62 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b90b4d72322545aa886b4402544d37f6.pdf 60402e662dbd39fbae88a644ddab0e09 PDF Text Text Protecting the Underwater Cultural Heritage in the waters surrounding Hong Kong Steven Gallagher Associate Professor of Practice in Law Professional Consultant The Chinese University of Hong Kong Email: stevegallagher@cuhk.edu.hk Abstract Since its colonial founding in 1841 Hong Kong has been a vibrant centre for international trade and commerce. Its strategic location at the head of the Pearl River made it a perfect location for maritime trade. Before this the waters surrounding Hong Kong’s 200 plus islands were the notorious hideouts of pirates seeking to plunder the rich merchant vessels trading between China and its South East Asian neighbours. The waters around Hong Kong are only now being fully explored for their cultural heritage. Professionals and amateurs are seeking the resting places of infamous pirate wrecks and the wrecks of their victims. Harbor developments and sea fortifications are being examined. However, the continued expansion of Hong Kong as a trading centre and the shortage of land for development places many underwater areas that may have significant heritage information at risk. Developments and land reclamation in the world famous Victoria Harbor have raised concerns locally and internationally. The building and expansion of the Chek Lap Kok Airport and the building of the Hong Kong-MacauZhuhai Bridge have given archaeologists opportunity to discover evidence of Hong Kong’s underwater cultural heritage but have also raised concerns regarding its damage and destruction. This paper considers the protection Hong Kong’s laws provide for the underwater cultural heritage in the face of threats from building projects, reclamation, increased traffic in established sea routes and the establishment of new commercial sea routes. Keywords: Hong Kong, underwater cultural heritage, law, Guangdong, legal framework Introduction Archaeologists have discovered evidence of human occupation of Hong Kong dating back 6,000 years to the Neolithic period (The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013). Discoveries suggest that Hong Kong has always been a sea trading area with the concentration of its population on its coastline e.g. Lantau, Sai Kung, Tuen Mun and the Kowloon Peninsula. Hong Kong’s position at the mouth of the Pearl River, close to the trading port of Guanzhou (previously Canton), made it useful for the trade in tea, silk, 1 �porcelain and eventually opium. The many islands and the rich trade passing through these waters have also made the area a haven and rich plundering waters for pirates. The Portuguese, the first Europeans to pass regularly through these waters, referred to the islands of Hong Kong as ‘the islands of thieves’. The problem of piracy in the area led to the Great Clearance Order of 1661–69, when the inhabitants of coastal Guandong were ordered to move inland to prevent them from having any contact with pirates and perhaps providing aid to them. The area of Hong Kong was virtually deserted and only a small proportion of the original residents are said to have returned when the Emperor rescinded the order (Hayes, 1974). However, the coastal settlements around Hong Kong gradually re-established and benefitted from the opening up of Canton for the tea and opium trade (HSU, 2000); the islands of Hong Kong became watering, victualing and smuggling points. Piracy also continued with notorious local pirate chiefs controlling vast fleets in these waters, for example Cheung Po Tsai (17961820). After the First Opium War (1839-1842) the British took Hong Kong Island as a Crown Colony and it became the base for European trade in the area. Archaeological and historical study of the underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong The importance of the sea to the history and development of Hong Kong and the cultural heritage of the people oft is reflected in their beliefs and custom; for example the prevalence of Tin Hau temples and the dragon boat festivals which occur throughout the region. The recognition of the importance of Hong Kong’s maritime history is reflected in two dedicated museums (Maritime Museum and the Museum of Coastal Defence) and legislation such as the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance (Cap. 531), which recognises that ‘the harbour is a special public asset and a natural heritage of the Hong Kong people’ (Society for the Protection of the Harbour Ltd v. Town Planning Board [2004] 1 HKLRD 396). Discoveries of evidence of Hong Kong’s maritime cultural heritage have been made during the development of the infrastructure of Hong Kong including a Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) shipwreck that is now located within the High Island Reservoir. Archaeological investigation during the building of the new airport at Chep Lak Kok, 2 �Lantau Island, has resulted in evidence of coastal settlement in the region. Although no thorough archaeological exploration of the waters of Hong Kong has yet been carried out, in 2009 the Lord Wilson Heritage Trust, provided financial support for the Hong Kong Underwater Heritage Group to analyse and consolidate data for 300 Hong Kong sites in a wrecks database (Jeffery et al., 2013). Concern for underwater cultural heritage is driven by the problems related to the shortage of land in Hong Kong. Hong Kong consists of approximately 1,104 km2 (426 square miles) of land including over 200 islands. Its hilly terrain results in only some 25% of its landmass being developed for habitation with concentration mostly along the coastline. Official population figures of seven million people make it one of the most densely populated areas in the world (Census 2011). The constant reclamation of land from the sea, infrastructure projects in, under or over the sea, and the huge amount of sea traffic in the area endanger the underwater cultural heritage. The legal framework for the protection of underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and operates under the ‘One Country, Two Systems’ political system, which permits the region to use the common law until 2047. Hong Kong claims territorial waters to a distance of 3 nautical miles (5.6 km). Although there are many statutes which may indirectly affect the protection of underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong, there are two statutes which form the basis of protection for underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong: the Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance (AMO) (Cap. 53), which provides the basis for all statutory protection of cultural heritage wherever situated in Hong Kong; and the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance (Cap. 499). The Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance was gazetted in 1971 and came into effect in 1972. AMO therefore predates the common usage of the term “cultural heritage” and so refers to “relics”, “antiquities” and “monuments”. AMO provides “for the preservation of objects of historical, archaeological and palaeontological interest and for matters ancillary thereto or connected therewith”, to be effected by way of designating ownership in relics and declaration of “any place, building, site or structure” as a proposed monument or monument. Although AMO expressly refers to discovery as including finding in Hong 3 �Kong ‘in, on or under land or sea’ (s. 2), Amo was drafted when the limitations of underwater archaeology and the appreciation of underwater cultural heritage meant that the protection of the underwater cultural heritage was only cursorily considered, which is apparent as subsequent sections only refer to land: e.g. ss 2, 2A, 2B, 3, 5 and 8. The Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance was gazetted in 1998 and has from its implementation been interpreted as necessitating consideration of the impact of proposed development of the seabed on cultural heritage. This interpretation was strengthened in 2007 after the Chief Executive’s Policy Address identified the protection of heritage and the requirement of Heritage Impact Assessments (HIA) as policy initiatives. The protection afforded the underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong will be considered under two headings: protecting underwater cultural heritage from unauthorised excavation and removal, and protecting underwater cultural heritage before and during development. Protecting underwater cultural heritage from unauthorised excavation and removal AMO places restrictions upon the searching for and excavating of sites, antiquities and relics, and specifies what must be done when an antiquity is discovered either accidentally or after deliberate search. Whenever an antiquity is discovered, the discoverer or any person who knows of the discovery must report the discovery to the Authority, presently the Secretary for Development (s.2), or to a designated person, identify the antiquity or supposed antiquity if requested to, and take all reasonable measures to protect the antiquity (s.11(1)-(3). A designated person includes, ‘(a) the officer in charge of a police station; (b) a police officer of or above the rank of inspector; and (c) any person specified by the Authority by notice in the Gazette’. The person making the report of the discovery of an antiquity may be paid a reward by the Authority, with the prior approval of the Chief Executive (s. 11(4)). AMO further provides that no person may ‘excavate or search for antiquities’ unless they have a licence to do so (s.12a). Licences are granted by the Antiquities and Monuments Office under the direction of the Authority. 4 �AMO (s.2) defines an antiquity as: a. a relic; anda place, building, site or structure erected, formed or built by human agency before the year 1800 and the ruins or remains of any such b. place, building, site or structure, whether or not the same has been modified, added to or restored after the year 1799. Although this definition was arrived at with terrestrial discovery in mind the provisions also apply to underwater cultural heritage predating 1800 as discovery may be ‘in, on or under land or sea’ (s. 2). Once an antiquity has been discovered and reported to the Authority, the Authority may designate it a proposed monument and or declared monument. The protection AMO provides is not restricted to places, buildings, sites or structures predating 1800, however, as AMO provides that the Authority may declare any place, building, site or structure a proposed monument (s.2A).Declaration lasts for 12 months with the possibility of extension for a further 12 months (s.2B). Furthermore, the Authority may declare any place, building, site or structure “to be a monument, historical building or archaeological or palaeontological site or structure if the Authority considers it ‘to be of public interest by reason of its historical, archaeological or palaeontological significance” (s.3). The “place, building, site or structure” may be ‘in, on or under land or sea’ and is usually referred to as a “declared monument”. The status of “proposed monument” or “declared monument” provides protection for the site and anything contained within it. AMO empowers the Authority, with the prior approval of the Chief Executive, to authorise the fencing, repair, maintenance, preservation or restoration of any proposed monument or monument, and the excavate or search for relics in any proposed monument or monument and the removal of any relics thereby discovered (s. 5 (1)).These powers are limited when interfering with the property rights of owners or occupiers of the proposed monument or monument (s.5(3)). Compensation may be paid to the owner or occupier of monuments or proposed monuments if the Authority exercises these powers (s. 8). The Ordinance provides a restriction on excavation and interference with any proposed monument or declared monument by way of a permit scheme (s. 6). The scheme prohibits, amongst other acts, the excavation, carrying on of building or other works, depositing earth or refuse on or in 5 �a proposed monument or monument, and the demolishing, removing, obstructing, defacing or interfering with a proposed monument or monument, except in accordance with a permit granted by the Authority. Anyone refused a permit to carry out these acts may appeal to the Chief Executive within 14 days of notice of the refusal by the Authority. The Chief executive may confirm, vary or reverse the refusal. The Chief executive’s decision is final. Once a site is designated a proposed monument or declared monument no person may use a metal detector there to excavate and search for antiquities unless they have a licence from the Authority for these purposes (s.12aa).Furthermore no person may remove any relic ‘hitherto undiscovered from a proposed monument or monument, or collect or remove any object which he supposes to be a relic from the site of its discovery’ unless they have a licence which permits them to do so for the protection of the relic or supposed relic (s.12b). Section 2 defines "relic" as: a. a movable object made, shaped, painted, carved, inscribed or otherwise created, manufactured, produced or modified by human agency before the year 1800, whether or not it has been modified, added to or restored after the year 1799; and b. fossil remains or impressions… Every relic discovered in Hong Kong after the commencement of the AMO belongs to the Government of Hong Kong, although the Authority may disclaim ownership of the relic on behalf of the Government when common law principles would then apply (s.10). The licensing scheme (s.13 (2) provides that a licence may only be issued if the Authority is satisfied that the licensee ‘has had sufficient scientific training or experience to enable him to carry out the excavation and search satisfactorily; (b) has at his disposal sufficient staff and financial or other resources to enable him to carry out the excavation and search satisfactorily; and (c) is able to conduct, or arrange for, a proper scientific study of any antiquities discovered as a result of the excavation and search.’ A licence may be granted for a renewable period of 12 months (s.13 (3)), to enter land for the purposes of excavation and searching (s.14), it is accepted practice for such licences to be issued for marine exploration. A license may be cancelled but the 6 �licensee must have the opportunity of making representation as to why it should not be cancelled (s. 15). An applicant or licensee may also appeal by way of petition to the Chief Executive within 14 days of a decision to refuse or cancel a licence: (s. 16). It may include such conditions as the Authority considers appropriate, e.g. the conduct of any excavation and search, the reporting, mapping and documenting thereof, the use of a metal detector, the preservation of materials discovered, their removal, examination and return, and the making and delivery of casts, rubbings, squeezes and other reproductions’ (s. 13(6)). AMO provides penalties for those who: knowingly make ‘a false statement to the Authority or to a designated person as to the situation or circumstances of the discovery of an antiquity’; do not report the discovery of an antiquity; excavate or search for antiquities without a licence (including the use of metal detectors (as proscribed in s. 12aa)); do not identify an antiquity they have reported if so requested; wilfully obstructs the Authority, or any designated person authorized by him (s. 19(1)). On conviction the offences carry maximum penalties of HK$5,000 and imprisonment for 6 months. There is a presumption in criminal and civil proceedings that any relic or alleged relic proved to be in Hong Kong after the date of commencement of the Ordinance was discovered in Hong Kong after the date of commencement of the Ordinance (s. 20(1)).The possessor of the relic or presumed relic must prove that the relic or presumed relic was in their possession or the possession from someone from whom they obtained possession for six years before the commencement of the proceedings or was imported into Hong Kong (s. 21(1)). AMO also provides more serious offences of excavating, carrying on building or other works, or depositing earth or refuse on or in a proposed monument or monument; or demolishing, removing, obstructing, defacing or interfering with a proposed monument or monument. These offences are punishable on conviction with a maximum fine of HK$100,000 and imprisonment for 1 year. The definition of antiquity limits the protection of undiscovered sites and artefacts to those predating 1800. However, the designation of a site as a proposed monument or declared monument will protect the site from any excavation or the removal of any object. Any wreck postdating this period and not subject to statutory designation may be subject to the law of salvage. The Merchant Shipping (Collision Damage Liability and 7 �Salvage) Ordinance (Cap. 508) incorporated the International Convention on Salvage 1989, but Hong Kong has adopted the Reservation permitted in article 30(1) of the Convention, as specified in the Ordinance s 9 and Sch 1, Pt2, para 2(1)(a), that the provisions of the Convention do not apply ‘when the property involved is a maritime cultural property of prehistoric archaeological or historic interest and is situated on the sea-bed.’ Such property will be subject to the pre-existing Hong Kong common law of salvage. The Hong Kong Government is entitled to all unclaimed wreck within Hong Kong’s territorial waters, except where the right has been granted to some other person (Pierce v Bemis, The Lusitania [1986] QB 384). Protecting underwater cultural heritage before and during development The most worrying prospect for those concerned with the underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong’s waters has been the continued expansion of Hong Kong into the sea and the major capital projects which have been undertaken in the seas. Contractors with the best intentions may never realise they have damaged underwater cultural heritage or may only realise there is an artefact or site which should be reported when major damage has already been inflicted on the integrity of a site. This concern has been reflected in Government policy to protect underwater cultural heritage. This policy has been described as “An excellent example of proactive management of underwater cultural heritage with relation to seabed development…” (Coroneos, 2006). The protection afforded underwater cultural heritage that may be damaged by building and development projects in Hong Kong is afforded by the Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance (EIAO). Implemented in 1998, the EIAO specifies in its Technical Memorandum that Heritage Impact Assessments (HIA) should be carried out at the early planning stage of any required development. The EIAO specifies in Schedule 1 Interpretation that ‘environmental impact’ for a designated project includes an on-site or off-site change that the project may cause in the environment on cultural heritage or a structure, site or other thing that is of historical or archaeological significance’. Schedule 1 also defines a "site of cultural heritage" as “an antiquity or monument, whether being a place, building, site or structure or a relic, as defined in the Antiquities and Monuments Ordinance… and any place, building, site, or structure or a 8 �relic identified by the Antiquities and Monuments Office to be of archaeological, historical or palaeontological significance”. The EIAO Schedule 2 designates projects requiring HIA, which include: reclamation works (including associated dredging works) more than 1 ha in size with a boundary which is less than 500 m from the nearest boundary of an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; dredging operation which is less than 500 m from the nearest boundary of an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; sewage treatment works with an installed capacity of more than 5000 m3 per day and a boundary which is less than 200 m from the nearest boundary of an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; a sewage pumping station with an installed capacity of more than 2000 m3 per day and a boundary which is less than 150 m from an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; a drainage channel or river training and diversion works which discharges or discharge into an area which is less than 300 m from the nearest boundary of an existing or planned site of cultural heritage; All projects including new access roads, railways, sewers, sewage treatment facilities, earthworks, dredging works and other building works partly or wholly in a site of cultural heritage. Schedule 4 provides that any environmental permit granted may specify timing phasing or mitigation measures to mitigate the impact of a designated project. Mitigation measures include “processes, systems, practices, procedures or technologies for the conservation, preservation or protection of …sites of… cultural heritage importance”. The requirement for HIA was extended by the Chief Executive’s Policy Address of 2007 to cover any public works. Those undertaking HIA are required to engage “a qualified marine archaeologist” to “…identify whether there is any possible existence of sites or objects of cultural heritage, for example shipwreck, within any seabed areas that would be affected by the marine works of the Project” (Coroneos, 2006). The Technical Memorandum, Annex 19, provides ‘Guidelines for assessment of impact on sites of cultural heritage and other impacts’. These Guidelines explain that methodologies for assessing impact may vary depending on the site, and that there is ‘no quantitative standard in deciding the relative importance of these sites, but in general, sites of unique archaeological, historical or architectural value will be considered as highly significant. ’The Guidelines provide what must be done when undertaking the HIA: 9 �1. Baseline Study: to compile a comprehensive inventory of places, buildings, sites and structures of architectural, archaeological and historical value within the proposed project area; and to identify possible threats of destruction in whole or in part of sites of cultural heritage arising from the proposed project. 2. Methodology: information should be assembled to assess the sites to provide detailed geographical, historical, archaeological, ethnographical and other cultural data. Sources for the assessment should include public records, published papers, ‘records, archival and historical documents as well as oral legends. ’If these sources prove inadequate then field surveys and site investigations shall be conducted to assemble the necessary data. 3. Impact Assessment: the presumption is for ‘preservation in totality’. However, if site constraints and other factors permit only partial preservation then ‘this must be fully justified with alternative proposals or layout designs which confirm the impracticability of total preservation.’ Total destruction is the ‘very last resort’ and ‘shall only be recommended with a meticulous and careful analysis balancing the interest of preserving the archaeological, historical, architectural and other cultural values as against that of the community as a whole.’ 4. Mitigation Measures: mitigation measures shall not be used to avoid total or partial preservation. These general requirements for undertaking HIA have been further refined for underwater purposes by the Antiquities and Monuments Office’s Guidelines for Marine Archaeological Investigation specifying the tasks necessary for a successful HIA, colloquially referred to, as Coroneos notes, as “the Four Commandments”: Task 1 Baseline Review; Task 2 Geophysical Survey; Task 3 Establishing Archaeological Potential; Task 4 Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV)/Visual Diver Survey/Watching Brief. The Baseline Review is the equivalent of the Baseline Study. The Geophysical Survey is usually conducted by marine geophysical contractors. These two tasks then feed into Task 3, Establishing Archaeological Potential, which identifies, or isolates, anomalies or 10 �areas of archaeological potential. If no anomalies or areas of archaeological interest are found then Task 4 is not required. Otherwise Task 4 requires the use of ROV and/or visual divers, depending of the nature of the anomaly or area of archaeological potential, to investigate. If archaeological material is discovered then the Antiquities and Monuments Office must be notified to seek guidance on its significance and the preparation of appropriate mitigation measures. Conclusion Hong Kong’s framework for the protection of underwater cultural heritage is relatively simple and seemingly effective. The development of Hong Kong’s coast and seabed is undertaken with a requirement for heritage impact assessments specifying high levels of investigation and protection by professional archaeologists. Generally, no one is allowed to search for antiquities in Hong Kong’s waters without a permit from the Secretary or Development. Any chance discovery of an antiquity must be reported to the Secretary for Development. Any relic discovered belongs to the Hong Kong Government. Once a site is identified then it may be protected by designation as a proposed monument or declared monument. Of course there is room for improvement in the legal framework protecting the underwater cultural heritage in Hong Kong. For example AMO could be updated in language and provisions to specify the importance of underwater cultural heritage. Further measures may be implemented to protect underwater cultural heritage in line with policy statements from Beijing that China will bring its domestic laws into line with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (FU, 2003). References Census, 2001. Retrieved 20 Janary http://www.census2011.gov.hk/pdf/summary-results.pdf 2014. From The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. China Unearthed, Soaring Phoenix Rising Dragon, Celebratory Exhibition for the 50th Anniversary of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, Hong Kong. Coroneos, C., 2006. The Four Commandments: The Response of Hong Kong SAR to the Impact of Seabed Development on Underwater Cultural Heritage. In R. Grenier, D. Nutley, and I., Cochran (Eds.), Heritage at Risk Special Edition, Underwater Cultural 11 �Heritage at Risk, International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), Paris: 4648. Retrieved 20 January 2014. From http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/fulldocan.pdf FU, Kuen-Chen, 2003. A Chinese Perspective on the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law: 109-126. Hayes, J., 1974. The Hong Kong Region: Its Place in Traditional Chinese Historiography and Principal Events Since the Establishment of Hsin-an County in 1573. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch, Vol. 14: 108–135. HSU, Immanuel C. Y., 2000. The Rise of Modern China. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Jeffery, B., Li, M. L. H., Wong, P. P-K., Ho, L. W-C., Chan, T. S-M., Chow, G. S-M., Chan, R. K-Y., 2013. Recording and Documenting the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Hong Kong, Stage 1: a community maritime archaeology project. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 42 (2): 412- 419, retrieved 20 January 2014. From http://www.hkuhgroup.com/cms/ The Maritime Museum and the Museum of Coastal Defence, retrieved 20 January 2014. http://www.hkmaritimemuseum.org/ 1.php ; http://hk.coastaldefence.museum/en/section1- Biography Steven Gallagher is an Associate Professor and a Professional Consultant, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. He was called to the Bar of England and Wales in 2006 by Gray’s Inn after many years as an antiques dealer. Steven has taught Equity and Trusts for undergraduate level and masters’ students in England and Hong Kong, and on the Juris Doctor program in Hong Kong. In 2014 Steven began the first Cultural Heritage Law course in Hong Kong. Steven’s cultural heritage research interests include issues involving human remains, and the traffic in cultural heritage such as ‘wreck’ porcelain. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 15: Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 15 chair Dr. Craig Forrest. Description An account of the resource The legal framework for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage has gained momentum throughout the Asia-Pacific with a number of States turning their attention to this issue. For some this is due to concerns raised though specific incidents that have damaged or destroyed the underwater cultural heritage or the information that could be gleaned from its excavation, whilst for others, it follows from consideration being given to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This session considers the Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in a number of Asia-Pacific states. The objectives of session are to explore the various national approaches and to seek aspects of commonality and uniformity that provide frameworks for other state that have not yet addressed the issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Craig Forrest Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Protecting the Underwater Cultural Heritage in the waters surrounding Hong Kong Description An account of the resource Since its colonial founding in 1841 Hong Kong has been a vibrant centre for international trade and commerce. Its strategic location at the head of the Pearl River made it a perfect location for maritime trade. Before this the waters surrounding Hong Kong’s 200 plus islands were the notorious hideouts of pirates seeking to plunder the rich merchant vessels trading between China and its South East Asian neighbours. The waters around Hong Kong are only now being fully explored for their cultural heritage. Professionals and amateurs are seeking the resting places of infamous pirate wrecks and the wrecks of their victims. Harbor developments and sea fortifications are being examined. However, the continued expansion of Hong Kong as a trading centre and the shortage of land for development places many underwater areas that may have significant heritage information at risk. Developments and land reclamation in the world famous Victoria Harbor have raised concerns locally and internationally. The building and expansion of the Chek Lap Kok Airport and the building of the Hong Kong-Macau-Zhuhai Bridge have given archaeologists opportunity to discover evidence of Hong Kong’s underwater cultural heritage but have also raised concerns regarding its damage and destruction. This paper considers the protection Hong Kong’s laws provide for the underwater cultural heritage in the face of threats from building projects, reclamation, increased traffic in established sea routes and the establishment of new commercial sea routes. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Steven Gallagher, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 15 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6169611b35d3f3059f6d1d65e97d84c3.pdf e2f35c603602e5239aa0501114267fbb PDF Text Text Capacity Building using social networking sites Stevens Titiml Abstract The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a country characterized as having the most dispersed set of islands in the Pacific Region. The RMI Historic Preservation Office (HPO) is responsible for preserving and managing the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) which spans 2 nearly two million square kilometers (km ) of ocean. While the task is daunting, we realize that other Pacific Island nations face similar challenges. At this time, the RMI-HPO office is fully staffed with an Anthropologist and Archaeologist, while some of our affiliated offices in the Micronesian region do not staff one or the other and in some cases do not have either. With our offices spread out across the Pacific Region, and preservation programs characterized by limited funding, short staffing, and reliance on contracted professionals, collaboration on preservation work can be instrumental in protection of the UCH. We are small island offices with limited resources, but a larger community of countries whose interconnectedness can be traced to prehistory. With our invaluable UCH to care for, we propose the utilization of popular social networking tools to build capacity. Building a communication site online where we share resources, information and project ideas would be a first step in tackling some of the issues that compound our work. This paper explores several avenues of technology to build capacity, and is the first step towards the creation of a collaborative network. Introduction The Republic of the Marshall Islands Historic Preservation Office (RMI-HPO) is responsible for all preservation related work in the Republic. The RMI HPO office is responsible for all preservation work in the Marshalls which consist of 29 low coral atolls and five small coral islands spread over nearly 2 million km 2 of ocean, the Marshall Islands are the most dispersed set of islands in the Pacific Region. The RMI-HPO office is fully staffed with an Anthropologist and Archaeologist; however some of our affiliated offices in the Micronesian region do not staff one or the other and in some cases do not have either. With our offices spread out across the pacific: communication and collaboration on preservation work are nonexistent with limited funding and high transportation cost. The Micronesian Endowment for Historic Preservation (MEHP) meets annually to report back to National Parks Service (NPS) what each individual office has accomplished the previous year. It is a prime time for showcasing each office’s achievements and projects that proved to be difficult in both time and resource for numerous reasons and of course the most universal issue that we all have in common is the lack of funding available for all offices. We can all agree that we can all use a little, if not a lot, more funding from NPS or outside grants to be able to contribute quality work on sites that are so far spread and hardly accessed by both our staff and tourist alike. Our affiliated offices throughout Micronesia are wholly funded by the NPS under the Compact of Free Association (COFA). With the limited amount of funding we receive from NPS through The Department of Interior, it continually proves to be the most problematic issue for The Marshall Islands HPO, as stated �earlier, due to the relative size and make-up of the atolls and the funding amount we receive. Generally we are required by law under the Use of Cultural and Historical Properties: to preserve all sites which include both terrestrial and underwater sites in all of the Marshall Islands atolls (RMI 1992.). With so many sites and a limited number of resources, we are spread thin and even more so with little funding set aside for outer island travel to be able to conduct any survey. This is equally more compounded by the fact that inter island travel is reduced to slow moving charters which can drain our offices resources quickly and the unreliable domestic air service. Building a communication site online where we can have a dedicated site to share information and project ideas would be a first step in tackling some of the issues that compound our work. I think basic information sharing on what each office is doing will greatly increase our capacity to help each other, especially in situations where one office has dealt with an issue successfully and can provide guidance to another office undergoing the same issue. Sharing ideas on projects that parallel our work, offering advice, problem solving issues on administrative, field work, and how we involve public participation of local residents and traditional leaders would greatly enhance our ability as an individual office and for our responsibility to the entire Pacific Region. The first question of course is the word capacity building. What is capacity building? The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has defined "capacity" as, "the ability of individuals, institutions and societies to perform functions, solve problems, and set and achieve objectives in a sustainable manner". The terms "capacity building" or "capacity development" describe the task of establishing human and institutional capacity. Capacity building is a very broad term and has many uses. In this term of course, it is used to refer to building the capacity of those many individual HPO’s that compromise the Freely Associated States (FAS) in their efforts of preserving their history and culture. I am a strong believer that social learning and empowerment of learned information from professionals and peers in your field of work rely on each other to fully be successful in any particular field of work. It is especially important when the information used in the process of enhancing capacity of individuals in the historic preservation field, who are on the ground making efforts to improve on the preservation of underwater sites and/or department heads, that they have the tools to make choices regarding site administration and planning, with the ability to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes. In an area such as Micronesia with its diverse underwater sites and very unique aqua culture, we are able utilize the knowledge of traditional experts of navigation as it is passed on from one generation to the next. Comparing the Marshall Islanders navigation tools and knowledge the sea in accordance with sea and weather �patterns, we can look at both similarities and differences in their approach. All this can be done using a social network site for research purposes. People responsible for activities under historic preservation and planning attended training and workshops but neglected to impose or implement the knowledge learned. This loss led to the misunderstanding that a capacity-building training or workshop does not go beyond the conventional perception of training . The main concerns of this paper are to address the social aspects and impacts of many social-networking tools available online. These are that are essentially easy to set up through the internet for collaboration and information sharing. This could be done on one of the many popular social networking sites that are available to use at a minimal cost to our office, and easily accessed by our affiliated offices throughout Micronesia. It would help to keep our offices connected on a more social basis. Rather than the traditional email exchange, this can be difficult to relay. Through this interaction we may create possible ideas or avenues of exploration and share over a broader network. Social networking sites such as: Facebook, Google Friends, Myspace, Bebo are some of many such sites that have become a popular and easier means of communication with friends, family, or colleagues. It is a tool of which the function of it is based on an internet connection. This only requires the payment of basic high-speed broadband bills but not the oscillating prices of long-distance phone calls. Virtual communities are essentially formed with a click of a button and people are invited to join in a social networking environment that encompass discussion of common issues and interests. These communities are composed of people connected together by work, office, purpose, goal, and overall desire to improve on the overall issues of a region. Our main interest is, of course, focused on the underwater sites that blanket the Pacific area compromised of the FAS, namely Palau, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Guam, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and American Samoa. The Marshall Islands alone has a plethora of underwater sites that are well beyond the developed capitol atoll of Majuro. Needless to say, we need help in developing a system that inputs our data , we need to clarify how to share that information, and how to gain access to the ideas of others so we deepen collaboration between offices and improve on site planning and restoration projects. In my opinion we have not equally addressed our maritime culture as we have with the terrestrial preservation of historical sites or traditional bwebwenato sites (traditional stories). It is of course not because of lack of interest, one can only assume in my short time I have been here, that such an oversight has to do more with the fact that there is relatively no money available for underwater sites. The realities are the time it takes to travel, train staff properly, acquire and maintain gear, and hire a qualified underwater archeologist, especially considering the amount of area that needs to be covered. There are numerous underwater sites that are already renowned as underwater marvels that were created as a result of World War Two (WWII) (see in this volume works by Ishimura; McKinnon; Arnold) and many more naturally �made eco-systems that are also in need of preservation. One such marvel that man created is Bikini Atoll, of which the popular search engine Wikipedia defines it as : Prior to the explosion of the first atomic bomb on the island, the lagoon at Bikini was designated as a ship graveyard after World War II by the United States Navy. Today the Bikini Lagoon is still home to a large number of vessels from the United States and other countries. The dangers of the radioactivity and limited services in the area led to divers staying away from one of the most remarkable potential scuba diving sites in the Pacific for many years. The dive spot has become popular among divers since 1996. However, oil prices have severely curtailed diving operations to the point of being suspended since August 2008 and through 2009, restricted to fully self-contained vessels by prior arrangement. The lagoon contains a larger amount of sea life than usual due to the lack of fishing, including sharks, increasing the fascination with the spot as a diver's adventure spot. Food including fish is contaminated so tour boats must bring all their own supplies. (Wikipedia 2011) Recently Bikini Atoll was inscribed into United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural, Organization (UNESCO) list of World Heritage Sites (UNESCO 2010) under these two criterions: Criterion (iv): Bikini Atoll is an outstanding example of a nuclear test site. It has many military remains and characteristic terrestrial and underwater landscape elements. It is tangible testimony of the birth of the Cold War and it bears testimony to the race to develop increasingly powerful nuclear weapons. In the wake of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs, the Bikini Atoll site confirmed that mankind was entering a nuclear era. It also bears witness to the terms of population displacement and public-health issues. Criterion (vi): The ideas and beliefs associated with the Bikini nuclear test site, and more generally with the escalation of military power which characterized the Cold War, are of international significance. These events gave rise to a large number of international movements advocating nuclear disarmament; they gave rise to powerful symbols and to many images associated with the “nuclear era”, which characterized the second part of the 20th century. Namdrik Atoll (Figure 1) is another atoll that has a unique aquaculture. It is located approximately 145 kilometres (90 miles) west-southwest of Jaluit, and 117 kilometres (73 miles) northwest of Ebon Atoll. The atoll consists of two large wooded islets. The larger (also called Namorik) wraps around the central lagoon from the southwest to the northeast, while the smaller island closes off the northwest corner of the lagoon. A coral islet stands between them on the reef, with numerous black boulders. The very shallow lagoon is cut off from the sea by the drying coral reef. Boats can cross the reef with difficulty, at high water on the west side of the atoll. Landing near the west side of Namorik Islet can be affected to about 90 meters south of it. There is no shelter during northeast winds, and it is dangerous with strong southwest winds when there is a heavy sea. There is a fringing reef which extends about 135 meters in the vicinity of the landing place. There is �depth of about 1.2 meters and there are rocks in places. Two stranded wrecks lie about 90 meters off the south shore along the reef line. Figure 1. Namdrik lagoon, Republic of the Marshall Islands (Picture taken by Stevens R. Titiml) Conclusion These two types of underwater cultural heritage sites are one example of how we can tackle the collaborative work being done. We have a varied landscape which ranges from flat atolls to mountainous peaks. Of course this would mean that all of the FAS-HPO’s working environments are not quite the same, but we share the similarities of small islands scattered in the Pacific Region and the ability to progress with our work initiative using up-to-date technology. We share the same goals for our islands and we hope that our work will provide future areas of further intellectual stimulation and general enjoyment of available resources. The general colloquial saying goes, “our Ocean is our oyster”. It is often said and it rings so true when talking about our underwater sites. We encompass a big part of history. The seabed of our islands are riddled with material culture of man's stories and exceptions of natures' majesty. The HPO attempts to reveal �what it can of those stories and implement/monitor preservation of the sites so that stores are told and sites visited many times over. It is projected that an online social network website would reach beyond our office and out to communities. It is important that we play a role in fostering the social networks and information exchange needed to educate, not only our affiliates, but also serve as an outreach for our office to empower and educate the public on community building. This would move us forward in our mandate to manage change, to resolve conflict, to manage institutional pluralism, to enhance coordination, to foster communication, and to ensure that data and information are shared (the HPO mandate). All of these action points require a broad and realistic view of capacity development. This definition covers both institutional and community-based capacity-building of what our office needs and the impact of the message we can send to the public. Information sharing is needed from colleagues but also from our peers and the general public. It is not true that our office is only here for preserving WWII and historical sites. Producing a social networking website is going to probably be the speediest and most efficient step towards our goals. The issue that we will have to tackle is the site administration itself and the amount of content that we want, or are willing, to put up for the purpose of sharing and gaining comments. We hope that this site can bring mutual understanding and a concise effort to collaborate on undertakings, in not just the Marshall Islands, but also in other regions in the FAS. To use each office as a resource to make not just one island, but a whole region, in equal standing with underwater archeology as in the rest of the world. Informative public awareness is a something that will expose our online material so that the public and professional institutions are aware that we are not just about land modification permits and preserving historical sites but a whole lot more concerned with preserving the national treasures that lay just below our waters. We should not let the downsides of social networking hinder us from being able to compile a site that is truly ours to view, share, and collaborate on projects. While social networking sites have become places for establishing connections and meeting friends, they have also become likely places for identity theft and fraud. As you have to provide certain information such as your e-mail address, name, and location. Criminal’s steal identification information and pretend to be you, especially when they are into illegal activities. The worries are if someone is pretending to be somebody else that they can make you believe that he or she is up to some business offer (project funding, capacity funding) and ask to meet up with you, at which point they may take your money. It has also become easier for someone to stalk you and harass you online. Like in any social situation people must learn to conduct themselves safely and productively. One should consider the pros and cons of social networking sites and take precautions in the kind of people to trust and share information with. The debate whether you should or should not be part of the social �networking community is never ending. And, at the end of the day, the best weapon that you have is sound judgment. Not only do we need to share information with colleagues, but the fact is the RMI are all privately owned lands leased and subleased, to a great extent, to public and national offices to use. The development aspect of using private property for development purposes whether residential or for commercial us in any area within the capitol of Majuro or outer islands comes under the aegis of the land owners and what they want and need. This is a very sensitive issue because land ownership is considered a highly regarded right in traditional Marshallese Custom; so understanding anthropological studies and their soil impacts on the local to wider communities would open further discussions on how to handle certain issues. We are small island offices with limited resources, I have suggested we have a social networking website in order to exchange information and keep everybody updated and informed. With which we would have a tool to build on our current information and work together on projects so as to build on our capacity as a whole. Abbreviations RMI Republic of Marshall Islands Bibliography RMI 992 UNESCO 2010 Wikipedia 2010 Wikipedia 2011 Historic Preservation Legislation Bikini Atoll Test Site- website- Accessed July 31 2010, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1339 Namdrik Atoll- website- Accessed July 2010, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namdrik_Atoll CapacityBuilding-website-Accessed October 2011, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacity_building � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Capacity Building using social networking sites Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a country characterized as having the most dispersed set of islands in the Pacific Region. The RMI Historic Preservation Office (HPO) is responsible for preserving and managing the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) which spans nearly two million square kilometers (km2) of ocean. While the task is daunting, we realize that other Pacific Island nations face similar challenges. At this time, the RMI-HPO office is fully staffed with an Anthropologist and Archaeologist, while some of our affiliated offices in the Micronesian region do not staff one or the other and in some cases do not have either. With our offices spread out across the Pacific Region, and preservation programs characterized by limited funding, short staffing, and reliance on contracted professionals, collaboration on preservation work can be instrumental in protection of the UCH. We are small island offices with limited resources, but a larger community of countries whose interconnectedness can be traced to prehistory. With our invaluable UCH to care for, we propose the utilization of popular social networking tools to build capacity. Building a communication site online where we share resources, information and project ideas would be a first step in tackling some of the issues that compound our work. This paper explores several avenues of technology to build capacity, and is the first step towards the creation of a collaborative network. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Stevens Titiml Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "Chintosen (19seiki no igirisu bune) jito jiten no iseki" hakkutsu chosa hokoku - suitei irohamaru- Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Suichu Kokogaku Kenkyujo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Suichu Kokogaku Kenkyujo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2006 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Suichu Kokogaku Kenkyujo Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2006 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Suichu Kokogaku Kenkyujo Title A name given to the resource "Chintosen (19seiki no igirisu bune) jito jiten no iseki" hakkutsu chosa hokoku - suitei irohamaru- Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/144da149fd45a993c87426b87fb61fa9.pdf 27ba06cc34c03d27f18e7bd37f7a65ee PDF Text Text The Intangible Underwater: Integrating Intangible Cultural Heritage into the Study of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites Suzanne S. Finney Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands (MAHHI) Foundation Honolulu, Hawaii 96830, USA suzanne.finney@gmail.com Abstract Intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH) is an integral component to the understanding of many cultural heritage sites worldwide. While the collection of stories, oral histories and other intangible information to interpret terrestrial sites is increasingly practiced, less so is the collection of this information to identify underwater cultural heritage sites, in particular those sites without material remains. The focus for intangible cultural heritage often seems to end at the shore, and not extend into the waters, for many nations. This presentation discusses the application of ICH for underwater cultural heritage, using examples from the Pacific to illustrate the importance of recording all information for underwater areas in order to ensure adequate protection and interpretation of the significant cultural heritage of many coastal, islands, and other submerged sites. Key words: Intangible, Oral history, Chants, Pacific, ICH Introduction UNESCO describes intangible cultural heritage as, “traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts” (UNESCO n/d). Rather than documenting materials or sites, the ICH list records ‘elements’ of cultures and social practices. Of the 30 elements listed for 2013, only one appears to have any type of marine or maritime focus (Shrimp fishing on horseback in Oostduinkerke, Belgium), and on the total list of 282 elements listed since 2008, only a handful are marine, maritime or underwater oriented 1. The documentation and protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites can, and often does, include the recording of oral histories related to the sites, but this information is usually peripheral to the recording of the material, or tangible, remains, focusing on the collection of 1 �information related to the material remains under study rather than toward an allencompassing cultural understanding of the area. Research in UCH may be expanding beyond the investigation of individual shipwrecks, bridges and ports to larger concepts of regional navigation, seafaring and the like, but a truly holistic examination of the tangible remains associated with most UCH sites, should always include a systematic collection of information about the intangible significance of the sites and the areas where sites are located. This is particularly timely in the face of budget and staff reductions with which many offices charged with the collection and protection of both UCH and ICH must currently contend. This paper offers a brief consideration of how a synthesis between UCH and ICH data collection might be approached, beginning with two examples of research that incorporates both tangible and intangible data. It also explores the idea of collecting information on other research projects, focusing on topics of relevance to the Pacific Islands and those which could possibly lead to additional World Heritage and/or Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity nominations for the region in the future. Example: Sea Turtle Consumption in the Marshall Islands A good example of how a project incorporates the tangible and intangible aspects of underwater cultural heritage is the development of a proposed project involving sea turtle use and consumption in the Pacific. Regina WoodromRudrud, an environmental anthropologist and sea turtle biologist, has drafted a project that would incorporate ethnographic field techniques, sea turtle biology and maritime archaeology to determine the risk to human populations of sea turtle consumption in the Marshall Islands (WoodromRudrud et al., 2007). She and her colleagues contend that the understanding of the potential negative impacts of turtle consumption in the Marshall Islands cannot be complete without understanding the physical environment in which turtles live, feed and breed, including hazards brought on by shipwrecks from World War II and the post World War II nuclear testing in the region. In this case, knowing where and when turtles are hunted and how they are consumed by the Marshallese is combined with learning where turtles hunt for their food, and how the impact of shipwrecks in the water might affect the food chain between turtles and humans. If turtles are being exposed to harmful contaminants, which are stored in their 2 �bodies, then the people eating those turtles are exposed to the contaminants. Maritime archaeology assists with this research by locating shipwrecks in the areas where the turtles forage to determine what types of contaminants may be present. In the conclusion the authors state: We argue that research into this situation is essential as we have found a high probability that there are toxicants remaining in the RMI environment and that due to the long life (50+ years receiving low dose radiation and other contaminants) and normal habits of sea turtles, such as site fidelity to certain resting areas and resting in submerged resources such as irradiated shipwrecks (among others), site fidelity to certain foraging areas and several species eating organisms that may be growing directly on toxic surfaces (such as algae and sponges), and embryo development and metamorphosis taking place a few feet down in contaminated sand, their contamination from those products is highly probable (WoodromRudrud et al., 2007: 17). Example: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument The Papahānaumokuākea2 Marine National Monument is located in the northwest section of the Hawaiian Islands. For years there has been systematic research and investigation into the maritime cultural heritage of the area, and a number of significant historic ship and aircraft wrecks have been identified and recorded. There have also been tremendous advances in the collection and understanding of Hawaiian sites and traditional uses of the area. Much of this information comes from the study of the intangible heritage of the Hawaiians, the chants and histories passed down for generations. There have also been a number of projects involving archaeological fieldwork on Hawaiian sites on the islands, including the collection of intangible information on place names within the Monument. There is not been much evidence to date that this has led to documenting underwater Hawaiian sites, but the importance of collecting intangible information about the area, and incorporating this information into the ongoing research, interpretation and protection of the Monument is also a good example of the holistic approach to understanding underwater cultural heritage by compiling tangible and 3 �intangible information. As described in the maritime heritage management plan for the Monument: Aspects of Native Hawaiian heritage, including fishing, religion, and politics, are links to the kind of broad, interdisciplinary understanding of the heritage of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands that can help management pursue a sustainable direction for this World Heritage Site (Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011: 28). Shipwrecks Raupp, Finney and Gleason (2011) discuss the use of 19th century whaling wrecks for multidisciplinary research in the Pacific, incorporating fields such as history, archaeology and biology. The collection of ICH should also be considered a component of this research. The location of shipwrecks is often learned through oral histories and stories from local inhabitants. Once a location is determined and these wrecks are mapped, the collection of intangible data often ends. Yet the impact of these wrecks can continue on, in genealogies from descendents of the survivors or changes in habits around the location of wrecks. For example, in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, four whaling ships were captured and burned in April 1865 as part of the activities of the CSS Shenandoah during the U.S. Civil War. The whaling crews were all left on Pohnpei while the Shenandoah continued into the Arctic Ocean to look for more whaleships to capture3. By the time a vessel arrived in Pohnpei to rescue the whaling crews, one of the whaleship masters, Captain John Eldridge, had decided to stay on Pohnpei. He raised a family whose descendants still live on Pohnpei. Collecting information from the family during an archaeological investigation of the wreck sites led to more information about the whaling wrecks and the history of the harbor where the wrecks are located. The shipwrecks are not the end of the story; it continues to develop through the history of the family on Pohnpei. This is also true for more recent wrecks. Ship and aircraft wrecks from World War II are often found through written records from the period, but as many maritime archaeologists know, local knowledge is likely to be more accurate in locating wrecks. Stories from eye witnesses and information from fishermen about where nets are snagged, lead to the discovery of new wrecks. A recent survey of one the atolls in the Republic of the Marshall Islands documented several 19th and 20th 4 �century shipwrecks based on information gathered from local informants, including stories passed down about how the ships were sunk (Finney, 2007). The ability to collect this type of information is as important for UCH managers to learn as how to photograph, measure and map these wrecks. Marine Exploitation Marine exploitation, such as fishing, collecting shellfish, or harvesting seaweed, is an ongoing activity throughout the Pacific. Traditional fishing methods are often not easy to detect in the archaeological record, but that is not a reason for UCH managers to discount this essential component of life on the islands. Knowing the importance of primary, seasonal, sacred or taboo fishing grounds, and current fishing practices offer the potential for discovering significant tangible cultural sites in these areas. In a recent article for the Hawaiian Airlines magazine, Michael Shapiro describes efforts to preserve traditional fishing knowledge in a small village on the Big Island of Hawaii (2013). This information could be the starting point for an investigation of the coastline and underwater environment for evidence of underwater historic or archaeological sites related to fishing. In 1996 the University of Hawaii sponsored a maritime archaeology field school that looked at ancient fishing sites off Waikiki on Oahu, where they documented some artifacts that supported the Hawaiian stories of fishing in the area (NOAA n/d). It would be useful for those involved with UCH to develop working relationships with those involved in the promotion of traditional skills such as fishing in order to acquire information on where likely underwater sites might be located. The transmission of knowledge across generations on a variety of marine and maritime contexts can provide excellent information that leads to developments in underwater cultural heritage. Conclusion There is a very clear distinction between UCH and ICH within UNESCO, and this paper does not recommend that this division be altered. However, practical considerations such as budget, staff and time constraints argue for the development of projects that can serve more than one purpose, to collect information on underwater sites, and preserve the knowledge and skills of local populations, or to collect oral histories to 5 �prepare for the survey of underwater sites, integrating tangible and intangible aspects of underwater heritage. UCH has traditionally focused on tangible or material remains, but there is nothing inherent in the concept that should cause us to limit our inquiry to only the tangible aspects of UCH. Within the broader context of UCH, documentation and research should include all evidence, including the intangible. The management of underwater cultural heritage calls for a holistic approach to collecting information, and those who are engaged in UCH should be willing to “think outside the box” or the shipwreck, or the fish trap, and explore ways in which ICH can increase our knowledge of the underwater environment. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the organizers of this conference for the opportunity to present the paper. I would also thank Professor Noelani Arista of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, who provided suggestions and I am grateful for her input. Endnote 1 For example the Watertight-bulkhead technology of Chinese junks (China), or Sanké mon, collective fishing rite of the Sanké (Mali). See www.unesco.org/culture/ich for the full list. 2 See http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/about/name.html for information about this name and how it was chosen for the monument. 3 See Chaffin 2006, Finney and Graves 2002 for more information about this incident. References Chaffin, T., 2006. Sea of Gray: The Around-the-World Odyssey of the Confederate Raider Shenandoah. Hill and Wang, New York. Finney, S. S., 2007. Phase Two Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in Portions of Maloelap Lagoon, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Report submitted to the Historic Preservation Office, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Finney, S. S., and Graves, M. W., 2002. Site investigation and documentation of a Civil War shipwreck thought to be sunk by the C.S.S. Shenandoah, April 1865. Report for the American Battlefield Protection Program, U.S. National Park Service, Washington, D.C. NOAA, http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/maritime/maritime_history.html, accessed on 29 December 2013. 6 �Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011. Maritime Heritage Research, Education, and Management Plan: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Honolulu. Raupp, J., Finney, S. S., and Gleason, K., 2011. Multidisciplinary Research Potential of Whaling Heritage in the Pacific Region. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the AsiaPacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila: 1029-1040. Shapiro, M., 2013. Go Fish!HanaHou. The Magazine of Hawaiian Airlines, Vol. 16 (6), December 2013 - January 2014, accessed at the website http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=1270&Ma gazineID=78&Page=1 (29 December 2013). UNESCO, 2003. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Media Kit, www.unesco.org/culture/ich/doc/src/18440-EN.pdf, accessed on 27 December 2013, p. 3. Woodrom-Rudrud, R., Kroeker, J. W., Leslie, H. Y., and Finney, S. S., 2007. The Sea Turtle Wars: Culture, War, and Sea Turtles in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin, Vol. 21: 3-29. Biography Suzanne Finney is an archaeologist specializing in maritime archaeology. She received her Ph.D. in Anthropology from the University of Hawaii at Manoa and has been involved in fieldwork and projects throughout the Pacific, including Hawaii, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Republic of Palau. Suzanne is President of the Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands Foundation (MAHHI), a non-profit organization chiefly concerned with research, training, and education in maritime elements of submerged cultural resources in Hawaii and the Pacific. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Intangible Underwater: Integrating Intangible Cultural Heritage into the Study of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites Description An account of the resource Intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH) is an integral component to the understanding of many cultural heritage sites worldwide. While the collection of stories, oral histories and other intangible information to interpret terrestrial sites is increasingly practiced, less so is the collection of this information to identify underwater cultural heritage sites, in particular those sites without material remains. The focus for intangible cultural heritage often seems to end at the shore, and not extend into the waters, for many nations. This presentation discusses the application of ICH for underwater cultural heritage, using examples from the Pacific to illustrate the importance of recording all information for underwater areas in order to ensure adequate protection and interpretation of the significant cultural heritage of many coastal, islands, and other submerged sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Suzanne S. Finney, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Manimekhala, a Divinity of the Sea Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sylvain Levi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1930 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Sylvain Levi Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1930 Issue 4 Pages 597-614 Publication Title Indian Historical Quarterly Title A name given to the resource Manimekhala, a Divinity of the Sea Volume 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/02fc270ac7df70e3420f564268028922.pdf f045a845fe19e43e97f0d2b4a9e3cd19 PDF Text Text A Global Shipwreck: Using the Internet for Research, Public Outreach, and Catching up with the Past T. Kurt Knoerl Abstract Over the past few decades historians and archaeologists have moved away from examining their topics from nationalist perspectives but instead have looked for regional connections, such as the Atlantic world. This approach seeks to understand the relationships and influences between people in geographically distant locations. Even this regional approach, however, can be limiting as researchers now trace out global connections which occurred early on in human history. A global perspective reminds us that if we look deep enough we will see that the past, no matter where it occurred, relates to everyone. Chinese porcelains excavated in the Great Lakes region of North America from the eighteenth century, for instance, show us that shipwrecks in Asian waters can be relevant to First Nations people on the other side of the globe in Canada. It has always been so; we just didn’t always know it. The Internet, however, can not only help us teach this fact but can help us find those connections. Online tools have helped bring underwater cultural heritage into the homes of viewers from around the world. Public outreach websites like the Museum of Underwater Archaeology, for example, attract viewers from over 90 countries. This paper will examine how researchers can not only share their findings with a global audience via the Internet but will also highlight the online tools available to conduct research to tease out those global connections and tap into the collaborative nature of social computing. As we utilize the web to forge new cultural connections around the world, we are reminded that those sailing vessels that crossed the seas transporting their cargos in centuries past were doing the very same thing. The more we utilize the Internet to conduct research and share data about underwater cultural heritage the more we will see that each shipwreck we share with the world is truly a global shipwreck. Introduction As a graduate student in underwater archaeology in 1989 I excavated the cove area of a colonial fort located on the Great Lakes in the middle of North America. Thousands of vessels, large and small, had utilized the cove during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to unload their cargos of men and materials traveling either west, deeper into the continent, or east, toward ships that would bear them across oceans. During the 1989 field season we discovered the remains of an eighteenth-century shoreline that contained thousands of artifacts dating primarily from the British occupation period of 1759 to 1796 (Knoerl 1994:123). One of the artifacts we discovered that intrigued me the most was a piece of Chinese porcelain (Figure 1). I wondered who had made it. Could that Chinese artisan, as he removed it from the kiln and prepared it for shipping, have imagined the distance it would travel or picture the cultures through which it would pass and eventually be used? It became evident to me that even here, in a relative backwater of the North American colonies in the mid to late eighteenth-century, there were ties between people half a world apart. Shipping made that possible as it connected hinterlands to port facilities such as wharves, shipyards, merchants, shippers, and sailors. At the end of the voyage the vessels landed at similar maritime landscapes and their goods made their way to the consumer. In this way even segments of society that never even saw �a vessel and were separated by great distances were connected by water. The maritime activities of one region, no matter how seemingly localized, became, through global trade networks, a part of the maritime history of another. Shipwrecks are an important part of world history and as unintended time capsules they illustrate not only the global connections of the past, but through the Internet, they actively participate in today’s networks as well. This paper will argue that by using a modern electronic global network (i.e. the Internet), with its ocean of data and streams of connectivity, we can aid in their preservation through collaborative research and public education. Such an interconnected approach shows that every vessel that ended up on the bottom of the sea is indeed a global shipwreck. Figure 1. Eighteenth century Chinese porcelain excavated at British colonial Fort Niagara, Youngstown, New York USA in 1989 (Photo by author). Imagine a shipwreck. Consider its surroundings, its condition, and its location. What do you see? For many there is a sense of darkness and isolation and that despite being surrounded by water it is no longer in its natural environment on the surface. It would seem that the vessel’s story has come to an end. I would argue, however, that this is a temporary phase and that its story and its travels are not over. There are parallels between a ship’s past working life prior to the wrecking event and its role in the modern world after being rediscovered. After the wrecking event and subsequent discovery the same vessel can, in a sense, travel throughout the world again via the Internet. Its mission has changed, however, from one that was commercial or naval in nature to an educational one. Archaeologists that have recovered information about the web of commercial relationships ships once participated in can use the electronic “ocean” - one comprised of data, routers, high speed bandwidth, and Internet protocols to transport a vessel’s new cargo of information around the world. The �shipwreck no longer seeks safe anchorages in coastal ports but instead searches for access to computers ports. Using the Internet Although underwater archaeologists were not among the early adopters of the Internet some did recognize its potential in the late 1990s (Hall, et al. 1997). The time required to construct websites, the costs incurred, or the expertise needed may have prevented many from moving on to the web. A more fundamental issue was the poor track record underwater archaeology as a field had with regard to setting a high priority on public outreach. Treasure hunting companies were not as reticent and publicized stories about finding gold and riches with a public ensnared by such tales. By 2004 underwater archaeologists began to post their research online through websites like the online Museum of Underwater Archaeology (MUA). Within the last seven years the development of free websites such as Wordpress and the development of social media sites like Facebook have made it much easier to post content online.1 The range of options now available for utilizing the Internet continues to grow as does the number of individuals who can access it. As of August 2011 industry experts estimate that there are over 1 billion websites on the Internet (Netcraft 2011). Many of these websites contain multiple pages further increasing the number of pages of content available A Google search on the term “underwater archaeology” returns over 600,000 websites. The term maritime history returned nearly 4.5 million pages and the term “shipwreck” returned 12.9 million results. There is a veritable ocean of information available online. How then can we as archaeologists and maritime historians best use the Internet to participate and assist in continuing a vessel’s story beyond coming to rest at the bottom of the sea. The answer depends to some extent on what our goals are. Whether it is publishing or conducting research, one has to consider who the intended audience is. This, to a great degree determines what methods should be used. Some digital humanities researchers like David Staley argue for the increased use of visualizations of data and history as a more appropriate means to convey information over the Internet (Staley 2002:3). Utilizing maps, diagrams, and other images may indeed be a better digital publishing strategy for underwater archaeologists considering the visual and spatial nature of the material culture so central to their work. Conversely, digital history pioneers like Daniel Cohen and the late Roy Rosenzweig have called for adhering to prose and suggest that screens will eventually catch up to the human eye (Cohen and Rosenzweig 2005). Indeed since their prediction six years ago several companies have marketed hand held devices touted to be as comfortable to read as printed text. 1 Wordpress is a website that provides free web pages where individuals can post articles or comments on a web log, otherwise known as a blog (http://wordpress.org/). Facebook is a social website where users can post personal information about themselves for view by other selected Facebook members (http://www.facebook.com). �One thing that remains clear, regardless of the presentation style chosen, is the overriding need for researchers to publish something rather than nothing. This inaugural Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, encompassing as it does countries of the Indian and Pacific oceans, covers a large and diverse set of cultures. Yet some commonalities exist including that which impacts all nations regardless of location, namely the scarcity of resources and funding available to dedicate to educational outreach and research. In harkening back to the trade networks and connections that existed prior to the advent of steam navigation in the nineteenth century, we can see a model that can aid not only underwater archaeologists working in the AsiaPacific Region but across the globe. Ships did not operate in a vacuum but rather through cooperative agreements and collaborative projects with other members of the merchant community. Those arrangements allowed vessels to influence the lives of people across the planet. Marine insurance companies, for instance, allowed ship owners to pool their risk and make the most of their resources. While collaborative agreements might sound like an obvious solution to the high costs of online presentations, it is not an option that necessarily comes to mind for some archaeologists. Indeed a small survey conducted by the MUA in 2006 showed that when asked what the best use of the Internet might be, only thirteen percent of underwater archaeologists cited "collaboration" as opposed to the general public who mentioned it forty percent of the time. Also, somewhat surprisingly, the general public was almost twice as likely as professional archaeologists to suggest research as a good use of the Internet. Both groups cited "publishing" most frequently (Knoerl and Watts 2007). I would suggest that these potential uses of publishing, collaboration, and research are not mutually exclusive but that through combining them we can span the distances and differences throughout the Asia-Pacific Region to the mutual benefit of all. While any publishing of research online is desirable and to be commended a collaborative model is particularly useful for making the most of limited resources. Collaborative Models When I speak of collaboration there are numerous groups and means by which to accomplish such projects. First off, by collaboration I mean the sharing of data, resources, and ideas not just with the immediate partners involved but the general public as well. Two organizations may work together but through joint online projects they open their work at nearly all stages to public view and comment so that taken together there can be an almost emergent quality to the outcome. Unintended and unlooked for outcomes can take projects in new directions or result in new research projects previously unimagined. Indeed, although the MUA was conceived of as a collaborative project from the outset its development has been driven to a great degree by the suggestions and happenstance that has come from the three part collaboration of the museum staff, the participant underwater archaeologists, and the viewers. This occurs sometimes by brainstorming ideas directly with the MUA staff but also from an offhand comment, a cited example of some other work, or the unintended end �result of a particular experiment. While not all projects succeed, each effort that does encourages other groups to either participate directly with the MUA or to engage in their own online publishing activity - either way, the amount of ethical underwater archaeological project information that potentially reaches the publiceye increases and counters the romanticized and destructive message of treasure hunters. What follows are a few examples of collaborative projects that sought not only to accomplish that goal but to simultaneously forward underwater archaeology as a field. Perhaps the MUA’s simplest form of collaboration is its publication research by numerous underwater archaeologists. Although this is described in more detail by Michelle Damian’s paper, I will cite one example of the potential benefit of one group working with another.2 In August 2011 the MUA invited Peruvian underwater archaeologist Carlos E. Ausejo to write a guest blog on the website in order to introduce Mr. Ausejo and the present state of Peruvian underwater archaeology to the MUA’s audience (Ausejo 2011). Shortly thereafter a member of the Government Maritime Managers Forum, who had read Mr. Ausejo’s post invited him to join their group.3 Indeed upon learning of the AsiaPacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage through the guest blog I was requested to extend a similar invitation to other government managers in attendance at this conference (Mastone pers. comm. 2011). From one publication intended to educate the public and professional underwater archaeologists about Peru, it’s possible that archaeologists from the Indian and Pacific Oceans may, more frequently, share ideas with their colleagues in North America. In most cases collaborative projects hosted by the MUA are directed primarily at bringing together outside parties with the MUA acting primarily as facilitator. A recent example is the Gray Literature Bibliography Database (The MUA 2011). This project seeks to encourage underwater archaeologists working in local government to share bibliographic information about the numerous site reports that have been generated over the years in response to mitigation and research work required by state or federal laws. Site reports like this contain sensitive location information that is not routinely distributed to the public in order to protect sites from looting yet can be made available to researchers with legitimate research projects. By not making the reports easily available online they become difficult to find, often requiring researchers to travel to the various state libraries to review offline catalogs for each state they are interested in. The Gray Literature Bibliography Database contains the titles, dates, and authors of site reports for several states in one repository along with information on how researchers can gain access to specific documents they wish to read (The MUA 2011). The site contains hundreds of report titles, is searchable across all participating states included in the database, and brings to light the vast resources previously unknown to the public. It will reduce the cost of future work 2 See “Bringing Asia to the World: Public Outreach via the Museum of Underwater Archaeology” by Michelle Damian this volume. 3 The Government Maritime Managers Forum is a network of government managers of underwater cultural heritage at the national, provincial and local levels based in the USA. �by eliminating lost time spent trying to track down what work has already been conducted in the past. This project in particular highlights the power of joining data sets previously kept separate. By allowing for queries across several groups at the same time previously unknown relationships may come to light. Each query then is an act of creation as it generates new information (Manovich 2002:227). Joint online projects between institutions such as museums can also make the most of scarce resources. Birchbark Canoes: A Collaborative Gallery combines images and information about a specific type of indigenous small craft housed in different museums and institutions around the Great Lakes.4 The project apprises both canoe enthusiasts and professional researchers of the number and variety of craft that can be compared for regional variations in construction techniques and design. While the project was not instigated by the various museums involved it has proved to be a cost effective way for them to publicize an aspect of their collection that might otherwise have remained in obscurity. Collaborative projects such as this allow institutions to participate in a larger exhibit of canoes brought together on the Internet that might otherwise be too costly to gather together in one place. In doing so, they increase awareness of their institutions and collections at a fraction of the price. One of the MUA’s most promising collaborative projects involves not only underwater archaeologists but the very general public we wish to engage. In a role reversal of sorts underwater archaeologists can use crowd sourcing to gather data from the general public. Crowd sourcing occurs when large groups of people participate in quickly accomplishing a task that would take individuals or small groups a far longer period. Google used a similar concept developed by computer scientist Dr. Luis von Ahn which used the enormous number of hours people spend online playing games to help accomplish tasks such as labeling images for online searches. The MUA’s Shipwrecks Over Time Project is an experiment in this area by hosting an image gallery of a particular shipwreck and posting a few images online for the public to view.5 The public is then invited to contribute their diving photos of that wreck to the collection. Each participant is credited for their contribution. Images are sorted by the date they are photographed. In this way as the collection grows it becomes a tool for researchers to use to evaluate how shipwrecks change over time. The project taps into a potentially huge volume of images that might otherwise remain hidden. Should the project prove successful it can be used to gather images for other wrecks around the world. Perhaps one of the most unusual collaborative projects facilitated by the MUA involves coordinating the efforts of researchers from different disciplines. In 2009 members of the research team, Bateaux Below, approached the MUA about an art – science initiative that combined the efforts of a cellular biologist, an underwater archaeologist, and a scientific artist. Researchers from the three 4 The Birchbark Canoes: A Collaborative Gallery is under construction as of this writing. Upon completion viewers may reach the site via a link on the MUA homepage: http://www.themua.org. 5 The Shipwrecks Over Time project is under construction as of this writing. Upon completion viewers may reach the site via a link on the MUA homepage http://www.themua.org. �disciplines worked together to study single celled organisms called testate ameba and eighteenth century bateaux both of which can be found at the bottom of Lake George in New York State in the United States6. The artist then recorded her impressions and produced works of art that were displayed in a showing held simultaneously at the Lake George Arts Project gallery in the town of Lake George and on easels at the bottom of the lake from August 25th through September 10th 2009. A permanent digital version of the exhibit was posted online on the MUA. The online launch was one of the most heavily visited exhibits ever posted on the website. Many of the viewers went on to examine other projects on the website as well. In response to the project’s success the MUA recently invited two professional artists to review the hundreds of images posted on the MUA over the last seven years. They evaluated the images in artistic terms to see which ones went beyond pure academic value. They selected three images each, of which they identified ad having artistic merit and published their comments along with their selections. Their comments helped the public see underwater archaeologist’s work in a new light that would not have been available without this cross disciplinary project. Conclusion The projects described above all benefit from the fact they all create and expand networks of support for their participants. Often there are unexpected results that branch-out into additional opportunities for learning, which in turn inspire even more projects. The Internet is an especially powerful tool for doing this because of its exponential growth and deep penetration into nearly every corner of the world. As researchers share the stories they recover from shipwreck data it makes projects seem far less remote. Frequent updates to project journals, public participation through data contributions, and increased ease of access to previously unobtainable data have brought sites closer to millions of viewers. These projects teach the public that the sea connects us all today just as it connected manufacturers and artisans from one continent with consumers on another. As we continue to show the public that all maritime history is connected and is part of the story of human life on this watery planet, hopefully we will nurture a preservation ethic that recognizes that each shipwreck is not strictly part of one nation’s story but of all nations. In being of value to people across cultures and professions they are in fact everyone’s responsibility to protect, study, and share. If each underwater archaeological site is viewed in this way we have the potential to encourage research and assist each other whenever we can regardless of where we live on the planet. The MUA was founded to promote that idea (Knoerl 2006). The reason behind our success over the past seven years can best be summed up by a quote from the late nineteenth and early twentieth century writer on human achievement: Napoleon Hill wrote, “It is literally true that you can succeed best and quickest by helping others to succeed” (Hill 2003:65). I hope that everyone who has come together for this 6 The testate amebas live in the lake’s bottom sediments surrounding the bateaux. The bateaux were purposefully sunk by the British Army during the French and Indian War to avoid capture by the French. �historic inaugural conference will take that idea with them as they return to their home waters to continue their work on the global shipwreck. Bibliography ., Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage in Peru. The Underwater Blogger. Available at: http://muablog.wordpress.com/2011/08/16/maritime-andunderwater-cultural-heritage-in-peru-by-carlos-e-ausejo/ [Accessed September 13, 2011]. Digital History: A Guide to Gathering, Preserving, And Cohen, D.J. and Presenting the Past on the Web, University of Pennsylvania Rosenzweig, R., 2005 Press, Philadelphia. Hall, A., Hall, R., Presenting Archaeology on the Web: The LaSalle Shipwreck Project. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 26, 3, and Arnold, J.B. III, 1997 pp. 247-251. The Law of Success, Vol. 3: The Principles of Self-Creation. Hill, N., 2003 Revised and Updated. High Roads Media. About the MUA. Available at: Knoerl, T.K., 2006 http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/about.html [Accessed September 13, 2011]. Beneath Niagara: A Methodological Approach to an Inundated Knoerl, T.K., Eighteenth-Century Site, MA Thesis, East Carolina University, 1994 Greenville, N.C. Knoerl, T.K. and Swimming in the Cyber Oceans: Underwater Archaeology and the Internet. The 40th Annual Conference on Historical and Watts, G.P. Jr., Underwater Archaeology, Williamsburg, VA. 2007 The Language of New Media. Reprint. The MIT Press, Manovich L., 2002 Cambridge, MA. Gray Literature Bibliography Database. Available at: The Museum of Underwater http://www.themua.org/collections/ [Accessed September 5, Archaeology 2011]. 2011 Web Server Survey .Available at: Netcraft 2011 http://news.netcraft.com/archives/category/web-server-survey/ [Accessed September 5, 2011]. Computers, Visualization, and History: How New Technology Staley, D.J., Will Transform Our Understanding of the Past. M.E. Sharpe. 2002 Ausejo, Carlos E. 2011 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Global Shipwreck: Using the Internet for Research, Public Outreach, and Catching up with the Past Subject The topic of the resource Session 10: Technology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Over the past few decades historians and archaeologists have moved away from examining their topics from nationalist perspectives but instead have looked for regional connections, such as the Atlantic world. This approach seeks to understand the relationships and influences between people in geographically distant locations. Even this regional approach, however, can be limiting as researchers now trace out global connections which occurred early on in human history. A global perspective reminds us that if we look deep enough we will see that the past, no matter where it occurred, relates to everyone. Chinese porcelains excavated in the Great Lakes region of North America from the eighteenth century, for instance, show us that shipwrecks in Asian waters can be relevant to First Nations people on the other side of the globe in Canada. It has always been so; we just didn’t always know it. The Internet, however, can not only help us teach this fact but can help us find those connections. Online tools have helped bring underwater cultural heritage into the homes of viewers from around the world. Public outreach websites like the Museum of Underwater Archaeology, for example, attract viewers from over 90 countries. This paper will examine how researchers can not only share their findings with a global audience via the Internet but will also highlight the online tools available to conduct research to tease out those global connections and tap into the collaborative nature of social computing. As we utilize the web to forge new cultural connections around the world, we are reminded that those sailing vessels that crossed the seas transporting their cargos in centuries past were doing the very same thing. The more we utilize the Internet to conduct research and share data about underwater cultural heritage the more we will see that each shipwreck we share with the world is truly a global shipwreck Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource T. Kurt Knoerl Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 10 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3473fce1842c72a7a0e3229be67b70b6.pdf 8225ae6da85ec5188b4d237607d987c3 PDF Text Text A Digital Multi-tool: Using Storymaps for Education and Public Outreach Thomas Kurt Knoerl Ph.D. R.P.A. (Georgia Southern University, Associate Professor of History) ABSTRACT In 2022, undergraduate students from Georgia Southern University in Savannah, Georgia, U.S.A. conducted one day visual surveys and mapping exercises on five sites related to African American maritime history. As part of their maritime archaeology class, the students conducted historical background research on site, worked with members of the local community and governments, and produced a digital storymap of an African American maritime cultural landscape. By creating the storymap, which shows the sites in relation to each other, students gained a better understanding of the concept of a cultural landscape. Projects like this one can raise public awareness not only on important individual sites but, through a digital storymap, teaches the public that sites such as these are all connected and together, can tell a deeper story. This paper discusses how the project was organized, software alternatives that are available for similar projects, and the educational and public outreach benefits that cultural resource managers from any area can use to both educate students and build community support. Keywords: Storymap, Education, Public Outreach, Digital INTRODUCTION The discovery of a previously unknown shipwreck site can grab headlines and stir the public’s imagination. “Was there any gold onboard? Were there any cannons? Was it a pirate ship?” are among the questions asked by the public. Rarely, if ever, does anyone ask, “is this site part of a larger maritime cultural landscape that can add to our understanding of past maritime communities?” Seeing shipwrecks or other maritime related archaeological sites as part of a larger narrative would demonstrate to the public that there is more to the story here than the potential monetary value of an individual site. This could, in turn, potentially generate public support for historic preservation which is a common goal for cultural resource managers. Shifting the focus from questions about one wreck to questions about an entire community’s past is a useful exercise but how does one do that? The short answer is, by looking at multiple sites at the same time. A MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE IN COASTAL GEORGIA During the spring 2022 semester at Georgia Southern University, I offered a course on maritime archaeology for undergraduate students. I had taught it once before as a non-diving class that visited five sights around the Savannah, Georgia area. I wanted the students to experience different types of maritime archaeological sites such as an abandoned wharf, a steam engine, a small boat, etc. While the students gained a lot from the different experiences, the most common critique I received was that the students felt the sites were unrelated to each other, which, apart from them all being maritime related, was true. For the 2022 semester, I decided it would be a stronger learning experience if the five sites were related. To do that I selected sites all connected to African American maritime history. They were still different types of sites requiring different recording techniques because I wanted to teach different fieldwork skills. They included a canal lock built with enslaved labor, a Gullah Geechee (African American communities with strong ties to coastal sea islands in the southeast United States) built oyster bateau, an African American owned marina, an island temporarily given to Freedmen in 1865, and a Gullah Geechee oystering community. The common thread of African American relationships to water added a layer of significance in the students’ eyes not just because of topical coherence, but because the students now saw all five of the sites as being part of a much larger story. This made explaining the concept of the maritime cultural landscape far easier than I had experienced in other classes I taught. I was used to dealing with the confusion that accompanied undergraduates after reading the classic, but somewhat complex, work on the topic, The 1 �Maritime Cultural Landscape, written by Christer Westerdahl.1 Seeing the concept laid out before them in the real world made it much clearer. The students viewed the topic of the African American maritime cultural landscape as a regional issue rather than as a collection of independent sites even though the five locations we visited were not connected in terms of their previous owners. They saw the sites as evidence of a wider culture. As a teacher, I was quite gratified by this and affirmed in my decision to use this approach to teaching the class. As a public historian, though, it made me wonder how we as a class could pass the same lesson on the general public. I could not, after all, transport everyone in the Savannah metro area to each individual site so that they could see them the way my students did, or could I? While I couldn’t physically transport members of the public to each of my sites, I could show them where they were located on a map of the region. This provided a sense of the scale of the landscape. The sites were spread out over approximately 1,300 square miles. The second part needed to appreciate the relationship between the locations meant telling the stories behind each site. Finally, I needed a way to do this on demand. A digital storymap accomplishes all of these goals and more. By placing an interactive map online that contains information about each archaeological location, visitors could both “see” the spatial relationship between each site and read the stories that connected them as well. An additional benefit that comes with using a digital platform is the ability to attach different types of media including text, images, videos, timelines, photographic overlays, three dimensional models, etc. I explained to my students that as responsible archaeologists, we had an ethical duty to provide site reports on our work to the stakeholders involved for each site. Without meaning to, I had selected a federal, state, and municipal site along with two owned by private individuals. The students prepared reports for each of these groups but I also taught them that we had an additional responsibility to include public outreach in our project. I informed them that we would create a digital storymap for this project as one of the ways we would share our findings with a wider audience. As a class we discussed why this was important, how it created a shared sense of community and thus an interest in historic preservation. We talked about how writing for the general public, as opposed to an academic audience, meant using less professional jargon, using concise prose, and having teaching as our main objective. The students kept these goals in mind as they recorded our work in photographs and videos. I asked them to consider what images would help explain the stories related to each location. Unfortunately, as the semester came to a close, there was not enough time for the students to work directly on constructing the digital storymap but their text and images were included in the site that I eventually launched on their behalf: http://www.themua.org/aamcl .2 Visitors to the site will find an introduction section that explains the project and its goals. After that, there are two content sections. The first is the storymap based on my students’ work while the second includes data gathered by my colleague, Dr. Julie de Chantal, who conducted research on United States census data related to African Americans working in the maritime industries for six counties in coastal Georgia. The two sections together were funded in part by small grants.3 The maritime archaeology portion of the storymap steps through each of the five sites while simultaneously showing a map of the region with all five locations indicated. This is a constant reminder of the geographic ties between the project locations. The text that accompanies each site provides its background history. Each location contains up to five images or videos which illustrate both the history and the work conducted by the students. A variety of historic newspaper clippings, videos, and photographs provide deeper context for the visitor. Taken all together: the map, site descriptions, and census data are more than just the sum of their individual parts. 1 Christer Westerdahl, “The Maritime Cultural Landscape,” The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21, no. 1 (1992): 5–14. 2 T. Kurt Knoerl et al. “The African American Maritime Cultural Landscape: Field Work in Coastal Georgia,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, September 27, 2022. http://www.themua.org/aamcl 3 Funding for this project was provided in part by generous donations from Georgia Sea Grant, Americana Corner, and the Museum of Underwater Archaeology. 2 �For example, while the historic African American marina on Wilmington Island is of interest in its own right, as they all are, together, the five locations, each with their own story, illustrate the broad diversity of African American maritime communities across the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, thus painting a more complete picture. The five individual sites become one community spread over the Georgia coast. CIVIL RIGHTS EDUCATION In previous classes, I have used storymaps for different purposes although always in an effort to educate not only the students but the public as well. The first example, the spring 2022 storymap, displayed the spatial relationships between archaeological sites. A second use for storymaps is illustrated by a project created in 2020 in which my digital history class recreated a historic African American walking trail of Savannah, Georgia created and led by the late Civil Rights leader W. W. Law.4 The tour was extensive, highlighting sites of famous African Americans as well as those who were representative of the working classes. Law’s tour helped teach the public that while the individuals may be gone, much of their physical world is still with us. He transformed what might otherwise be just another antique home, into evidence of Black entrepreneurship and of a community’s perseverance in the face of persistent discrimination. As one walks the tour, it becomes apparent just how widespread and vibrant the African American community was in Savannah. This was the end goal I wanted my students to recreate digitally. Students worked with the city archives to review Law’s tour notes. They relocated and photographed the tour stops and conducted additional background historical research to supplement Law’s comments. The storymap currently contains twenty-seven sites and includes photos and videos. Unlike the African American maritime cultural landscape storymap, the W. W. Law storymap’s main focus is on a map of Savannah. Viewers are more likely to actually visit several of the sites. Having the map emphasized makes it easier to select specific sites to see and to plan a walking route. A QR code was used on a flyer that was distributed to numerous places around Savannah to encourage the public to take advantage of the free tour. In 2023, the storymap was updated by a new group of students who recorded an audio version of the tour so that visitors can listen to both Law’s comments and the students’ research. COLLABORATIVE EXHIBITS A third use for digital storymaps includes uniting independent organizations across a far broader scale. Students in my Native American history course were tasked with discovering which museums in North America contained birch-bark canoes in their collections. This Native American technological invention was broadly produced in northern North America from the pre-contact period up to the present day. At first glance there may not seem to be much variation between canoes but a closer examination of the canoes in museum collections shows the incredible diversity that is largely a product of the individual Native cultural groups spread across the continent. The stem and stern of an Algonquin built birch-bark canoe in Musée Huron-Wendat museum outside of Quebec, Canada, is very distinct from one created by the Dena’ina Athabascan culture on display in the Alaska State Museum in Juneau.5 The birch-bark canoe storymap contains, at the time of this writing, sixty-three canoes in thirty-six museums. The storymap allows all of the independent organizations to bring their canoe collections together digitally in a way that would be impossible physically. National boarders do not hinder this sharing. 4 T. Kurt Knoerl et al. “The W. W. Law African American Heritage Trail,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, March 6, 2023. http://www.themua.org/wwlawtrail . 5 See tour stops 13 and 36 in Bark Canoes: A Digital Canoe Collection. T. Kurt Knoerl et al., “Bark Canoes: A Digital Canoe Collection,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, May 10, 2023. http://www.themua.org/barkcanoes 3 �Numerous Native communities can view the canoe style variations attributed to their cultures which is especially important for those groups who no longer possess any examples of canoes built by members of their culture. Researchers can view the canoes to see similarities and differences in not only design, but in builders and across time. The large map interface also lets viewers see the broad geographic range of museum owned canoes as well as highlighting those areas that are under-represented. This may encourage organizations to volunteer to participate in the project and to gain recognition for their collections. Participation in the bark-canoe storymap is free of charge to the participating institutions. Although far broader in scale than the African American maritime cultural landscape of Georgia storymap, the two sites are similar in that by placing each location, be it an archaeological site or an individual museum, into the context of the larger cultural landscape, the sites do not diminish in their importance but in fact gain from it because of the additional context attributed to them. In some respects, this mirrors the Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. As numerous cultural resource managers from across the Asia Pacific region gather at their triannual conference, each participant can see that they are not alone, but rather, a part of a much larger movement. They learn about and from each other noting similarities and also new viewpoints. Examining disparate birch-bark canoes can demonstrate how Native cultures were both similar to, and independent of, each other. The transnational and transcontinental example of the birch-bark canoes storymap could be a model for Asia Pacific cultural resource managers to bring their sites and collections together digitally, thereby raising awareness and appreciation of their work. The mention of digital technology may be intimidating to some, however, all three examples discussed were created with the assistance of undergraduate students using ArcGIS software. While this may seem like an expensive option, it can be quite affordable if not free. The nonprofit educational organization The Museum of Underwater Archaeology applied for and received a significantly discounted priced account from ESRI, the maker of ArcGIS storymap software. ESRI also provides free accounts to qualified applicants that may be a good alternative for underfunded organizations. Options, such as StoryMapJS by Knight Lab, allow for free accounts and can provide an affordable option. Many storymap software options operate in a similar manner. Users select a geographic location and upload text and images about the site. How best to tell the story is what requires the most thought, especially as the number of storymap software options increases. As mentioned earlier in this paper, my original maritime archaeology class visited five unrelated sites which, when viewed together, lacked a cohesive story. There was little to draw the viewer from one site to the next. The key is to understand why a collection of sites have been grouped together. One must be able to answer the spatial version of the “so what” or “why do we care” questions. When considering creating a storymap one should give serious consideration to whether or not examining a data set’s spatial relationship has any significance. Does it matter if one archaeological site, for instance, is located in Perth, Australia, while a second is located in Buffalo, New York, if there is nothing else tying them together? In this instance, the spatial relationship between the two sites is insignificant or goes no further than mere curiosity. The best area to assess for significance is, unsurprisingly for those working in the humanities, the human story. Because most storymaps allow a viewer to follow a preset path from one location to another, it is very similar to laying out a narrative in a written story. The author should guide the viewer so that each site builds upon the next or at least offers a suggested direction of physical travel should the viewer be interested in visiting some or all of your sites. For those visitors who wish to resist the constraints of a traditional linear path, they can ignore the storymap’s creator and click on the map where they will. These rebels can rest easy knowing that even if they throw caution to the wind and select site number five before visiting site four, they will always have the overall map to guide them back to the suggested order.6 6 As you might have guessed, the author is not a fan of non-linear storytelling. To each their own. 4 �Another suggestion for the beginning storymap maker is to consider, depending on the software platform, taking full advantage of the various media at the researcher’s disposal. Concise, informative text is an absolute necessity but images and video can provide an opportunity to explore the site in greater depth, to draw attention to the relationship between sites, or to describe the threats to their preservation. The stories within the storymap can explore numerous facets of the collection. It all comes down to the overall purpose behind the storymap and, as discussed earlier, there are numerous options. CONCLUSIONS? The African American maritime cultural landscape based on my spring 2022 maritime archaeology class sought to teach both my students and the general public about the variety of maritime experiences of African Americans in coastal Georgia over the past two hundred years. The W. W. Law storymap resurrected a physical tour that was, in its own way, an analog version of a storymap. Law led his guests through the historic spaces in Savannah based on his own experiences and following paper maps. The bark-canoe storymap used the digital realm to shrink the physical space that separates museums and their canoes, thereby allowing visitors to view Native American maritime material culture in the context of their shared North American experience. Regardless of the model one might choose, it is important that cultural resource managers, wherever they are, view storymaps as a way to overcome obstacles to teaching, research, and education that high cost and distance can impose. When interviewed about their experience in creating storymaps for both classes and personal projects, students acknowledged the challenges and opportunities this type of project presents. One student wrote, “I believe, the earlier historians… get into this expanding field, the better. It allows us to expand our range of influences beyond the university or the museum grounds onto a truly international stage.”7 Another student noted the benefit they received from working on a publicly viewable storymap, “Having something other than words on paper to prove your academic abilities solidifies your goals and makes you think of other projects and applications that await you in the future.”8 If it is true that water unites humanity, and the global distribution of shipwrecks around the world can attest to that (there is even a shipwreck in Lake Erie that was built in Asian waters), then cultural resource managers, working jointly, can use storymaps to show the ties that bind their underwater cultural heritage. With each node added to the storymap the story becomes richer in meaning and more effective in what it can teach us about our shared past. What lays at the heart of storymaps, is to put it plainly, the story. The map shows us not that we are disconnected by space, but in truth, connected by it. In the end, it’s just a matter of scale. 7 8 Dalton Blackmon, email message to author, August 18, 2020. Alyssa Saldivar, email message to author, August 18, 2020. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Knoerl, T. Kurt, Robert Carpenter, Bertram Cedola, Abby Anderson, Mary Anne Gojdics, Donna Sanders, Kaz Green, et al., “Bark Canoes: A Digital Canoe Collection,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, May 10, 2023. http://www.themua.org/barkcanoes Knoerl, T. Kurt, Julie de Chantal, Sarah Fulford, Ozalynn Davis, Ann Grace Bazemore, Marchello Graddy, Zach Graham, et al., “The African American Maritime Cultural Landscape: Field Work in Coastal Georgia,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, September 27, 2022. http://www.themua.org/aamcl Knoerl, T. Kurt, Julie de Chantal, Luciana Spracher, Harlie Bagley, Ana Beasley, Doug Carol, William White, et al., “The W. W. Law African American Heritage Trail,” The Museum of Underwater Archaeology, March 6, 2023. http://www.themua.org/wwlawtrail Saldivar, Alyssa. “Story Map Article.” Received by T. Kurt Knoerl, August 18, 2020. Blackmon, Dalton. “Story Map Article.” Received by T. Kurt Knoerl, August 18, 2020. Westerdahl, Christer. “The Maritime Cultural Landscape.” The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21, no. 1 (1992): 5– 14. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 20: Effective Ways to Deliver Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 20 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 20 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Digital Multi-tool: Using Storymaps for Education and Public Outreach Description An account of the resource In 2022, undergraduate students from Georgia Southern University in Savannah, Georgia, U.S.A. conducted one day visual surveys and mapping exercises on five sites related to African American maritime history. As part of their maritime archaeology class, the students conducted historical background research on site, worked with members of the local community and governments, and produced a digital storymap of an African American maritime cultural landscape. By creating the storymap, which shows the sites in relation to each other, students gained a better understanding of the concept of a cultural landscape. Projects like this one can raise public awareness not only on important individual sites but, through a digital storymap, teaches the public that sites such as these are all connected and together, can tell a deeper story. This paper discusses how the project was organized, software alternatives that are available for similar projects, and the educational and public outreach benefits that cultural resource managers from any area can use to both educate students and build community support. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource T. Kurt Knoerl Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Knoerl, T. Kurt . 2023. “A Digital Multi-tool: Using Storymaps for Education and Public Outreach.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Bill Jeffery. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1966 Asia-Pac Session 20 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c0c2c960eddf3d0d7bc8e78c8812a782.pdf 5d400ce7286c8057de763f3f71ba3adf Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Port of Uraga: Tokugawa Japan’s Choke Point to Edo Description An account of the resource Until the opening of Japan in the mid-nineteenth century, Uraga had been a port with both commercial and military significance on a domestic level arguably for the duration of the Edo period (1603-1868). Its international importance, however, lies in the initial years of the period (1603-1638), with considerable documentation showing a flourishing trade with Spain. Never before or after had a European superpower traded with eastern Japan until the nation industrialised during the Meiji period (1868-1912). The intent of this research has been to shed light on a period in Japanese maritime history that has remained overlooked to a large extent for over four hundred years with regards to the circumstances of its development and further growth, despite its overwhelming importance, using both archival and archaeological evidence from both Europe as well as Japan. This evidence suggests that the establishment of Uraga as a commercial and later diplomatic choke point with Spain was initiated and managed by William Adams under the auspices of Tokugawa Ieyasu, and that subsequent utilisation of the port as a point of controlled entry to Edo bay was the convention domestically as well until the end of the Edo period. With this trade, we see that the normal colonial relations Europe had over Asian ports had no hold on Japan. On the contrary, this paper puts forth the idea that Japan was successful at staving off such attempts due to Adams’ intercedence, producing a pattern of entanglement with the West that lasts to this day. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource T. Michael Perrin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource Enlish Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Perrin, T. Michael. 2021. “The Port of Uraga: Tokugawa Japan’s Choke Point to Edo.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/675 Asia-Pac Session 2 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/21b85026ba78a611e6393862e2c057a8.pdf 17a017301c97ef5a4a9beba050d6669d PDF Text Text Maritime Ritual Ruins of Korea Tahk Kyung-Baek¹ ¹National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, Korea. Corresponding Author: jsa461@gmail.com ABSTRACT Since ancient times, the sea has been an important transportation route and a place where food can be obtained. However, there were various dangers, which were personified as a fear of supernatural beings. As supernatural beings were gradually elevated to gods who ruled over danger, humans relieved their fears and gained comfort for themselves through the rituals. Rituals include all activities of praying for a wish to a god they are reasonable (Yu 1997, 1-2). The space where the ritual ceremonies took place is the ritual rite site, and the ritual site related to the sea can be called the maritime ritual ruins. The remains of marine ritual ruins are formed by a tangible space where sacrifices are held while worshiping gods, and a jejang (a limited site related to sacrifice), an intangible space around it. So far, studies on the remains of ritual ruins have been conducted, focusing on archaeological sites, historical records, excavated artifacts, and intangible elements of ritual ruins. However, only the intangible space was maintained as a heritage of the village community, and the altar and other facilities were changed several times, so research on them was difficult to conduct. However, the sacred building continued to be maintained despite the change in appearance. Accordingly, this study focused on the rituals and identified the meaning of the ritual ruins along with the rituals by dividing them into one-building and two-building types. Keywords: Maritime, Ritual ruins, Altar, Records LISTS OF TABLE Table 1: Characteristics of ritual ruins 1. INTRODUCTION Since ancient times, maritime rituals have been performed in the area of maritime activities. People wanted to overcome danger by praying for safety and a good catch of fish. The space where the ritual ceremonies took place is the ritual rite site, and the ritual site related to the sea can be called the maritime ritual ruins. In Korea, many maritime ritual ruins have been confirmed along the coast, showing many forms of ritual faith. Maritime ritual sites can be classified into three types: sites where ritual ruins are held at sea: remains where ritual ruins are held in the open air on land close to the sea; ruins where ritual rites are held in designated spaces with buildings such as altars. Archaeological excavations of the ruins of Susungdang in Jukmak-dong, Buan, revealed ritual ceremonies had been performed from the second half of the third century to the present. A sacred building where the god is believed to have settled was constructed close to where the ritual ceremonies were held. Two types were adopted: one-building and two-building types. These systems were found within the ruins of Jukmak-dong of Buan, Oryongmyo shrine, Sangdea harbor ruins, etc. The systems involved construction with mostly one- or two-sided three-fronts. It was minimal in size compared to traditional Korean buildings. However, the space of influence is extended towards the sea in addition to the space where the ritual ceremony is held, and it appears as a sacred space with considerable dominance. The sacred building had an important role in maritime ritual ruins and can be considered central to maritime ritual heritage. 1 �2. TYPES OF MARITIME RITUAL RUINS There are many maritime ruins that can be classified into three types in Korea, which is surrounded by the sea on three sides. Among them, there are ritual ruins revealed through excavation and research, including shell mounds in Gungok-ri, Haenam, Neuk Island in Sacheon, Yongdam-dong in Jeju Island, and Jukmak-dong in Buan (Jeonju National Museum 1995, 8-13).In addition, ritual ruins and various auxiliary facilities are set up at Wondang on Dae-ri Wi Island, where ritual ruins related to the sea are held, and at Yeongdang in Hwang Island’s Big Fish Festival. Or, using the difference between the high tide and the low tide, some ritual ceremonies are performed in the open air on the seashore. As such, maritime ritual sites can be classified into about three types: relics where ritual ceremonies are held at sea; remains where ritual ceremonies are held in the open air on land close to the sea; The ruins where ritual rites are held in designated spaces with buildings such as altars. Among them, buildings such as altars were built, and where ritual ruins were held, they have been maintained by village residents or groups praying to gods. It is mostly found on the west coast, and it is thought to be a phenomenon that has been used as a sea route to China for a long time. Considering the excavated relics, Suseongdang in Jukmak-dong can be known to have begun in the late third century. And it is possible to estimate the time when the ritual started through the origin of the gods enshrined in some altars. 3. TYPES OF SPACES FOR ALTARS The altar is a space where gods related to the sea are enshrined and where rituals are still held, and it is the core space of the ritual ruins. However, until now, altars have been regarded only as a part of folk religion, and research has been incomplete. The marine ritual ruins with nine altars were investigated, and the ritual ruins built in these ritual remains will be reviewed. 3.1 Sizes and Structures A total of 13 altars in nine ruins were identified, including cases where only one altar was installed in the ritual ruins site and where two were installed. The number of bays generally does not exceed one to three bays on the front and two bays on the side. However, when viewed from the side, Cheonghaejincastle, Wan Island, consists of a half-bay open to the outside, Wondang Dae-ri, Wi Island of a half-bay divided into spaces from the inside, and Jeonhoeng Shrine in Dangsan, Oeyeon Island, of one and a half bays. In particular, the smaller the altar is, the larger space is, and the case of one altar is generally larger than the case of two. Columnar brackets are mostly Mulikgong-style (undecorated in Korean), while Jangjwa-ri Cheonghae Castle Shrine is Choikgong-style (one-sided decoration in Korean). Wondang, the main shrine of the Yeongdang for the festival of good catching of fish is two-Ikgong-style (double-sided decoration in Korean), and Sanshin-dang, the vice-shrine is Choikgong-style. However, it is somewhat difficult to classify it as a typical columnar bracket form because the form is excessive and used as a subtraction. 2 �Table 1: Characteristics of ritual ruins Location Jukmak-dong, Buan Name Susungdang Dongho-ri, Gochang Yeongshindang Cheonghaejin-castle Wan Island Sadang Size (front× side) Size of one bay (m) 2×1 front: 2.1 side: 3.1 3 purlins west on the cliff ○ Gaeyanghalm i Grandmother (1801) 1996 3×2 front: 1.85 side: 1 3 purlins west on the hill ○ Soulgod 1841 3×1.5 front: 1.5 side: 1/2.8 5 purlins west on the hill × Jang Bo-Go 2009 5 purlins west top of Mt. ○ 8 gods 2000 Structure Direction Situation OpenWorshiped Construction air god date (CE) altars Dae-ri Wi Island Wondang 2×1.5 front: 2.6/2.4 side: 1.1/2 Gyodong Island Sashindang 1×1 unknown unknown north on the hill ○ Oryongmyo (Araetdang) 3×2 front: 1.8 side: 1.52 3 purlins east below the ridge × Witdang 1×1 unknown unknown east below the ridge × Wondang 1×1 unknown unknown on the hill × Sanshindang 1×1 unknown unknown northwest northwest on the hill × Mt. god After 1945 Jinridang (Bd. Near gate) 3×1 unknown 3 purlins north on the hill ○ Danggaksi Bride et al. 1938 2009 Yongshindang 1×1 unknown unknown east on the hill ○ unknown 2009 Jeonhoeng sadang 1×1.5 front: 3.3 side: 0.6/1.6 3 purlins unknow n in the forest × Jeon Hoeng et al. 1936 Sanjedang 3×1 unknown 3 purlins unknow n in the forest × unknown unknown Seonyu Island Yeongdang Hwang Island Dangsan Heuksan Island Dangsan Oeyeond Island Jashindang halabuji 1969 Grandfather Ohguyuwan (Before 1123) g king et al. 1947 Lim family from unknown Naju City Im GyeongAfter 1945 Eop General While the structure is generally three purlins when the side has one bay, Yeongsindang in Dongho-ri, Gochang has two sides but three purlins. In addition, Cheonghaejin castle, Wan Island, and Daeri Wondang and Wi Island have a side of one and a half bays and a structure of five purlins. Gable roofs are generally dominant, but Yeongsindang in Dongho-ri, Gochang, Oryongmyo in Seonyu Island, and Wondang in Yeongdang andHwang Island have gablet roofs. Witdang in Seonyu Island has a hip roof, and Sanshindang in Yeongdang, Hwang Island, has a pyramid roof. 3.2 Locations and open-air altars The direction is generally westward, and the reason is assumed to be to look at the West Sea. However, Sashindang on Gyodong Island faces north, and you can see the sea while looking at the altar. It is 3 �located on the top of a hill or mountain with a good view of the sea. Open-air altars are usually present when only one altar is situated, but only Dangsan on Heuksan Island has two of those. 3.3 Records of constructions interpreted through worshiped god The gods enshrined in the ritual ruins are different for each ritual rite, and the objects in the ruins vary by region. First, a record indicates that Suseongdang was built in 1801, so the construction record is different from the actual excavated artifacts. It is presumed that the ritual ruins were reused after they stopped being used. Gaeyanghalmi’s grandmother is the main sea deity of the Chilsan Sea seen from Suseongdang. Jangjwa-ri Shrine is said to have held ritual ceremonies with the portraits of great monks, including Song Jing, Jeong Nyeon, and Hye Il, but it has now been changed to the portraits of Jang Bogo. The current altar was built in 2009, but its location is within Cheonghaejin Castle (installed in 828), so its origin is presumed to be old. Wondang on Dae-ri Wi Island is located facing Suseongdang and is also a place where ritual ceremonies are held to pray for a good catch in Chilsan Sea. Originally, there were paintings of 11 gods, but now only paintings of eight gods remain (National Folk Museum 1984, 10). Oryongmyo on Seonyu Island, where Ohguyuwang, whose name means five dragons, is enshrined, unlike other shrines that pray for the safety of the sails and success in trade. In particular, the record remains in Xuānhwafengshi Gaolitujing (宣和奉使高麗圖經) (Seo 1124, 1-7). Originally, the main hall of Yeongdang on Hwang Island was dedicated to the snake god, but it was changed to enshrine General Im Gyeong-Eop in the seventeenth century. There are two theories: one that it was made after 1945, when it was demolished during the Japanese colonial period, and the other that it has been there for 140 years. Dangsan on Oeyeon Island is related to Jeon Hoeng (? - BCE 202), and the current altar was built in 1936. 4. CONCLUSIONS So far, the value of cultural heritage has been relatively underestimated in Korea. In this paper, the characteristics of nine altars were reviewed, and the records of their establishment were examined, especially through the enshrined god. In the future, it is expected that the cultural heritage value of ritual ruins in Korea can be re-evaluated by conducting research on ritual ruins throughout the country. BIBLIOGRAPHY Seo, Gung. Xuānhwafengshi Gaolitujing, Hangzhou, 1024. Ha, Hyo-Gil. Folklore of Wido Island-Ritual ceremony of Wondang, Dae-ri, Seoul: National Folklore Museum, 1984. Jeonju National Museum. Relics of Ritual ceremony of Jukmak-dong, Buan, Jeonju: Jeonju National Museum, 1994. Jeju National Museum. Sea and Ritual ceremony- Relics of Ritual ceremony of Jukmak-dong, Buan, Jeonju: Jeonju National Museum, 1995. National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. Sea routes in the Southwest Sea region seen through maritime exchanges, Mokpo: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2014. Yu, Byung-Ha. Sea god and ancestral rites of Relics of Jukmak-dong, Buan - Focused on a comparative review of the ancestral rites-, Master's, Seoul: Seoul National University, 1997. Korean Society of History and Folklore. History and Folklore, Seoul: Korean Society of History and Folklore, 2005. Choi, Jung-Gi. Gyodongdo Island, Seoul: Folk Garden, 2015. 4 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Ritual Ruins of Korea Description An account of the resource Since ancient times, the sea has been an important transportation route and a place where food can be obtained. However, there were various dangers, which were personified as a fear of supernatural beings. As supernatural beings were gradually elevated to gods who ruled over danger, humans relieved their fears and gained comfort for themselves through the rituals. Rituals include all activities of praying for a wish to a god they are reasonable (Yu 1997, 1-2). The space where the ritual ceremonies took place is the ritual rite site, and the ritual site related to the sea can be called the maritime ritual ruins. The remains of marine ritual ruins are formed by a tangible space where sacrifices are held while worshiping gods, and a jejang (a limited site related to sacrifice), an intangible space around it. So far, studies on the remains of ritual ruins have been conducted, focusing on archaeological sites, historical records, excavated artifacts, and intangible elements of ritual ruins. However, only the intangible space was maintained as a heritage of the village community, and the altar and other facilities were changed several times, so research on them was difficult to conduct. However, the sacred building continued to be maintained despite the change in appearance. Accordingly, this study focused on the rituals and identified the meaning of the ritual ruins along with the rituals by dividing them into one-building and two-building types. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tahk Kyung-Baek Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Kyung-Baek, Tahk . 2023. “Maritime ritual ruins of Korea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Wijerathne Bohingamuwa. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1953 Asia-Pac Session 8 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/47d565c29bb6b4ef88960eedc05eef95.pdf c2dbaf85d61bbd705bbb1f792d2e8a97 PDF Text Text The Historical Transition of Lakefront Environment and Use in Lake Biwa, Japan Hisashi Nakagawa Toyohashi City Museum Art and History nakagawa_134@yahoo.co.jp Abstract Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan. It has approximately 4,000,000 years of history, and many people have lived on this lake. More than 90 underwater archaeological sites exist here, and we are able to understand the subtleties of history. As an example, the Awazu-bottom site,is dated to the middle of the Jomon period approximately 5,000 years ago, and is the largest freshwater shell mound in Japan. It was formed near the lakefront at first, but now submerged on the bottom of lake. The Shiozu-port site is a late Heian period dated to 800 years ago, and is one of the oldest harbor sites in Japan. It was constructed to reclaim the lake, and prospered as water transport area. Many important remains, not only port facilities but also shrines and more, have been excavated, but it disappeared in the 12th century. The causes of this sites’ submergence is closely related an environmental transition of the lakefront. The water balance is particularly important problem. Approximately 460 rivers flow into this lake, but the discharge is only through the Seta-River. Therefore, the water level is greatly fluctuated by the sedimentation situation of the riverbed. According to the old historical documents, many floods have occurred. Therefore, sometimes dredging is carried out by the government to this day. Not only are water levels problematic, but ground sedimentation is as well. The lakefront is convenient for fishery and water transportation, but on the other hand, the land is soft. In a certain study, the ground water level is slightly 20cm higher than water level of lake. As a result of this, serious damage to the settlements have occurred by earthquakes. The extreme effect of this has settlements bring submerged to the bottom of lake by lateral Flow; landslide by the soil liquefaction. In this paper, I would like to study a historical transition of the lakefront environment and its use. Key words: landscape, Lake, Japan, riverine �Introduction Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan and many people have lived on this lake. There are more than 90 underwater or lakeside archaeological sites that exist here. As it has approximately 4,000,000 years of history, its form has been changed due to a variety of factors such as crustal deformations or sediment depositions. In recent years, the relation between these geographical or geological changes and lives of the local people has gradually been revealed by a lot of archaeological materials acquired through some investigations of the submerged sites (Nakagawa, 2016). In this paper, the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen in Nagahama city is discussed in order to describe the natural and historical environmental changes at Lake Biwa from the ancient times to the middle age. General Description of the Site The underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen site is located at the bottom of Lake Biwa in front of the town of Gion in Nagahama city, which is in northeastern part of Shiga Prefecture. Local oral tradition tells us that ‘the village called Nishihama formerly existed here, but it was submerged into the bottom of lake by a big earthquake during the Kansho year of the Muromachi period (1460-1466)’. Before examining historical facts, first of all, some current aspects of the bottom topography found from survey maps and sedimentation situations have to be shown. The investigation area is shallow off shore; around 100m. It is less than 1.5m deep and more than 82.8 m of altitude. There 3 topographical elevated points are characteristically observed (Fig. 1). These points have been named A, B, and D as each survey ward (Fig. 2). In addition, the survey ward of C has no elevation, and a medieval �graveyard does not have any elevated peaks, either. In more than 80m of offing, the more clay-like topography regarded as former ground is still spread. Its average bottom attitude is less than 82.8m (about more than 1.5m deep). In this very peculiar area, old withered trees have been excavated. Because some botanical analyses prove that its soil contains large amounts of plant opals from bamboo grasses, this area was certainly dry land in earlier times. Fig. 1: Topographical lakebed map around the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. �Fig. 2. Research areas of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. In the survey ward of A, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.7m (about 0.6m deep). This relatively elevated ward is situated on the western part of the investigation area, measuring about 40m from east to west and 60m from south to north. Around the survey ward of A, the gentle collapse-like topography which was caused by the power waves from the offing direction could be seen (survey ward of A’). In the survey ward of B, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.75m (about 0.55m deep). This relatively elevated ward is situated on the east part of the investigation area, measuring about 40m from east to west and 50m from south to north. Around the survey ward of B, as A, the gentle collapse-like topography could be seen (survey ward of B’). In the survey ward of C, the average bottom elevation is approximately 83.3m (about 1m deep). It is on the western part of the investigation area along the lakeshore, measuring about 80m from east to west and 15m from south to north. In the survey ward of D, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.4m (about 0.9m deep). This relatively small and oval elevated ward is situated at the centre of the investigation area, measuring about 35m from �east to west and 15m from south to north. Around the survey ward of D as well, as A and B, the gentle collapse-like topography could be seen (survey ward of D’). The survey ward of a medieval graveyard is situated about from 50m to 70m off the lakeside, and its average bottom altitude is 83.1m (about 1.2m deep). There many stone materials, most of which used to be grave stones, are found; each medieval grave consisted of many stones, which were nearly a size larger than a fist of a grown-up man or smaller than human skull, forming a rectangular section or a cairn. The bottom material at the flat part (less than 83.2 m of altitude) at the investigation area consists of small grains of sands. They seem to have been brought there later by wave action or longshore currents. The survey ward of a medieval graveyard is buried under these sands by half. Contra to this, the bottom material of elevated wards of A, B, and D consists of round-shaped small river stones, each of which is from approximately 5cm to 10cm in diameter. Although one of the survey ward of C consists mainly of such river stones, many bigger stones, each of which is from 20cm to 30cm in diameter, are also observed sporadically on this ward. As for the reason why there are some topographical elevated points there, as this area used to be a river delta. Because of this fact, small river stones are found in the elevated wards of A, B, and D. Each ward still looks like the shape of a river delta. Judging from the survey map, around four tributary branches might have flowed into Lake Biwa, but the direction of water flows may have been altered in later years. So presumably the river was about 250m wide at the mouth. �Historic Environmental Transition Judging from Old Topographies and Relics Development Process of the Sites Figure 3 shows the graphic chart of the number of excavated relics from this site for each century. Obviously its peaks were the 8th and the 12th centuries while only one relic from the 14th century was found. Since the 15th century, this site seems to have restarted as a new site. The tendencies at the 12th and the 13th centuries look similar, but almost all relics from the 12th century consist mainly of unglazed pottery named ‘yama cha wan’, which disappeared before the first quarter of the 13th century. In the survey ward C, the remains of a well was found which seems to be abandoned deliberately during the 13th century. The cultural discontinuation of this underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen could be observed around the 13th century; this place itself was deserted with awareness. Fig. 3: Numbers of excavated relics. Only one relic from the 14th century at the survey ward of C is either air ring of a five-ring stone pagoda. It was originally made in the 14th century, �but later after the 15th century it was reutilized as a tomb stone. In the same elevated zone as the pagoda was found, an elected stone Buddha statue from the 16th century was also found. The end time of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen might be the latter half of the 16th century, because only one relic, i.e. a cup made from celadon porcelain, from the 17th century was found there. The transition period of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen could be divided into three or four phases, viz. Phase I around the 8th century, Phase II in the 12th century which was the most flourishing time of this site, Phase of Rupture from the middle of the 13th century to 14th century, and Phase III from the 15th to 16th centuries when the site had been revived. Distribution Situation of Relics Every Investigation Area Then, is such situation universal at the whole survey wards of the site? Figure 4 shows the graphic chart of the number of excavated relics for each survey ward for each century. Before Phase I, all wards had relics although its number was relatively small. This trend seems to have continued until the 10th century. Because this investigation area used to be a river delta, these small relics were flowed there together with sediment along the river branches. At first, it was the secondary centre to accumulate broken relics. Some relics, in particular, from the 10th century, are not broken at all and not obliterated; the original places of �those relics would not have been so far away. Perhaps, they might be used directly above this site. Fig. 4: Numbers of excavated relics at each research area. �Phase II is completely different from Phase I. Almost all relics from this phase were found only around the survey ward of B, although only one relic was found around the survey ward of A. Relics from the 11th century, as well as ones from the 13th century, have been excavated only at the survey ward of B. This distribution of relics does not seem to be originated from the natural sedimentation but from real human activities. After Phase of Rupture, this site might have been developed as a new zone at Phase III after the 15th century. Relics belonging to this period were mainly distributed over the survey ward of a medieval graveyard and the offshore places of each survey ward. As no relic is found in the survey wards of A and B and the survey ward of a medieval graveyard is situated between the survey wards of A and B, the site of Nishihamasengen had been changed into land or from drying at Phase III. Constitution of Relics and Land Use in Phase II At Phase II around the peak period of the 12th century, what kind of human activities were observed on the site? When did its rivers run dry? The compositions of relics from the survey wards of B are shown in Figure 5. Most of the relics are things for offering only, while ones for boiling or for storing do not exist. Therefore, the survey ward of B at Phase II was not a waste site of general daily necessaries near commoners’ hamlets, but maybe it would have had several mounds of Buddhist scriptures. Because some sutra cases or substitute inkstones are excavated, literate people, which differed from common villagers, might be living there at Phase II. �Fig. 5 (left): Relics at the research area of B from the 12th to 13th Century. In former days, men of weight who wished for peaceful death built mounds of Buddhist scriptures in order to bury the scriptures under the mounds. The height of prosperity of this custom was the 12th century in Japan (Sugiyama, 2007); this historical fact may correspond to the case of the site of Nishihamasengen. As for substitute inkstones, they started to be used in the latter half of the 11th century in Japan. Literate people intentionally built mounds of Buddhist scriptures at the survey ward of B, because at the time of Phase II, which extended over 150 years from the latter half of the 11th century to the first quarter of the 13th century, the survey ward of B was dryland, not half-submerged land. This fact is also proved by the restricted size of ward, measuring about 40m from east to west and 50m from south to north; throwing sutra cases and substitute inkstones away from the lakeshore is the out of question. The concentration of the relics and its conglomeration at the survey ward B suggest that this zone began to become dry before the middle of the 11th century. A study of historical geography (Mizuno, 2011) says that �during the Hoen period (1135-1141) the shrine territory of the Gion Shrine was established around this investigation area and its territorial landsubdivision would have been spread far into under the current Lake Biwa (Fig. 6). It could also be imagined that sutra cases and substitute inkstones from the survey ward B would have been used by some men of weight who managed this shrine territory and conducted its religious activities. Fig. 6: Land division of the Medieval Period. (S. Mizuno) New Development after Phase III It is after 15th century that human beings restarted to live around the site of Nishihamasengen. No relic has been excavated at all at the survey wards of A and B, while at the survey wards of a medieval graveyard, C along the lakeshore, and offshore sinking parts of each ward small amount of relics have been found. These consist of not only stone material cultures but also old china plates, earth pottery plates, pots, grinding bowls, many variations of receptacles. On the grinding bowls some usewear is observed, which proves the existence of real human living there at this time. �The medieval graveyard must not have built on the submerged land but on the riverbed of some flow channels when the survey wards A, B, and C were formed as a river delta at the beginning, which was not suitable for plotting rice fields. This ward seemed to have been looked like the actual banks of hell at the middle age. According to some botanical analyses and natural scientific dissections of lakebed soil, much larger offshore areas of the current underwater site of Nishihamasengen were used for dryland agriculture at Phase III after the 15th century. Some oral traditions and historical materials tell us that there used to have been a village named ‘Nisihama-mura’. The relics discovered in the underwater site of Nishihamasengen prove that the village of Nisihamamura was founded after the 15th century. The oldest and first historical material titled Eikyo Shichinen Kanjin Sarugaku Hogacho which mentioned this village was written in 1435. Since the number of relics near the lakeshore is relatively small, the village centre at that time might have been on more offshore place among agricultural fields. Cause of Its Submergence and Time What was the actual cause of the submergence of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen and when? From the 15th to the 16th centuries, undoubtedly, the water level of Lake Biwa varied from 84.2 m 84.7m approximately above sea level (Nakagawa, 2017). Judging from many aspects of the excavated relics from the site of Nishihamasengen, Phase III was terminated at the latter half of the 16th century. Although some stone materials were sometimes reutilized, no relics from the Edo period was found and the newest one is from the first half of the 17th century. During Phase III, the highest peak attitude of the ward of a medieval graveyard is 83.2m (about 1.2m deep). If its ground �attitude nowadays were the same as one in the middle age, villagers had built their graveyard on the bottom of Lake Biwa. Indeed, the water level fluctuation of Lake Biwa is about 1m throughout the year all through the ages, but its fluctuation could not explain why a medieval graveyard is now under Lake Biwa. Some botanical analyses also tell us that around the graveyard the ground was dry at that time. Therefore, the ground subsidence must have happened between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century. The most probable movement of the earth's crust was the big earthquake occurred on 18th January 1586. According to Luís Fróis, a Jesuit missionary, because of this earthquake many ground cracks ate thousands of houses and villagers, and the remaining ones were destroyed by fires. He also described its ground liquefactions, saying that from ground cracks black and liquid soil was coming out (Ida, 1987). The legendary village of Nisihhama-mura or the contemporary underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen was submerged under Lake Biwa in 1586. Conclusion Lakeshore and seashore has changed due to water fluctuation, soil sedimentation, crustal movement, and so on. Underwater archaeology could investigate some causes of those changes, studying submerged sites. In Japan, however, most think that underwater archaeology is the study of shipwrecks and not many archaeologists are interested in the historical transitions of waterfront environment or underwater settlement sites. In the Japan archipelago, on the other hand, there are still to be many unknown underwater sites, which are similar to the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. Researching upon them will be able to cast a new light on the history of Japan or human beings generally. �References Ida, K., 1987. History of Tensho Big Earthquake. Nagoya University Press, Nagoya. Mizuno, S., 2011. Historical environment of Lake Biwa and human beings. In S. Mizuno (Ed.), Environmental History of Lake Biwa and Human Beings, Iwata, Tokyo: 5-26. Nakagawa, H., 2017. Archaeological study of water level fluctuation at Lake Biwa: some phases from the end of the ancient times to the middle age. Busshitsu Bunka, Vol. 97:113-154. Nakagawa, H., (Ed.), 2016. The Site of NIshihamasengen: Surveys and Studies of Submerged Sites at Lake Biwa, Sunrise, Shiga. Sugiyama, H., 2007. Kyo-zutsu. In M. Ono et al. (Eds.), Great Encyclopaedia of Historical Archaeology, Yoshikawakobunkan, Tokyo: 339-340. Biography Hisashi Nakagawa was born in Aichi Prefecture in 1988. During the undergraduate level, he learned underwater archaeology and supervised by Prof. Hiromichi Hayashi at the University of Shiga Prefecture (20072011). Prof. Hayashi did study underwater archaeology from Prof. Yoshio Oe, who is respected as "Father of Underwater Archeology in Japan". In 2013 he completed the master program (Human Culture) at the University of Shiga Prefecture, and then, he had been a PhD candidate in the same university, and a Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (2013-2016). He works now at the Toyohashi City Museum Art and History. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Preliminary Study on the Barrier of the Sino-French War of 1884 at Tamsui Estuary, Taiwan Description An account of the resource During the Sino-French War of 1884, the Qing military intentionally sank a number of wrecks filled with rocks under the Tamsui River and surrounded them with naval mines and many railings to form a barrier against the French invasion. In 2014, one hundred and thirty years later, the government planned to construct a bridge across the river estuary; and, in accordance with the law concerning environmental impact assessments and archaeological impact assessments, the author conducted an investigation to find potential underwater archaeological remains. The survey tools for this project included a side scan sonar, a multi-beam sonar, a magnetometer, and a sub-bottom profiler. A total of 31 anomalies were detected by these sonars; most of them were lain on the surface of the river bed, and these were believed to be modern debris. However, some anomalies were covered by the sand or under the river bed; therefore, the team could not identifiy these targets further without underwater operations. First, In order to verify the anomalies lying on the surface of the river bed, the team used an underwater camera and diverbased investigation. As a result of the investigation, no specific archaeological remains were found on the surface of the river bed; also the team found out that the sediments of the riverbed had accumulated repeatedly by erosion and floods since 1884. It seems that a strong power of natural dynamics on this region may had destroyed the barrier. In conclusion, the underwater investigation could not confirm archaeological remains of the barrier. Further investigation is required to find archaeological remains. In this paper, the author shall share historical contexts related to the Tamsui Estuary that were found during his historical literature reviews. Also the author shall share his hypothesis of where to find, or what might have happened to, the potential archaeological remains from Sino-French War of 1884. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tai-Lung Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Tai-Lung Asia-Pac Session 6 2017