirukkurunkudi is located in Nanguneri taluk of Tirunelvei district. It lies 40 km north of Kanniyakumari and 45 km from Tirunelveli. Table 1 Radiocarbon Dating for the Iron Age sites in Tamil Nadu*Calibrated using http://calib.org/calib/ Site Name Radiocarbon Date Cal BCE Reference Sivakalai 1155 BCE Rajan et al. 2021 Adichanallur 855 BCE Rajan et al. 2021 Adichanallur 640-650 BCE Bhadhreenath 2021, 144 Adichanallur* 770-795 BCE Bhadhreenath 2021, 144 Adichanallur* 795 -830 BCE Bhadhreenath 2021, 144 Adichanallur* 795-835 BCE Bhadhreenath 2021, 144 Korkai 785 BCE Maloney 1976 Adichanallur 682 BCE Rajan et al. 2021 8 �HINTERLAND AND MARITIME NETWORKS OF THE TAMIRAPARANI VALLEY The network of the Tamiraparani river valley incorporated many Iron Age-Early historic settlements in the hinterland and the port of Korkai. Adichanallur is one of the important Iron Age Early Historic burial sites indicating several agrarian settlements nearby. The rich grave goods including the iron objects and bronze and gold ornaments and the finding of rice suggest an agrarian economy with craft production in the Iron Age. The coastal region of the river valley would have been an ideal location for the exploitation of the marine resources as evidenced by the archaeological excavations at Korkai. Korkai has also revealed rouletted ware and Northern Black polished ware suggesting strong networking with Northern India and Sri Lanka. However, no evidence of amphora seems to have been coming from this site to indicate direct Roman contact as of now. It could be because of limited excavations and the lack of identification of the excavated ceramics. Korkai is one of the southern-most entry points of Southeastern India and it would have been an ideal location for the ships coming the West, which could have had quicker access to the southern part of peninsular rather than Alagankulam, which is located beyond Rameshwaram island. Alagankulam has produced large varieties Roman Ceramics unlike Korkai. It needs to be researched further to understand if the Roman ships and or goods came to Korkai from the south and then reached Alagankulam through the Palk Strait or they skipped Korkai and the Palk strait and reach Alagakulam by sailing around Sri Lanka. In the Medieval period, definitely the Arab ships reached Korkai as revealed by the literary accounts. Perhaps, it was easier for the ships from West to Southeast Asia to reach Korkai and then proceed to Southeast Asia around Sri Lanka or through the Palk Straits. Periyapattinam in the north to the south of Alagankulam was another important medieval port (Karashima 2002, 166-169). The coastal network of Tamiraparani must have had links with the port of Korkai primarily and also with the networks of Comari (Kanniyakumari) in the South, and Vaigai valley and Alagankulam in the north and Sri Lanka including Mantai. The network of Tamiraparani was linked with the network of the Vaigai valley, and the Periyar valley of Kerala through the inland trade routes linking Madurai (Selvakumar 2023, 333-368). The Punalur pass across the Western Ghats connecting Kollam with the Southern part of Tamil Nadu is another important gateway for the supply of spices and pepper into the port of Korkai from the Kerala region. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The Tamiraparani region is a culturally rich zone with the rise of agro-pastoral communities and craftgroups by the Iron Age. There is a probability for the beginning of shell exploitation and shell exchange in this region in the mid-second millennium BCE. The Iron Age burials of this region have the rich gravegoods indicating long distance interactions in the Iron Age early historic period. The Western Ghats region of Southern India was a major source of spices and this region was accessed through several ports of Southern India from Naura in the North to Arikamedu in the east. Korkai was also part of this network in the Early Historic period. But, more evidence is required for understanding the nature of Roman trade connection at Korkai. In the Medieval period, the Tamiraparani delta became more prominent because of its strategic location very near the maritime corridor linking West Asia and Southeast Asia in the Indian Ocean. 9 �BIBLIOGRPAHY Amarnath Ramakrishna, K., Nanda Kishor Swain, M. Rajesh and N. Veeraraghavan “Excavations at Keeladi, Sivaganga District, Tamil Nadu (2014 ‐ 2015 and 2015 ‐ 16).”  Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 6, (2018): 30‐72 Anas Babu ,T. “Horse Trade at Kayal (c. 1250- c. 1500 A.D).” Paper presented in the 35th Session of South Indian History Congress, 2015. Arunachalam, S. The History of Pearl Fishery of the Tamil Coast. Chennai: Pavai Publications, 2011. first published, Annamalai University, 1952. Arunachalam, B., B. Sukumar, Ahalya Sukumar. “Reconstruction of Ancient Port of Korkai,Tuttukudi district of Tamil Nadu,” Current Science 91, no.3, 2006: 278-280 Arunraj, T., V.P. Yatheeskumar and V. Muthukumar “Further Excavation at Urn Burial Site, Adichanallur” Sasanam 5, (2022): 6-13 Athiyaman, N., 2000. Pearl and Chank Diving of South Indian Coast: A Historical and Ethnographic Perspective. Thanjavur: Tamil University. Athiyaman, N. “Stone anchors from East Coast of India- A Precursor for Marine Archaeology of Tamil Nadu.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 61th Session, Calcutta,(2001): 1293-1310, . Athiyaman, N. “Ancient and Medieval ports of the Gulf of Mannar Coast, East coast India and their Maritime Connections across Indian Ocean Countries,” Asia Pacific Underwater Archaeology conference Proceedings, Honalulu, Hawaii, edited by Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.). Session 13. (2014): 1-15. Athiyaman, N. “Maritime Contacts as Depicted in art Forms at the Medieval Temples of Tamil Nadu,” Religion and Society in Peninsular India (6th‐16th Century A D), edited by Chandramouli .N., 99-111. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2015. Athiyaman, N. and T, Athithan. Tamizhagattil Varalaarrut thodakkaala Nesavut hthozhil: Oru kur Nokku Ayvu. Ungal Nulakam 10, no. 2 (May 2018): 41-50. Badhreenath, S., Excavation at Adichanalllur. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2021. Caldwell, B.R. A Political and General History of the District of Tinnevelly, in the Presidency of Madras, from the Earliest Period to Its Cession to the English Government in A.D.. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1801, reprint 1982. Caldwell, B.R. “Explorations at Korkai and Kayal a).” Indian Antiquary 6, (1887): 80-82. Caldwell, B.R. “Excavations at Kayal,” Indian Antiquary 6, (1887): 82-83. Caldwell, B.R. “Sepulchral Urns in Southern India.” Indian Antiquary 6, (1887), 279-280. Dayalan, D. “Ancient Seaports on the Eastern Coast of India: The Hub of the Maritime Silk Route Network.” Acta Via Serica Vol. 4, no. 1, (June 2019): 25–69 doi:10.22679/avs.2019.4.1.025 Deshpande-Mukherjee, Arati. 2006. Marine Molluscs At Ancient Settlements In The Deccan.” Bulletin Of The Deccan College Research Institute 66/67 (2006): 259–83. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42931452. Foote, R.B. On the Geology of Madura and. Tinnevelly Districts. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India XX, (1884): 1-98. Gurukkal, R. Social Formations in Early South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2012. Karashima, Noboru “Periyapattinam: An Important Medieval Port on the Coromandel Coast and Its Identification,” Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Testimony of Inscriptions and Ceramic-Sherds: Report of the Taisho University Research Project 1997-2000, edited by Noboru Karashima, 166-169 .Tokyo: Taisho University, 2002. 10 �Majeed, Abdul A. "A Note on Korkai Excavations", Tamil Civilization , vol. 2, nos. l-. 2, (1987): 73-77. Maloney, C. 1976. “Archaeology in South India: Accomplishments and Prospects,” Essays on South India,  edited byStein, B. 1-40. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House. Nambirajan, M , Arun Malik, C.R. Gayathri and A. Anil Kumar. “Significance of the Recent excavation at Adichchanallur,” Tamil Civilization 23 (2009): 57-61. PAN = Porunai Arrangarai Nagarigam. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department, 2021. In Tamil. Paramasivan, S. “Investigations on ancient Indian metallurgy. I. A pre-historic bronze bowl.” Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section A, 13 no. 2, (1941): 87-93. Rajan, K., V.P. Yathees Kumar, M. Rajesh, R. Sivanantham, J. Ranjith and J. Bhaskar “Recent Radiometric Dates and Their Implications in Understanding the Early Writing System and Early Historic Archaeology” Man and Environment 46 no. 1, 2021 :57-86. Raman, K.V. Excavations at Uraiyur (Tiruchirappalli) 1965-69. Madras: University of Madras, 1988. Rea, A. Catalogue of the Prehistoric Antiquities from Adichchanallur and Perumbair, 1915. Madras: Government Press. Renou, L., La Géographie De Ptolémée L'Inde VII (1925): 1-4. Paris: Librairie ancienne  Édouard Champion Roderich, Ptak. “Yuan and Early Ming Notices on the Kayal Area in South India” Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient. Tome 80, (1993): 137-156; doi : https://doi.org/10.3406/befeo.1993.2596 Satyamurthy, T.,”Adichchanallur: New Discoveries in the light of Rea’s Excavation.” Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology 4 (2007): 55-66. Selvakumar, V. G.S. Abhayan, Veena Muzhrif Tripathi, Sathish S. Naik, S. Gowrishankar,R. Kathikeyan, Don Wesley, A. Sankar, Bhavani Jagadesan “Neolithic Evidence from Molapalayam, Noyyal River Valley Coimbatore District, Western Tamil Nadu. IPPA Conference Abstract, November 2022. Selvakumar, V. “Early Historic Cultural Landscapes Of The Periyār And Vaigai Valleys In South India And The Afro-Eurasian–Indian Ocean World Interactions,” The Economic History Of India: Historiographical Issues And Perspectives: Essays In Honour Of Professor Ranabir Chakravarti, edited by R. Mahalakshmi and Suchandra Ghosh, 333-368 . New Delhi: Primus, 2023. Sen, S. Asoka’s Edicts. Calcutta: Indian Institute of Indology, 1956. Shetty, S. Mangudi Excavations. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, 2003. Shokoohy, Mehrdad . “Architecture of the Muslim Port of Qā'il on the Coromandel Coast, South India. Part One, History and the 14th–15th Century Monuments,” South Asian Studies 9, no. 1, (1993):137-166, DOI: 10.1080/02666030.1993.9628470 . Srinivasan, Sharada  “Iron Age beta (23% tin) bronze: Peninsular Indian bowls of Adichanallur, Nilgiris, and Boregaon.” Materials and Manufacturing Processes 32, (2017):7-8, 807-812, DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2016.1244843 Sridhar, T.S. Excavations at Archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu 1969-1995. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department, 2004. Sridhar, T.S., D. Thulasiraman, S. Selvaraj, S. Vasanthi. Alagankulam, an ancient Roman port city of Tamil Nadu. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department. Zeuner, F. E. and Allchin, B. 1 “The Microlithic Sites of the Tinnevelly District, Madras State.” Ancient India 12, (1956):4-20. Zvelebil, K. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden:  E. J. Brill, 1974.  11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ports and Trade Networks of the Tamiraparani Delta of Tamil Nadu Description An account of the resource The deltas of Tamil Nadu in southern part of India have several ports that acted as nodes of maritime networks. Evidence of prehistoric hunter-gatherers is found in the Tamiraparani delta in the red sand dunes of Teri in the form of microliths. In the Iron Age the Tamiraparani region witnessed megalithic settlements with burial sites. The famous urn burial site of Adichanallur is located in this region. Evidence for early historic trade interaction is found at the site of Korkai, which has been identified as the center of the early Pandyan kings. The port of Korkai is discussed in the early Tamil literature and archaeological excavation has revealed evidence for urban activities. In the Medieval period, Kayal became an important port of trade and it is referred to in the medieval textual sources. It was a major center for horse trade and the temple of Tiruppudaimaraudir in the Tamiraparani region has evidence of Arab horse traders in the form of mural paintings. The region is well connected with the Western Ghats and a trade route connecting Kerala and Tamil Nadu region. The main research problem of the paper is to understand the nature, function and foreland and hinterland networks of the ports of Tamiraparani valley. The paper discusses the archaeological evidence of ports of the early historic and medieval periods (Korkai and Kayal) and the maritime networks that connected with these ports using textual and archaeological sources. The data sources are collected from the author's fieldwork, critical study of primary sources and collection of secondary literature Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource V. Selvakumar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Selvakumar, V. 2023. “Ports and Trade Networks of the Tamiraparani Delta of Tamil Nadu.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Brian Fahy. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1991 Asia-Pac Session 9 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3556397f7797c4dc1f7fe8c39379a639.pdf 56213e4ad423f754f6062e47dc9801b6 PDF Text Text Medieval Ports and Maritime Activities on the North Malabar Coast of India V. Selvakumar Department of Epigraphy and Archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur 613010, India Email: selvakumarodi@gmail.com Abstract The Malabar Coast of India (Lat. 8° and 13° N, and Long. 74° 50’ and 77° 50’E) is strategically positioned in the navigational network of the Indian Ocean region. From Early Historic times, this region witnessed intense maritime activities. While there exist many studies on the Early Historic (300 BCE to 600 CE) and Modern period (1500 to 1950 CE), medieval maritime activities of Kerala have not received due attention. The Arab and Chinese sources and the Geniza documents help us to understand the maritime history of this region. Indian, Chinese, Arab and Jewish merchants were active, with Kozhikode and Pantalayini Kollam emerging as important ports on the North Malabar Coast. This paper discusses the maritime activities on north Malabar Coast (from ca. 600 CE to 1500 CE) in general, and the dynamic around the above-mentioned ports in particular, based on textual and archaeological sources. Key words: Maritime Archaeology, Ibn Batutta, Malabar, Ports, Indian Ocean Trade Introduction India is strategically positioned in the navigational networks of the Indian Ocean region that connect the eastern and western worlds. The landscape of India is like a honeycomb that hangs in the “Indian Ocean-scape,” fanned by the southwest and northeast monsoons, which facilitate cultural exchanges and cross-fertilization across the ocean. India has been a source of ideologies which have influenced, and natural resources that have attracted people from different regions of Asia, Europe and Africa. Because of proximity, variation in the internal and external cultural factors and the 1 �available natural resources, the Indian coastal landscapes have had different microregions. The North Malabar Coast of India (Fig. 1) is one such micro-region that witnessed the rise of many maritime centres, and it has occupied a significant place in the maritime history of India. An overview of the maritime history of this region from ca. 600 to 1500 CE is presented in this paper. The Region North Malabar lies (Lat. 11° and 13° N, and Long. 74° 50’ and 77° 50’E) in the southwestern corner of India. This region, bounded by the Arabian Sea in the west and by the Western Ghats in the east, is drained by several rivers, and along the sea coast, bays and backwater lakes occur. The river mouths serve as landing points for ships and the rivers support inland Fig. 1 Location map of Kerala. (Selvakumar, 2014) navigation. Important loci on the coast have been the promontory- like features with bays near Koyilandy, Kannur and Ezhilmala, which offer secure contexts for the ships. The region is favored by the Southwest Monsoon and it has an annual rainfall of around 3000 mm. Kerala has forests with resources such as wood and spices, including pepper. Presence in the terminal zone of the Indian subcontinent gives Kerala an advantageous position in the Indian Ocean maritime networks. Previous Research A few studies are available on the maritime history of North Malabar Coast. History of the port towns of Kozhikkode (Narayanan, 2006) and Pantalayini Kollam (Raghava Varier, 2003) has received scholarly attention. The medieval commercial activities of this region are discussed by Karashima (2002), Chakravarti (2008, 2012) and Habib (2011) as part of developments in the Indian Ocean region. Sila Tripati et al., (2005) discuss about a stone anchor found near Hydross Palli Mosque. None of the medieval 2 �ports have been excavated. A surface survey of the ports of this region was undertaken by the author from 2005 to 2007. Sources Historical texts assist in understanding the maritime history of the Malabar Coast. The inscriptions from southern India published under South Indian Inscriptions and Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy are useful for studying the commercial activities. The Mushika Vamsa Kavyam, considered to the earliest known historical text of India, is Fig. 2 Ports of the Malabar Coast. (Selvakumar, useful for understanding the history 2014) of North Malabar. For reconstructing maritime history, external sources are very crucial, as they provide an Oceanic perspective, which is absent in the local sources. Foreign accounts of Macro Polo (Murray, 1845) and the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta give details on the ports of Malabar (Gibb et al., 1971). The Chinese sources (Raghava Varier, 2003) and the Geniza documents are very important for understanding the trade dynamics of the Malabar Coast (Goitein and Friedman, 2008). In this paper, the maritime activities are visualized in terms of: A) ports/settlements and landscape features, B) communities and the agencies, C) commodities, D) maritime corridors and E) navigation and shipbuilding. A. Medieval Ports/Maritime centers and the Landscape of the North Malabar Coast The landscape of Kerala is very rich in natural resources, especially pepper, cardamom, timber and iron. In addition, Malabar Coast is strategically located facing the ports of West Asia and North Africa. Besides, its congenial climate was a factor that attracted migrants and maritime agencies. Calicut (Kozhikkode), Pantalayini Kollam and Mangalore were the major medieval ports of the North Malabar Coast (Fig. 2), besides the smaller ports such as Cumbala, Kasaragod, Nileshwar, Eli, Baliapatnam, 3 �Dharmapatam, Chombaye, Badagara, Pantalayini Kollam, Parappanangadi and Ponnani (Kurup, 1997). A few specialized centers, e.g. Beypore, which served as a major shipbuilding centre in the late historical period, also perhaps existed in the medieval period. The smaller ports and the hinterland settlements also had an important role in the economic system and they supported the larger ports. The larger ports-cumpolitical-commercial centers developed due to the resource concentration, external demand for commodities, and the nature of organization of local polities. Mangalore Mangalore (12°51'35"N, 74°49'57"E) was an important port catering to the hinterlands of Karnataka region and northern Malabar, and it was a major commercial centre, as it figures in many travelers’ accounts. It is identified with Ibn Battuta’s Manjarun, a major estuary of Malabar. It is said to have had 4000 Mohammedan merchants including the greatest merchants from Yemen and Persia and was rich in spices and ginger. It was here that the Jewish merchant, whose letters have been preserved in the Cairo Geniza, was involved in commercial activities in the twelfth century (Goitein and Friedman, 2008). Ezhilmala Ezhilmala or Mount Eli (12°2'39"N, 75°11'51"E) was another important centre along the Malabar Coast. The hill here served as an important landmark, as it is prominently visible from the sea. This hill is considered to be part of Early Historic chief Nannan’s territory. Ezhilmala is identified as the northern most limits where the ships of China reach, according to Ibn Battuta. The mount Hili was considered sacred to Mohammedans and Hindus. The existence of a mosque is also mentioned by Ibn Batutta (Gibb et al., ‎1971). It is no surprise, since in the Indian tradition that such prominent landscape features (e.g. hills) are considered sacred. Venetian traveler Marco Polo, who visited India at the end of the thirteenth century mentions mount Eli, i.e. Ezhimala. The nearby settlement of Madayi is also important and in the compound of a mosque (considered to be medieval in age), West Asian glazed ceramics were found in 2008. Vallabha II, The king of Mushika (Mushika=rat in Sanskrit and Eli in Malayalam, and hence the Mount Eli) dynasty founded the ports of Madayi and Valapattinam (Vallabha Pattanam=Valapattanam). Narayankannur inscription found 4 �near Ezhilmala gives details about the trade guild of Manigramattars, who were the protectors of the temple land (Raghava Varier, 2003: 160). After Ezhilmala, the port of Jurkannan is mentioned as the next destination by Ibn Battuta, and its king was held in high regard. The exact location of this place is unknown. Dadkannan is the next town mentioned and it could be identified with Dharmadam. Fattan is mentioned as the place before Pantalayini Kollam and it had Brahmin population. Mention is made of a mosque, which was used by strangers, by Ibn Battuta. Pantalayini Kollam Ibn Battuta mentions Fandarina as the town next to Fattan. Pantalayini Kollam (different from the port of Kurakkenikollam (Quilon) of South Malabar) was an important port on the Malabar Coast, located a little north of Koyilandy. This port figures in the accounts of Ibn Battuta as Fandarina and it is identified with “Shaojunan” of Daoyi Zgilue (Aoyagi and Ogawa, 2004: 51). Its location is close to a bay, which is considered an Ideal location for wintering of the Chinese ships (Raghava Varier, 2003). Name of a merchant called Kantancantirayya Chetti from Pantalayini Kollam occurs in an inscription (ca. 1234-35) from Vizagapattinam, a medieval port on the Andhra Coast (Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, Ins. 98 of 1909). Mostly ceramics of thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were unearthed from Pantalayini Kollam (Aoyagi and Ogawa, 2004: 52). This town also had Jewish and Arab merchants. Calicut Calicut or Kozhikkode was a major port in the northern part of Kerala. The reason for the development of Calicut was perhaps the Samuthiri (Zamorins) kingdom. In addition, its location in north Malabar directly opposite to the Gulf is very significant. Calicut seems to have emerged as a major trade centre mainly from the thirteenth century (Narayanan, 2006). According to Das Gupta, before the13th century the Persian Gulf was an important commercial region which had direct connection with Chinese ports via Kollam in southern Kerala. It has to be noted that in 2014 a large hoard of Chinese coins were unearthed from Southern Kollam. This trade route was disrupted with the fall of Abbasid Caliphite in 1258 CE, due to the Mongol invasion. As a result, the Persian Gulf lost its importance and the Egyptian Karimi merchants gained prominence and Calicut gained importance (Das Gupta, 1967: 5). Marco polo who visited Calicut in 5 �1293-94, mentions that Calicut was an important port and was famous for spice trade (Raghava Varier, 2003). Ibn Batutta also gives a detailed account of Calicut port (Gibb et al., ‎1971). The Samuthiris were the leading political powers here from the thirteenth century. They could raise a strong army; build an alliance with the Muslim traders to develop commercial activities in this town. Kamal-ud-Din Abdur Razzaq ibn Ishaq, a Persian ambassador to the court of Samuthiris (Zamorin of Calicut), gives details on Calicut, which seems to have emerged after the decline of southern Kollam. The Chinese admiral Zheng He touched Calicut eight times (Chakravarti, 2012: 85), which suggests that Calicut had a settlement of Chinese merchants. The Samuthiris also had maintained good relations with the Chinese empire. Calicut also figures in the accounts of Marco Polo and Niccolò de' Conti. Obviously Calicut was a large cosmopolitan centre with Arab, Jewish, Chinese and local merchants, and well known for pepper and other spices and the famous textiles called Calico. The dominance of the Arabs could have reduced the significance of the Chinese merchants at a later date. B. Communities and Agencies Apart from the local people, who were mainly suppliers and consumers of goods, the merchant communities played an active role in the maritime activities, which cannot develop merely with the presence of one group; they are the result of interactions and exchange involving multiple partners. This is very much evidenced by the Jewish, Indian, Arab and Chinese communities who were involved in the mercantile transactions of the Malabar Coast. After the 12th century the Arab traders were dominant on the coastal landscape. However, numerous merchant guild inscriptions in the interior regions suggest that local traders were also dominant in many parts of South India (Karashima, 2002.) Geniza documents and the Jewish Trader of the Malabar Coast Geniza documents are an important source of medieval merchants of the western Indian Ocean (Goitein and Friedman, 2008). These documents have been compiled and edited by Goitein, and Amitav Gosh has published on the contexts of the letters (Ghosh, 2012). Abraham Bin Yiju was a Tunisian Jewish merchant who had set up a brass factory on the Malabar Coast perhaps near Mangalore and was sending commodities from Malabar region. He had married a girl from Malabar and lived on the Malabar 6 �Coast for about 17 years. The correspondence between him and his agents is preserved in the Cairo Geniza documents. These documents help us understand the connections and the importance of the trade. The letters mention about a Nambiyar who was a Nakhuda, a ship captain. Geniza documents also prove that pepper was the dominant commodity in the trade, and it adds that iron was also exported from the Malabar coast. The fact that the Jewish trader set up a brass factory here reveals the entrepreneurial activities of the merchants across the oceans. The luxury commodities that the Jewish merchant demanded from his contacts in West Asia, give a glimpse on the personal preference of the merchants. Medieval Merchant Guilds From the early medieval period, trade guilds were active in South India, including the Malabar Coast. The Terisapally copper plates of ninth century mention about the Anjuvannam and Manigramattar (Abraham, 1988). Mercantile activities of medieval South India were very dynamic from about 13th century CE. Inscriptions mention the activities of Nanadesis and Tisaiyayirattu Ainurrvar. Merchant guild inscriptions occur in several places of Kerala: Pantalayini Kollam, Ramantali, Talakad, and Wayanad (Shanmugam, 2002: 297-307). C. Commodities Commodities are important ingredients of maritime trade. As social complexities increased, communities required prestige goods from long distance for various reasons including social hierarchy and warfare. Pepper Pepper was an important exported commodity in the maritime trade of the Malabar Coast. Pepper grows naturally and it was also cultivated extensively in medieval Kerala. The bulk of the pepper production gave Malabar Coast an advantage in the spice trade of the Indian Ocean. Horses Horse, an important animal of prestige (Fig. 3), transport and warfare was in great demand in the medieval period, Fig. 3 The Chera King of Kerala depicted on a 7horse in the 11th century paintings of Brihadhiswara (Selvakumar, 2014) Temple, Thanjavur. �when feudalism and warfare were on the rise. The Sangam Tamil texts of the early period indicated that horse and chariots were symbols of the chiefs and royalty. To maintain political supremacy, the local rulers acquired horses very extensively and as result the horse traders, from northern part of Kerala, amassed a lot of wealth and numerous inscriptions mention their activities in various parts of South India. Kudirai Chettis (horse traders) of Malaimandalam figure frequently in the inscriptions and because of their access to the western coast, these traders could dominate horse trade in South India. Other Commodities In addition to prestige goods, subsistence goods such as rice and wheat, and fine clothes, semi precious stones, metal and camphor were also traded. The Geniza documents indicate the preference of the Jewish trader for good quality paper and other personal items. D. Maritime Corridors The Malabar Coast represents one of the historically important maritime stretches in the Indian Ocean world. The Malabar Coast was part of four important corridors of trade. Corridor (A) covered from Gujarat to the Malabar Coast; the second corridor (B) linked the east coast of India. The international corridors that connected with the ports of West Asia (C) and with China and the East (D) are the other two. The ships from Malabar came to Gujarat with spices, timber and areca nut and returned with clothes, pepper and horses (Habib, 2011). The merchants from the Malabar Coast were active in the medieval Andhra coast. It is also clear that Bengal supplied rice to Maldives Island and in turn shells were exported from the Maldives (Chakravarti, 2012: 86). It is considered that the Chinese Junks sailed up to the Malabar Coast and the goods were transported into the ships of the western world from Malabar Coast (Aoyagi and Ogawa, 2004: 53). It was convenient for the Chinese sailors to navigate up to the Malabar Coast, and similarly the Arab sailors could continue to operate from the West Coast of India. The Malabar Coast interlinked these eastern and western Indian Ocean realms, beautifully and acted as an intermediary (transit) space in the “Indian Ocean scape”. 8 �E. Navigation and Shipbuilding Navigation is the key factor that facilitated maritime The enterprise. texts give a detailed picture of the navigation during this period. The tradition of shipbuilding was well established in this region in the medieval period (Kurup, 1997; Greeshmalatha and Fig. 4 Beypore Boatbuilding yard. (Selvakumar, 2014) Rajamanickam, 1997). Beypore still has a tradition of building large ships called Uru, which are now manufactured for the Gulf market (Fig. 4). The watercraft of Uru is mentioned in the medieval inscription of Mottupalli of Andhra Pradesh. The reason for the emergence of large shipbuilding industries in the north Malabar seems to be theavailability of good quality timber in the Nilambur forests (Kurup, 1997). A stone anchor reported by Sila Tripati et al., (2005) near Kannur belonged to a large ship. The Indians also owned large ships as evidenced by the Geniza documents and Ibn Batutta indirectly mentions that he sailed in a ship that was produced in India. The abundance of teak wood and Anjili (Artocarpus hirsutus) here made the building of large ships easier. Ibn Batutta mentions about three types of Chinese ships that plied on the Malabar Coast. The medieval sailboat excavated at Thaikkal in southern Kerala displays Southeast Asian and Chinese features (Tomalin et al., 2004; Selvakumar, 2006). The maritime contacts obviously brought new elements into local shipbuilding traditions. Discussions Maritime activities are the result of a number of factors, both internal and external. Efflorescence of culture, elite consumers and organized state are essential factors for long distance trade. The emergence of empires in West Asia, India and China boosted 9 �the maritime activities in the Indian Ocean. Fluctuations were also seen in the intensity of the trade due to changes in the political and economic factors in the Indian Ocean region. The historical developments in medieval India reveal that maritime dynamics of this region is partly due to the core cultural developments in the interior and partly due to external factors. The coasts are regions where external and internal factors fuse. The coastal landscapes at times remain entirely distinct cultural regions from the interiors, because of the external dynamic. From the developments it is clear that the fortunes of ports fluctuated according to the political scenario. We notice the rise of Calicut and the decline of Kollam in the medieval period. From the fifteenth century, the long distance voyage declined and the different sectors of the trade routes from West Asia to China were navigated in separate lags and were dominated by different navigators; the route from west Asia to India was dominated by Arab navigators, while those from India to Malacca were dominated by Indian navigators and the Chinese navigators dominated the stretch between Malacca and South China (Das Gupta, 1967). Calicut, Pantalayini Kollam and Mangalore were the major ports of the North Malabar Coast. The reasons for the rise of major ports in North Malabar could be attributed to the strong political power, especially the Samuthiris. They did realize the importance of the maritime trade and the dynamics that could bring wealth and prestige goods for the territory, and supported the activities of the merchants. With regard to the goods of trade, pepper was an important commodity exported from this region, while horse was one of the important items of import. In addition timber was also exported and reference is also made to the construction of ships on the Malabar Coast. Camphor was imported from Southeast Asia and carnelian, from Gujarat. The Jewish traders seem to have been active in the trade activities from about ninth century in Kerala. From the analysis of evidence, one could see the predominance of Arab traders from the 13th century in South India. Similar pattern is also seen on the east coast. This could be attributed to the dominant role of West Asian kingdoms in medieval Asian history. The development of strong states, state policies and consumerist elites and materialistic, enterprising merchants were essential for the maritime commercial activities. Urbanization and commercial activities, including the proliferation of merchant guilds, took stronger roots in South India from the thirteenth century, which could be attributed to the “medieval 10 �globalization” (a world system) that was sweeping across the Indian Ocean Regions. The historical sources clearly indicate that external factors were as dominant as internal factors in the development of long distance maritime trade. Acknowledgements My thanks are due to Sila Tripati, Veronica Walker and Brian Fahy for their suggestions on the paper. I am grateful to the Nehru Trust for the Indian Collections at the Victoria and Albert Museum for providing travel grant in 2013, which supported data collection for my research. References Abraham, M., 1988. Two Medieval Merchant Guilds of South India. Manohar, New Delhi. Aoyagi, Y., and Ogawa, H., 2004. Chinese Trade Ceramics of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries in the Malabar Coast. In N. Karashima (Ed.), Search of Ceramic Sherds in Southern India and Sri Lanka, Taisho University Press, Tokyo: 47-54. Chakravarti, R., 2008. Visiting Far Away Ports: India’s trade with Western Indian Ocean 800-1500. In Rajat Datta (Ed.), Rethinking a Millennium: Perspectives on Indian History from the Eighth to Eighteenth century, Essays in honor of Harbans Mukhia, Aakar Books, Delhi: 249-274. Chakravarti, R., 2012. Merchants, Merchandise and Merchantmen: The Western Seaboard of India and the Indian Ocean (500-1500 CE). In Om Prakash (Ed.), History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. VIII (1), Centre for Studies in Civilization, Delhi: 59-116. Das Gupta, A., 1967. Malabar in Asian Trade: 1740-1800. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Ghosh, A., 2012. In An Antique Land. Ravi Dayal Publisher, New Delhi. Gibb, H. A. R., Defremery, C., and Sanguinetti, B. R., ‎1971. The Travels of Ibn Battuta AD 1325-1354. The Syndicate of Cambridge University Press, Hakluyt Society, London. Goitein, S. D. F., and Friedman, M. A., 2008. India Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents from the Cairo Geniza “India Book”. Part I. Brill, The Netherlands. Greeshmalatha, A. P., and Rajamanickam, G. V., 1997. The Shipbuilding Technology as practiced in Beypore, Kerala. In K. S. Mathew (Ed.), Shipbuilding and Navigation in the Indian Ocean Region AD 1400-1800, Munishiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi: 44-54. 11 �Habib, I., 2011. Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500. History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. VIII (1), Centre for Studies in Civilization, Delhi. Karashima, N., (Ed.), 2002. Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Testimony of Inscriptions and Ceramic-sherds. Taisho University, Tokyo. Kurup, K. K. N., 1997. Indigenous Navigation and Shipbuilding on the Malabar Coast. In K. S. Mathew (Ed.), Shipbuilding and Navigation in the Indian Ocean Region AD 14001800, Munishiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi: 20-25. Murray, H., 1845. The Travels of Marco Polo. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburg. Narayanan, M. G. S., 2006. Calicut: The City of Truth. University of Calicut, Calicut. Raghava Varier, M. R., 2003. Patalayani Kollam: A Medieval Port Town on the Malabar Coast. In Kesavan Veluthat and P. P. Sudhakaran (Eds.), Advances in History, Essays in Memory of Professor M. P. Sridharan, Professor M. P. Sridharan Memorial Trust, Calicut: 154-179. Selvakumar, 2006. Nature and Characteristics of the sailboat excavated at TaikkalKadakkarappally, Alappuzha District, Kerala. In A. S. Gaur and K. H. Vora (Eds.), Glimpses of Marine Archaeology in India, Society for Marine Archaeology, Goa: 4-14. Shanmugam, P., 2002. Topographical List of the Merchant guild Inscriptions. In N. Karashima (Ed.), Ancient and Medieval Commercial Activities in the Indian Ocean: Testimony of Inscriptions and Ceramic-sherds. Taisho University, Tokyo: 297-307 Sila Tripati., Manikfan, A., and Mohamed, M., 2005. An Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor from Kannur, Kerala, West coast of India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 34 (1): 131-137. Tomalin, V., Selvakumar, V., Nair, M. V., and Gopi, P. K., 2004. The ThaikkalKadakkarapally Boat: An Archaeological Example of Medieval Shipbuilding in the Western Indian Ocean. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 33 (2): 253263. Biography V. Selvakumar is a faculty member of the Department of Epigraphy and Archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur, India. His research interests are Indian Ocean Exchanges, Archaeological theory, Archaeology of South India and Heritage Management. He has published one book, Tamil Cultural Connections across the World, 2010, and co-edited a book, namely, History of Thiruvathikunnam (in Tamil, 2013). 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Medieval Ports and Maritime Activities on the North Malabar Coast of India Description An account of the resource The Malabar Coast of India (Lat. 8° and 13° N, and Long. 74° 50’ and 77° 50’E) is strategically positioned in the navigational network of the Indian Ocean region. From Early Historic times, this region witnessed intense maritime activities. While there exist many studies on the Early Historic (300 BCE to 600 CE) and Modern period (1500 to 1950 CE), medieval maritime activities of Kerala have not received due attention. The Arab and Chinese sources and the Geniza documents help us to understand the maritime history of this region. Indian, Chinese, Arab and Jewish merchants were active, with Kozhikode and Pantalayini Kollam emerging as important ports on the North Malabar Coast. This paper discusses the maritime activities on north Malabar Coast (from ca. 600 CE to 1500 CE) in general, and the dynamic around the above-mentioned ports in particular, based on textual and archaeological sources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource V. Selvakumar, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/16/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/10045d82e716b110bdeb6dd2a09edf94.pdf 3ae8b1d158e9bd0bbe45277d08c931b7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 11: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organizations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Session Organizer: Sila Tripati Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Textile Trade and Hinterland Settlements of the Lower Kaveri Valley on the Coromandel Coast of India from 13th to 20th Century CE Description An account of the resource The textile industry became one of the important economic activities on the Coromandel coast from the Late Medieval Period. Several ports became active on the Coromandel coast as a result of the urbanization contributed by long-distance trade and colonialism. The Lower Kaveri Delta region on the Coromandel Coast had many ports and was connected hinterland settlements. The settlements show evidence of textile production at many of these sites, and settlements of weaver communities are present in this area even today. The settlement of Nangur excavated by the author in 2019 produced evidence of textile weavers in archaeological as well as ethnographic contexts. Thirumullaivayil was one of the important ports of the region that connected with Nangur and other craft settlements in Sirkazhi region. This paper focuses on the textile trade on the later medieval and colonial periods and the hinterland settlements that connected with the ports of Lower Kaveri valley. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource V.Selvakumar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Selvakumar, V.. 2021. “Textile Trade and Hinterland Settlements of the Lower Kaveri Valley on the Coromandel Coast of India from 13th to 20th Century CE.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/695 Asia-Pac Session 11 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/438d12313cbfccf82e6c2d45a73bdf34.pdf 79c81e1234bc102a7b532dcb0fa21435 PDF Text Text Archaeological, Literary and Ethnographic Evidence for Traditional Boat-building in Kerala, South India Veerasamy Selvakumar1 Abstract Kerala possesses rich maritime traditions dating back to the Early Historic period. A few types of traditional watercrafts developed indigenously and some are influenced by external contacts. Archaeological excavations revealed a medieval sailboat at Kadakkarappally in 2003 and an Early Historic canoe at Pattanam in 2007. The Early Historic Sangam Tamil texts refer to the watercrafts of Kerala. Traditional boat-building still survives in Kerala. This paper presents the evidence for traditional boats in Kerala, their historical context and the possible external 2 influences, until the 15th century Common Era (CE). I. Introduction Kerala's strategic location connects the eastern and western worlds in the Indian Ocean region Kerala‟s internal processes and external influences have caused the development of a vibrant maritime culture, including interesting watercraft types, than any other region in India. This paper presents a survey of traditional boat-building in Kerala, its historical context and the possible external influences, until the 15th century CE. With the Western Ghats on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west, Kerala (Lat. 8◦ 15' and 12◦ 50' E; Long. 74◦ 50' and 77◦ 30' N, Figure 1A) is enriched by the monsoons, 44 perennial rivers, 15 backwaters and a 600 km coast. The average temperature is between 20◦ and 32◦ C, and the annual rainfall varies from 1800 to 3600 millimeters (mm). Kerala has rich wood sources suitable for boat-building. Previous Research Experiments undertaken in methods of navigation to survive in the water-filled landscape led to the development of indigenous watercrafts, some of which still survive. The Classical texts3, medieval travelers4 and the European adventurers5 and administrators6 discuss the traditional watercrafts of Kerala. Systematic research on the traditional watercrafts was initiated by the Europeans. James Hornell (1920:21-24) offers an account of the traditional watercrafts. A.P. Greeshmalatha and Victor Rajamanickam (1993; Greeshmalatha and Rajamanickam 1995; Rajamanickam 2004) documented the nature, distribution and construction techniques of the watercrafts. 1 Department of Epigraphy and Archaeology, Tamil University, INDIA, selvakumarodi@gmail.com Designation for the Georgian „Calendar Era‟. 3 Specifically the Sangam Tamil (Zevelebil 1974) and Greco-Roman texts, e.g. The Periplus (Casson 1989; Schoff 1912). 4 For instance, Ibn Batuta (Lee 1829) and Marco Polo (Benedetto 1931; Yule 1993). 5 Cabral 1995; Barbosa, Stanley 1866; Varthema 2004. 6 For example, Francis Buchanan 1806: 419-420; and William Logan 1884: 39. 2 1 �Rajamanickam and V.S. Arulraj (1994:9-24) present the watercrafts from Tamil and Malayalam literature. Other important studies include Lucy Blue's Kattamaram Project 2005-2007, Jesse Ransley's The Backwater Boats of Kerala (2008, 2010), and Ralph Pedersen's study on the clench-fastened boat (2010). Archaeological excavations exposed an Early Historic canoe at Pattanam (Cherian, et al. 2007a; Cherian, et al. 2007b; Cherian, et al. 2009) and a medieval sailboat at Thaikkal-Kadakkarappally (Nair, et al. 2003; Pedersen 2004; Selvakumar 2006a; Tomalin, et al. 2004). An Indo-Arabian type stone anchor has been identified near Kannur (Tripathi, et al. 2005). Several publications exist on Late Medieval boat-building (Appadorai 1936; Arunachalam 2008; Joseph 2003; Malekandathil 2001; Mathew 1997). Despite these studies further investigations are essential for a holistic understanding of boat-building in Kerala. Figure 1. Map of Kerala (Drawing by Tangadurai, 2011) and Canoe from Pattanam (Photo by Mohammed 2007). 2 �II. History of Boat-building Prehistoric Age Boat-building in Kerala, perhaps, extends to the prehistoric period. Kerala has evidence for prehistoric cultures; especially traces of the early Holocene microlithic food-gatherers who existed along the littoral of coastal/riverine contexts (Rajendran 1989; Selvakumar 2006b). Kerala was perhaps first occupied by the Homo sapiens, who might have migrated along the coast from Africa in the Late Pleistocene (Petraglia, et al. 2009). Movement and fishing in riverine/coastal regions were essential for their subsistence, and hence, there is a possibility that rafts like kattumaram and teppam, which involve securing the logs of wood/bamboo with creepers, emerged as an adaptation to the environment.7 It is probable that dugout canoes were crafted using fire and/or lithic tools. In the later prehistoric context, i.e. post-3000 Before Common Era (BCE)8, it is probable that the Harappa civilization (Ratnagar 2006) and its West Asian counterparts interacted/traded with the microlithic communities of Kerala which perhaps brought in new boat-building techniques. Iron Age Little research exists on the trade, navigation and boat-building of the Iron Age communities (ca. 1000 to 500 BCE), which built megalithic burials with gravegoods for the dead (Gurukkal and Varier 1999). The iron implements suggest advanced metallurgy, and the carnelian beads and bronze artifacts indicate longdistance trade. The factors such as political conflicts, internal exchange and longdistance trade would have required the plank-built boats, extended dugouts and sails. External contacts would have influenced the boat-building traditions of Kerala. Colonization of Sri Lanka by Vijaya from North India in 543 BCE, depicted in the Ajanta paintings, means that large vessels were used in India in the Early Historic period (Panikkar 1947:32). In addition, the ships of the Indian Ocean Rim9 would have visited the Iron Age Kerala greatly. Teak wood and perfume of Kerala origin are reported to have been used during the time of King Solomon of the Old Testament (Narayanan 2004:41) and the reference to the land of Ophir in the Bible, identified with Kerala, if authentic, point to longdistance trade (Rawlinson 2005:102). 7 Such rafts are built by securing banana, bamboo and other light wood with creepers or plant fibres. They are made even today. 8 BCE=Before Common Era, a designation indicating years before the beginning of the Georgian Calendar. 9 By Indian Ocean rim, I mean the countries along the rim of the Indian Ocean from North Africa to Southeast Asia, and also the islands of this Ocean. 3 �Early Historic (300 BCE to 500 CE) The Early Historic period has comparatively better evidence. Pan-Indian interactions, "rudimentary" urbanization, political conflicts, craft-specialization and the Indian Ocean trade (Champakalakshmi 1996; Gurukkal 2010; Ray 2003; Selvakumar and Darsana 2008) induced by the internal and external factors (e.g. spice trade and Roman Empire) impacted Kerala. The Classical texts and archaeological record attest to the vibrant trade and the multi-functional towns with markets, ports and manufacturing and boat-building centres (e.g. Tondi, Muciri and Nelkynda as discussed in R. Champakalakshmi 1996: 105-141. Pattanam Canoe Excavations at the Early Historic site of Pattanam (25 km north of Kochi), proposed to be Muciri, produced the lower portion of a dugout (extended?) canoe (6 m+) (Figure 1B), near a wharf with bollards of teak. Accelerated Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Carbon14 (C-14) dates place the canoe in first century BCE/CE (Cherian, et al. 2009; see Cherian this volume). The canoe, similar to modern vanji, is made of Artocarpus hirsutus (anjiliy/aini) wood famous for contemporary dugouts. With a carved frame in one end the canoe shows evidence for caulking and repair with a piece of wood. The canoe perhaps was used for the transportation of goods/people along the rivers and backwaters. The Sangam texts refer to kazhittoni (canoe of backwater) that brought gold from the Yavanar's kalam10 (PuranaanooRu, 343, Selvakumar 2008) to Muciri. Similarly Pliny11 says that the Roman ships could not enter Muciri and, the goods were transported in smaller crafts (Sastri 1939:53). Therefore, the archaeological context perfectly matches with the texts. Was the smaller craft a kazhittoni or some other type? Texts The Sangam texts mention several watercrafts including kalam, naavaay, vangkam, timil, ambi and puNai (Subrahmanian 1966). The description and context help identify their purpose, but not their design and structure. For nautical terms in literature (Rajamanickam and Arulraj 1994; see Athiyaman this volume). The last three crafts meant for coastal-riverine navigation were indigenous; while the first two--sail-driven, sea-going vessels--in some contexts were non-local. Periplus12 mentions about colandia and sangara (Schoff 1912:46) plying in the Bay of Bengal and Southeast Asia which are considered to be outriggers of Southeast Asian origin (Sakhuja 2009). 10 The texts often mention about nankalam. Nan means 'good' in Tamil and kalam refers to ships, ornaments, weapons and pottery. Here is refers to ships. Yavanar means people of GrecoRoman and West Asian origin. 11 Pliny the Elder, who lived in the first century CE, was a Roman writer and naval commander. His account gives details on the Indo-Roman trade. 12 The Periplus Marei Erithrei is a Greek navigational guide dateable to the mid first century CE (Casson 1989). The name of the author of this work is not known. 4 �Evidence from South India Moving east of Kerala, the Early Historic port of Azhakankulam in southern Tamil Nadu, has two graffitio motifs of boat on pottery (Sridhar, et al. 2005). According to Lionel Casson (1996) one specimen (Figure 2A) is similar to the Roman ships. The sherd is broken and the double ropes of the second mast are very clear and hence it matches with the Ajanta/Satavahana motifs and not with the mosaic of the Ostia specimen (Figure 2C). The coins of Satavahana (Sharma 1980) ruler Vashistaputra Sri Pulumavi II have a double-ended ship having two masts secured with a single rope on either side; the stern has a rudder (Figure 2B).13 The coins of Satavahana Gautamiputra Yajna Sri Satakarni (Bajpai 1981:145; Mookerji 1999:51) have a vessel with twin ropes on the exterior sides of the masts and single rope on the interior, for better compactness to the ship. It appears to have a raised foreside, and both types seem to be sea-going vessels. In Deccan, the Ajanta paintings have several ship depictions (Figure 2D); one type, carrying pots, has three masts and some carry animals (Mookerji 1999:39; Schlingloff 1976), which prove that large ships were used in India. Pieces of teak, perhaps used in ships, were recovered at Berenike (Abraham 2007:290), which might have come from Kerala. The volume of ship traffic suggests possible repairing facilities in Kerala. The abundance of corroded copper and a few tin pieces from Pattanam (Cherian, et al. 2007a; Cherian, et al. 2007b) indicates their probable use in ship building/repair, and it is not clear if Roman ships were built in Kerala. Figure 2. Watercrafts of Early Historic Indian Ocean Region- A Graffito, Azhakankulam; B Motif on Satavahana Coin; C Motif from Ostia; D Pleasure Boat motif, Ajanta 13 Wilfred Harvey Schoff (1912: 244) has different versions of the boats on the Satavahana and Pallava coins; their accuracy is uncertain. 5 �Nature of Watercrafts The evidence suggests four categories of watercrafts: 1. The raft types for fishing on the sea and backwater. While kattumaram does not occur in the Tamil texts, maram does, and it means ship/boat/raft (Subrahmanian 1966: 645) 2. Dugout canoe for transport of people and goods, and fishing. 3. Ambi of the Tamil texts which exchanged fish for paddy (PuranaanooRu 343) might be a plank-built or an extended plank-built type. It is spoken of as including faces of horse and elephant. Did ambi have a keel and the extension of which had animal figureheads? 4. The large sea-going ships, e.g. vangkam, naavaay and kalam with sails and also colandia and sangara (Schoff 1912: 46). Interestingly, as in English, kalam refers to both utensil and ship in Tamil. Yavanar tanta vinai maaN nankalam in Akanaanooru 149 suggests the Roman origin of certain kalams. The poets, not familiar with the specific names of the Roman ships, used the generic label kalam. The native crafts are precisely named with their functions; e.g. kazhitthoni and ambi in PuranaanooRu 343. Naavaay could be a ship of North Indian origin, as its root word naav is Indo-European, not Dravidian, and vangkam, perhaps belonged to the Bay of Bengal region. Early Medieval (500 to 1000 CE) Data on the watercrafts and the navigation of this period is scanty. However, the ship motifs from the Pallava coins (Tripathi and Raut 2006) and Ajanta (Schlingloff 1976) prove the importance of maritime activities. Vangkam occurs in the Medieval Tamil texts (Appar Devaaram 1.84.7). Obviously state formation and commercial interests in South India boosted navigation and boat-building. Kerala witnessed the ships of West Asia, Coramandal coast, Southeast Asia and China. Perhaps Islam and Christianity too reached Kerala during this period. Increased evidence for trade occurs from the ninth century. The merchant guilds of Anjuvannam and the Christian presence at southern Kollam in 849 CE evidenced by the Terisappalli copper grants are noteworthy (Abraham 1988; Subbarayalu 2001; Varier 2003:160). The Jamat mosque inscription (late tenth century) at Patalayinikollam mentions about the guilds of Manigramattar and Valanjiyar (Varier 2003:155; SII, 8, 162:69). The maritime empire of the Cholas controlled southern Kerala and northern Sri Lanka, which further proves the importance of boat-building so the empire could be connected. By the end of this period Muslims were very active on the South India coast due to their interest in the Indian Ocean trade.14 The West Asian navigation technologies might have been introduced to Kerala. Beypore, north of Kozhikode, and other settlements perhaps emerged as major boat-building centres. 14 Ghosh 1992: 362 suggests that Muslims were pushed out of Mediterranean trade by the Christian states from the 10th century CE. 6 �Late Medieval (1000 CE to 1500 CE) Evidence for boat-building of this period is available in Arab, Chinese (Karashima 2004a; Sen 2006), European and native (Payyanur Paattu, Antony 1994) sources. The polities of Kerala which were in frequent skirmishes needed watercrafts for political and administrative purposes. Reference to the Kudiraichettis (horse traders) of Kerala occurs in Tamil inscriptions (Rangacharya 1919:1641). Merchants of Kerala were active on the east coast of India (Karashima 2004b:7), Sri Lanka (Pathamanathan 2004) and Southeast Asia (Selvakumar 2010). South India witnessed the merchants from the Indian Ocean Rim. Idrisi mentions about Fandarina (Pantalayinikollam) where ships of Sindh anchor (Varier 2003:162). The Genizah letters of Ben Yiju mention about a nakkudha named Nambiyar, perhaps a ship captain (Goitein 2001:430). The Cholas dominated the eastern Indian Ocean in the 11th century and they took expeditions to Sri Lanka, and to Southeast Asia to protect their maritime interests (Kulke, et al. 2009). The Chola inscription at Krishnapatnam of Andhra (1256 CE) mentions about the vessels named marakkalam15, thoni, vedi, padavu, kalavam, kamarasavalli and turi (Karashima 2004b: 7). Three types of Chinese ships that visited Kerala are mentioned by Ibn Battuta. Pantalayinikollam, north of Kozhikkode, was a wintering port for Chinese ships and Chinese sources mention southern Kollam as a major port (Varier 2003). Clearly West Asian dominance and Chinese interest grew in this phase (Sen 2006). Kadakkarappally Sailboat At Kadakkarappally (N Lat. 9 95. 470'; E Long. 76 18. 41' ca. 35 km south of Kochi, Chertala Taluk, Alappuzha dt), a damaged sailboat was excavated in 2002-2003 (Nair, et al. 2004; Pedersen 2004; Selvakumar 2006a; Selvakumar 2011; Selvakumar, et al. 2004; Tomalin, et al. 2004). This is the first significant example of a large boat to be excavated in India (Figure 3). 15 Marikar, surname of certain South Indian Muslims is considered to have derived from Marakkalarayar which means ship master/captain/owner (cf. Marakkalanaayakan in Barus inscription, Subbarayalu 1994), the Tamil equivalent (?) of nakhuda/naquid (Goiten 2001). 7 �Figure 3. A General view (from south) of the excavated boat at Kadakkarapally (Photo by Ralph Pedersen 2003). It is a flat-bottomed, nailed and plank-built boat; intact length ca. 18.67 m, width, ca. 4.05 m. The boat had a transom stern, partly disturbed, and a curvilinear-pointed bow, which resembles kettuvallam. It had double masts, one in the bow and the other amidships. It is made of Anjily wood (Artocarpus hirsutus) and for the bulkhead Cassia fistula wood is used. Two C-14 dates of Cal ad16 920–1160, average 990±70 years (Birbal Shani Institute of Palaeobotany (BSIP, Lucknow) and Cal ad 1020–1270 (Beta Analytic), place the boat between twelfth and fifteenth centuries CE. The boat displays a mixture of technologies some of which do not survive in contemporary Kerala. The "lashedlug" technology has interesting parallels to methods used in Southeast Asia and its compartments resemble the Chinese tradition. 16 'Cal' refers to calibrated age of the dated sample. It is the calendar age of the sample. 8 �Modern Period (from 1500 CE) The boat-building scenario changed drastically during this period because of the colonial presence (the Portuguese, Dutch and British)17 and the emergence of maritime empires (Mathew 1997), and the lack of powerful local polities. A dugout canoe of late historic period (Figure 4) was found at Uzhavur near Koothattukulam in 2006, but many such finds in Kerala either go undocumented or end up as firewood. Figure 4. A Dugout canoe excavated at Uzhavur-Puthuvely, Kottyam District, and Kerala (V.Selvakumar 2006) The water-filled southern and central Kerala produce several varieties of watercrafts. From the boat song of vanjipaattu to the Khalasi workers of Baypore yard the boat-building tradition is very dynamic (Joseph 2003). Malayalam has about 38 names for watercrafts (Rajamanickam 2004). Vanji is a canoe for river/backwater transport; kettuvallam is a stitched plank-built boat used for largescale transport, and its modified version functions as houseboats; changnadam (sangara) is used for ferries and palliOdam for ritual purpose; chundan vaLLam for the boat race in Alappuzha is an important type. Iruttukutthi vaLLam was used for piracy earlier. Caalattadi or kattumaram is used by the fisher-folk of Kerala. churulan vaLLam, Odi vaLLam, veppu vaLLam and kochchu vaLLam are other 17 Modern and contemporary ship-building are not discussed in this paper. 9 �traditional craft varieties. Craftsmen of Beypore produce large vessels, uru18, which are now manufactured mainly for West Asian customers. III. Discussion The internal and external dynamics have conditioned the traditional boat-building in Kerala, especially in Southern and Central Kerala which have numerous rivers and backwaters. The dugouts and rafts, which perhaps developed in prehistoric Kerala as an adaptation to environmental conditions, have been in constant use; however, their specific design has probably changed. Plank-built vessels, extended dugouts and use of masts and sails might have been introduced in the Iron Age when internal social complexities and external interactions intensified. The find of the Pattanam canoe is no surprise as similar canoes are used even today. Naavaay and vangkam were large seagoing vessels perhaps manufactured by the major traders in the Early Historic. While the smaller crafts were the products of day-to-day demands, the larger ships were the result of long-distance trade and the capitalist enterprise of major traders and guilds or political enterprise of the states. The chiefs did control the trade and used ships for political and economic benefits.19 The Indian Ocean trade brought merchants and watercrafts from different parts of the world to Kerala which might have led to hybridization of boat-building technologies. Reference to "the well-crafted vessels given by the Yavanar" in Tamil Akanaanooru poem 149 suggests that particular ships were Greco-Roman in origin. The indigenous ships were also used in longdistance trade. The questions of joining planks through stitching and nailing in the Early Historic period and their origin need more research. Very little is known about the early medieval watercrafts but continuity of early crafts is possible. From the 9th century the Indian Ocean witnessed increased commerce, and West Asian communities dominated the Indian Ocean trade (Arunachalam 2008). These communities with interest in Southeast Asia, traded on a variety of goods, including horses which were in great demand in late Medieval South India. Kerala along with the east coast of India was an ideal ground for these communities due to its location in the sea route connecting West Asia and Southeast Asia and the spice wealth. Therefore, the West Asian boat design dominated in certain contexts. Perhaps the native trading groups faced competition from the West Asian traders and it is probable that some of the traditional Indian designs (e.g. Vangkam, Kalam) lost their importance. The Beypore uru design is considered to be influenced by West Asian traditions (Hornell 1920). According to Hornell (1920: 7), "the Malayali adheres to the indigenous dugout design, the Arab type is largely built at those Mappilla centers 18 In the Mottupalli (1358 CE, SII XXVI, 635). and Krishnapatnam inscriptions (Karashima 2004b: 7), uru is the generic name for ships. 19 The Chera king Senguttuvan defeated his enemies/pirates on the sea and a Chera king was 'operating gold-yielding naavaay and other kalams would not pass his way (PuranaanooRu 126) in the Early Historic period. PathiRRuppattu (II, Canto, 8-10) mentions about a Chera king, who punished the Yavanar and took away their ship (?) with valuables. 10 �where the strain of Arab blood is appreciable, as for example at Calicut, Beypore and Ponnani". However, this categorization cannot be extended to the past. It needs to be researched carefully to understand if the Beypore design is entirely non-local or any of the early Indian elements were incorporated in it. Craftsmen of Beypore perhaps built boats of different types for various markets; and hence they could have copied and experimented with a combination of technologies. The Kadakkarappally sailboat, with Southeast Asian (cf. Manguin's 1996) and local features, suggests that certain types were abandoned in the past. It also proves that iron nails were used in medieval Indian boat-building, contrary to the widely held notion (Selvakumar, et al. 2004: 79). The competition over the Indian Ocean trade increased from the 15th century with the arrival of colonial powers and large watercrafts were built in Kerala to fulfill their ambitions. Several traditional watercrafts are used in Kerala and some of their names occur in ancient texts. The absence of kattumaram in the Sangam texts is puzzling; does maram in the texts refer to kattumaram? 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Zacharias, S., Manalel, J., Jose, M.C., and Salam, A., 2008 “Back Water Tourism in Kerala: Challenges and Opportunities”, paper presented in conference on Tourism in India-Challenges, Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode. http://hdl.handle.net/2259/597. Zevelebil, K., 1974 Tamil Literature, Harrassowitz, Weisbaden. 18 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Archaeological, Literary and Ethnographic Evidence for Traditional Boat-building in Kerala, South India Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource Kerala possesses rich maritime traditions dating back to the Early Historic period. A few types of traditional watercrafts developed indigenously and some are influenced by external contacts. Archaeological excavations revealed a medieval sailboat at Kadakkarappally in 2003 and an Early Historic canoe at Pattanam in 2007. The Early Historic Sangam Tamil texts refer to the watercrafts of Kerala. Traditional boat-building still survives in Kerala. This paper presents the evidence for traditional boats in Kerala, their historical context and the possible external influences, until the 15th century Common Era (CE). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veerasamy Selvakumar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/afd95b2da6233918c93b7845bed55df2.pdf 8447339fe70d9267a84d49330bbd5769 PDF Text Text What lies beneath the Sydney Opera House? Veronica M. Bullock1 Abstract When Australia celebrated the bicentenary of European settlement in 1988, a high profile bicentennial project was the construction of a new lower concourse for the Sydney Opera House. During excavations some giant chains were recovered. The „Sydney Cove Chain‟ was ultimately identified as (British) Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain (APMC). Much less well known than Admiralty Pattern Anchors and Buoys, APMC is likely to persist on seafloors at British anchorages around the globe due to it‟s high quality iron composition and hefty design - each link measures around 1 metre in length and bar width is typically 60 – 100 millimetres (mm). Also, because it sits on the sea floor, often beneath a layer of silt, APMC is likely to be well preserved by these anoxic conditions at many locations. In the case of the Sydney Cove Chain there is good evidence to support the theory that at least some elements travelled with the second Governor to the Colony of New South Wales in 1795 – just seven years after first settlement. There is also evidence that these same chains were used by Matthew Flinders to moor the ruined H.M.S. Investigator, after completion of the first circumnavigation of Australia in 1803. More startling than this is the possibility that such chains were used in the boom defence of Sydney Harbour, against such potential foes as the French, Russians, Spanish and Americans. In fact, between Napoleonic wars the French scientific expedition led by François Baudin camped with permission yet unease on Bennelong Point – the site of the current Sydney Opera House. What other archaeological treasures remain buried in this area? In 1987 the contract archaeologist monitoring the building site determined that it was too disturbed to yield significant archaeological evidence (Higginbotham 1987b:8; NSWHO / DUAP 1996:8-9). Master‟s research in 2003 questioned this conclusion, and presented a „statement of significance‟ containing more positive findings (Bullock 2003). Where it all began In 1988 Australia celebrated 200 years of European settlement. 2 It was the biggest party Australia had ever seen! Many and varied preparations were made across the country to commemorate the event in which heritage featured. As a newish country settled by Britons (but only just), there was collective soul searching about what it might mean to be Australian at that time. Officially discovered in 1770 by Captain James Cook of the Royal Navy while searching for the fabled Great Southern Land, Britain realised the use it could put Australia to at about the time it lost the War of Independence in North America (17861783) – Australia was established as the largest gaol the world had ever seen. The most „iconic‟ site in Australia is Sydney Cove. It is where the ships of the „First Fleet‟ dropped anchor on 26 January 1788. It is now instantly recognisable the world over as it is framed by the Sydney Harbour Bridge on its western headland (Dawes Point), and the Sydney Opera House on its eastern headland known as Bennelong Point - named after the Aboriginal Australian who lived there for a while at the first Governor‟s pleasure. 1 2 Significance International; info@significanceinternational.com For many of the original inhabitants of Australia the occasion became known as „Invasion Day‟. 1 �Figure 1. Sydney Cove: the site of first settlement of Australia, with the Sydney Opera House in the foreground and the Sydney Harbour Bridge in the background. The archaeological material discussed here was recovered from the land near the „East Sydney Cove‟ label. Bennelong Point served as a site for many functions – livestock pen, limeworks, saltworks, sandstone quarry, Governor‟s landing place, inter-racial laboratory, guest campsite (Malaspina 1793; Baudin 1802), defensive battery then fortification, promenade, parade ground, horse ferry, boat shed, steamship wharf, tram depot, and finally Australia‟s most recognisable opera house (Kerr 1993:1-13). One bicentennial celebration project was to create a new lower concourse for the Sydney Opera House with shops and extended promenades. Bennelong Point remained public land, despite challenges from the world of commerce - which nevertheless encroached from the western shore. After the construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge by 1932, a more picturesque use for Bennelong Point than the obsolete Fort Macquarie Tramshed was proposed by the city fathers in the 1950‟s. An international competition to design a „National Opera House‟ was announced in 1956. The competition was won by Dane Jorn Utzon, with his „white sails‟ design. It was a long and difficult building project, partly because of the innovative design which presented new problems, and partly due to the personalities involved. Utzon left the project well before it was finished and the work was completed by the New South Wales Public Works Department (the Department). Archaeological investigation Up to the time of the opening of the Sydney Opera House in 1973, it appears that no official archaeological investigations had been carried out on the site. 2 �In 1986 the Department began to dig up the past towards the creation of the bicentennial lower concourse. An official permit to investigate the archaeology of the site was not sought or granted under the State Heritage Act, and so any recovered material did not officially have to be conserved, or lodged anywhere. However, when demolishing a seawall on the western shore of Bennelong Point (also known as East Sydney Cove or East Circular Quay), some intriguing large-scale objects were discovered.3 Figure 2. Lengths One (right) and Three (left) of the „Sydney Cove Chain‟ near the find location at the Sydney Opera House forecourt 1986. Reproduced courtesy of the Australian National Maritime Museum. 3 It should be noted that at this heady time in Australia‟s history, proper civic planning and development procedures were sometimes not followed. In Sydney, public outcry focussed on expedited development of the next large bay to the west of Sydney Cove, known as Darling Harbour (location of the Australian National Maritime Museum), which was modernised with considerable disregard for heritage. 3 �Figure 3. Archaeological material donated to the Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) from the Sydney Opera House site in 1987. ANMM Registration Department assigned „Object Numbers‟ (00000XXX, N/N, NCXXXXX), and link numbers 1 – 20 used in Bullock (2003) are shown. „Sydney Cove Chain‟ material includes all links, rings and staples numbered 1 – 20. Engineering_artefacts N/N, 00000149 and 00000150 are not directly related to the Sydney Cove Chain, but were recovered from the same archaeological site. Drawn by V. M. Bullock from object photographs. Not to scale. It appears that the Department engaged an archaeologist from November 1986 until August 1987 to conduct „archaeological monitoring‟ of the site, almost as an afterthought. This type of minimal archaeological investigation is usually recommended because a site is likely to have low significance or because it has been so disturbed through usage that any archaeological evidence yielded would be of limited value due to compromised archaeological context (NSWHO / DUAP 1996:8-9). When the first large-scale objects were excavated and began reacting adversely with the above-ground atmosphere a metals conservator from the fledgling Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) was consulted. In due course many of the recovered objects were acquired into the National Maritime Collection (Higginbotham 1987a; Higginbotham and Bullock 2003; Hughes 1987:18). The archaeologist, Edward Higginbotham, began by documenting two sections in the vicinity of the discovered objects at Bennelong Point. The sections were located about 40 metres apart, midway between the eventual find sites, which were roughly 200 metres apart. The sections reveal seawall and slab construction from different engineering phases at the tidal location - built over piles, tar, concrete, rubble, fill, silt, soil, mud, slurries or sandstone bedrock. He found the type of material typical of past activity at many historic engineered sites e.g. salt glazed ceramic pipes, wooden fittings 4 �(wharf and deck structures), large scale metal fittings (including fixtures for seawall and perhaps for cranes), and also glass bottles and broken glass (Higginbotham 1987b). Higginbotham considered that the deposits were associated with a seawall completed in 1884 relating to Circular Quay (Sydney Cove) commercial shipping. This determined the theme under which the objects were acquired into the National Maritime Collection as „Economic and Commercial History‟. His 1987 conclusion, „confirmed the absence of archaeological deposits associated with the early development of Sydney Cove and Circular Quay‟ (Higginbotham 1987b:8). On Australia Day, 26 January 1988, Queen Elizabeth launched the bicentennial celebrations for Australia at the Sydney Opera House, and in 2007 the Sydney Opera House became a World Heritage Site (UNESCO 2007). . The Sydney Cove Chain Conservation Plan The 2003 „Sydney Cove Chain Conservation Plan‟ (the Conservation Plan) reduced the uncertainty surrounding the significance of the Sydney Cove Chain by calibrating visual and documentary evidence to revise back the dates of deposition of the artefacts by at least 20 years, and firmly identified the chain artefacts typologically with initial naval usage of the Cove - from the arrival of the second fleet in 1795 until the navy moved operations one bay to the east (Farm Cove) in 1841. Condition problems (delaminating stone and metal surfaces) and lack of time to conduct conservation or significance assessment led to suggestions by 2000 that the objects be de-accessioned It was at this point that the objects were suggested as the subject of a student project – in the first instance to devise a treatment regime compatible with both metal and stone components. Once this was done, however, it became clear that no treatment would be undertaken unless someone could show that the objects were of some significance. This is when conservator turned into curator, as relevant staff curators still had no time to investigate the significance of the objects. Sydney Cove Chain ‘statement of significance’ Following is the „statement of significance‟ 4 created for the ten items comprising the Sydney Cove Chain acquired into Australian National Maritime Collection (ANMM) in 1987: The massive wrought iron chain pieces recovered from Sydney Cove in 1986-1987 are typical Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain deployed around the globe between approximately 1580 and 1988. These objects are rare in Australian maritime experience and unique in Australian maritime collections, because such chains are commonly left in situ on the seafloor to continue serving as permanent moorings – or are abandoned. The Sydney Cove Chain was imported from Britain and used to moor hulks and convict transports in Sydney Cove shortly after English settlement (~1795-1823+), during the primarily naval phase of use of the Cove. 4 A „statement of significance‟ is „a reasoned, readable summary of the meaning, values and importance of an item or collection. A statement of significance makes the importance of items and collections accessible to a wide audience.‟ (Russell and Winkworth 2009:63). 5 �The Chain tells us about naval equipment and practice at a time before the full phasing in of chain for shipboard use (beginning 1817), and the incorporation of a clump anchor, hewn from local rock, is symptomatic of the shortages of naval stores experienced in the colony. There is evidence to suggest that Captain Matthew Flinders laid such a chain for his hulked ship H.M.S. Investigator, after completion of a major part of his circumnavigation of the continent he named Australia. Apart from association with the earliest period of English settlement, the Chain is also connected with later phase commercial usage of Sydney Cove, as parts of it were dredged up and used as fill behind civic seawalls from around 1860. The Sydney Cove Chain is in poor condition and in need of conservation treatment. The iron retains friable but treatable original surfaces, and the corrosion expansion of one link threatens the integrity of the sandstone clump anchor. The rarity and representativeness of the Sydney Cove Chain and related artefacts is significant for early Australian history, and a range of significances have been assigned to the objects according to archaeological provenancing detail. The capacity of these extremely heavy gauge objects to support interpretations of the past, which seek to demonstrate the stamina and ingenuity of earlier generations in creating and positioning equipment, without motorisation, or making-do in local circumstances (clump anchor), is also significant. The Sydney Cove Chain may also be used to interpret late eighteenth-early nineteenth century quarrying practice, wrought iron production and chain production, as well as the naval practices of mooring and boom defence. Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain A fundamental problem with the Sydney Cove Chain when research began was that noone consulted at the ANMM or the Sydney Heritage Fleet had seen chain of that large size before. Each of the three lengths comprise three iron links approximately 1 metre long each, and one ring. Length One is attached to a large sandstone block with a similarly large iron staple. The heavy gauge of the Chain is extraordinary – the bar it was made from ranges between 2 and 4 inches in diameter. After a national and international search the object type was finally identified by the Chief Salvage and Mooring Officer of the Ministry of Defence in the United Kingdom, Mr Morgyn Davies O.B.E., as „Mooring Cable, Square Link‟ or Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain (APMC) (Davies 2003a). He explained that its main usage in British Admiralty permanent moorings meant that it mostly remains on the seafloor, where it is often purchased in situ by commercial port managers in the knowledge that a diver check will confirm that corrosion and fouling are not advanced (Davies 2003b). Whether made from wrought iron, cast iron, forged steel or cast steel, the heavy gauge and high quality metal used in Admiralty Pattern designs, the absence of a welded stud link between each long side (as found in ship-board chain), and location on the seafloor often in a layer of silt, promotes corrosion resistance. Davies is aware that all production types continue in active use at many locations around the world (Davies 2003b). The Sydney Cove Chain appears to be made from rolled wrought iron. It is not now possible to tell whether it was also oiled, painted or tarred against rusting, although it may have been „case hardened‟ 5, with the same aim in mind. Testing revealed high 5 Surface carbon layer added during forging process. 6 �phosphorous content, which along with sulphur is a traditional corrosion inhibiting inclusion. Metallurgical analysis concluded that the phosphorous content indicated an English origin, even though archival evidence was found of massive chain production in Australia by at least 1822 (SRNSW 6053 4/1756:152-155). The Conservation Plan traces Sydney Cove mooring patterns from the first day of European settlement. The muddy bottom and rocky foreshores were found to favour the local creation of clump anchors, and the three lengths of chain may represent specific usage in „Resilient type‟ or 3-arm‟ moorings, but they may also have been used in „Trot‟, „Single‟, or as Matthew Flinders‟ log book attests, in „Bridle type four-arm‟ moorings (Curryer 1999:137; L C of A 1951:154). Figure 4. Types of moorings for ships. Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty 1951:154. An alternate use of APMC is in the construction of defensive chain barriers and booms. Research revealed large iron chains to keep unwanted shipping away from certain locations from at least the Fourth Crusade in 1203, when the Venetians broke the chain protecting Golden Horn Bay on the Bosphorus. They carried it back to Venice, along with the four bronze horses from Constantinople‟s Hippodrome which now adorn St Mark‟s cathedral (Diamant 1989:87). Various locations in England, Europe, the Mediterranean and North America have been defended in this way. Notable examples include „ye mightie chayne of iryne‟ which failed to stop the Dutch invading a tributary of the Thames to steal the English flagship Royal Charles in 1667, and „George Washington‟s Watch Chain‟, which succeeded where Benedict Arnold failed, in deterring the British at West Point in 1780 (Diamant 1989:1-2). In the 7 �American Civil War (1861-1865) the Confederates 6 were credited with being particularly inventive in such matters of the emerging field of „psychological warfare‟ (Diamant 1989:xv). At Charleston they combined Dutch chevaux de frises timber bulwark and iron spear technology with chains to flummox Union ship captains (Diamant 1989:39). Debate raged for centuries as to the effectiveness of chains and booms as deterrents (Baker Brown 1910:7; Clinch 1915:210, 215). Consensus found that, if deployed, defensive chains and booms should be operated from and protected by the firepower of overlooking fortifications on headlands (Corp. of Royal Engineers 18531862:172, 288). This matter was played out in Sydney as naval, military and civic advisors informed successive government enquiries into Colony defences. The two main schools of thought battled over whether to focus on protecting Sydney Cove or the larger Sydney Harbour (Port Jackson), closer to the open ocean (Bullock 2003:117-122; Austin 1979:264, 150; SRNSW 6052 4/1752:156. With batteries 7 on Bennelong Point and Dawes Point just 666 metres apart, Sydney Cove was amenable to such defensive chain deployment. From first settlement batteries had been „thrown up‟ along Sydney Harbour in panicked reaction to European conflicts e.g. Garden Island in 1796 against the French and in 1820 against the Russians (Macey 2002); George‟s and Middle Heads against the Spanish from 1801 (Austin 1979:151; Hendy-Pooley 1903:135). The French were the abiding enemy, with their presence being felt from the first with de La Perouse‟s vessels only prevented from making landfall at Botany Bay by strong winds, as the British First Fleet scouted the same Bay for a suitable settlement site in late January 1788 (Marchant 2011). Fear of America was fuelled by the 1839 clandestine appearance of Captain Charles Wilkes‟ U.S. Naval Expedition in Sydney Harbour. He bragged, „Had war existed, we might, after firing the shipping, and reducing the great part of the town to ashes, have affected a retreat before daybreak, in perfect safety‟ (Jones 1986:13). By 1873 visiting English novelist Anthony Trollope made the following observations about the „martial ardour‟ of Sydneysiders (Dow 1966:36): I had previously no idea that the people of New South Wales were either so suspicious of enemies, or so pugnacious in their nature. I found five separate fortresses, armed, or to be armed, to the teeth with numerous guns – four, five or six at each point – Armstrong guns, rifled guns, guns of eighteen tons weight, with loopholed walls, and pits for 8 riflemen, as though Sydney were to become another Sebastopol …There was a boom to be placed across the harbour, and a whole world of torpedoes ready to be sunk beneath the water, all of which were prepared and ready for use in an hour or two. It was explained to me that „they‟ could not possibly get across the trenches, or break the boom, or escape the torpedoes, or live for an hour beneath the blaze of guns. „They‟ would not have a chance to get at Sydney. 6 The Confederate States were the southern states of the now United States of America. During the American Civil War the southern and northern states were at war. 7 A defensive battery is a simple form of defence and comprises earthen or stone walls, cannons and / or rifles, along with people trained to fire ammunition and return fire. 8 Sebastopol was the capital of the Crimea. The Crimean War was waged between Great Britain and Russia between 1892 and 1896. 8 �A comprehensive scheme for upper harbour protection with booms and large chains was proposed to Parliament in 1863, and there is some evidence that materials were bought. To date, however, there is no evidence that such defences existed at the mouth of Sydney Cove. The matter of the effectiveness of these deterrents was decided with the invention of more powerful guns and mines, and the consequent outdating of fortifications. Also, Australians seemed finally and uneasily to accept the English philosophy: that by maintaining its maritime supremacy in the Northern Hemisphere attacks on its interests on the far side of the world would be averted (Lambert 2001:100104). Conclusion Australia‟s 1988 bicentennial party caused the Sydney Cove Chain to be discovered. It is unfortunate that the opportunity to conduct a more serious archaeological investigation was not taken at the time, as quick work left the ANMM, as custodial institution, with long-term challenges concerning these surprisingly delicate objects. The Conservation Plan allowed deeper investigation. A number of firm results reduced the uncertainty surrounding the assemblage, and twenty-two recommendations cover the topics „General Heritage and Museum Practice‟, „Implementation of Conservation Plan‟ and „Significance Research‟, making the path clear for the Museum when it is in a position to act (Bullock 2003). Most of the recommendations can be achieved in-house. A major external recommendation is that heritage bodies acknowledge the ongoing difficulties cases like the Sydney Cove Chain confer on custodial institutions, and that they adjust and enforce their regulations to avoid such outcomes. In 1996 the New South Wales heritage legislation and bureaucratic structures changed for the better (NSWHO 1996, 2002), but some feel that still more could be achieved for historical evidence (Heritage Act Review Panel 2009; Curby and McClean 2009). A further bold recommendation is internal to the collecting institution – that it seriously address its object accessioning backlog before trails go cold. To this end some alternatives were suggested, ranging from engaging student volunteers or paid extra staff in a significance assessment and documentation drive, through to implementing a moratorium on new acquisitions until backlogs are addressed. In view of the Conservation Plan research it was also suggested that the objects should be reclassified under the „Maritime Archaeology and Ship Technology‟, „Naval Service in Australia‟, or even „Colonial Exploration‟ (rather than „Economic and Commercial History‟) collecting themes, pending evidence obtained through further significance research.9 The Sydney Cove Chain is positive proof that archaeological deposits at Bennelong Point may indeed hold keys to a range of early usages at this site of fundamental importance to Australia‟s history and identity. As significance assessment changes when new evidence becomes available and according to the perspectives of the people consulted, I hope that further evidence comes to light following the „Significance Research‟ recommendations in the Conservation Plan. This should further 9 Please note that the ANMM Collection Development Plan was updated in 2005, so the particular collecting theme names would now need to be adjusted. 9 �reduce uncertainty about these unusual objects, as well as other aspects of Bennelong Point‟s past. Epilogue The Sydney Opera House Conservation Plan of 1993 has been updated twice. The third edition dated 2003 describes the bicentennial lower concourse building works of the late 1980‟s, assigning to these modern works a „B‟ level of significance i.e. „considerable significance‟10 (Kerr 2003:33). The eminent author of this report James Semple Kerr recognises the surviving parts of the 1860‟s seawall as one of the two major surviving elements of early occupation of the site in this area. Although, „encased in concrete or buried in mud‟ (Kerr 2003:94) he recommends its removal only, „where it becomes necessary for the stability of the broadwalk or associated structures above‟ (Kerr 2003:57). Kerr concludes that the Bennelong Point site „is now so heavily disturbed that sub-surface cultural remains are limited‟ (Kerr 2003:94). Although official comprehensive investigation of Bennelong Point seems out of the question now, development work has continued at the site e.g., the Sydney Harbour Tunnel (1992) (passes underneath this archaeological locale); the Sydney Opera House Parking Station (1993). The fullest report on the archaeological potential Bennelong Point appears to have been produced in preparation for the current general site development in 2010 (GML 2010). One result is that this year archaeological investigation is being made of the other element that Kerr noted as significant: a nineteenth-century Bennelong Drain (GML 2010). After learning of this work I contacted the consultants to make them aware of the Higginbotham reports and the Conservation Plan, in the hope that they may recover some better provenanced APMC material, or perhaps even some anchor points for a Sydney Cove chain defence! Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Australian National Maritime Museum for granting permission and providing assistance for my study of these objects, as well as the many people who provided jigsaw pieces along the way. In particular I thank Dr Christopher Jenkins for baseline support and help with all things digital, and the Sydney Harbour Foreshore Authority for awarding the thesis its 2004 Heritage Prize. Abbreviations NSWHO SRNSW New South Wales Heritage Office State Records of New South Wales BIBLIOGRAPHY Austin, M., 1979 10 The Army in Australia 1840-1850. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. The scheme ranges from A = exceptional significance to D = little significance. 10 �Bullock, V.M., 2003 Baker Brown Lieut. Col. W., 1910 Clinch, G., 1915 Corps of Royal Engineers (eds), 1853-1862 Curby, P., and McClean, S., 2009 Curryer, B.N., 1999 Davies, M., 2003a Davies, M., 2003b Diamant, L., 1989 Dow, H., (ed), 1966 GML (Godden Mackay Logan Pty Ltd), 2010 Hendy-Pooley, G., 1903 NSWHO, Heritage Act Review Panel, 2007 Higginbotham, E., 1987a Higginbotham, E., 1987b Sydney Cove Chain: conservation plan, Unpublished Master‟s thesis, University of Western Sydney, Sydney. History of Submarine Mining in the British Army, Royal Engineers Institute, Chatham. English Coast Defences – from Roman Times to the Early Years of the Nineteenth Century, G. Bell and Sons Ltd., London. Aide Memoire to the Military Sciences. (Framed from contributions of officers of the different services). John Weale, High Holborn. „Position re Heritage Amendment Bill 2009‟, Professional Historians Association of New South Wales, Sydney. Available at: http://www.phansw.org.au/publications/Heritage_Act_Position_P aper_PHA_(NSW)_June_2009.pdf Anchors – an illustrated history, Chatham Publishing, London. Commentary on data provided and three questions from Ms V. Bullock – Letter dated 12 February 2003. Commentary on data provided and ten questions from Ms V. Bullock. Chaining the Hudson: the fight for the river in the American Revolution, Carol Publishing Group for Lyle Stuart, New York. Trollope’s Australia: a selection from the Australian passages in Australia and New Zealand by Anthony Trollope, Thomas Nelson (Aust) Ltd, Melbourne. Sydney Opera House: Vehicle and Pedestrian Safety Project (VAPS), Archaeological Management Plan and Archaeological Impact Assessment, Report prepared for the Sydney Opera House Trust, February, Sydney. Available at Appendix D: http://majorprojects.planning.nsw.gov.au/index.pl?action=view_j ob&job_id=3623 Defenders and Defences of Australia, with Military Reminiscences In The Australian Historical Society Journal and Proceedings [Read before the Society 5th October 1903]: 130140. A Review of the New South Wales Heritage Act 1977 - Report of the Independent Expert Panel, December 2007. Available at: http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/docs/mediareleases/heritagact_r eview_report.pdf Interim Report on Mooring Rings and Chains from circular Quay East and the Opera House Forecourt, Edward Higginbotham & Associates Pty Ltd / Consultant Archaeological Services for the Department of Public Works, New South Wales, May 1987. Archaeological Watching Brief During the Remodelling of the Opera House Forecourt, Sydney, New South Wales, Consultant Archaeological Services for the Department of Public Works, 11 �Higginbotham, E., and Bullock, V., 2003 Hughes, J., 1987 Jones, C., 1986 Kerr, J.S., 1993 Kerr, J.S., 2003 Lambert, A., 2001 L C of A (Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty), 1951 Macey, R., November 2002 Marchant, L., R., 2011 NSWHO, 2002 NSWHO, Heritage Act Review Panel, 2007 NSWHO / DUAP, 1996 Russell, R. and Winkworth, K., 2009 New South Wales, December 1987. email correspondence, 7 March 2003. 'Caring for maritime artefacts‟ in Heritage Conservation News, Vol. 4 ,2, Heritage Council of New South Wales, Sydney. Australian Colonial Navies, Australian War Memorial, Canberra. Sydney Opera House: an interim plan for the conservation of the Sydney Opera House and its site, Commissioned by New South Wales Public Works for the Sydney Opera House Trust, December, Sydney. Sydney Opera House: a plan for the conservation of the Sydney Opera House and its site (third edition), Sydney Opera House Trust, Sydney. „Australia, the Trent crisis of 1861 and the strategy of imperial defence‟ In (eds) D. Stevens and & J. Reeve, Southern Trident: History and the Rise of Australian Naval Power, Allen and Unwin, Sydney. Admiralty Manual of Seamanship (seventh impression 1977), Volume III, Her Majesty‟s Stationery Office, London. “Island‟s Tourism Birth a Date with History” In Sydney Morning Herald Newspaper, Fairfax Press, Sydney. 'La Pérouse, Jean-François de Galaup (1741–1788)', Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University: http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/la-perouse-jean-francois-degalaup-2329 Local Government Heritage Guidelines, New South Wales Heritage Office, Sydney, Chapter 3, Section 3.1.1, Available at: http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/guidelines/index.htm A Review of the New South Wales Heritage Act 1977 - Report of the Independent Expert Panel, December 2007. Available at: http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/docs/mediareleases/heritagact_r eview_report.pdf Archaeological Assessments, New South Wales Heritage Office / Department of Urban Affairs and Planning, (NSWHO / DUAP), Sydney. Significance 2.0: a guide to assessing the significance of collections, Collections Council of Australia / Commonwealth of Australia, Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/publications/significance 2-0/ 12 �SRNSW, Reel 6053 4/1754, 1822 SRNSW Reel 6052 4/1751, 1820 UNESCO, 2007 Overseer of Blacksmiths, New Lumberyard, Referred to in papers and evidence, and testified before the Board of Enquiry into the Engineers Department, December 1821 – March 1822. J.T. Bigge on the Defence of New South Wales, 2 October 1820: 156. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/166 13 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource What lies beneath the Sydney Opera House? Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource When Australia celebrated the bicentenary of European settlement in 1988, a high profile bicentennial project was the construction of a new lower concourse for the Sydney Opera House. During excavations some giant chains were recovered. The ‘Sydney Cove Chain’ was ultimately identified as (British) Admiralty Pattern Mooring Chain (APMC). Much less well known than Admiralty Pattern Anchors and Buoys, APMC is likely to persist on seafloors at British anchorages around the globe due to it’s high quality iron composition and hefty design - each link measures around 1 metre in length and bar width is typically 60 – 100 millimetres (mm). Also, because it sits on the sea floor, often beneath a layer of silt, APMC is likely to be well preserved by these anoxic conditions at many locations. In the case of the Sydney Cove Chain there is good evidence to support the theory that at least some elements travelled with the second Governor to the Colony of New South Wales in 1795 – just seven years after first settlement. There is also evidence that these same chains were used by Matthew Flinders to moor the ruined H.M.S. Investigator, after completion of the first circumnavigation of Australia in 1803. More startling than this is the possibility that such chains were used in the boom defence of Sydney Harbour, against such potential foes as the French, Russians, Spanish and Americans. In fact, between Napoleonic wars the French scientific expedition led by François Baudin camped with permission yet unease on Bennelong Point – the site of the current Sydney Opera House. What other archaeological treasures remain buried in this area? In 1987 the contract archaeologist monitoring the building site determined that it was too disturbed to yield significant archaeological evidence (Higginbotham 1987b:8; NSWHO / DUAP 1996:8-9). Master’s research in 2003 questioned this conclusion, and presented a ‘statement of significance’ containing more positive findings (Bullock 2003). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica M. Bullock Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/198a5e7dddd7043fb413267eee938194.jpg 78f590dbf8e9bbef8be6bee2402ab935 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 517 Height 365 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nautical Angkor: The Social Life of Boats in the Khmer Empire Subject The topic of the resource Poster Description An account of the resource <h2>This poster examines boats as depicted in bas reliefs in the Bayon temple that represent the everyday life of the Khmer empire during the 12th century.</h2> <p>&nbsp;</p> <h2>Click here to see the poster: <a title="Angkor Boats Poster" href="http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/posters/Angkor_Boats.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/posters/Angkor_Boats.pdf</a></h2> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Poster https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/dbf7c68a6543fba165355956fa03dbd2.jpg 71509665c2887d7a60e91fff2b77df2c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poster Session 2014 Description An account of the resource Posters presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interdisciplinary approaches to the study of Angkorian ships Description An account of the resource Poster presented at the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/9/2014 Asia-Pac Poster 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/20cdf55356540e81a1b2bb89476e0b3a.jpg 8a93e83bc5666549d74e93c0dcf9d422 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poster Session 2014 Description An account of the resource Posters presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The snake, the crocodile, and the king Decorative motifs in the royal barges of Angkor Description An account of the resource Poster presented at the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/9/2014 Asia-Pac Poster 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3e22c12746e4facfb177c1027d0d51e1.jpg 37e6c4554daacfcb88958278f85a80d0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poster Session 2014 Description An account of the resource Posters presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A VOC ship in the walls of Angkor Wat? Description An account of the resource Poster presented at the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Xabier Armendariz Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/9/2014 Asia-Pac Poster 2014