62 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/54d57e105509e449c3e99e1b65b14073.pdf 5f2f3a9d54b60b7bf94d74df866ca01e PDF Text Text The Stolen Memory: The Legal Crisis of the Hispanic Sunken Heritage in America and its causes José María Lancho Legalventure, C/Sagasta nº 24, 6º D, Madrid, Spain Email: Jml@josemarialancho.com Abstract The exam of the legal practice related to the Hispanic underwater heritage in the last 10 years in the United States shows that this has been the main resource of a mature treasure hunter industry in that country; that this industry has developed a specific discourse denying intrinsic cultural value to the Hispanic historical remains; and that this discourse has had an influence over the juridical and administrative authorities in the United States in such a way that legal, academic and media approaches to this archaeological legacy show an inadvertent but significant discrimination against the Hispanic Heritage -instead of Heritage of other cultural origins-, with the result that an important record of American history has been reduced to a mere industry and a resource for exploitation without requiring a minimal scientific counterpart, constituting without doubt one of the most serious and consummate problems within the entire historical record of the American history. In Hawaii in a recent court case, in which a Spanish galleon appears to be involved, we face the problem of fitting the Hispanic legacy in America in its legal and academic form, specifically because it brings into question the fact that Captain James Cook became the first European to discover the Hawaiian Islands, and makes manifest the extra historical relevance this assumption still holds. In this paper we deal with legal, historical and social aspects of this issue. Key words: Hispanic Heritage, shipwrecks, treasure-hunters, national and international waters, legal approaches Introduction The history of the submerged Hispanic heritage in the United States is the story of a stolen memory. In fact, it is of a memory that can still be robbed and one that has not had the effective legal protection that it deserves, given the nature of the destruction done and the irreversible loss of a common and valuable legacy. The scarcity of academic and scientific debate that this destructive process has meant for the entire historical registry of the history of the United States is surprising, especially when it involves a country that is without a doubt the largest archaeological power in the world. For every meter of marine depth that technology has conquered for mankind, thousands of square miles of sea bottom have been made vulnerable and unknown areas opened 1 �up to underwater archaeological ransacking. Nevertheless, in the United States that destruction has been selective. As a matter of fact, a close look into the legal and administrative practice involved with commercial access to marine archaeological sites in the U.S. evidences an unquestionable asymmetry in its treatment by virtue of its cultural origins. The above statement does not mean that the heritage stemming from other cultural origins has not been subject to what we can only define as legal plundering, but that in particular and foremost, the Hispanic cultural heritage –in spite of its special entity-has been subjected to quite specific aggression supported by concrete supra-scientific arguments, that have enjoyed scarce legal and judicial reaction in light of the dimension of such destruction, which we say has had a numbing effect on the American cultural and scientific conscience as it regards the disappearance of said legacy. Unfortunately, Admiralty perspective Law Fig. 1 Abraham Ortelius 1570 map. With Los Bolcanes and La Farfana the first and names applied to Hawaiian Islands. (Biblioteca Nacional de España) new internal regulations have not served to discourage treasure-hunters, nor have they provided homogenous rules to regulate activities directed at the underwater cultural heritage. In spite of the debates that have existed between the various administrations involved with marine sanctuaries, the different states and the U.S. National and Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the advances that have undoubtedly taken place, the situation is such that underwater excavations by treasure- 2 �hunting companies continue to be carried out on shipwreck sites by means of simple administrative permits that usually end up having no real scientific consequences (Fig.1). Analysis of the judicial practice in the United States related to the Hispanic sunken heritage in American waters My concerns for the weak legal situation of the Hispanic historical heritage in the United States made me undertake an analysis of the scope of this problem, and part of the conclusions reached are included herein1. An attempt has been made to explain the legal situation of the Spanish historical heritage in American waters as a “before and after” issue after the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 4th Circuit, in its sentence dated 21st July 2000 concerning the remains of the Spanish frigates “La Juno” and “La Galga”, ruled in favor of the Kingdom of Spain sovereign immunity2. However, these statements have not stopped additional jurisdictional activity, or even administrative authorizations, from favoring the treasure hunters’ looting of Hispanic shipwrecks, whether warships or any other kind. As a result, the treasure-hunting industry has basically survived the last 20 years by ransacking the underwater historical Spanish heritage in the United States. The district Courts reflected a number of guidelines in their rulings, in all matters related to the adjudication of archaeological sites that correspond to archaeological guarantees in the protocols regarding access to the sites. Those guidelines are analyzed as follows: Type of Legal Action Exercised Action in rem exercising the finder’s rights and subsidiary right of salvage. Preliminary Archaeological Design In none of the cases did the treasure-hunting company provide a project design for the activity on the site, nor contrasted prior information and background studies about the shipwrecks. Scientific Intervention Criteria · Proposed criteria: None at the point of origin. Treasure-hunting companies have never set forth any archaeological or research objectives. In all the claims and their related extensions, there are no descriptions or proposals for specifically-determined archaeological criteria, methodology or techniques. In some cases there have been references made to matters of ecological, but not archaeological, impact. 3 �· Prior methodology or techniques required by the Courts: None. The Courts have not identified or made any references to any internationally-accepted archaeological criteria. · Archaeological monitoring and supervision established by the Courts: Not found in any case. The Courts do not demand any site management or maintenance plans. Scientific results of the excavations As no archaeological project has been submitted, the Courts have never defined or proposed any appropriate methods and working techniques. · Dating and identification methods and on-site documentation: Unknown. Treasurehunting companies go out of their way to hide the shipwrecks’ identity-or delay disclosing as much information as possible-, especially when of Spanish origin. In the latter cases, there are no obstacles to obtain excavation rights. However, in 30% of the cases, the companies stated they knew the identity of the wrecks. As excavation often entails the destruction of the wrecks, on-site documentation needs to be produced for any subsequent reconstruction. · Historiographical analysis of the sunken remains: No scientific reporting. Only occasionally and with a markedly commercial intent, a non-scientific publication is produced and the name or identity of the sunken vessel furnished. However, no requests are made to show proof of its identity. · Other analysis made of the salvaged materials: None. There are no academic postfieldwork activities. No scientific data is obtained or added to site interventions that may be associated with the application of any internationally-acceptable archaeological and scientific methods. · Guarantees of access and dissemination to the scientific community: None. · Scientific results published: None. There has been no publication of any scientific results, except for what could be considered commercial literature aimed at facilitating the sale of the excavated remains. These conclusions about the facts involved in the context of legal proceedings in the 21st century give us ample indications of what happened in the 20th century and the enormous destruction that this industry has brought about. 4 �Norms and standards not applied to the sunken Hispanic archaeological heritage There is a powerful paradox within the scope of archaeological protection. In the meantime, United States Courts have been able to establish legal requirements, at least in theory, granting rights over historical shipwreck sites. That has been the case of Klein v. Unidentified Wrecked and Abandoned Sailing Vessel (11th Circuit, 1985), which ruling established that the rescue of historical ships could not entail a greater risk than to leave the remains on the seabed, and that any excavation should follow clear archaeological criteria. Along those lines was the ruling in Cobb Coin Company, Inc. v. Unidentified Wrecked, the only one of its kind regarding the Hispanic heritage, dealing with the property rights over the historical objects obtained from a Spanish wreck. In that case the court said: […] there can be no suggestion that federal admiralty procedures sanction salvaging methods, which fail to safeguard items and the invaluable archaeological information, associated with the artefacts salved”. Notwithstanding these statements, in their practical application concerning the underwater Spanish heritage we can arrive at the following conclusions without the smallest margin of error: 1) The radical lack of application of any archaeological requirements on the part of American jurisprudence with regards to excavation of historical shipwreck sites. 2) The non-observance of scientific standards, at least those enjoying minimal recognition by the international community, and in particular the ones included in the 2001 UNESCO Convention. The divergence in the American judicial practice concerning the submerged historical patrimony of Hispanic origin has been radically contradictory not only with the increasingly-consolidated archaeological principles in academic circles, but also of the UNESCO itself. Despite this contradiction it is surprising that such divergence has not been dealt with in American academic debates. It is enough to point out the internationally-consolidated principle of giving preference to the in situ conservation of the underwater patrimony, the first of the options that must be considered prior to the intervention of a shipwreck site, according to Article 1 (fundamental principles) of the International Charter on the Protection and Management of the Underwater Cultural Patrimony, as ratified by the 11th ICOMOS General 5 �Assembly (1996). That very same criteria is also set forth in Article 2.5 of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. That is, any manipulation or removal that has not been given prior scientific consideration to its adoption in a subsidiary way to the in situ preservation is in violation of internationally recognized archaeological criteria. Notwithstanding, the Courts have allowed the archaeological debate over the access of treasure-hunting companies to historical shipwreck sites. In the 2004 case of Great Lakes Exploration Group LLC vs. Unidentified Wreck, the Western District Court of Michigan (1:04-cv-00375), the court denied the treasure-hunting company its request for excavation due to its lack of furnishing archaeological guarantees in it. In the matter of Columbus America Discovery Group vs. Atlantic Mutual Insurance Company (974 F. 2nd 450, 468), the court concludes that the efforts made to protect the historical element and archaeological value is a factor to ponder in determining the compensation of a salvage operation. In that case the shipwreck was that of the S.S. Central America, an American steamer sunk by a hurricane in 1857. In yet another case, Marex International, Inc. v. The Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel (4:96-cv-00194-JFN), the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Georgia in Savannah granted the exclusive rights on the wreck to Marex because the company included the following elements in their methodology: compilation of a historical register of the remains; divers involved had been trained in the use of archaeological methods and employment of thorough excavation techniques; the use of a laboratory with the capacity of preserving the salvaged artifacts; and the hiring of experts to help evaluate and preserve the extracted remains. This matter involved the S.S. North Carolina, an American ship. However, despite the wisdom and intellectual acumen shown by the U.S. Courts in establishing these requirements, when the law is applied to underwater sites of Hispanic origin, for the most part those Courts not only fail to apply those laws directly, but they do not demand nor verify any aspects concerning archaeological criteria. This discrimination or “asymmetry” is even noticed nowadays in non-judicial administrations. Of over a dozen sites that correspond to historical remains designated by the State of Florida in the National Register of Historic Places, only two belong to Spanish sunken 6 �ships and are located in already-looted sites, even though dozens more are exploited annually with the knowledge of the Florida authorities3 (Fig. 2). Causes: The ideological element in carrying out the law Once the objective element of the problem is exposed, the significant fact remains that even the most benign aspects of U.S. norms are not applied in the case of sunken heritage of Hispanic origin. We then examine the direct ideological causes of this problem, which in a quantitative and qualitative way could be described as a cultural genocide, as well as one of the greatest cultural disasters in the 20th and 21st centuries. There is a generalized and highly-effective discourse throughout the treasure-hunting industry with respect to the historical patrimony of Hispanic origin, which was expressed as “The curse of the Black Legend” by the American reporter Tony Horwitz (2006) in The New York Times. Fig. 2 Joan Martines 1587 map. (Biblioteca Nacional de España) Treasure-hunters avail themselves of a brief but efficient “ideological capsule” from both the Courts and the academic world’s silent majority: the idea that the remains of Hispanic shipwrecks were tainted by a certain moral deficiency that excluded them from 7 �being considered historical legacies. The end result is that treasure-hunters become the executing arm of a sort of yellow historicism and retrospective pseudo-justice that makes archaeological sites incompatible with any inherent historical and scientific value. We all remember that during the negotiations of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage some illustrious members of the treasure-hunting family had no qualms about wearing jewels and personal objects that had been plundered from shipwrecked marine graveyards. Even the official reports to the shareholders and third parties put out by companies like Admiralty Holding Co. (published by the Securities and Exchange Commission in its 8-K form dated 9th October 2006) carry statements of that kind: “The treasure stolen from the New World was very important to the King of Spain and it actually sustained the economy of Spain during the period that it was being taken to Spain”. We are dealing with quite a generalized phenomenon, which uses the black legend to legitimize the ransacking of historical underwater remains of Hispanic origins, which thereby negate the true American historical and archaeological character, and even a moral or legal nexus with the societies to which those archaeological remains belong. Without a doubt, it is one of the most grievous cultural attacks that a develop society can perpetrate, while bearing what is necessarily a de facto extinction of an entire historical register of American history. Such attacks are similar to censure, book-burning or cultural assimilationist practices of the 19th and 20th centuries. “There’s a lot of blood on that gold”, someone in charge of Deep Blue told The Associated Press as he announced the likely finding of “El Salvador”, whose value was estimated to be $500 million. The scientific level and methodology that guides the treasure-hunting companies is thus evidenced. This line of reasoning becomes the redeeming force behind the precious metal that is the object of looting, while also destroying the cultural element that stigmatizes it. This argument is proper of the Black Legend and quite a handy one for ensuring the financial and legal survival of the treasure-hunting industry. It is equally striking that a discourse based on the reality of a cultural catastrophe could be so foreign to modern American society that has not been able to come up with a reply, nor seen enough merit to spark an academic debate. But what is even more striking is that such a level of discourse is allowed to caricaturize the 8 �history of Hispanic culture in North America, an essential part of the United States’ own history, which has so effectively used the Black Legend to deny any cultural value to the pillaged archaeological remains that were originally associated with the –mestizo, of course-- Hispanic culture in America. It is this same interchange of ideas that supports the criteria of the Sanctuary of the Florida Keys, as Pat Clyne (a historic treasure-hunter and executive vice-president of the Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage society), expressed when he said in a formal meeting before the Sanctuary authorities: “It is amazing that the very people who seem so sensitive of the gravesites of their ancestors, these very conquistadors who have…”. The invocation of a supposed original illegitimacy in relation to the ships’ cargoes, the previous contextual reference to the Indians’ suffering as a preliminary debate surrounding the present ransacking activities is practically universal, co-substantial with this emerging industry’s search for legitimacy. Likewise, it is a way of substituting any archaeological, cultural value, or moral rights debate, with a nationalist mechanical discourse. The urgent need for a new discourse is clear (Fig. 3). History hunters and golden legends: a legal epilogue in Hawaii Very recently, Kohala Coast Enterprises (KCE) petitioned the District Court for the District of Hawaii4, to grant exclusive salvage rights for an archaeological site that the company claims to have discovered on 23rd November 2011. The site corresponds to a probable 16th or 17th century shipwreck of a Spanish vessel, within navigable waters off the coast of the Island of Hawaii. The remains were found in an area which lies within the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary, jointly managed by the State of Hawaii and the United States, through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Despite the fact that the company asked the judge to keep the location of the site secret and has also done its best to keep the cultural origin of the archaeological site under wraps, after consulting with NOAA, this organization issued a document through Malia Chow, the Sanctuary Superintendent of the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary, that is one of the most singular and referable works that 9 �could open a whole new era when dealing with sunken heritage from Hispanic origins that have been targeted by treasure hunters. Some of the aspects and principles listed in that document include: archaeological preservation, the scientific objective of the intervention, as well as cooperation and information with the country of origin. However, the future problems faced by this possible discovery are much larger, as the scarce repercussion this case is having in the media and academic circles demonstrate. No doubt the history of the Pacific and its societies has suffered from the relentless succession of Eurocentric historicisms. Here, I must refer to one of the latest: the AngloSaxonism as a golden legend. The origin and development of this ideology does not come from long ago: Madison Grant (1916), John Robert Seeley (Bell 2005), Frank Hankins (1926), Joseph Arthur Gobineau (1853)… All of them describe the necessary nature of any golden legend: antagonism. This ideological element should not be minimized when we talk about heritage and its preservation. Conclusions No doubt a thorough questioning of the image of Captain Cook as the first European to set foot on the Islands of Hawaii may affect the historicist vision of that great navigator. This ideological element exists and I think it is easy to prove it. It is not possible to find in the English historiography the connection between: (1) the capture of the city of Manila by the English in 1762, (2) the steal by the last British governor of Manila, Alexander Dalrymple, of all the Spanish cartography in that city, i.e. more than two centuries of navigation and cartographical documents in the Southern Seas, (3) the conception, planning and documentation of Cook's voyages, significantly, by Dalrymple. My modest contribution to this work is that of identifying Alexander Dalrymple as the character that locates, works on, translates, classifies and summarizes the centuries of Spanish cartography in Manila and conceives a project for a British Empire5 that is being reborn from its ashes after the independence of its American colonies, and to single him out as the person who hands this decisive material to Cook for his later discoveries. British historians never linked the maps stolen from Manila to Cook's voyages. The lack of reference to Dalrymple in British historiography is no accident: the theft of the maps, the conception of an expedition that would allow reorienting the Imperial impulse towards the Pacific and the replacement by Cook in the climax of that intellectual 10 �adventure. The Admiralty needed a hero, free of suspicion of espionage, a new man not encumbered by intellectual debts to an enemy power that had to be replaced. The man chosen to command the missions to the Austral continent and the Pacific islands is Cook, a discrete, but talented Master of the royal Armada. At that moment he was not even a lieutenant. Cartography, exploration, discoveries... the narration of history has been, and still is, a tool for nationalisms, as the black and golden legends like that of Lord Sandwich’s conceived how the history of Cook's voyages should be told. Regardless of whether the ultimate goal is economic or political, it is interesting to observe how both survive. Can an archaeological discovery question the iron-clad axioms of the golden legend? Despite the communication from NOAA, the reach of the possible above-mentioned discovery in Hawaii has gone unnoticed by the academic world. As for the press, it will have to decide if it is willing to question the North American identity, overrule Anglo-morphism as an ideology and challenge its own identity. All this, as usually happens around the limits of knowledge, will be limited by prejudice. American waters have become a modern-day mythological River Lethe for a people and a historical record, the common heritage of the North-American and Hispanic peoples. There is a powerful and prevailing prejudice that affects the North-American scientific community and keeps American laws and legal practice from guaranteeing that a submerged archaeological site that corresponds to a shipwreck of Spanish origins may enjoy the maximum legal guarantees and protection, in line with American laws. Let the old verses of Homer serve as a warning to an American nation that accepts the sociallytainted fruit of the science of the forgotten: “Whoever tasted the soft sweetness of the lotus fruit, no longer thought about exploration nor returning home…”. Acknowledgements The author takes this opportunity to gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Agustin Rodriguez Gonzalez and Mrs. María Cruz Berrocal for their invaluable help and guidance. Table of cases · Grumpy
v.
Unidentified Vessel, United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana, 93-CV-26210H. 11 �· BDJ Discovery Group v. Shipwrecked Vessel Filed: September 23th, 2005 as 4:2005cv00122. · Sub Sea Research v. Unidentified Wrecked U.S. District Court Southern District of Florida 4:04cv10119-KMM. · Sub Sea Research Vessel, et al. v. Abandoned Vessel, et al. 4:02CV10068. · Marine Salvage, Inc District Court Southern District of Florida 04-22679 · Cobb Coin Company, Inc v. Unidentified Wrecked and Abandoned Mailing Vessel 525 F. Supp. 186, 208, 1983 AMC 966 (S.D. Fla 1981). · EURISCO CORP v. The Unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Sailing Vessel 9810002 CIV-KING. · Bradley Williamson v. The unidentified, Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel, 9:07-cv81030-KAM. · Bradley Williamson v. The Unidentified Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel 9:2008cv80106. · United States District Court Middle District of Florida (Tampa Division), Odyssey Marine Exploration, Inc v. Unidentified, Shipwrecked Vessel/The Kingdom of Spain, The Republic of Peru, Case n°8:07cv00614-SDM-MAP, doc 270, 3 June 2009. · United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit, Odyssey Marine Exploration, Inc. v. Kingdom of Spain, Case n°10-10269, document n°8:07cv00614-SDM-MAP, 21 September 2011. Endnote 1 The conclusions were presented at the Royal Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation, December 18th 2012. 2 Sea Hunt, In c.v. The Unidentified Shipwrecked Vessel or Vessels, 221 F.3d 634,638, 642 (4th Cir. 2000) 3 It is only right and just to recognize the moral and scientific solvency of the State of Texas authorities in the “Platoro” matter, and the archaeological efforts made versus the court’s criteria 4 Kohala Coast Enterprises, LLC vs. The Unidentified, Shipwrecked Vessel, District Court for the District of Hawaii CV12-00552 SOM-RLP. 5 In his book “An account of the discoveries made in the South Pacific Ocean, previous to 1764” (Dalrymple, 1767), in page VII and ss, there is an explanation by the author himself. In fact Dalrymple was elected to membership in the Royal Society (1771) as a result of his translations “of voyages to the South Seas & other places from Spanish”. References Bell, D., 2005. Unity and Difference: John Robert Seeley and the Political Theology of International Relations. Review of International Studies, Vol. 31 (3): 559-579. Dalrymple, A., 1767. An account of the discoveries made in the South Pacific Ocean, previous to 1764. Dalrymple, A, London. Gobineau, J. A., 1853. Essaisurl´inégalité des races humaines. Librairie de Firmin Didot Freres, Paris. 12 �Grant, M., 1916.The Passing of the Great Race. Geographical Review, Vol. 2 (5): 354360. Hankins, F., 1926. The Racial Basis of Civilization; a Critique of the Nordic Doctrine. Alfred A. Kanopf, New York. Horwitz, T., 2006. Immigration - and the Curse of the Black Legend. The New York Times, July 9. José María Lancho Rodríguez (Madrid, 1970) is a Spanish lawyer expert in historical heritage and technology law. He has actively intervened in the case Odyssey Marine Exploration in advising both the Kingdom of Spain and at the Spanish Courts in the criminal action derived from this case. He has published articles in various magazines, newspapers, journals and blogs. His research and advocacy interests also include legal enforcement of environmental laws, intellectual property, antitrust and the patient selfdetermination rights. He has been involved in relevant cases on those fields. He is also president of Hispalinux, the largest association of users and developers of free software in Spain. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Introduction interview with session chair María Cruz Berrocal and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Research on early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region makes a fundamental contribution to the study of Global History. In the last decades, historians are highlighting the region's relevance in the transformation of global economy through its role in far-reaching trade networks. The early beginnings of colonialism in the region, as well as the role of non-Angloamerican colonial agents in the shaping of modern world have been also highlighted. Although these debates have been driven largely from history, archaeology must become more prominent for the study of early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region through the study of consumption patterns, environmental effects, demographic impacts, transformation of gender systems brought about by contact, the role of material culture in these first colonial endeavours, and specifically, the important evidence that maritime archaeology can bring to the fore. It is argued in this session that new lines of evidence and argumentation will be found through a history- archaeology joint collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. María Cruz Berrocal Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Stolen Memory: The Legal Crisis of the Hispanic Sunken Heritage in America and its causes Description An account of the resource The exam of the legal practice related to the Hispanic underwater heritage in the last 10 years in the United States shows that this has been the main resource of a mature treasure hunter industry in that country; that this industry has developed a specific discourse denying intrinsic cultural value to the Hispanic historical remains; and that this discourse has had an influence over the juridical and administrative authorities in the United States in such a way that legal, academic and media approaches to this archaeological legacy show an inadvertent but significant discrimination against the Hispanic Heritage -instead of Heritage of other cultural origins-, with the result that an important record of American history has been reduced to a mere industry and a resource for exploitation without requiring a minimal scientific counterpart, constituting without doubt one of the most serious and consummate problems within the entire historical record of the American history. In Hawaii in a recent court case, in which a Spanish galleon appears to be involved, we face the problem of fitting the Hispanic legacy in America in its legal and academic form, specifically because it brings into question the fact that Captain James Cook became the first European to discover the Hawaiian Islands, and makes manifest the extra historical relevance this assumption still holds. In this paper we deal with legal, historical and social aspects of this issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource José María Lancho, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 5 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e85517c892d580a7223b27c2d464598d.pdf fae990492aaddcfcbc7eedd230a7d9f2 PDF Text Text The Subcritical Mass-Treatment of a Range of Iron Artifacts from Varying Contexts Nasanen, L. M. E.; González-Pereyra, N. G.; Cretté, S.A. Abstract The use of subcritical fluids for the treatment of archaeological and marine archaeological iron artifacts has been under experimentation at the Clemson University’s Warren Lasch Conservation Center (WLCC) since 2003 and has shown promise of providing solutions to some of the issues related to the more traditional desalination treatments: Treatment times are but a fraction of those required by the soaking methods; chloride readings are brought to near-negligible levels; desalination can be carried out with or without prior deconcretion; solutions are maintained in sealed containers for the duration of the treatments; and positive results have been seen so far with tests for long-term stability of treated artifacts. Particularly remarkable has been the effect the process appears to have had on corrosion matrices containing the chloride-hosting iron oxyhydroxide, Akagenéite (β-FeOOH) on artifacts that have been allowed to dry out. Results have shown a significant reduction in the quantities of this phase – often linked to the continuation of active corrosion processes within iron artifacts – through transformation into more stable corrosion products such as magnetite and hematite. Experiments carried out to date have not only involved single samples and artifacts, but testing has progressed to a stage where numerous artifacts have been successfully stabilized simultaneously in the same batch. The work presented describes three of such desalination treatments. The first run included a single wrought iron ballast block from the H.L. Hunley, a confederate Civil War submarine lost in battle in 1864. This was followed by the first batch run on five similar ballast blocks and a second with nine iron artifacts of varying composition, context and condition, selected from the National Park Service (NPS - USA) curatorial collection. Introduction After extensive studies and testing for 9 years at the WLCC, the subcritical treatment has proven to be an effective alternative for the stabilization of iron and iron corrosion products of materials recovered from marine and terrestrial contexts. In order to stabilize the iron matrix, the presence of chloride ion (Cl-), often linked to active corrosion processes must be eliminated or rendered inactive (deViviés, et al. 2007: 26-30; Drews, et al. 2004: 247-260; González, et al. 2007: 32-37). The desalination treatments used in the conservation field are based on the exchange of Cl- with hydroxide ions (OH-). Therefore, the solution carrying the OH- must reach the sites where the Cl- are located, which often means penetrating through pores and interstices following paths with high degrees of tortuosity through corrosion layers and concretion (Selwyn 2004:294-306; Selwyn, et al. 2001:109-120; Selwyn, et al. 1999:217-232). Once the chloride sites are reached, an excess of hydroxide is necessary in order to facilitate the �exchange. Then, the newly released Cl- must diffuse out through the material towards the bulk of the treatment solution. In the atmospheric region these processes are slow and their end point is often difficult to determine. Traditional desalination techniques rely on diffusion, which is based on concentration gradients that are significantly affected by the presence of any type of material that may act as a membrane such as corrosion layers and concretion. The most appealing reason to consider working in the subcritical region is that the properties of water are tunable by simply adjusting the temperature and pressure of the system. Changes in temperature and pressure can provide new thermodynamic and kinetic options, or chemical paths, not viable at lower temperatures. The subcritical metal treatment developed at the WLCC utilizes alkaline solutions at temperatures and pressure above 100°C and 30bar, respectively (Drews, et al. 2011). To date more than 130 experiments have been performed to evaluate the effects of subcritical treatment on a variety of archaeological wrought and cast-iron samples from both terrestrial and marine sites (deViviés, et al. 2007: 26-30; Drews, et al. 2004:247-260; Drews, et al. 2011; Drews, et al. 2005:77; González-Pereyra, et al. 2010:39-49; Mardikian, et al. 2006:82-88). Based on the results, the subcritical treatment has demonstrated to be effective, safe and exceptionally fast in removing chloride (deViviés, et al. 2007:26-30; Drews, et al. 2004:247-260; González-Pereyra, et al. 2010:39-49). This paper discusses three recent treatments using subcritical fluids, with specific emphasis on the benefits this technology may offer to the mass treatments of collections of metallic cultural heritage. Amount of Cl- released during treatment as well as corrosion products and elemental compositions of the various artifacts were monitored using ion chromatography, X-ray Fluorescence, micro-Raman, and SEM-EDS. Subcritical Technique Throughout this paper, the region where water remains in the liquid phase and extends from its normal boiling point (100ºC, 1bar) to its critical point (Tc = 373.9ºC, Pc = 220bar) will be referred to as subcritical region, while the region under 100ºC, at normal pressure, as atmospheric region, as illustrated in Figure 1a. In the sub-critical region there is a significant departure of thermodynamic, transport and chemical properties of water from those at normal conditions, redefining water as a reaction medium. Viscosity, surface tension and density all decrease for pure water or a dilute water solution including the 0.5w% sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Density, probably the most defining thermodynamic property, is affected by temperature. At high temperatures liquid water expands �considerably decreasing its density. Many properties of water are affected by this change, in particular the behavior of water as a solvent (Fernández-Prini, et al. 2004). Viscosity and surface tension are also affected. They decrease as the temperature increases, resulting in enhanced wetting properties and higher ability to penetrate pores or interstices. An increase in the diffusion constants for Cl- and OH- of about 9% will also occur, relative to the diffusion constants at 25oC and 1bar when the temperature and pressure are increased to approximately 180oC and 50bar, respectively (Bird, et al. 1992). The subcritical region also allows the use of NaOH at concentrations that are lower than what is common with traditional treatments, thus easing the burden imposed by its disposal. Additionally, evidence suggests this process also results in the transformation of certain iron corrosion products into more stable phases (akaganéite and lepidocrocite transform into hematite) (deViviés, et al. 2007:2630; González-Pereyra, et al. 2010:39-49). An additional promising characteristic of this alternative treatment is the short treatment times required compared to traditional techniques (chemical, electrochemical or gaseous). Average treatment periods typically fall within fifteen days. Moreover, this technique provides the potential ability to permeate thick concreted and corroded layers which in theory means that iron artifacts may be pre-treated or even stabilized with subcritical fluids, prior to deconcretion or cleaning (González-Pereyra, et al. 2010:39-49). This attribute is of particular interest in the case of terrestrial artifacts that are often too fragile to be cleaned prior to desalination. As such, they often require the addition of a stabilizing consolidant; however this material is likely to interfere with the extraction of the salts. Therefore, subcritical treatment offers the ability to effectively stabilize the residual metal core while the object is still embedded in its concretion. �Subcritical Protocol The schematic diagram depicted in Figure 1b provides the basic elements of the system. It consists essentially of a feed solution reservoir, a high-pressure pump, a treatment cell, a back-pressure regulator to control the system pressure and an eluent collection vessel. Artifacts are placed in the cell and the fluid flow path primed to flush any air out of the system. Next, the system is closed, brought under pressure, the flow is stabilized and the temperature is increased to the set point. Pressure, temperature and flow of the system are monitored using a computer system. Once the system is running, the eluent is sampled periodically and the Cl- concentration is measure at the exit of the cell and in the collection vessel by ion chromatography. When it reaches the level of the feed solution, considered the baseline in Cl- content for ion chromatography, the temperature is turned off and the high-pressure cell is cooled down; the flow of eluent is allowed to continue throughout the cooling process. Once the cell reaches room temperature, the high-pressure pump is turned off and the cell opened to retrieve the desalinated specimen. This latter is then rinsed thoroughly with deionized water and dried quickly to prevent any potential flash corrosion. The Artifacts The Ballast Block “Pioneer” The very first treated artifact utilizing the 40L chamber was a wrought iron ballast block – one of 97 excavated from the H.L. Hunley. Apart from a select few of such blocks, having undergone other means of desalination, the majority of these blocks remain stored together in a very large tank of NaOH 1.0w%. The selected block to undergo subcritical treatment was stored separately for several weeks immersed in a pre-treatment solution of NaOH 0.5w%. Thorough documentation and analysis pre- and post-subcritical treatment were performed, as shown in Figure 2. The artifact record showed that partial deconcretion had been carried out prior to immersion in the storage solution to enhance desalination. However the pre-treatment assessment clearly showed some considerable remains of corrosion products, sediment and marine fauna on the surface, particularly within the fine detail. Some mechanical damage to the original surface of the artifact was also noted, where areas of several centimeters were missing, leaving the wrought iron core exposed. It is important to also note the ballast blocks discussed here had never been allowed to dry out and hence no akagenéite was found prior to treatment. �The Five to Follow Following successful completion of the single ballast block treatment a similar outcome was attempted with multiple artifacts similar in nature. Five further ballast blocks were selected for simultaneous treatment within the 40L chamber. Whilst the artifacts are primarily of the same composition each held very distinct individual characteristics. All had undergone partial deconcretion in the wet state prior to immersion in the above mentioned storage solution, and thus some damage to the original surface had occurred in varying degrees from one block to another. The National Nine The following batch of artifacts consisted of nine iron artifacts from the NPS collection. These were of both, wrought and cast iron, consisting of various parts in some examples and from a range of contexts. One common factor for the selection was concern over the stability of the items. All artifacts had been allowed to dry, had been stored in largely uncontrolled environments and thus displaying clear signs of active corrosion in the form of bright orange powdery corrosion products - commonly within pits - as well as blistering, spalling and cracking in some areas of the original surface. Figure 3 illustrates the condition of four of the artifacts prior to subcritical treatment. These artifacts will act as primary examples throughout the paper, as this particular selection received a so-called ‘full conservation treatment’, and were selected as such due to a more prominent surface detail or complex multiple-part features. Out of the selected four, the ring-peg and hinge showed the most structural complexity with moving components and the presence of threaded bolt and nut assemblies. Complex artifacts such as these have commonly posed additional conservation challenges with regards to desalination due to limited permeability of the wash solution into the joins and crevices of such areas, as well as differential corrosion cells at �peripheral regions with varying exposure to the environment. It should also be stated that some of the artifacts appeared to have been treated with a penetrating oil-type substance, but no conclusions as to the composition of the product were found in previous treatment records, or through analytical means. The artifacts had also been labeled with catalog numbers applied in black ink over a white label painted directly on to the surface of the artifact. Documentation and Analysis All artifacts were systematically assessed through documentation and digital images to identify signs of corrosion. A set of non-destructive characterization equipment was utilized to determine the Cl- concentration, as well as to identify corrosion products. A FujiFilm NDE DynamIX™ IV digital radiography system was used to determine the overall integrity of the object. Corrosion products present on the artifact surfaces were analyzed with a Bruker Optics SENTERRA microRaman spectrometer. Raman data collection and processing was performed using Opus Version 6.5 software. The Cl- concentrations released during desalination was measured by two methods. Chloride Quan Tab® test strips, manufactured by Hach® (Loveland, CO), were used to quickly determine quantitative amounts of Cl- present. Ion chromatography was performed using an ICS-90 ion chromatography system with a IonPac® AS9-HC analytical column, both manufactured by Dionex (Sunnyvale, CA). The data was collected and analyzed using the Dionex Chromeleon™ software. Quantitative and qualitative elemental compositions were determined by an Oxford INCAx-act analytical silicon drift energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) fitted onto a Hitachi S-3700N Ultra Large VP-SEM variable pressure scanning electron microscope. Data collected was analyzed with the INCAEnergy software interface. Qualitative and semi-quantitative elemental analysis was also attained with a Bruker handheld Tracer III-SD X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometer. All results were averaged from at least three data collections. Results and Discussion Alongside the evident advantages regarding stability and length of treatment, post-stabilization deconcretion stands out crucially in the eyes of the conservator. The effectiveness of the process allows for drying to take place prior to any mechanical cleaning due to the inherent post-treatment stability of the artifact and its corrosion matrix. This further allows for better and easier visual identification of the corrosion layers and original surface and thus more control �over any removal. Full documentation can be carried out after drying with no time limitations due to the threat of flash corrosion or stresses caused by recrystallization. �Ballast Blocks With regards to the overall appearance of the artifacts, there was very little change with any of the ballast blocks on initial inspection. The first ballast block was stabilized in 16 days. Approximately 90% of the total Cl- released occurred within the first 5 days, with a maximum peak reached on the first day. Furthermore, after the fifth day the concentration of Cl- remained under 1ppm. At the end of the run the total amount of Cl- extracted from the artifact was 0.031w%. To put these results into perspective, they can be compared with similar ballast blocks soaked in NaOH 1.0w% with and without electrolysis (Figure 4a). These treatments required on average 150 days to reach 90% of the total Clreleased, and over one year for total stabilization. �The low amount of total Cl- released during mass treatment of the five blocks group was an expected outcome. Considering that these blocks had been soaking in NaOH 1.0w% for over four years, it was anticipated that most of the Cl- had been removed. Simple soaking in NaOH can be very effective for Clremoval providing the artifacts were never allowed to dry out and akaganéite was not present. Localized color change from orange to black was noted, corresponding generally to lepidocrocite and magnetite respectively. Although superficial deposits had persevered, a change in the physical state of these features was soon noted. Even in the wet state, some of these deposits would readily brush off demonstrating a loss in adherence. This phenomenon has been recognized in previous work, and it has been suggested that increased porosity is due to changes in crystal lattice structure of the corrosion product matrix, and possible leaching out of substitutional and interstitial elements, such as sodium, calcium, chlorine and phosphorous respectively (González-Pereyra, et al. 2010: 39-49). Instead of utilizing hammers and chisels, cleaning could be performed using mostly a scalpel. The original surface, easily identified, had a compact nearmetallic sheen throughout, and appeared somewhat consolidated. Where the benefits of carrying out cleaning procedures after stabilization and in the dry state were particularly accentuated was at the discovery of tool marks and foundry stamps on the ballast blocks, as shown in Figure 2. Where considered necessary, a consolidative treatment by immersion in Owatrol™ oil – an alkyd-based drying oil with an inbuilt corrosion inhibitor was employed. NPS artifacts With these artifacts, a slightly different approach was employed. As seen in the images, the artifacts had very little corrosion layers present to add to the overall volume of the artifact. The challenge with already dry terrestrial artifacts with regards to stabilization treatments under immersion in varying solutions is the inherent physical stresses caused by not only the permeation of the solution into the crevices of the corroded artifact, but also the continued ionic exchange at the active corrosion sites. This is particularly accentuated at pit and blister sites, where the original surface is often forced away from the artifact causing separation and loss of surface detail. Thus chemical stabilization and desalination of dry and terrestrial iron artifacts has been viewed as a considerably difficult and an unresolved issue in conservation (Drews, et al. 2004:247-260; Mardikian, et al. 2006:113-118; North, et al. 1978:174-186; Selwyn, et al. 1999:217-232; Watkinson 2010:33073340). To prevent any further stresses occurring within the artifacts during subcritical treatment the artifacts were soaked in the treatment solution for 72 �hours prior to the run. It was completed in 8 days and the results can be seen in Figure 4d. The plot displays a typical behavior showing a Cl- peak within the first day followed by a significant drop. Similarly to what was observed in the case of the first ballast block, approximately 95% of the total Cl- released took place during the first four days. Post-treatment, SEM-EDS elemental analysis showed a level of chloride under the instrument detection limit of 0.1w%, while pre- and post treatment XRF analysis (Figure 4f) clearly illustrates elimination of chloride from the artifacts. Finally, SEM-EDS confirmed that subcritical conditions did not affect elements such as lead or copper. The corrosion products of all the NPS artifacts were analyzed using microRaman spectroscopy in different areas of the artifact’s surface. Analyzed areas were selected for their diversity in color and texture. Active corrosion was evident, occurring below the original surface, largely in pits with bright orange powdery corrosion products identified as akagenéite (Figure 4c). Lepidocrocite and goethite were found only in a few areas. A striking absence of akaganéite was observed after subcritical treatment, as illustrated in Figure 4e. The akagenéite had been converted to hematite with magnetite and goethite in localized areas. From visual inspection and weight measurements, it was clear that no significant material loss had occurred during treatment, the oil-based consolidant and the number labels applied in a previous conservation campaign had effectively been removed. After analysis and in order to improve the general appearance of the artifacts, micro-air-abrasion was performed on the selected four artifacts. Although consolidation was not considered necessary with regards to the physical integrity of the artifacts, due to an agreement with the NPS, they received a consolidant in the form of Owatrol™ in two applications, with the last application slightly pigmented with natural magnetite powder. This treatment was performed to purely improve the appearance of the artifacts and to allow for assessment of a contrast between a stabilized and a fully conserved artifact. Conclusion Recent experiments using subcritical fluids have shown great promise of resolving many of the issues relating to the stabilization of archaeological iron – marine and terrestrial. The results of this work have encouraged further research and experimentation to improve the methodology and its applicability across the field. Recent focus on such development has revolved around the possibility of modifying the reactor capabilities in order to be able to carry out rinsing and drying within the treatment chamber. Further yet, considerations have been made towards an unfathomable advancement, where subcritical and supercritical �technologies would be combined to allow for the inclusion of the application of tailored corrosion inhibitors and consolidants during a single step in the treatment. In addition small-scale laboratory testing has been initiated to study the effect this fluid technology may have on non-ferrous metals. In short, extensive continued research is necessary in order to implement an integral treatment for metallic cultural heritage, that is effective, fast, reversible, sustainable, safe, and in accordance with conservation ethics. Bibliography Bird, R. B., Stewart, W.E., Vasquez, F.M., 1992 deViviés, P., Cook, D., Drews, M., González, N., Mardikian, P., Memet, J.-B., 2007 Drews, M., deViviés, P., González, N., Mardikian, P. 2004 Drews, M., deViviés, P., González, N., Mardikian, P., 2011 Drews, M. J., deViviés, P., González, N., Mardikian, P., Grogan, K., 2005 Fernández-Prini, R., Harvey, A.H., Palmer, D.A., 2004 “Fenómenos de Transporte : un Estudio Sistemático de los Fundamentos del Transporte de Materia, Energía y Cantidad de Movimiento”. Mexico: Reverte. “Transformation of Akagenéite in Archaeological Iron Artefacts Using Subcritical Treatment” in Proceedings of Metal 07: ICOM-CC International Conference on Metals Conservation. Amsterdam.pp. 26-30. “A study of the Analysis and Removal of Chloride in Samples from the Hunley” in Proceedings of Metal 04: International Conference on Metal Conservation. Canberra, Australia: National Museum of Australia. pp. 247-260. “The Application of Sub-Critical Solutions for the Stabilization of Archaeological Iron”, (Manuscript in preparation). “Evaluation of New Technologies for the Stabilization of Archaeological Iron” in Proceedings of XIV International Materials Research Congress, and IV NACE International Section. Cancun, Mexico: Academia Mexican de Cienca de Materiales, A.C. pp. 77. “Aqueous Systems at Elevated Temperatures and Pressures: Physical Chemistry in Water, Steam, and Hydrothermal Solutions” ed. R. Fernández-Prini, A. H. Harvey and D. A. Palmer. Boston: Elsevier Academic Press. González, N., “The Effects of Cathodic Polarization, Soaking in Alkaline Cook, D., deViviés, Solutions and Subcritical Water on Cast Iron Corrosion �P., Drews, M., Mardikian, P., 2007 González-Pereyra, N. G., Brocard, T., Cretté, S.A., deViviés, P., Drews, M., 2010 Mardikian, P., Drews, M., González, N., deViviés, P., Hunter, J.W., 2006 Mardikian, P., González, N., Drews, M., deViviés, P., 2006 North, N. Pearson, C., 1978 Selwyn, L. S., 2004 Products” in Proceedings of Metal 07: ICOM-CC International Conference on Metals Conservation. Amsterdam, Netherlands. pp. 32-37. “The Use of Sub-Critical Fluids for the Stabilization of Concreted Iron Artifacts” in Proceedings of Metal 2010: ICOM-CC International Conference on Metals Conservation. Charleston, SC - USA: Clemson University. pp. 39-49. “Searching for a Diamond in the Rust: A Review of LargeScale Archaeological Iron Conservation Projects, 19802006” in Proceedings of Iron, Steel & Steamship Archaeology - 2nd Australian Seminar. Perth, Melbourne and Sydney, Australia: Australian National Center of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology. pp. 82-88. “New Perspectives Regarding the Stabilization of Terrestrial and Marine Archaeological Iron” in Proceedings of Iron, Steel & Steamship Archaeology - 2nd Australian Seminar. Perth, Melbourne and Sydney, Australia: Australian National Center of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology. pp. 113-118. A., “Washing Methods for Chloride Removal from Marine Iron Artifacts” in Studies in Conservation. 23, 4, pp. 174-186. “Overview of Archaeological Iron: the Corrosion Problem, Key Factors Affecting Treatment, and Gaps in Current Knowledge” in Proceedings of Metal 04: International Conference on Metal Conservation. Canberra, Australia: National Museum of Australia. pp. 294-306. Selwyn, L. S., “Models For Chloride Ion Diffusion In Archaeological Iron” in McKinnon, W.R., Studies in Conservation. 46: pp. 109-120. Argyropoulos, V., 2001 Selwyn, L. S., "The Corrosion of Excavated Archaeological Iron with Sirois, P.J., Details on Weeping and Akaganéite" in Studies in Argyropoulos, V., Conservation, 44, pp. 217-232. 1999 Watkinson, D., 2010 "Part VI: Corrosion Management - Preservation of Metallic Cultural Heritage" in (ed.) T. J. A. Richardson, Shreir's Corrosion, Elsevier, Amsterdam, London, pp. 3307-3340. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Subcritical Mass-Treatment of a Range of Iron Artifacts from Varying Contexts Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource The use of subcritical fluids for the treatment of archaeological and marine archaeological iron artifacts has been under experimentation at the Clemson University’s Warren Lasch Conservation Center (WLCC) since 2003 and has shown promise of providing solutions to some of the issues related to the more traditional desalination treatments: Treatment times are but a fraction of those required by the soaking methods; chloride readings are brought to near-negligible levels; desalination can be carried out with or without prior deconcretion; solutions are maintained in sealed containers for the duration of the treatments; and positive results have been seen so far with tests for long-term stability of treated artifacts. Particularly remarkable has been the effect the process appears to have had on corrosion matrices containing the chloride-hosting iron oxyhydroxide, Akagenéite (β-FeOOH) on artifacts that have been allowed to dry out. Results have shown a significant reduction in the quantities of this phase – often linked to the continuation of active corrosion processes within iron artifacts – through transformation into more stable corrosion products such as magnetite and hematite. Experiments carried out to date have not only involved single samples and artifacts, but testing has progressed to a stage where numerous artifacts have been successfully stabilized simultaneously in the same batch. The work presented describes three of such desalination treatments. The first run included a single wrought iron ballast block from the H.L. Hunley, a confederate Civil War submarine lost in battle in 1864. This was followed by the first batch run on five similar ballast blocks and a second with nine iron artifacts of varying composition, context and condition, selected from the National Park Service (NPS - USA) curatorial collection. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nasanen, L. M. E. González-Pereyra, N. G. Cretté, S.A. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/25cdf9183509d7c3e7ccd2c2e2329b24.pdf 27b3a22d563e0cd1ed03d0283e25a8cc Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Submerged Buddhist Temple of Tanjo-ji in Chiba Prefecture, Japan Description An account of the resource The Tanjo-ji is a temple belonging to Nichiren Buddhism at the town of Kominato in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. Nichiren was born in 1222 at a fishing village near the town, and became a Buddhist priest who developed the teachings of Nichiren Buddhism, a branch school of Mahayana Buddhism. When his mother gave birth to Nichiren, according to legends, water for bathing the newborn baby welled up in a garden, lotus flowers came out on the seashore, and plenty of sea breams jumped over the sea. The sea in front of the Tanjo-ji is now named ‘Sea Bream Inlet’, a Japanese natural monument registered by the Agency for Cultural Affairs, where we still could see schools of jumping sea breams or opaleyes. Just before or after his death in 1282, the original temple of Tanjo-ji was built on the site of Nichiren’s birthplace or of his mother’s house, but the temple is said to have flooded and submerged by tsunamis with earthquakes and to have moved to where it is at present. Indeed, a historical document says that the 1605 Nankai Earthquake and following tsunamis damaged and destroyed the area around the bay of Kominato. In the commemoration of the 800th anniversary of the birth of Nichiren, the Kamogawa City Council and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, which is a member institution of the UNESCO UNITWIN Network for Underwater Archaeology, started the underwater survey for the submerged site in the spring of 2019. Because sites of the submerged temple or fishing villages are supposed to be on the bottom of very shallow seas near the coast, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology has developed a remotely steerable unmanned surface vehicle with a side scan sonar and an underwater camera for its survey. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Hayato Kondo Takatsugu Tashiro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Iwabuchi, Akifumi, Hayato Kondo, and Takatsugu Tashiro. 2021. “The Submerged Buddhist Temple of Tanjo-ji in Chiba Prefecture, Japan.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/671 Asia-Pac Session 2 2021 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Tale of an Anklet: An Epic of South India. The Cilappatikaram of Ilanko Atikal Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atikal Ilanko R. Parthasarathy Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Columbia University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Atikal Ilanko Translator R. Parthasarathy Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Columbia University Press Title A name given to the resource The Tale of an Anklet: An Epic of South India. The Cilappatikaram of Ilanko Atikal India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c085551c63ed6f92f8329c5818c0bb72.pdf 30c4076157369abdd353d66986491ba5 PDF Text Text The Technique Record of Repairing Penghu Stone Tidal Weirs ―based on Angnata village Penghu, Taiwan― (澎湖石滬的場域修復與工法記錄) ( - 以澎湖紅羅村為例 - ) Fu-Tzu Yang (楊馥慈) 　　 Yu-Chi Tseng (曾宥輯) isle.travel (離島出走工作室) ABSTRACT Our project is based at the location “Xin Hu” in the Angnata village of Huxi township, Penghu. We invite the professional team of stone tidal weirs masters to guide the repair so that our team can practice, learn, do depth interviews, record audio dictations and systematically sort the sets of executable repair methods. Further, to develop the model of experiencing the repairmen for the public. By the experiment, we look forward to achieving the purpose of discussion of stone tidal weirs preservation, ecological preservation, and possibilities of the youth returning which leads to the targets- inherit local experience and sustainable community development. Chinese Abstract ( 摘要 ) 澎湖有90座島嶼，海洋資源豐富、季節風明顯、潮間帶廣闊，因此發展許多特殊的傳統漁法，其中最著名的為石 滬。但隨著科技的發展與社會的變遷，傳統漁村的人口逐漸外移，傳統漁法無人傳承，相關技藝漸漸瀕臨消失。 離島出走團隊發起「澎湖石滬復興計畫」，以「創新與實驗」的方式，選擇以澎湖紅羅村作為基地，並以「外港 口滬」為石滬實驗場域，進行傳統潮間帶漁法的體驗與石滬修復的實驗行動。本計畫邀請紅羅村石滬師傅組成的 工班進行指導，而離島出走團隊則透過施作學習、深度訪談、口述記錄，系統性的整理出一套具有規則可循的修 復石滬工法，並延伸發展出修復石滬的體驗模式。期望透過實際的測試行動，來探討石滬保存、生態復育與青年 返鄉的可能性，以達到在地經驗傳承、社區永續發展的目標。 Keywords: traditional fishing (傳統漁法) , depth interviews (深度訪談) , stone weir (石滬) List of Figures and Images Figure 1: Guidelines to stone weir restoration work. Figure 2: Experiential Learning for participants in the stone weirs restoration project. Figure 3: Experiential Models Designed for Different Types of Participants. 1. INTRODUCTION This study was conducted as part of the '106th-year College Student Rural Migration Second-Phase Action Plan' , under the project titled 'Experience of Tidal Fishing Method and Stone Weir Restoration Project.' The actual stone weir restoration activities took place in Hongluo Village, Huxi Township. The entire project was carried out by the 'Isle.travel' team, with Professor Mingru Li, a stone weir scholar, serving as the project advisor. Through Professor Li's recommendation, we collaborated with a master stone weir restorer from Hongluo Village for this project. Each master weir restorer possesses unique professional skills, including the handling and construction of heavy stones, with weights often reaching a hundred kilograms, as well as the ability to withstand ocean currents and trap fish. These skills represent intangible cultural assets within the context of this restoration technique and are one of the main research and documentation objectives of this study. Each stone weir is akin to a complex family ancestral home with multiple ownerships. In Penghu, a stone weir is usually collectively owned by several families. In the early days, ownership of a stone weir could even serve as a dowry for Penghu daughters, symbolizing a 'sea field.' Hence, the team encountered the first challenge at the beginning of the project. The initially designated ‘Gōa-káng-kháu Weir' in Hongluo faced opposition due to safety concerns and continued usage by a family. However, the weir owners recognized and approved of the team's intentions and offered an alternative option—the 'New Weir.' The 'New Weir' had been forgotten for a century by the residents of Hongluo and was in a severely damaged condition. After confirming with the Agriculture and Fisheries Bureau that there was no registered owner, the 'New Weir' became the team's first target for restoration. Situated in the Hongluo , the 'New Weir' is close to the shore, 1 �making it an ideal demonstration site for the team's initial stone weir restoration and methodology documentation. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Stone Weirs in Penghu Penghu, an island environment surrounded by the sea, possesses abundant intertidal marine resources, which have given rise to various unique local fishing methods. Among them, stone weirs are particularly remarkable as fishing traps in the sea. For centuries, the ancestors of Penghu observed water currents, constructed stone weirs, and utilized the ebb and flow patterns of the tides, combined with the distinctive structures of stone walls, to gather scattered fish catches in one place for easier capture, thereby providing sustenance for their families. (1) Uniqueness and Importance of Stone Weirs The primary materials used in Penghu's stone weirs are basalt and coral stone. Basalt, also known as black stone, has angular shapes that allow for interlocking arrangements of each stone without the need for cement or other artificial means of fixation. Furthermore, the porous nature and crevices of stone weirs provide hiding places for fish fry, as well as support the growth of shellfish and algae, exemplifying ecological sustainability. In different regions of Penghu, tidal basins, targeted fish species, and the utilization of local materials have led to diverse methods of constructing stone weirs, making the underlying fishing culture and values worthy of exploration, investigation, and preservation. (2) Conservation Crisis Faced by Stone Weirs Since the 1960s, with the rise of mechanized vessels and new fishing techniques, coupled with environmental changes and the depletion of marine resources, traditional stone weir fishing methods, which offer lower yields but are relatively environmentally friendly, have gradually become powerless. In recent years, they have been rarely used and left unrepaired. Currently, only about 20% of stone weirs in Penghu are still in use and possess complete fishing functionality, while most other stone weirs face the risk of collapse or burial. 2.2 Challenges in Restoring Stone Weirs Penghu's geographical environment is uniquely advantageous, with intertidal zones surrounding the islands. This has led to the presence of stone weirs throughout Penghu's coastal villages. The construction techniques of stone weirs were naturally acquired and passed down as essential skills by families who owned them in earlier times. However, in the present era of change, stone weirs that no longer yield fish gradually lose maintenance, rendering the subsequent generations unfamiliar with the techniques required to maintain them. The dwindling knowledge of restoring stone weirs has become an increasingly vanishing experiential wisdom, preserved only through oral accounts passed down by the elderly. (1) Fading Techniques The restoration techniques for stone weirs vary depending on factors such as the stone material, regional environment, water flow changes, targeted fish species, and the work habits of the master craftsmen. Currently, there are only around four organized stone weir restoration teams actively involved in Penghu, based on the accounts of local elderly individuals. Among them, there are fewer than five master craftsmen with specialized skills and leadership. In other words, when the older master craftsmen retire, there will likely be a crisis in the continuity of restoration techniques within this generation, creating a gap in the transmission of this knowledge related to marine culture. (2) Exclusivity of Stone Weirs The construction of stone weirs is time-consuming and labor-intensive, requiring the involvement of not just 2 �a few individuals. It often takes several years and requires the collective efforts of an entire family, village, or even different clans. Consequently, the ownership of a stone weir is a complex matter. It is closely related to the contributions of labor and resources from each family involved in its construction. The time and location of its usage need to be discussed and coordinated among the weir owners. Outsiders or those not assigned to a particular day are not permitted to use the stone weir, and unauthorized entry may lead to disputes. The traditional system of weir ownership, deeply ingrained in the culture, has evolved into established customs. Although it has diminished, it has not completely dissolved. Most stone weirs that still possess fishing functionality have intricate ownership arrangements, making it difficult for outsiders to approach or access them. 3. RESEARCH METHODS This study utilized the opportunity provided by the '106th-year Rural Migration Second-Phase Action Plan ' of the Water Resources Agency to investigate and document the "Experience of Tidal Fishing Method and Stone Weir Restoration." During the research process, collaboration was established with Master Hong Zhenkun and his stone weir restoration team from Hongluo Village in Huxi Township, Penghu. The research was conducted at the site of the "New Weir" in Hongluo Village, integrating traditional techniques with innovative experiential program design. The goals of the research included local knowledge transfer and community sustainable development, with the incorporation of an experiential operational model. Seven rounds of experiential activities were organized from July to August of the 106th year to assess the impact and benefits of the experimental operational model. The research project spanned from March of the 106th year to October of the 107th year and consisted of two phases: 3.1 Participant Observation The participant observation method involved the research team actively participating in the stone weir restoration operations. By becoming members of the observed group, the team played the role of both participant and observer. This method allowed for data collection through participation in group activities and provided direct and authentic information due to the team being seen as part of the group and eliciting natural responses from the observed group (Huang 2000). In this project, the team actively engaged in the restoration of stone weirs and experienced a twenty-day restoration project alongside the master craftsmen. The team both learned the techniques through participation and observed and recorded the process. 3.2 In-depth Interviewing The in-depth interview method is a qualitative research approach that involves face-to-face interviews. It emphasizes the collaborative construction of meaning between the interviewer and the interviewee to reveal explanations or data related to a specific question. Generally, it can be categorized into structured, unstructured, and semi-structured interviews (Guan 2010). This project utilized a semi-structured in-depth interview approach. Prior to interviewing the master craftsmen, data was compiled, and a set of predetermined questions was prepared to guide the craftsmen in providing more in-depth descriptions of stone weir restoration techniques. 4. RESULTS The stone weir that was restored in this project is located in Hongluo Village, Huxi Township, Penghu County, known as the "New Weir." According to local residents' oral accounts, the stone weir had collapsed over 40 to 50 years ago, with no identifiable weir owners or related historical records. Subsequently, through site inspections with Master Hong Zhenkun and his stone weir restoration team from Hongluo Village, it was found that the base stones of the stone weir were scattered but still showed signs of the original layout. Master Hong Zhenkun determined that the stone weir could be restored and initiated the restoration work. The restoration project lasted approximately three months and included the restoration of the weir structure, the pool ,dike and the weir tail. Although the restoration was not yet complete, during the restoration process, it was observed that each master craftsman had their own expertise and responsibilities in specific restoration 3 �areas and techniques. Therefore, the techniques, tools, target stones, and optimal tidal times for operation were recorded and documented based on the craftsmen's oral memories, and a systematic compilation of stone weir restoration techniques was created. This compilation became a concise and easily understandable set of guidelines, incorporating easy-to-follow steps. 4.1 Stone Weir Restoration Technique Guidelines Database Throughout this project, active participation in the stone weir restoration work was undertaken, employing participant observation and in-depth interviews. The documentation focused on Master Hong Zhenkun and his team from Hongluo Village, Penghu County, as the subjects of the record. However, the documentation had to proceed in sync with the restoration work, and the current database represents only the initial stage of the project. The guidelines are presented in a simple and understandable manner as an initial integration of the information gathered. There are plans to continue the documentation and expand the results obtained in the current stage in the future. Figure 1: Guidelines to stone weir restoration work. In addition to serving as a reference for research on stone weir techniques, the guidelines can also provide a basic understanding for individuals or participants who are interested in the topic of stone weirs but lack prior knowledge. In the past, the lack of systematically organized samples often led to difficulties in explanations provided by the master craftsmen and resulted in misconceptions. It also failed to demonstrate the various variations and complexities of stone weir techniques. With the establishment of the guidelines database, it can serve as a support tool for the development of subsequent experiential models, training materials for stone weir restoration teams, and even promotional materials or cultural products. Through these means, stone weir techniques can be promoted, and awareness on marine conservation and ecological environment issues can be raised. 4.2 Experiential Model for Stone Weir Restoration Under the existing fisheries management plans of the Agriculture and Fisheries Bureau, the operation of stone weirs still requires the weir owners to submit applications every five years. As a result, stone weirs are conceptually classified as private properties with exclusivity. Weir owners may have concerns about the potential damage to the weirs and the depletion of fishery resources. This requires coordination and communication with individual weir owners. In practical terms, it may be challenging to enter and 4 �experience the stone weir sites due to the presence of weir owners or restrictions on access. Taking all these factors into consideration, this project prioritizes sustainable management. It first sought out stone weirs that had long been in a state of disrepair and had no identifiable owners to assess their restoration feasibility. Subsequently, restoration work was initiated. Once the restoration is completed, an application will be submitted to the Agriculture and Fisheries Bureau to certify the restored stone weir as a registered fishery, and it will be jointly owned and maintained by the community. If successful, this case can serve as a model that other areas in Penghu can follow, creating a replicable pattern implemented in different regions. By cultivating community talents through experiential programs and creating a mutually beneficial feedback loop, the government should also take a supportive stance in encouraging the preservation of local culture by providing relevant guidance and subsidies. (1) Experiential Content Figure 2: Experiential Learning for participants in the stone weirs restoration project. The techniques for restoring stone weirs vary depending on the local conditions and the expertise accumulated by the master craftsmen over the years. The techniques involve specific skills and challenges. Therefore, in order to develop an experiential program, the initial focus is on areas with lower technical requirements. In this project, the main experiential activities revolve around the techniques of "delivery", "knotting" and "stuffing" as outlined in the methodology guidelines. "Delivery" and "knotting" both allow participants to experience the difference in difficulty between ancient and modern methods of moving stones and gain an understanding of the immense time and manpower required to construct a stone weir. "Filling" primarily aims to familiarize participants with the internal and external structure of the stone weir and the impact of ocean currents on the weir. Unlike the Double-Heart Stone Weir in Qimei, which mainly serves as a tourist attraction, actively involving participants in the stone weir site allows them to directly experience the function and composition of stone weirs and gain a deeper understanding and record of the restoration techniques. 5 �Figure 3: Experiential Models Designed for Different Types of Participants 5. CONCLUSION The restoration of stone weirs is not solely about reviving their functional aspects but primarily aims to preserve a cultural heritage that is on the verge of extinction and promote its significance. However, during the two-month restoration period of this project, with the collective efforts of the master craftsmen, the Isle.travel team, and the experiential participants, fishing yields gradually appeared from August 5th, demonstrating the original fish aggregating function of the stone weir. In light of this, the project initiated the development of a preliminary sustainable management model, allocating a portion of the fees collected from the experiential activities as a sustainable fund for stone weir restoration. It is hoped that through this process, the active involvement and attention of local residents can be successfully stimulated. Subsequently, by utilizing the recorded data and systematically organizing and visualizing it through research methods, the project contributes to the preservation of the historical and cultural significance of Penghu stone weirs. It also facilitates coordination with weir owners and communities to establish a symbiotic model and provides a reference for the restoration of other dilapidated stone weirs in different areas of Penghu. The restoration and transformation project of stone weirs not only holds experimental significance in the development of experiential tourism related to stone weir restoration, but also contributes to the win-win strategy of enhancing the visibility of in-depth tourism in the Hongluo community. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hong, K. H. Stone Weirs of Penghu. Penghu: Penghu County Cultural Center. (1999). Lin, W. Z. The Past and Present of Stone Weirs. Proceedings of the 5th Academic Conference on Penghu Studies. Penghu: Penghu County Cultural Affairs Bureau. (2005). Chen, C. Z. Research on Indigenous Stonemasonry Techniques in Penghu. Proceedings of the 5th Academic Conference on Penghu Studies. (2005). Lee, M. R. The Origin and Distribution of Fish Trap Culture: An International Perspective. Penghu: Penghu County Cultural Affairs Bureau. (2009). Huang, K. Y. Dictionary of Education. National Academy for Educational Research. Wenjing Publishing. (2000). Guan, X. S. Research Methods in Design: 3rd Edition. Global Publishing Co., Ltd. (2010). 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Technique Record of Repairing Penghu Stone Tidal Weirs ―based on Angnata village Penghu, Taiwan― Description An account of the resource Our project is based at the location “Xin Hu” in the Angnata village of Huxi township, Penghu. We invite the professional team of stone tidal weirs masters to guide the repair so that our team can practice, learn, do depth interviews, record audio dictations and systematically sort the sets of executable repair methods. Further, to develop the model of experiencing the repairmen for the public. By the experiment, we look forward to achieving the purpose of discussion of stone tidal weirs preservation, ecological preservation, and possibilities of the youth returning which leads to the targets- inherit local experience and sustainable community development. 澎湖有90座島嶼，海洋資源豐富、季節風明顯、潮間帶廣闊，因此發展許多特殊的傳統漁法，其中最著名的為石 滬。但隨著科技的發展與社會的變遷，傳統漁村的人口逐漸外移，傳統漁法無人傳承，相關技藝漸漸瀕臨消失。 離島出走團隊發起「澎湖石滬復興計畫」，以「創新與實驗」的方式，選擇以澎湖紅羅村作為基地，並以「外港 口滬」為石滬實驗場域，進行傳統潮間帶漁法的體驗與石滬修復的實驗行動。本計畫邀請紅羅村石滬師傅組成的 工班進行指導，而離島出走團隊則透過施作學習、深度訪談、口述記錄，系統性的整理出一套具有規則可循的修 復石滬工法，並延伸發展出修復石滬的體驗模式。期望透過實際的測試行動，來探討石滬保存、生態復育與青年 返鄉的可能性，以達到在地經驗傳承、社區永續發展的目標。 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fu-Tzu Yang Yu-Chi Tseng Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Fu-Tzu Yang; Yu-Chi Tseng. 2023. “The Technique Record of Repairing Penghu Stone Tidal Weirs Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurl Knoerl, Paul Montgomery and Bill Jeffrey. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2009 Asia-Pac Session 11 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Tosa Diary Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ki No Tsurayuki William N. Porter Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tuttle Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-10-15 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Ki No Tsurayuki William N. Porter Item Type Book ISBN 0804836957 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-10-15 Edition Bilingual Library Catalog Amazon.com Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tuttle Publishing Title A name given to the resource The Tosa Diary Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant: Evolution of Merchant Capitalism in the Coromandel Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kanakalatha Mukund Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Orient Longman Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Kanakalatha Mukund Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place Hyderabad Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Orient Longman Title A name given to the resource The Trading World of the Tamil Merchant: Evolution of Merchant Capitalism in the Coromandel India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Travels of Fa-hian. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fa-hsien (Faxian) Hiuen Tsiang [Xuanzang] Samuel Beal Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oriental Books Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1969 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Fa-hsien (Faxian) Editor Hiuen Tsiang [Xuanzang] Translator Samuel Beal Item Type Book Section Book Title Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1969 Edition 1884 Place Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oriental Books Title A name given to the resource The Travels of Fa-hian. China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5d54c49c94b4eaf859c5d005ee1b042a.pdf f197e10839385a7748049588499783ca PDF Text Text The underwater cultural heritage of the Federated States of Micronesia Bill Jeffery Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, South Australia Email: billfjeffery@gmail.com Abstract Of all the United Nation member states, the Federated States of Micronesia’s (FSM) total land area is one of the smallest (191st out of 193 UN member states), yet the length of its coastline connecting its 607 islands ranks 21st in the world - after India and Chile. The people from the FSMare world-renown navigators and boat builders and they have developed and maintain many cultural practices, customs and legends associated with the sea. The FSM contains a variety of tangible heritage related to their traditional use of the sea and coast, material remains of foreign traders, pirates, colonial powers, and from World War II. This presentation will provide details about this significant heritage related to the sea and the FSM’s recording and training programs, in context with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001, and the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003. Key words: Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei State, Underwater cultural heritage, UNESCO Background The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a recently formed nation - formally recognized by the United Nations in 1990 - comprising the island states of Yap (9º30’N; 138ºE) in the west, Chuuk (formerly Truk), Pohnpei (comprising the FSM capital, Palikir), and Kosrae (5º20’N; 163ºE) in the east. It covers an area in the Western Pacific of over three million sq km, of which only 702 sq km is land and is home to about 110,000 people (Fig. 1). ‘Micronesia’ is a recent (c.200 years old) European term given to some of the many tiny islands in the western Pacific Ocean to differentiate them from Melanesia and Polynesia (Meller, 1998: 1). The Micronesian region includes the group of islands known as the Caroline Islands (the FSM and the Republic of Palau), the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, the Republic of Nauru and the Republic of Kiribati. These islands have been occupied at various times dating back to about 3,500 years ago (Dixon et al., 2013: 351). Starting with the Spanish, Micronesia has had a succession of colonial rulers 1 �Fig. 1 Location of the four states of the Federated States of Micronesia: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae. (Magellan arrived in Guam in 1521). From 1919, Micronesia was formally recognized as a mandated territory of Japan by the League of Nations. Following World War II, the US was granted a strategic trusteeship of the region by the United Nations (UN), and the region became known as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI). Over the next 40 years, the Marshalls, Palau and the North Mariana Islands left the federation, leaving Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae to form the FSM, accepting a Constitution in 1979 and entering into a Compact of Free Association with the US in 1986. Tangible and Intangible Underwater Cultural Heritage Many of the initial inhabitants of the FSM were coastal dwellers living in stilt houses (Rainbird, 1993). They have been building and using canoes for short and long distance voyaging for a long time, providing Micronesians with a ‘certain cohesiveness’ (Kiste, 1999: 434). The FSM coral atoll dwellers are some of the most renowned Pacific Island navigators and many cultural practices, customs and legends are associated with building and sailing canoes. They include the early settling of places such as Chuuk, which is reputed to have been settled from either Pohnpei or Kosrae, ‘from whence the 2 �first woman arrived pregnant, sailing on a coconut frond’ (Gladwin, 1970: 4). Dances, chants and storyboards convey information of these many Micronesian legends and customs (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Dancing is carried out in all the FSM states - this one is of Yapese dancing and chanting near a (Faluw) men’s meeting house/stone money bank. (Bill Jeffery, 2009) Tangible UCH in the FSM range from c. 2,000 year old indigenous habitation sites; sacred, cultural sites; fish weirs; seventeenth century Spanish ships; 19th century trading and whaling vessels; and Japanese and American World War II remains (aircraft, naval and merchant ships) (Bailey, 2000; Carrell, 1991; Hezel and Graham, 1997; Jeffery, 2012a) (Fig. 3). Some of the oldest underwater cultural heritage sites (stone tools) have been found off Fefan (an island in Chuuk Lagoon, which Rainbird (2004: 89) dated between 2350 and 1650 years ago, and Craib (1997: 13) argues that they are the oldest pottery-bearing sites in central and eastern Micronesia. Pacific Island countries have pointed out that their UCH is extensive and argued for international recognition and protection of this wide remit of UCH at a UNESCO Meeting in Vanuatu in 1999: "Protection of Underwater Heritage", within the Pacific, at the moment seems to refer more often to underwater wrecks from World War II, despite the existence of other underwater sites such as sacred cultural sites existing in many areas of the 3 �Pacific. The meeting urged the protection of these sites as well as those on land that may be protected by the World Heritage Convention (UNESCO 1999) (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 World War II Japanese aircraft in the hold of the Fujikawa Maru. (Bill Jeffery, 2004) FSM Underwater Cultural Heritage programs and legislation The FSM states are committed to maintaining their traditions and customs, in addition to using them to preserve terrestrial and underwater cultural heritage sites and they have enshrined relevant provisions in their Constitutions and state codes. Some examples of these aspects can be found in Pohnpei State where the Government of Pohnpei respects and protects the customs and traditions of Pohnpei1. In Yap, two councils made up of traditional chiefs, the Council of Pilung and Council of Tamol, have been established to advise the governor and legislature, and to promote and preserve the traditions and customs of the people of the state in a manner consistent with the Constitution of the FSM and the Constitution of the State of Yap2. The Kosrae State Code 1997 (Title 11: Land and Environment, Chapter 14: Antiquities) provides for impact assessments on ‘antiquities and traditional culture’ located on land and in state waters to be reported to the governor3. In Chuuk, in addition to the protection of local customs and traditions and the roles of traditional leaders,’ the Chuuk 4 �State Constitution recognizes all traditional rights and ownership over all reefs, tidelands, and other submerged lands subject to legislative regulation of their reasonable use4’. The only specific UCH law in the FSM is found in Chuuk. It forms part of the Chuuk State Code and is known as Title 25: Maritime and Marine Resources, Chapter 8: Chuuk Lagoon Monument5. This law applies only to Japanese World War II sites located underwater, whereas the other FSM state laws are generic ones that cover the identification, protection and preservation of indigenous and non-indigenous sites and traditions on land and underwater. To assist the FSM in implementing UCH activities, the US Submerged Resources Unit spent some time in Micronesia and the FSM during the 1980s and early 1990s primarily conducting site surveys and developing a catalogue of sites and strategic plans for site management in association with the National and State Historic Preservation Offices (HPO) (Carrell, 1991). More recent UCH programs including capacity building programs have been carried out by the authorin Guam from 2006 to 2012 (Jeffery 2012b). Additional UCH surveys have been implemented (see Applegate-Palmer this volume), by the author (Jeffery and Drew, 2007; Jeffery and Moran, 2007) and a number of other types of UCH surveys and research have been implemented such as that on fishing and the associated intangible and tangible heritage (Dixon et al., 2013; Jennison-Nolan, 1979). Building and using traditional Guamanian and Micronesian boats is being maintained by a Traditional Seafaring Society in Guam (Cunningham et al., 2006). In Chuuk, through the FSM National Historic Preservation Office a program of documenting Chuuk’s UCH has been implemented by Jeffery (2006, 2007). This has included the development of tourism/community awareness raising through production of signs and a booklet, as well as building the capacity of staff at the Chuuk HPO although the office has now been closed (Jeffery, 2003, 2004b). Staff from Pohnpei, Kosrae and Yap HPO also participated in this training which included development of a document in recording and monitoring the natural and cultural heritage values of UCH sites as well as the corrosion/conservation aspects, and all four offices gained equipment to assist in implementing these activities (Jeffery et al., 2007). From 20062008, an Earthwatch Institute funded project was implemented in Chuuk to assess the values and health of the submerged World War II sites and to assist the Chuuk 5 �government in their management (Emslie et al., 2007; Jeffery, 2012a: 25-28). This included discovery of oil leaking from one of the shipwrecks, an issue the President of the Federated States of Micronesia, H.E. Emanuel Mori raised at the 66th United Nations General Assembly in New York on 23 September 201 (Jeffery, 2012a: 27-28). As a result of this work in Chuuk, three television documentaries have been produced and shown world-wide about the values and issues associated with the World War II sites (Prospero’s ‘Shipwreck Detectives’; the French television series ‘Thalassa’ and the Australian Broadcasting Commission’s series ‘Foreign Correspondent’). In recent times, canoes built in the traditional manner, and a traditional canoe house have been built in Chuuk (pers. comm., Meter, T., 2011). In Pohnpei, reconnaissance surveys have been carried out on some its fish weirs and the remains of whaling activities (Jeffery, 2013), and extensive research and surveys have been implemented at Nan Madol. Covering an area of about 100 ha, located in the inter-tidal area on the eastern coast of Pohnpei, the complex of 90+ enclosures (islets) built of massive column-shaped basalt rocks, is considered to be an important political, residential and ritual center that dates back about 1,000 years BP (Ayers, 1983) (Fig. 4). The site is being documented for World Heritage listing together with the Lelu ruins on Kosrae. Traditional canoe building is also being revived in Pohnpei. In Yap, in association with the HPO, a comprehensive survey has been implemented on its extensive fish weirs (aech), a program that was directed by HPO and aimed at reviving their construction, use, maintenance and associated cultural practices (Jeffery and Pitmag, 2010; Jeffery, 2013) (Fig. 5). Maintaining Yap’s traditional boatbuilding, navigation and sailing heritage is being supported by groups and are a feature of annual event ‘Yap Day’, and the Yap Traditional Navigation Society hold an annual two-day celebration of building and sailing traditional canoes (Fig. 6). Yap and Palau HPO are working together on a World Heritage nomination of the Yapese stone money quarries (in Palau), and banks (on Yap, and underwater between the two islands which are still greatly valued by people in Yap). In Kosrae, where 19th century whaling and trading era shipwrecks form the majority of the shipwrecks, the SRU implemented a survey of ‘pirate’ Bully Hayes’s vessel Leonora to confirm its identity and recommend a management strategy. Kosrae also contains Lelu, a basalt built rock settlement similar 6 �to Nan Madol located in the inter-tidal area and consisting of about 100 enclosures (islets) that were used by the chiefs, as mortuary compounds, and for commoners from about 800 BP. There are still strong known oral history connections with this site, although as with Nan Madol, the construction techniques used are not known. Fig. 4 One of the dominant enclosures at Nan Madol. (Bill Jeffery, 2004) Fig. 5 Fish Weir (Aech) Daqoloch in Gagil, Yap. (Bill Jeffery, 2008) Issues arising from FSM programs in context with UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 The FSM’s Historic Preservation Offices, supported by the US National Park Service’s Micronesia and American Samoa Historic Preservation Program implement a range of historic preservation activities, including UCH, archaeological and anthropological research and surveys, which have been published with the assistance of a Micronesian NGO6. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 (2001 UCH Convention) at March 2014 has been ratified by 46 countries and is aimed at preserving ‘”Underwater cultural heritage” [being] all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years…’ Some of the main aims of the UNESCO Convention 2001 are to preserve sites in situ, as a first option; to stop commercial exploitation of sites and artifacts; facilitate international collaboration; encourage public access; maintain sovereign rights; and to ensure that - where excavation is permitted - it is carried out in accordance with international best practice, i.e. the Rules contained in the Convention’s Annex. These 7 �aims are consistent with how sites in the FSM and particularly the World War II sites in Chuuk should be managed given dive tourism is an important industry in the economy of the region. In fact, it could interpreted that the management of shipwrecks is the overriding aim of the 2001 UCH Convention, even though the term ‘shipwrecks’ is not used in it. ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage’ is used in an attempt to have the 2001 UCH Convention cover all types of UCH although many of its aims do not seem appropriate to non-shipwreck sites. There are a number of other issues in how potentially inappropriate the 2001 UCH Convention is to the FSM, greater Micronesia, in fact many other countries that value traditional sites over colonial shipwrecks (see Jeffery 2004a, 2006, 2011), although this needs to be considered on a case by case or country by country basis. For example in Chuuk the Japanese World War II shipwrecks are not valued historically by local residents - there is no sense of place or belonging to these sites. They are valued economically through dive tourism, souveniring, and through the fish that can be caught using dynamite - causing considerable damage to the shipwrecks and the environment. Souveniring has contributed to many artifacts being removed from Fig. 6 Drawing of Yapese transporting stone money from Palau to Yap using a traditional canoe. (Unknown Yapese artist) the shipwrecks and the Chuuk government, even with their legislation, seem powerless to control it. In Palau, souveniring of the Japanese World War II shipwrecks has brought swift legal action and two individuals were fined and imprisoned for this activity in 20067. The government of Palau regards these sites as an important part of their history and heritage and warrant protection. Neither the FSM nor any other Pacific Island nation has ratified the 2001 UCH Convention. The FSM ratified the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003 ICH Convention) on the 13 February 2013, and the Republic of Palau, ratified it on 2 November 20118. In the 2003 ICH Convention, the definition of intangible cultural heritage is seen as ‘the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, 8 �skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage’ (emphasis by the author)9. Some of the main aims of the 2003 ICH Convention are to: safeguard the intangible cultural heritage through ‘the identification, documentation, research, preservation, protection, promotion. This heritage is ‘constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity’ (emphasis by the author). On its own, the 2001 UCH Convention would not appear to be an answer in terms of managing FSM’s diverse UCH given much of what FSM and other Pacific Islanders value is intangible heritage associated with the sea and UCH. Even some tangible sites which have strong intangible aspects, such as fish weirs, if they are in use, may not be ‘protected’ under the 2001 UCH Convention (pers. comm. Azner-Gómez, M.J., 2013). Western constructs of heritage and the separation of intangible and tangible heritage in research and management, much like the separation of natural and cultural heritage is not appropriate with Pacific Island nations. A way forward for UCH management in FSM Effective management of UCH in the FSM should be implemented in context with the broad tangible and intangible heritage of FSM. This would give relevance to all the different types of UCH and assist in their management. Development of a strategic management plan outlining how this could all come together and be implemented would be a good first step. Given the doubts about intangible cultural heritage and the associated objects of UCH being covered under the 2001 UCH Convention (such as fish weirs), but their appropriateness under the 2003 ICH Convention, the strategic management plan should outline the most pragmatic approach to managing UCH incorporating the most appropriate laws and agreements. The World War II shipwrecks and aircraft located throughout the FSM, particularly in Chuuk Lagoon, should be promoted and managed in context with the broad history of the region, in addition to their management as dive tourism sites, something which is catered for in the 2001 UCH Convention. This could mean the FSM developing agreements with Japan and the 9 �US about the best way to manage the sites, which should mean gaining a better understanding of all the different values from the three stakeholder perspectives. In 1989, the US National Park Service implemented the Truk (Chuuk) Lagoon Historical Park Study and made a number of recommendations about the future management of the shipwrecks (USNPS, 1989) which I believe are still relevant today. This report appears to be the first document which discusses any social values of the submerged World War II sites and the war in general from a Chuukese perspective. It concluded that Chuukese had been overlooked in commemorating their losses from the war: ‘unfortunately nothing tangible remains of this aspect [how the war affected Micronesians] of World War II except the graves of the Nauruans on Tol. The establishment of an historical park provides a means to preserve these intangibles and, through interpretation, pass them on to others’ (USNPS, 1989: 64). An aim of the study was to consider if the Chuuk Lagoon sites would meet the criteria for designation as a Historical Park within the USNPS system, and it found a number of management issues that needed to be addressed. It was concluded that the submerged WWII sites ‘are utterly unique’ and ‘for the sunken wrecks, the establishment of a historical park or reserve seems to be particularly appropriate in light of the long-standing concerns over looting and vandalism’ (USNPS, 1989: 61). The report recommended that a national park management agency and approach at a FSM national level be adopted given the significance of the submerged WWII sites. This could mean establishing a group of FSM employees to manage the park in the same manner as the Conservation Rangers of the Palau Rock Islands Southern Lagoon World Heritage area, a system that appears to be working very well. The idea of World Heritage listing of the Chuuk Lagoon World War II shipwrecks is an issue that the author and the Chuuk government have considered (Jeffery, 2004a, 2012: 28).Combining aspects of the 2003 ICH Convention that is community focused, takes a holistic perspective (natural and cultural heritage), and assists in providing a sense of identity, with aspects of the 2001 UCH Convention, would help to develop a relevant and beneficial underwater cultural heritage program for the FSM. 10 �Acknowledgement I would like to thank the people of Chuuk, Yap and Pohnpei for their assistance in this study and the staff of the Historic Preservation Offices in Chuuk, Yap, Pohnpei and Palikir. Endnote 1 Constitution, Article 5, Section 2: see http://www.fsmlaw.org/pohnpei/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 2 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/yap/code/index.htm Chapter 4 of Title 5 of the Yap State Code, known as "State Historic Preservation Act of 1989" (accessed 12 January 2014). 3 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/kosrae/code/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 4 Nimeisa v. Department of Public Works, 6 FSM Intrm. 205, 209 (Chk. S. Ct. Tr. 1993) (accessed 12 January 2014). 5 See http://www.fsmlaw.org/chuuk/index.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 6 See http://www.mehp.org/(accessed 12 January 2014). 7 See http://pidp.org/archive/2006/May/05-24-12.htm (accessed 12 January 2014). 8 No other northern Pacific Island country has ratified the 2003 ICH Convention, although the Philippines, Indonesia, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, Vanuatu, and Papua New Guinea have ratified it. 9 See http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00006 (accessed 7 January 2014). References Ayers, W., 1983. Archaeology at Nan Madol, Ponape. Bulletin of Indo- Pacific Prehistory Association, Vol. 4:135-142. Bailey, D.E., 2000. World War II Wrecks of the Truk Lagoon. North Valley Diver Publications, Redding. Craib, J. L., 1997. Truk Archaeology: An Intensive Archeological Survey of Pwené Village, Dublon, Truk State, Federated States of Micronesia. Micronesian Resources Study, United States National Park Service, San Francisco. Carrell, T., 1991. Micronesia: Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment. Submerged Cultural Resource Unit, National Park Service. Santa Fe. Cunningham, L., Kranz, W., and Sikau, M., 2006. Restoring Traditional Seafaring and Navigation in Guam. Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 5(1-2): 314-319, accessed at http://marshall.csu.edu.au/MJHSS/Issue2006/MJHSS2006_119.pdf on 7 January 2014. 11 �Dixon, B., Gilda, L., and Mangieri, T., 2013. Archaeological Identification of Stone Fishweirs mentioned to Freycinet in 1819 on the island of Guam. Journal of Pacific History, Vol.48 (4): 349-368. Emslie, M., Jeffery, B., MacLeod, I., and Maynard, J., 2007.Chuuk Lagoon World War II submerged sites: Earthwatch project report, July 30 to August 11 2007. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Gladwin, T., 1970. East Is a Big Bird: Navigation and Logic on Puluwat Atoll. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Hezel, F., and Graham, C., 1997.Truk Underwater Archaeology. Micronesia Resources Study. United States National Park Service, San Francisco Jeffery, B., 2003. War in Paradise: World War II sites in Truk Lagoon. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Jeffery, B., 2004a. World War II underwater cultural heritage sites in Truk Lagoon: Considering a case for World Heritage Listing. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 33 (1): 106-121. Jeffery, B., 2004b. World War II sites in Chuuk, Federated States of Micronesia: A survey of underwater and terrestrial sites. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Jeffery, B., 2006. Federated States of Micronesia. In S. Dromgoole (Ed.), The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: National Perspectives in light of the UNESCO Convention 2001, MartinusNijh off Publishers, Leiden: 145-159. Jeffery, W.F., 2007. War graves, munition dumps and pleasure grounds: A post-colonial perspective of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II sites. Doctoral dissertation, James Cook University, Townsville, http://eprints.jcu.edu.au/2068/ Jeffery, B., 2011. Rocks wrecks and relevance: values and benefits in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. In M. Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings of the inaugural Asia-Pacific regional conference on underwater cultural heritage, Asian Academy for Heritage Management, Manila: 527-539. Jeffery, B., 2012a. The future of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged World War II sites. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 36: 15-30. Jeffery, B., 2012b. Report on Guam’s Maritime Archaeology Field Schools, 2009-2012. Guam Preservation Trust, Guam. 12 �Jeffery, B., 2013. Reviving community spirits: furthering the Sustainable, Historical and Economic role of fish weirs and traps. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 8 (1): 2957. Jeffery, B., Beger, M., MacLeod, I., Richards, V., Hengeveld, M., and Carpenter, J., 2007.Guidelines in recording and monitoring the natural and cultural attributes of submerged historic sites in the Federated States of Micronesia. National Historic Preservation Office, Pohnpei. Jeffery, B., and Drew, T., 2007.Report on Surveys of Submerged and Maritime Archaeology Sites in Guam. Report for Guam Historic Preservation Office, Agana. Jeffery, B., and Moran, V., 2007.Report on the development of Guam’s Submerged and Maritime Archaeology sites databases. Guam Historic Preservation Office. Agana. Jeffery, B., and Pitmag, W., 2010.The aech of Yap: A survey of sites and their histories. Yap State Historic Preservation Office. Yap, Federated States of Micronesia. Jennison-Nolan, J., 1979. Land and lagoon use in prewar Guam: Agat, Piti and Asan. MARC Working Paper No. 15. Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam. Kiste, R.C., 1999. A Half Century in Retrospect. In R. C. Kiste, and Mac Marshall (Eds.), American Anthropology in Micronesia. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: 433-467. Meller, N., 1998.‘The Congress of Micronesia’ in D. Hanlon Remaking Micronesia. University of Hawaii Press. Rainbird, P., 1993. Report on the Cultural Resource Management in the Coastal Area of Chuuk Lagoon. Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk. Rainbird, P., 2004. The Archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. UNESCO, 1999.Second World Heritage Global Strategy for the Pacific Islands Region, Port Vila, Vanuatu (24 to 27 August 1999). United States National Park Service (USNPS), 1989. Truk Lagoon Historical Park Study. Draft Report for Federated States of Micronesia, State of Truk. Photocopy from Micronesian Seminar, Pohnpei. 13 �Biography Bill Jeffery has been working as a maritime archaeologist for over 30 years. Bill formulated and coordinated a maritime heritage program for a state government agency, Heritage South Australia from 1981-2001. He went onto working with the Federated States of Micronesia National Historic Preservation Office and completing a PhD in maritime archaeology at James Cook University. He is a consulting maritime archaeologist to ERM Hong Kong, the CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities and the Hong Kong Maritime Museum and has implemented various types of archaeological and heritage management programs in Australia, the Pacific Islands, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and various countries in Africa. He has conducted maritime archaeology field schools with the Flinders University, University of Guam and James Cook University in addition to teaching Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training programs in nine different countries. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The underwater cultural heritage of the Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource Of all the United Nation member states, the Federated States of Micronesia’s (FSM) total land area is one of the smallest (191st out of 193 UN member states), yet the length of its coastline connecting its 607 islands ranks 21st in the world - after India and Chile. The people from the FSMare world-renown navigators and boat builders and they have developed and maintain many cultural practices, customs and legends associated with the sea. The FSM contains a variety of tangible heritage related to their traditional use of the sea and coast, material remains of foreign traders, pirates, colonial powers, and from World War II. This presentation will provide details about this significant heritage related to the sea and the FSM’s recording and training programs, in context with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001, and the UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/13d2232f8a43d13cfdc81b0ea62c6b80.pdf 1affe1abdd590747caf5ce32897c7c27 PDF Text Text The Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Marshall Islands; A Discussion of the Resources, the Legislation, the Community, Protection and Preservation Mary Jane Naone Abstract The unique underwater cultural heritage (UCH) of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) remains a formidable challenge for management and preservation. The heritage includes traditional sites such as important coral reef heads and Marshallese fish traps, the Japanese and American signature of World War II in the Pacific, and the material evidence of nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll. Last year, Bikini Atoll was inscribed as a World Heritage Site, and Kwajalein Atoll remains a United States National Historic Landmark. Traditional sites continue to be used by Marshallese navigators and fisherman. A widening circle of legislation informs management, including the respective RMI and United States legislation, U.S. military regulations, and global strategies for World Heritage management. Consultation and planning may require involvement from landowners, Irooj (traditional chiefs), mayors, tour operators, developers, the military, local cultural resource officers, and the governing agencies. Geography and unreliable transport pose a challenge to preservation and protection. The 29 atolls and 5 islands are not easily reachable, requiring collaboration and creativity for survey and monitoring. Threats to underwater cultural resources range from WWII wreck looting to ensuring continued access for fisherman to traditional fish traps at a proposed surf resort. The value of historic preservation often competes with development interests and the immediacy of economic need. This paper is a discussion of the ways that the Historic Preservation Office approaches the vastness, multiplicity of legislation, range of stakeholders, and challenges that are associated with preservation and protection of the UCH in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. First I present an overview of the geography and the resources, followed by discussion of the various legislation and our actions to address the challenges and build capacity to protect and preserve the UCH in the Marshall Islands. Geography A discussion of the preservation of the UCH of the Marshall Islands must begin with an understanding of the vastness of the country. The Marshall Islands are approximately 5000 miles southeast of Japan, and halfway between Hawaii and Australia. The two chains of atolls and islands that make up the Marshall Islands are traditionally referred to as the Ralik (eastern) and the Radik chain (western). The northwestern atolls were traditional known as Kabin Meto, or the “far reaches of the sea” or “bottom of the sea” (National Biodiversity Team 2000:1011). While the land mass of the 29 coral atolls and 5 islands totals an area of 70 square miles, the Exclusive Economic Zone that differentiates the waters surrounding the archipelago from the rest of Micronesia covers 750,000 square miles. Dry land forms less than 1% of the country’s area. There are 1,225 �individual islets and islands that make up the Marshall Islands, and amongst the atolls, a total lagoon area of 4,507 square miles. Of these, Kwajalein Atoll is the largest atoll (and largest in the world) with a lagoon area of 839 square miles and a land area of about 6 square miles (National Biodiversity Team 2000:11). Due to its remote location and large lagoon, Kwajalein is leased by the United States government for use as a military base and ballistic missile testing site. Resources The Marshallese are internationally regarded as skilled navigators, peopling the remote atolls after traveling great distances in outrigger canoes reading the swells, ocean currents, and the weather. Traditional sites demonstrate this intimacy with the ocean and include coral reef heads featured in bwebenwato (storytelling), mo, and the fish traps that are still in use today. Marshallese Irooj (chiefs) set aside land, lagoon, and ocean areas as mo, off limits for harvesting or fishing – this allowed depleted resources to recover before the area was used again, ensuring sustainability. The vast cultural landscape of the country includes these natural resources that have roles in bwebenwato (storytelling), the components of travel (swells, weather) and the basis of survival (healthy biodiversity and the coral reef). In the 14th century, Spanish wayfarers voyaged into Micronesia, and although they didn’t occupy the lands, claimed “discovery” of several of the atolls. They were followed intermittently throughout the 1500s – 1700s by more Spanish, British, and Dutch ships. British Captain William Marshall, commander of the Scarborough and Thomas Gilbert of the Charlotte are credited for discovering the Marshall Islands in 1788. In 1885 the Marshall Islands became a protectorate of Germany which lasted until 1914. After the outbreak of WWII in Europe, the Japanese succeeded Germany in administration of the Marshalls, and sought to develop Micronesia economically and to begin fortification of the islands in preparation for WWII in the Pacific. The Japanese fortified Kwajalein, Jaluit, Maloelap, Mili, and Wotje in the 1930s, relocating the residents to other atolls. In 1937, the famous American aviator, Amelia Earhart, and her navigator, Fred Noonan, disappeared on a trans-Pacific flight, and one theory placed her in the Marshalls (Roach 2003). World War II started in 1941 and the United States gained supremacy in the Pacific, conquering Kwajalein, Majuro and Enewetok Atolls within one month. The U.S. fortified Kwajalein and Enewetok, and took over trusteeship of the Marshall Islands in 1944. The UCH of the Marshall Islands includes the material signature of the events of World War II. Sunken ships and airplanes characterize the war torn atolls and undoubtedly extend beyond our current scope of investigation. A recent survey of Ujae Atoll, arguably removed from the main areas of WWII activity, revealed an intact Catalina B-5 bomber, typically used for scouting, sunken in the lagoon. Kwajalein Atoll has an extensive underwater WWII story, characterized by new finds in addition to the prestigious wrecks long explored. �The event that placed the Marshall Islands in the global consciousness came after the war. Following the takeover, the United States detonated 23 thermonuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands. Chosen for its remote location, the United States assembled WWII Japanese and U.S. warships into Bikini Atoll’s lagoon, fortified the atoll with bunkers, and relocated the Bikiniians to neighboring atolls in an epic and unforgettable agreement that they were leaving their homeland “for the good of all mankind and to end all world wars” (Baker and Niedenthal 2009:33) During the first peace time test of an atomic bomb, the fallout from the tests effectively radiated hundreds of Marshallese, Japanese fisherman, and military servicemen. Due to its outstanding universal value, Bikini Atoll was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in July of last year (2010). Bikini Atoll represents the nuclear age, the introduction of fallout, the first peacetime atomic tests, and serves as an illustration of nuclear colonialism. Bikini testing marked the beginning of the Cold War and motivated a global anti-nuclear movement in the second half of the twentieth century, including the signing of the “Suginami” petition in Japan after a radiated fishing boat distributed radiated tuna into the markets. The UCH of Bikini stands as a testament to the nuclear testing. In the Bikini Atoll lagoon ten sunken vessels remain from the tests from the U.S. Saratoga, which features Helldiver planes and an Avenger torpedo bomber on her deck, to the Nagato, a Japanese flagship that assisted in the operation at Pearl Harbour (Baker and Niedenthal 2009:21). The collection of testing targets represents over thirty years of naval design and development of which most of the ships had prestigious roles in WWII prior to the testing (Delgado et al., 1991:143). Legislation The legislation governing the UCH in the Marshall Islands reflects the variety of resources, origin, and ownership. The Historic Preservation Act of 1991 and the Regulations Passed Pursuant to the Act mandate cultural resource management within the country. In addition, United States funded activities in the Marshall Islands are governed by the U.S. National Historic Preservation Act. The United States Army at Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) has three governing documents, and the Bikini World Heritage Site is managed with deference to the recommendations of the World Heritage Committee. The Historic Preservation Office (HPO) which is housed in the building of the Ministry of Internal Affairs1 works with the local governments, the USAKA, the U.S. National Park Service, and Bikini Atoll Local Government and Management Committee to implement the legislation protecting submerged resources. The HPO implements the diving permitting procedure in the legislation (Spennemann 1992:85). Visitors traveling to outer islands must get an Outer Island Entry Permit from the Local Government office. The Local Government 1 The Ministry of Internal Affairs (IA) is a branch of the federal government located in the RMI capitol, Majuro. IA houses the local government office, women’s services, child advocacy, and the Historic Preservation Office. �office in the capitol of Majuro is in contact with the local governments on the outer islands and serves as a hub for communication. Once the visitors obtain an Outer Island Entry Permit and pay a fee to visit the islands (atolls) they wish to visit they are sent to the HPO to obtain a diving permit. The diving permit is $50USD for individuals and they must be certified divers. The permit contains information about the UCH and serves as an agreement that the diver is aware of the legislation protecting the UCH and will abide by it. Snorkelers are also subject to the agreement. We provide the radio station with the names of the visitors and their activities which are then radioed to the respective atolls. As the diving permit is tied to the Outer Island Entry Permit it ensures accountability to the local government about the visitor(s)’s activities. Due to the breadth of the country the HPO trains Cultural Resource Officers from the outer atolls to assist with the implementation of the legislation. The Mayors of the outer atolls appoint the Cultural Resource Officers who may report back to the HPO should there be problems with visitors and diving. Additionally, the HPO issues Dive Tour Operator Affidavits which place the tour operator as monitor of the responsible party for implementation of the legislation. The dive tour operator pays $150USD annually for the permit to operate dive tours and the HPO provides historic preservation education to the dive masters and employees of the dive tour operation. The USAKA operates according to the Environmental Standards and Procedures for U.S. Army at Kwajalein Atoll Activities in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (UES) which was enacted in 1995 and are reviewed every two years. The three regulatory documents, the UES, the Document of Environmental Protection (DEP) and the Historic Preservation Plan (HPP) provide the basis for the cultural management on Kwajalein Atoll. The Army has also released policy CR 200-4, which prohibits looting and artifact collection on Kwajalein. Roi Namur and Kwajalein Island were listed as U.S. National Historic Landmarks in 1985 but the boundaries of the listing have to be clarified to assess the designation’s effect on the protection of UCH. USAKA representatives have maintained that the designation became null in recent years. The issue remains unresolved and is currently in consultation. In 2002 the Marshall Islands accepted the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. This is an international treaty that binds the RMI to an agreement to promote and protect cultural and natural heritage. Following Bikini Atoll’s inscription as a World Heritage Site in 2010 the RMI is responsible for managing the site in accordance with the general objectives of the Convention, and periodic reporting provides an opportunity to cooperate with the World Heritage Committee to ensure the policies and aims of the Convention are being met. Challenges There are several factors that render the UCH vulnerable and present challenges to its protection: unsurveyed and unmapped resources, limited staffing, limited �monitoring, military security, foreign development, and the question of economic and/or resource benefit(s) of underwater resources to visitors and islanders. Additionally, the rising sea levels and eroding shorelines have introduced new resources into the ocean and produced concerns about ownership into the future. An accurate assessment of the UCH within the 750,000 square miles of the country is still beyond our reach. Of the 29 atolls and 5 islands, 12 remain to be surveyed by the HPO for cultural resources. Underwater surveys have been conducted at Wotje, Maloelap, Bikini, Jaluit, Mili, and Majuro. Like our Micronesian neighbors the remote reaches of the country belie monitoring. While our administrative procedures for diving activities ensure education and communication between the capitol city and outer islands. Implementation of our laws is subject to visibility and reporting. The HPO is responsible for conducting survey and inventory and funded by the U.S. National Park Service (NPS). Staff capacity is limited and funding can be delayed pending grant reporting. The professional staff are contracted for two years. The office has seen considerable delays in hiring, causing a gap in implementation of the legislation as well as progress towards realizing the extent of the UCH. Looting remains a problem on the military base of Kwajalein. Limited capacity within the RMI local government office on Ebeye, military security, and a poor understanding of the conditions of the wrecks over time have impeded our office’s efforts to investigate complaints. Complaints from divers on Kwajalein have been anonymous for fear of backlash. The HPO has attempted to enlist the Kwajalein Scuba Club to provide monitoring information but questions of ownership over the wrecks and the lagoon as well as the disbelief that there is “anything left” to strip have led to an impasse. The recent dismantling of a rare aircraft below legal dive limits and a formal complaint with “before” and “after” photographs has heightened RMI action; leading to a government to government cooperation to address the problem through legislation and investigation. Foreign development poses a new challenge to the UCH. Many developers simply don’t “see” the resource as a national heritage and RMI’s strong land ownership rights can impede implementation of the legislation. A recent development proposal for a surf resort on the outer islet of Berang, in Ailinglaplap Atoll, included leasing the water surrounding the islet for exclusive use by the developer. However, neighboring islanders have frequented the area for fishing, and the northern shore of the islet features historic, possibly prehistoric, fish traps (Wright 2011:31). During consultation with the RMI Environmental Protection Agency, we questioned whether the waters of the RMI can be leased due to the Public Lands Act, which stipulates that “all marine areas below the high watermark are the property of the RMI government”.2 Exclusive use of the waters surrounding Berang Islet requires negotiation with the federal government and a special permit should be sought. In the event that a permit of this type is sought, the 2 www.rmicourts.org - Search Public Lands and Resources Act, pdf, Chapter 1, Public Lands, Section 103. �Historic Preservation Office will request that Ailinglaplap residents may continue to use the traditional fish traps as it is an established traditional cultural site protected by the Historic Preservation Act. The power of landowners to make agreements regarding their land and shorelines may conflict with historic preservation measures, and requires careful negotiation to ensure protection of the resource. The interconnectedness of natural and cultural resources should inform protection. In the above example concerning Berang Islet, the developer questioned whether the traps were anything more than “natural reef lines”. The Marshallese have traditionally utilized natural reef formations as traps, abridging the formations by stacking additional reef rock or closing off an area. These areas may not be recognizable as a cultural resource to foreigners. Traditional sites in the Marshall Islands are defined as the “sites, landmarks and locations to which oral traditions of the indigenous people of the Marshall Islands are attached” (Spennemann 1992:13). As all traditional sites are significant according to the legislation the sites qualify for eligibility to the RMI National Register. Traditional sites include landmarks assisting with navigation, coral reef heads, sacred areas, and traditional sites. Much of the success in the implementation of the legislation regarding the preservation of UCH depends on the investment of Marshallese citizens as it is difficult to inscribe value to historic underwater resources without a recognizable impetus or economic stimulus. Throughout the Marshall Islands WWII artifacts have been reused as household and technical implements; to a lesser degree the same is true for the underwater WWII heritage (Spennemann 2006: 272). However, growing recognition of the benefits of visitors and preserving destinations for cultural tourism as well as education about historic preservation may deter future looting of the wrecks for household use. The future of the UCH will likely meet more government to government relations as climate change and rising sea levels affect atolls throughout the Pacific Ocean. Shoreline graves have been eroding into the lagoon and ocean for years. Predictions that the atolls will be underwater in the not-so-distant future necessitate discussion about mitigating effects to shoreline resources. There may also be questions of ownership of the UCH should the land they are governed by become submerged. Capacity Building The HPO has addressed many of the challenges to preservation by collaborating with those close to the resources. This includes landowners, divers, snorkelers, fishermen, the scuba club, local governments, and others. Given the remote reaches of the country and the limited capacity to implement corrective measures for violations of the legislation, the HPO emphasizes education and networking. We work with dive operations to request status reports of the underwater heritage. Most tour operators and dive clubs maintain that stripped wrecks are bad for business and make for a compromised experience. We are attempting to �enlist the Kwajalein Scuba Club to assist with monitoring of the wrecks and provide education to divemasters at Bikini Atoll. Bikini Atoll Local Government has recently allowed diving at the World Heritage Site and manages the exclusive tour operation activities by requiring two Bikiniian live aboard monitors, a divemaster in the water, and a monitor on deck of the charter boat to watch the divers as they get on and off the boat. The HPO is creating an educational dive brochure to distribute when issuing dive permits, and to provide to the Marshall Islands Visitors Authority. The RMI Advisory Council of Historic Preservation (ACHP) provides support to RMI HPO in protection of the heritage. For the past year the HPO has addressed complaints about looting on the military base at Kwajalein. The RMI ACHP, featuring government officials from various ministries, the Council of Irooj, and local non government organizations (NGOs) provides the official support to engage RMI high level officials in government to government relations. The support of the ACHP ensures cultural resource issues are taken seriously. We also consult with natural resource managers and educators at monthly Coastal Management Advisory Committee (CMAC) board meetings, and collaborate on potential surveys and projects. CMAC features representatives from the Environmental Protection Agency, Marine Resources Authority, non-forprofit conservation, and others. Meeting with CMAC affords the opportunity to build capacity by sharing resources and training as well as to collaborate on understanding the multifaceted impacts of development projects and resource exploitation. The HPO stays abreast of natural resource protection measures and maintains relationships with the stakeholders. Earlier this year HPO staff attended the workshop “Marshall Islands Comprehensive Legislative Review”, as the Marshalls are part of Western and Central Pacific Fishing Commission (WCPFC) and used the opportunity to request insertion of language about protection of the underwater cultural resource. Given recent local, national and international collaboration we remain optimistic, while it is clear that there are formidable challenges facing effective protection of the important underwater resources of the RMI. Building relationships with the stakeholders and emphasizing education about historic preservation on the outer atolls builds cooperation and capacity. The inscription of Bikini Atoll as a World Heritage Site has opened discussions about protection of the resources at Bikini World Heritage Site and throughout the country. As the field of maritime archaeology expands globally the UCH of the Marshall Islands will continue to gain exposure for its uniqueness and importance. Using creativity and collaboration the HPO will continue its mission of the documentation and protection of the underwater sites recognized as important resources to the cultural history of the Marshall Islands. �Bibliography Baker, N. and Niedenthal, J., 2009 Delgado, J.P., Lenihan, D.J. & Murphy, L.F., 1991 Delgado, J. P., 1996 Finney, S., 2007 National Biodiversity Team, 2000 Neidenthal, J., 2002 Roach, J., 2003 Spennemann, D., 1992 Spennemann, D., 1998 Spennemann, D., 2000 Spennemann, D., 2006 Spennemann, D., Bikini Atoll: Nomination by the Republic of the Marshall Islands For Inscription on the World Heritage List Majuro, 2010. The Archaeology of the Atomic Bomb: A Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment of the Sunken Fleet of Operation Crossroads at Bikini and Kwajalein Atoll Lagoons, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Santa Fe, N.M: US Department of the Interior,National Park Service, Submerged Cultural Resources Unit. Note: an online version can be found at http://www.nps.gov/history/history/ online_books/swcrc/37/contents.htm Ghost Fleet: The Sunken Ships of Bikini Atoll University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Phase Two Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in Portions of Maloelap Lagoon, Republic of the Marshall Islands, HPO Report, Majuro. The Marshall Islands – Living Atolls Amidst the Living Sea. Santa Clarita, Ca: St. Hildegard. For the Good of All Mankind; A History of the People of Bikini and their Islands. Bravo Publishers, Majuro. Where is Amelia Earhart? Three Theories National Geographic News http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/12/121 5_031215_ameliaearhart.html Republic of the Marshall Islands Historic Preservation Legislation. Majuro: Ministry of Internal & Social Affairs, Historic Preservation Office. Essays on the Marshallese Past Second Edition. Albury: URL: http://life.csu.edu.au/marshall/html/essays/es-arc 1.html. Freshwater Lens, Settlement Patterns, Resource Use and Connectivity. Albury: URL: http://life.csu.edu.au/marshall/mile.html. Freshwater Lens, Settlement Patterns, Resource Use and Connectivity in the Marshall Islands Transforming Cultures eJournal, Vol.1 No.2, June 2006 http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/TfC Examples of Adaptive Re-Use of World War II �2006 Tobin, J., 1952 Williamson, R.V., 2001 Wright, M.J., 2011 Artefacts in Micronesia Micronesica Vol.5 n.1/2. pp.269-285. Land Tenure in the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin 11. The Challenge of Survey and Site Preservation in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Cultural Resource Management 24: 44-45. An Inventory of Archaeological Resources on Berang Islet, Ailinglaplap Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. HPO Report 2011/01. Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands: Historic Preservation Office. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Marshall Islands; A Discussion of the Resources, the Legislation, the Community, Protection and Preservation Subject The topic of the resource Session 8: Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource The unique underwater cultural heritage (UCH) of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) remains a formidable challenge for management and preservation. The heritage includes traditional sites such as important coral reef heads and Marshallese fish traps, the Japanese and American signature of World War II in the Pacific, and the material evidence of nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll. Last year, Bikini Atoll was inscribed as a World Heritage Site, and Kwajalein Atoll remains a United States National Historic Landmark. Traditional sites continue to be used by Marshallese navigators and fisherman. A widening circle of legislation informs management, including the respective RMI and United States legislation, U.S. military regulations, and global strategies for World Heritage management. Consultation and planning may require involvement from landowners, Irooj (traditional chiefs), mayors, tour operators, developers, the military, local cultural resource officers, and the governing agencies. Geography and unreliable transport pose a challenge to preservation and protection. The 29 atolls and 5 islands are not easily reachable, requiring collaboration and creativity for survey and monitoring. Threats to underwater cultural resources range from WWII wreck looting to ensuring continued access for fisherman to traditional fish traps at a proposed surf resort. The value of historic preservation often competes with development interests and the immediacy of economic need. This paper is a discussion of the ways that the Historic Preservation Office approaches the vastness, multiplicity of legislation, range of stakeholders, and challenges that are associated with preservation and protection of the UCH in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. First I present an overview of the geography and the resources, followed by discussion of the various legislation and our actions to address the challenges and build capacity to protect and preserve the UCH in the Marshall Islands. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mary Jane Naone Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8