61 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Seafaring Merchants of Ur Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A. Leo Oppenheim Gregory L. Possehl Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Carolina Academic Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author A. Leo Oppenheim Editor Gregory L. Possehl Item Type Book Section Book Title Ancient Cities of the Indus Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Place Durham, NC Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Carolina Academic Press Title A name given to the resource The Seafaring Merchants of Ur https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0d16c70e087d527413bf7cece15eaf51.pdf 5f198c5a2e4e60f9f8c6d3b8559e545e PDF Text Text The Shared Underwater Cultural Heritage of Japan and the Netherlands: the Kanrin-maru Leon Derksen ICOMOS Netherlands derksen.leon@gmail.com Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology iwabuchi@kaiyodai.ac.jp Abstract In 2014, a non-exhaustive inventory of the shared cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Japan was made by the Dutch government in the context of what the Netherlands calls its ‘Shared Cultural Heritage Policy’. This inventory resulted in an overview of shared cultural heritage grouped into the categories ‘maritime heritage’, ‘built heritage’, ‘museum collections’ and ‘archives’. Spread over seven different themes and linking to an equal number of time periods, the inventory provided insights into where opportunities for cultural collaboration would lie. One of the opportunities of collaboration found revolved around the potentially preserved Dutch shipwrecks in Japanese waters. This sparked the incentive to propose a project-based partnership through a collaborative research project between the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, to locate and research the shipwreck of the Kanrin-maru. The project, which commenced in 2017, includes the involvement of Dutch and Japanese researchers to facilitate the transfer of knowledge, as well as the involvement of trainees in order to ensure capacity building. The Kanrin-maru was a warship specially built in the Netherlands in 1856 on order of the Tokugawa Shogunate Navy. It was brought to Japan in 1857, but in 1869 during the Boshin War between Shogunate and Imperial forces it was taken over by the Imperial Japanese Navy, and remained in the service of the Imperial Meiji government until it foundered in the Tsugaru Strait in 1871. Although an anchor thought to belong to the Kanrin-maru was found near where it was said to have foundered, no wreck has been found to date. In November 2017, fieldwork in Hokkaido, including material analysis upon its anchor, as well as library or archival research is to be done by Dutch and Japanese archaeologists. �Key words: UCH, Japan, Netherlands, Introduction Japan and the Netherlands, two nations sharing a history with over four centuries of relations, have in recent years reinvigorated their cultural bonds by promoting collaboration in topics of shared cultural heritage. While this has already inspired a broad variety of forms of cultural collaboration such as in the Arts and Crafts1, this also led to collaboration in the specific field of maritime heritage and underwater cultural heritage management. For in 2014, the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE)2 and the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs together with the Kyushu National Museum took the lead in this particular field of collaboration. The main mutual benefit of their collaboration is that it could help both nations to familiarize with the implications of ratifying the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. At the same time, both nations have grabbed this opportunity to aim for sustainable preservation of what is considered their shared underwater cultural heritage. This inspired the current authors to further the collaboration in the field of shared underwater cultural heritage between the Netherlands and Japan by proposing the formation a project-based partnership between the RCE and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology UNITWIN Network and Japan’s only university with both graduate and undergraduate courses in nautical archaeology. An official agreement of this partnership is in the making. With this paper, the current authors wish to promote the potential of this project and the shared cultural heritage it represents. �Main aims of the project are knowledge exchange and capacity building by involving experts and trainees. It was decided that the main subject of research and training would revolve around locating, and if found, researching the wreck of the Kanrin-maru (咸臨丸): a Dutch-built screwpropelled steam schooner that supposedly wrecked near Kikonai Municipality in Hokkaido in 1871. Since the story surrounding the ship and its wrecking have become strongly rooted in the local community, and have also been promoted by the local government, efforts will be made throughout the project to involve the local community and government in order to facilitate a sustainable preservation of the wreck, its story and place within the local community. Since the wreck of the Kanrin-maru has not yet been located, a start was made in 2017 in order to assess whether locating the wreck is feasible. At the time of writing, the initial research is well underway and consists of desk research in both the Netherlands and Japan, as well as a survey in the field planned somewhere between September and December this year. Results of what has been gathered through desk research thus far will be discussed in this paper. The sections further below provide a historical background sketch, information on prior research, a general project definition with corresponding aims, objectives and research questions, and the preliminary results of the initial research. The paper ends with preliminary conclusions and a thought on the implications of these conclusions in regard to the continuation of the project. Historical Background From around 1639 to the year 1854, in a period now known as the sakokujidai3, Japan had practically kept its doors shut to all westerners but the Dutch. At the time, the Dutch were the only ones allowed to trade with Japan through the tiny artificial island called Dejima4 that lay in front �of Nagasaki. This centuries old privilege came to an end when in the years 1853-1854, steam warships of the United States Navy led by Commodore Perry (1794-1858) entered Tokyo Bay and forced Japan to end its isolation policy. Fearing a foreign invasion, the Tokugawa Shogunate hastily sought means to build a naval fleet. And for this, the Japanese turned to the Dutch (Kogure, 2008). In order to jump-start this naval fleet, Japan ordered from the Dutch arms and warships among other things, as well as instructors who were to provide education and training in virtually all matters associated with the navy (Chijs, 1867). Besides seeing direct economic benefits, the Dutch hoped this deal would also help them in trying to maintain their foothold in Japan in the midst of growing competition from other western nations (Kogure, 2008). Meanwhile, the other naval powers were also planning on catering Japan’s need for a naval force. In an attempt to beat the competition, the Netherlands decided to grant the Soembing, a Dutch paddlewheel steam warship, in 1855 (Stapelkamp, 1999). Sent along with it was a first Marine Detachment of Dutch naval officers and sailors led by G.C.C. Pels Rijcken that was to educate and train the Japanese on their first western-built steam warship. A year later in the Netherlands, construction commenced on the first warship for the shogun’s navy. In 1857, the vessel originally named the Japan was launched and was brought to Nagasaki that same year. Upon arrival it was renamed to Kanrin-maru and taken into the service of the Shogunate Navy, becoming the first screw-driven steam warship of Japan. Together with the Kanrin-maru, the Dutch government sent a second Marine Detachment that was to replace the first which had remained there since 1855. The Kanrin-maru was used as a training �vessel and thus became instrumental in the founding years of the Japanese navy. Six years after its introduction in the Japanese naval service, the Kanrinmaru followed in the wake of an American vessel called the Powhatan which had on board an embassy bound for the United States of America in order to ratify a new treaty between the USA and Japan. The vessel crossed the Pacific with the help of a number of American naval officers, including Captain John Mercer Brooke (1828-1906). To the Japanese navy, the crossing was an important show of skills as it was only seven years after Perry’s steam-driven ships had entered Tokyo Bay. This now legendary voyage is still commemorated by Japan and the USA today, as it marks an important event in the relations between Japan and the US. What is more, for Japan it also marks as the second time in history that a Japanese vessel is known to have crossed the Pacific (Fig. 1). Fig. 1: The Kanrin-maru. (Yokohama Archives of History) �In the years that followed, the Kanrin-maru remained mainly in use as a training vessel. When in the years 1868-1869 the Boshin war broke loose, which was a civil war between forces fighting for the shogunate and forces fighting for the restoration of the Emperor as the greatest in power, the Kanrin-maru was used as a military transport vessel in the fleet of the shogunate until it became battered in a storm and was subsequently overtaken by the imperial forces. After the Boshin war had ended with the restoration to power of Emperor Meiji, the Kanrin-maru remained in the service of the Imperial Navy and was used as a passenger and transport ship. In 1871, it set sail towards Hokkaido. Its mission was to safely transport 400 civilians who were to immigrate into Hokkaido and to colonize it for cultivation. While traversing the Tsugaru Strait, the Kanrin-maru hit a reef off Kikonai Municipality where it began to make water. Almost all the passengers and all crewmembers managed to survive, but the vessel itself supposedly sank and was lost to the sea. To this day no wreck has been found, although in 1984 a chance find was made when a fishing boat hauled up an anchor supposedly at a location near what is believed to be its wrecking site. Today, the Kanrin-maru is commemorated through local annual festivities among other things and has clearly conquered a special place in the hearts and minds of the local community and government. This has been most notably achieved by the efforts of the Society of the Kanrin-maru Crew Descendants, who have been actively promoting this cultural heritage and the fascinating story that surrounds Japan’s first screwdriven warship. Through this project, the parties involved can combine their strength to help maintain this valuable source of shared cultural heritage. �Prior Research A chance find occurred in 1984, when an anchor was salvaged from a depth of 20 meters by a fishing vessel (Fig. 2). The exact location of the find is still unknown, but a local newspaper stated that it was situated 2 kilometers off the coast of Kikonai Municipality. Subsequently, the anchor was researched by an expert, who concluded it was highly likely though still not 100% certain that the anchor belonged to the Kanrin-maru. Fig. 2: Anchor. (Kikonai Municipality) Other prior researches consisting of desk works, as well as fieldworks, have been conducted at the presumed wrecking location before. Although some remains of ship equipment or shipbuilding materials were said to be recovered during those field researches, no definite wreck or potentially associated finds to the Kanrin-maru have been found yet. According to one Japanese underwater archeologist, all the remains of the Kanrin-maru have perhaps already been swept away by the strong currents of Tsugaru Strait. �Project Definition As shortly explained in the introduction, the main aims of the project are to facilitate capacity building as well as knowledge exchange between the organizations and individuals involved about underwater cultural heritage management. With the Kanrin-maru as the research subject, the project also aims to come to a sustainable preservation of the remains of the Kanrin-maru, if found to be existent. Broader, over-arching aims are to raise awareness of the existence of underwater cultural heritage among an international public, and to further improve the bilateral relations between the Netherlands and Japan. The main aims will be achieved through the following objectives: Capacity building through inviting maritime archaeologists and students to join in on the search and possible research of the Kanrin-maru; knowledge exchange by inviting underwater archaeologists and specialists in both Japan and the Netherlands to join the project, and to create an atmosphere for open discussions with experts and trainees alike. Sustainable preservation will be achieved not only through the two objectives shown above, but also through the involvement of the local source community and government to build sufficient support for future preservation. The project is proposed to be conducted in the period between late 2017 and early 2018, encompassing desk research and interviewing informants aimed at gathering historical and contemporary data to establish an initial research area, as well as a field survey on land. Main research questions are as follows: could the wreck of the Kanrin-maru be located?; if so, what is its state of preservation?; and how can it be preserved for future generations to come? �Initial research Research commenced in April 2017, and at the time of writing is still underway. The overall aim is to come to a thorough assessment in order to gauge the chances of finding the Kanrin-maru or related materials in a preserved state and to establish an initial research area required for the continuation of the project. The methods used thus far comprised of desk research in the form of library and archival research, the results of which have in part been used to form the historical background sketched earlier above. Fieldwork is also part of the research schedule, and is due to take place somewhere in November 2017. It is planned to consist of conducting interviews with local informants such as the local community near the supposed wrecking site, as well as visiting and surveying the anchor site and wrecking site from land. Library and archival research in the Netherlands mainly focuses on shining a light on the historical context in which the order, construction and eventual delivery of the Kanrin-maru took place. This includes but is not limited to gathering information on the construction of the ship itself, where it was made, by whom, what materials were used in its construction and where these materials came from, and what the ship’s overall characteristics were including its quality in terms of materials and its sailing ability. On the other hand, library and archival research in Japan mainly focuses on the wreck of the Kanrin-maru in 1871. Indeed, relatively many studies about the Kanrin-maru have been conducted in Japan, but all of them are interested in its building or its first trans-Pacific voyage. No academic work upon its fate in 1871 has been conducted yet. �Preliminary Results Desk research in the Netherlands In 1853, Japan handed over their first request for warships and the like to Donker Curtius (1813-1879), contemporary opperhoofd or chief trader (1852-1855) of the Dutch trading post on Dejima. Among the vessels requested by Japan were a number of screw-propelled warships (Chijs, 1867). The Japanese had only just learned of the existence of steamships in 1849 through Dutch books (Arima, 1964), while Perry’s impressive ‘black ships’ were the first real-life steamships appearing before Japanese eyes. Thus in terms of technology, the Japanese knew they fully depended on the knowledge of the Dutch about these type of ships. The Japanese therefore largely left it to the Dutch to decide which type of vessel would be sent first and what equipment it would have in terms of propellant (screw or paddlewheel), armament and other specifics (Chijs, 1867). One of the earliest mentions of the first screw-propelled steam warship that was to be made for the shogun – and which turn out to be the Kanrinmaru – can be found in a report by contemporary Minster of Colonies, C.F. Pahud (1803-1873). In his report transcribed by Van der Chijs (1867: pp.136), he states that this vessel destined for Japan’s navy had to be built in such a way that it could also serve in the Dutch navy in case the Japanese government would refuse the vessel for whatever reason. It was thought that such a ship could not be purchased, neither could it be constructed on the Navy’s shipyards in the Netherlands nor in the Dutch Indies. Thus it was decided that the vessel had to be constructed on a private shipyard. �Apparently in order to meet these requirements, it was decided somewhere along the way that this vessel had to be identical to a screwpropelled corvette destined for the Dutch navy that was about to be built around the same time on Fop Smit’s shipyard in Kinderdijk. This vessel was given the name Bali, while its sister ship was named the Japan, which later became the Shogunate’s Kanrin-maru. In a technical report evaluating the performance of the Bali, Naval Engineer Huygens (1857) states that the Bali and the Japan were indeed identical. With this and the above in mind, be it with certain reservations, we may presume that the Kanrin-maru and the Bali were thus virtually identical to each other in terms of construction and onboard technology. This allows taking into account the detailed contemporary reports on the characteristics of the Bali, since not much details are known about the Kanrin-maru specifically at this point in time. The Bali and the Kanrin-maru were constructed at the shipyard of Fop Smit in Kinderdijk (a UNESCO World Heritage Site). The construction plans were designed by J.W.L. van Oordt, Head Engineer of the Dutch navy. The vessel had a waterline length of 40.8 m, a beam of 8.5 m and a displacement tonnage of 619 tons. It had a depth at the bow of 3.4 m and at the stern of 3.85 m. As screw-propelled steamships with sails, both vessels represented the state-of-the-art in naval engineering. Steam-powered screw propellers were still a fairly novel technology (Oosten, 1972), having been only introduced in the American, British and French navies in the 1840s, while the Dutch had only just welcomed the Medusa as their first screwpropelled steam warship in 1853. In that respect, at least on paper, the Dutch Navy indeed showed intent of catering the Shogun’s request for the latest in naval technology. �The vessel was mainly constructed of wood, though at this point further details about the materials used in its construction remain unclear. Additional efforts will be made to find more information regarding the materials used, as this could allow assessing the quality of these materials in terms of endurance. This in turn could help in assessing the chances of finding preserved remains of the Kanrin-maru. The keel of the Kanrin-maru was laid down in 1856 and the vessel was launched in 1857. After it was launched, the company of one Mr. Rietschoten had fitted its three masts with schooner rigging, while its machinery and boilers were built and installed by the ‘Nederlandsche Stoombootmaatschappij’ at Feyenoord (Rotterdam) that same year. This machinery was coal-fired and could nominally produce about 100 metric horsepower. Tests with the Bali proved that it could reach a top speed of 8¼ nautical miles per hour, or 8¼ knots (Huygens, 1857), although this also depended on the effectiveness of the stokers (Huygens, 1860). The Kanrin-maru, or the Japan as it was still called around that time, was readied in March 1857 and set sail from the Netherlands on March the 25th. Sent along with it was the second Marine Detachment, led by Commander Knight W.J.C. Huyssen van Kattendyke (1816-1866). In his diaries (Huyssen van Kattendyke, 1860), he explains that the construction of the Japan suffered several (undisclosed) delays. These delays may have been due to problems similar to the Bali which revolved around the effectiveness of the screw (Huygens, 1857) but were resolved subsequently. The Dutch Navy and the Ministry of Colonies followed the Kanrin-maru’s maiden voyage with great interest, since its performance also had implications for the Bali which was destined for the Dutch Indies. With this in mind, Huyssen van Kattendyke explains in his diary that he sailed �straight to Lisbon (Portugal) in order to test the vessel in all circumstances. Upon arrival in Lisbon he concluded that the vessel was very fast and had met his expectations. On the 21st of September that same year, thus after a voyage of 180 days, the Japan arrived in front of Nagasaki bay. It was officially handed over to the Japanese in October 1857 and was renamed into Kanrin-maru. A great part of the Nagasaki’s Naval Training School then took place on the Kanrin-maru. Training included all aspects of naval training, ranging from deck and rigging lessons to familiarizing with the machinery and many more aspects. Desk Research in Japan Emphasis of the desk research in Japan was put on the events past 1868 to around 1871 when it wrecked. Literature and archival research was conducted to reveal more information about the period in between these years. Unfortunately, however, the trustworthy historical materials, in particular, between 1869 and 1871, are extremely scarce. No photo of the Kanrin-maru has not been found yet either in the Netherlands or in Japan. Only one painting of the Kanrin-maru by Yujiro Suzufuji, an officer of the Kanrin-maru during the trans-Pacific voyage is kept in the Yokohama Archives of History (Fig. 1.), which is titled ‘the rough voyage of the Kanrinmaru’. No Japanese newspaper reported the wreck of the Kanrin-maru in 1871, partly because in Japan at that time no paper had been published systematically yet. Its wreck was said to have happened, therefore, sometimes on 19th September 1871 due to stormy weather, or sometimes on 20th September 1871 due to bad maneuvering the ship. At that time, two U. S. officers handled the Kanrin-maru, viz. one was Francis Etienne, who perhaps was �the captain, and the other was Charline SeLoger Train. Although the official record submitted to Hokkaido says nothing, on 20th September 1871 the drunken U.S. captain seems to have made the Kanrin-maru run ashore on a reef off the village of Izumisawa at Kikonai Municipality (Goda, 2010). Preliminary Conclusions Desk research in the Netherlands thus far has shown that the Kanrinmaru, at least to contemporary Dutch naval officers, was indeed a vessel that represented the latest in naval architecture and met expectations accordingly. Furthermore, it became part of one of the means available to the Dutch government in its effort to reinforce what was left of the centuries old special bond with Japan. This, and its historical voyage to the US in 1860 as well as its involvement in the Boshin War, provides support for its historical significance today and in the end adds to the list of reasons for pursuing sustainable preservation of this special remnant that has become part of Dutch-Japanese shared cultural heritage. Be it tangible or intangible, above water or underwater. At the time of writing, initial research has yet to be completed. This includes the remaining parts of desk research in Japan and the Netherlands, as well as fieldwork. Based on the information gathered thus far, it still is difficult to assess whether or not the wreck of Kanrin-maru could still be lying on the ocean floor near Kikonai Municipality. If continuation is indeed desired, detailed plans for an underwater survey using multibeam or sidescan sonar equipment will have to be made, taking into account the marine environmental conditions in a demarcated research area. �Footnotes 1 . See, for example, the Holland-Kyushu programme, initiated by Dutch Culture and the Embassy of the Netherlands in Tokyo and the consulategeneral in Osaka: http://hollandkyushu.com/en/. 2 . https://culturalheritageagency.nl/en 鎖国時代, literally meaning ‘closed country period’, though in reality Japan’s isolation from the outside world was highly relative. 3. 4 . 出島, meaning ‘artificial island’ in Japanese. References Arima, S., 1964. The Western influence on Japanese military science, shipbuilding, and navigation. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 19 (3/4): 352379. Chijs, van der, J.A., 1867. Neêrlands streven tot openstelling van Japan voor de wereldhandel. Uit officieele, grootendeels onuitgegeven bescheiden toegelicht. Koninklijk Instituut voor de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Amsterdam. Goda, I., 2010. The Kanrin-maru. Hokkaido Shinbun, Sapporo. Heeffer, A., 2012. Dutch arithmetic, samurai and war ships: teaching of Western mathematics in pre-Meiji Japan. History and Pedagogy of Mathematics (Proceedings), Daejeon: 551-561. Huygens, H., 1857. Z. M. schroef-schooner Bali. Verhandelingen en berigten betrekkelijk het zeewezen en de zeevaartkunde, Vol. 17: 178183. Huygens, H., 1860. Bijdrage tot de kennis van de schroefstoomwerktuigen der Nederlandsche marine. Second edition. G. Hulst van Keulen, Amsterdam. Huyssen van Kattendijke, W. J. C., 1860. Uittreksel uit het dagboek van gedurende zijn verblijf in Japan in 1857, 1858 en 1859. Van Stockum, The Hague. Kogure, M., 2008. National Prestige and Economic Interest: Dutch Diplomacy Towards Japan 1850–1863. Shaker Publishing, Maastricht. �National Archives of the Netherlands, 2012. Shared Cultural Heritage Policy Framework 2013-2016. (http://en.nationaalarchief.nl/sites/default/files/docs/gce_beleidskader_20 13-2016_definitief_-_eng_doca.pdf) Oosten, van, F. C., 1972. Schepen onder stoom: De geboorte van het stoomschip. De Boer Maritieme Handboeken, Bussum. Pompe van Meerdervoort, J. L. C., 1868. Vijf jaren in Japan (1857-1863). Bijdragen tot de kennis van het Japansche keizerrijk en zijne bevolking, Vol. 2. Van Den Heuvel & Van Santen, Leiden. Seaton, A. E., 1909. The Screw Propeller and Other Competing Instruments for Marine Propulsion. Charles Griffin & Company, London. Stapelkamp, H., 1999. Gerhardus Fabius (1806-1888): Een leven voor de marine (PhD thesis). Universiteit Leiden, Leiden. Biographies Leon Derksen is a member of ICOMOS Netherlands and an independent researcher in the field of Dutch maritime archeology and cultural heritage. He received his MA from the University of Groningen in 2014 where he studied Prehistory and Protohistory, track Maritime Archaeology. His publications include his MA-thesis entitled Tracing Remnants of Dutch-Japanese Affairs in the Maritime Cultural Landscape of Japan (2014) as well as Shared Cultural Heritage of the Netherlands and Japan (RCE, 2015) which was co-written with Marike Klos. Akifumi Iwabuchi is Professor of Maritime Anthropology and Nautical Archaeology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. He is the ICOMOSICUCH National Representative for Japan, being also Directors of the Japan Society for Nautical Research, of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and of the Forum on the Oceanic State of Japan. He received his PhD from the University of Oxford in 1990. His publications include The People of the Alas Valley �(Clarendon Press, 1994) and Cultural Heritage under the Sea: An Introduction to Underwater Archaeology (Kagaku-Dojin, 2012). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Shared Underwater Cultural Heritage of Japan and the Netherlands: the Kanrin-maru Description An account of the resource In 2014, a non-exhaustive inventory of the shared cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Japan was made by the Dutch government in the context of what the Netherlands calls its ‘Shared Cultural Heritage Policy’. This inventory resulted in an overview of shared cultural heritage grouped into the categories ‘maritime heritage’, ‘built heritage’, ‘museum collections’ and ‘archives’. Spread over seven different themes and linking to an equal number of time periods, the inventory provided insights into where opportunities for cultural collaboration would lie. One of the opportunities of collaboration found revolved around the potentially preserved Dutch shipwrecks in Japanese waters. This sparked the incentive to propose a project-based partnership through a collaborative research project between the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, to locate and research the shipwreck of the Kanrin-maru. The project, which commenced in 2017, includes the involvement of Dutch and Japanese researchers to facilitate the transfer of knowledge, as well as the involvement of trainees in order to ensure capacity building. The Kanrin-maru was a warship specially built in the Netherlands in 1856 on order of the Tokugawa Shogunate Navy. It was brought to Japan in 1857, but in 1869 during the Boshin War between Shogunate and Imperial forces it was taken over by the Imperial Japanese Navy, and remained in the service of the Imperial Meiji government until it foundered in the Tsugaru Strait in 1871. Although an anchor thought to belong to the Kanrin-maru was found near where it was said to have foundered, no wreck has been found to date. In November 2017, fieldwork in Hokkaido, including material analysis upon its anchor, as well as library or archival research is to be done by Dutch and Japanese archaeologists. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Leon Derksen Akifumi Iwabuchi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Leon Derksen Akifumi Iwabuchi Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Shinan and Wando Sites, Korea: Further Information Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jeremy Green Zae Geun Kim Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Jeremy Green Zae Geun Kim Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Issue 1 Pages 33-41 Publication Title Internationa Journal of Nautical Archaeology Title A name given to the resource The Shinan and Wando Sites, Korea: Further Information Volume 18 China Japan Korea Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Shinan Excavation, Korea: An Interim report on the hull structure Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jeremy Green Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1983 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Jeremy Green Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1983 Issue 4 Pages 293-301 Publication Title Internationa Journal of Nautical Archaeology Title A name given to the resource The Shinan Excavation, Korea: An Interim report on the hull structure Volume 12 China Japan Korea https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/20cdf55356540e81a1b2bb89476e0b3a.jpg 8a93e83bc5666549d74e93c0dcf9d422 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poster Session 2014 Description An account of the resource Posters presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The snake, the crocodile, and the king Decorative motifs in the royal barges of Angkor Description An account of the resource Poster presented at the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/9/2014 Asia-Pac Poster 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/88a6a949dfd7178bd3445fe4eb22138a.pdf 16dcbcccbbb8647d5df1433c10710ac7 PDF Text Text THE SOCIAL HISTORY OF ARTEFACTS AND THE LAW IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Professor Craig Forrest (University of Queensland, Director, Marine and Shipping Law Unit) ABSTRACT The loading of objects on a vessel, their loss, then physical discovery, recovery and subsequent movement, all take place in a legal context. That context is not static and cannot be viewed entirely in hindsight from the now. In unravelling the legal rights and interest to recovered objects the inter-temporal nature of the law requires consideration and possible application. Moreover, irrespective of what law applies at any given time, this intertemporal legal context reflects evolving values and is part of the object’s social history. This paper examines this intertemporal nature of salvage law and other related laws as they might apply to objects recovered in Southeast Asia over the past 40 years. THE COLLECTION The Abbott Collection comprises approximately 2300 ceramics purchased by a private collector from antique markets in Indonesia and Singapore between 1966 and 2016. The collection has never been catalogued but is believed to include ceramics from a wide range of South-East Asian States, including Thailand, China, Indonesia and Viet Nam, with some dating from at least the 9th century (Polkinghorne 2022, 11-12). As collectables, these ceramics have little or no provenience or provenance other than, in some cases, the identity of the seller in Indonesia or Singapore. Marine encrustations and glaze condition, together with information provided by the antique sellers in some cases, suggests that most were recovered from shipwrecks in Indonesian waters. Otherwise, little is known about these ceramics. They could, however, reveal much about the Maritime Silk Route and the entities involved. In investigating these ceramics, the project seeks to establish the ceramics “original cultural and historical contexts and to re-establish links to their communities of origin” (Polkinghorne 2022, 12). This entails undertaking provenience and provenance research and linking the collection with communities with verifiable links to each ceramic. That link could be the place of manufacture, the place of loading on board the ship, the nationality of the ship and or its owners, or the place of its sinking. That link could also include those who recovered the ceramics from the shipwrecks, facilitated its movement to market, and ultimately the seller and purchaser. THE LEGAL CONTEXT The collector purchased the ceramics and shipped them from Indonesia or Singapore to Australia in good faith and in the belief that all actions were in accordance with the laws as understood at the time. Nevertheless, the lack of any provenience or provenance at the time of purchase means that the legal context would have been largely unknown. As this project reveals the provenience of each ceramic so the provenance and wider legal context will require investigation and application. With 2300 ceramics acquired over a 50-year period, such an undertaking is onerous. This is made more complex as the manufacture of a particular ceramic, its loading on board a vessel, loss, then physical discovery, recovery and subsequent movement, all take place in a legal context that changes over time and place. That context is not static and cannot be viewed entirely in hindsight from the now. This paper considers this inter-temporal nature of the applicable law, as well as its determination across place – jurisdictions. This consideration of the legal context is not, however, purely for the purpose of determining its current status. The applicable law – in time and place – also reflects the social history of the ceramic. 1 �Each ceramic in this collection was a trade good; manufactured as a commodity. Who owned it, how it was traded, and how it was shipped would have been governed by the law at that point in time. Moreover, that law might differ depending on where the ceramic was at that point in time. As such, if for example, it was manufactured in what is now China, the law of that place might apply to ownership when manufactured, but the law of some other place, such as what is now Singapore, might have applied to the sale of the ceramic while the law of the nationality of the ship or its owner might apply to its transportation. Moreover, what these laws were in the 15th century will be quite different to that applied in the 18th century. Having been lost at sea, the ceramics in this collection were likely salvaged sometime in the last 100 years, and more likely only in the last 50 years, given the state of diving and salvage technology. Most, but perhaps not all, of the ceramics in this collection are thought to have been recovered in waters over which Indonesia today exercises some form of jurisdiction, and if in the territorial waters – which is most likely - absolute sovereignty. But it may not have been salvaged by an Indonesian national or from an Indonesian vessel, and at the time of salvage, the location of the shipwreck might not have been in Indonesian waters given the changes in jurisdiction over the last 100 years. Even within Indonesian territorial waters, the law of Indonesia has also changed considerably, especially in the last 30 years. INDONESIAN LAW The earliest applicable Indonesian law that will have applied is ‘Barang Muatan Kapal Tenggelam (BMKT)’ which translates to ‘valuable items recovered from shipwreck’, contained in Chapter VII of the Indonesian Commercial Code since 1938 and based on traditional Dutch salvage law. That is not to say that it was actually applied and there are likely to have been many cases where local communities simply recovered ceramics and sold them to dealers without recourse to any legal mechanisms; and without any original owner to pursue the ceramics, no legal issues would have arisen. Indonesian law also provided some protection over cultural heritage that was also based on early Dutch colonial law. In 1931, the colonial government enacted the Monumenten Ordonnantie Number 19 of 1931 (Stbld. 1931 no. 238) which imposed an obligation to register cultural property and banned their export. This Law was subsequently amended by Monumenten Ordonnantie Number 21 in 1934 (Stbld. 1934 no. 515). It is not likely these laws applied to underwater cultural heritage. Following the salvage and sale of ceramics from the Geldermalsen, Indonesia introduced legislation, Presidential Decree Number 43 of 1989, that regulated the salvage of historic wrecks and asserted ownership of all wrecks within Indonesian territorial waters (Pearson 2019, 709). This legislation also established the National Committee for the Recovery and Utilisation of Valuable Items from Shipwrecks. This Presidential Decree was subsequently replaced with Presidential Decree Number 25 of 1992 together with Law No. 5 year 1992 concerning Cultural Heritage, which was enacted following the Belitung looting in the early 1990s. At the same time, the salvage law regime was also changed when Chapter VII was taken out of the Commercial Code and replaced with Law Number 21 of 1992 concerning Navigation (which was later replaced by Law No. 17 of 2008 concerning Navigation) (Nayati 1998, 144). Further legislative changes occurred in the 2000s. In 2009, a Minister of Finance Regulation No. 184 of 2009 addressed Procedures for Determining the Status of Use and Sale of Valuable Objects from the Ship's Shipwreck, followed, in 2010, by amendments to the law protecting cultural property in Law No. 11 of 2010 that imposed a temporary moratorium on commercial salvage. This was made permanent in 2016 in Presidential Decree No. 44 of 2016 which included historic wrecks in one of the Negative List of Investment, effectively imposed a moratorium on salvage operations (Pearson 2019, 709). Other relevant regulations include an export ban under Ministry of Trade Regulation No. 44/M-DAG/PER/7/2012 and optimisation of Indonesian cultural heritage under Law No. 5 of 2017 2 �concerning Cultural Advancement. Most recently, Presidential Decree No. 1 of 2022 concerning Registration of Cultural Property was introduced. These amendments were largely intended to ensure that Indonesia kept significant and scarce artefacts stored in museums. But legislative definitions of ‘cultural heritage value’ and ‘national identity’ are so ambiguous as to have little or no legislative significance. Most importantly, Presidential Decree Number 8 of 2023 reinstituted the government-controlled salvage regime, which reverted to the shared model of public/private sharing of the salvage of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). AUSTRALIAN LAW While the Indonesian law is pertinent to the provenance of the ceramics, the collection is in Australia and subject to Australian – South Australian and Federal – law. It is thus principally Australian law that governs the ceramics. In light of the socio-legal history of a ceramic, how then is Australian law to address them? While this short paper cannot address this complex issue in detail, three important underlying principles are considered: the nature of inter-temporal law, non-retrospectivity and the choice of law in conflict of laws. Inter-temporal law The doctrine of intertemporal law, in the words of Judge Huber of the International Permanent Court of Arbitration, means that “a juridical fact must be appreciated in the light of the law contemporary with it, and not of the law in force at the time when a dispute in regard to it arises or falls to be settled” (Island of Palmas 1932, 845; Elias 1980, 286). As such, whether the recovery of a particular ceramic in, say, 1967, was legal, recourse must be had to the law that existed in 1967 at the place where the salvage occurred, or, if then in international waters, at the place where the ceramic was landed. It is the law as then in existence that will determine rights and duties of the relevant actors, including the salvor, the original owner and the relevant State. The collection is therefore going to be divided into categories dependant on the governing law at the time and place of their recovery; each category giving rise to possibly different rights and obligations. The greater the incremental change in the law in a particular place and the more places involved, the more categories are likely to emerge. Judge Huber went on to clarify the doctrine by declaring that “as regards the question which of different legal systems prevailing at successive periods is to be applied in a particular case (the so-called intertemporal law), a distinction must be made between the creation of rights and the existence of rights” (Island of Palmas, 1932 845; Elias 1980, 286). What this means is that while the right might be acquired in accordance with the law at that time, its continued validity is also dependant on the law at any point in time thereafter when the right is relevant to a dispute. This clarification on the doctrine is, at least in an international law context, is subject to some debate but as a general proposition it is appropriate for the case in question (Elias 1980, 292). It means that, for example, the salvor might acquire salvage rights over the wreck, but over time, should the law as to the rights of the salvor over the wreck site change, then the changed law might apply. That new law would not address the acquisition of the right to the wreck, but only the continuation of that right. The debate concerning this clarification of the doctrine lies in the risk that the application of a new law might, in effect, amount to a retrospective law that negates the original acquisition of the right. This is a particular risk where the new law arises from a statutory instrument or an international agreement domestically implemented, such as the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of UCH (2001 Convention). 3 �The emergence of Australia’s Historic Shipwreck Act 1976 might illustrate this point. The Act was adopted in part to address the discovery of a number of old Dutch shipwrecks and the recovery of objects from these sites. For current purposes, the recovery was legal in accordance with the law at the time, and as such, the new Act could not apply retrospectively such that it negated the acquisition of the salvage rights of the salvors. The Act did, however, impose a new obligation on the salvors: a requirement that they register all objects that had been recovered from those sites. Since his new law did not impact the right acquired at the time of recovery, but imposed a new statutory obligation, it applied only from 1976 onwards. Inter-temporal law then is not only a consideration of the rights acquired at the relevant point in time, but also the impact that changing laws then have on those rights over time (and place), provided that the new law did not apply retrospectively. Non-retrospectivity The prohibition of the application of any law retrospectively is often, but not universally, regarded as a fundamental principle of law, especially with respect to criminal law (Kryvoi and Matos 2021, 46). It is generally applied to international conventions such as the 2001 Convention. As codified in article 28 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties which declares that “[u]nless a different intention appears from the treaty or is otherwise established, its provisions do not bind a party in relation to any act or fact which took place or any situation which ceased to exist before the date of the entry into force of the treaty with respect to that party”. As article 28 evinces, this is not an absolute prohibition. Indeed, States may give a treaty, or some of its provisions, retroactive effect (von der Decken 2018, 510). Many States, for example, argued the 1970 UNESCO Convention that addresses the illicit trafficking of cultural heritage, should have applied retrospectively in order to address the loss of their heritage during the colonial era. Whilst not accepted, this nevertheless illustrates the circumstance in which States may regard retroactivity as legitimate. It may thus be open to a State such as Indonesia to address the issue of salvage and export of UCH through retrospective legislation, though this may come at a cost in terms of claims for lost rights from individuals. Such legislation would have to be unequivocal in its scope of application. It remains to be seen whether this research project will reveal any instances of retrospective legislative application and its effect on the applicable law. Choice of law in conflict of laws Since the Abbott Collection ceramics are found in Australia, only Australia has the judicial capacity to determine and enforce rights to them. It is thus Australian law that applies. That does not, however necessarily mean that Australian domestic rules will apply given Australian choice of law rules that are applied when there is a conflict between the laws of different jurisdictions relevant to the dispute in question; and in this case between the laws of Australia and Indonesia (though other jurisdiction may also be pertinent, such as China, Viet Nam etc, depending on the ceramic in question). As a general proposition, the Australian common law choice of law rule for rights to property is the law of the place where a property was situated at the time the property right is said to be acquired - the lex rei sitae (Davies et.al 2019, 795). A salvor’s property right to ceramics salvaged in Indonesian territorial sea will therefore be determined in accordance with Indonesian law at that time, even if that dispute were to be adjudicated in Australia. Where the location is not in Indonesian waters, the determination of the applicable law may be rather more complex and require detailed consideration of the conflict of law rules in an intertemporal context: not always an easy undertaking. 4 �A SOCIO-LEGAL HISTORY OF THINGS The ceramics in this collection, ranging from as early as the 9th century and recovered in different locations over a period of 50 years, means the applicable law at any given point in time is not a straightforward task. If identifying a particular right, or the legality of a particular act needs to be determined, then this is a necessary task. But for each ceramic the continually changing legal context is also part of its social history. The applicable law would have played a role in shaping the initial commodification of the ceramic, its transformation across space and time as its exchange value and use by different social groups have altered to a point where it is elevated beyond commodification and transformed into a public good This project therefore not only seeks to identify and apply the relevant law to each ceramic, but to place its socio-legal history as a fundamental component of the ceramic as we understand and utilise it today. BIBLIOGRAPHY Davies, Martin; Bell, Andrew, Brereton, Pau and Douglas, Michael. Nygh’s Conflict of Laws in Australia, 10th ed LexisNexis, 2019. Elias, T.O. “The Doctrine of Intertemporal Law” The American Journal of International Law n. 74 (1980) 285. Hatcher, Michael and Thorncraft, Anthony The Nanking Cargo Hamish Hamilton 1987 Island of Palmas case (Netherlands, United States) 2 R. Int’l Arb. Awards 831 Polkinghorne, Martin. Reuniting cargoes: Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Maritime Silk Route, Australian Research Council Linkage Grant, 2022 (on file with author) Kryvoi, Yarik and Matos, Shaun. “Non-Retroactivity as a General Principle of Law” Utrecht Law Review no. 17(1) (2021) 46–58. Nayati, Pudak. “Ownership Rights Over Archaeological/ Historical Objects Found in Indonesian Waters: Republic of Indonesia Act No 5 Of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects and its Related Regulation” Singapore Journal of International and Comparative Law, no. 2 (1998): 142 – 174. Pearson, Natali. “Protecting and Preserving UCH in SE Asia.” in The Palgrave Handbook on Art Crime. Edited by Hufnagel, Saskia and Chappell, Duncan, 685-730. Palgrave MacMillan, 2019 von der Decken, Kersten. ‘Article 28’ in Oliver Dőrr and Kirsten Schmalenbach (eds) Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary Springer Palgrave, 2018 510. 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 24: Recovering dispersed and salvaged legacy collections of UCH in Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 24 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 24 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Social History of Artefacts and the Law in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource The loading of objects on a vessel, their loss, then physical discovery, recovery and subsequent movement, all take place in a legal context. That context is not static and cannot be viewed entirely in hindsight from the now. In unravelling the legal rights and interest to recovered objects the inter-temporal nature of the law requires consideration and possible application. Moreover, irrespective of what law applies at any given time, this intertemporal legal context reflects evolving values and is part of the object’s social history. This paper examines this intertemporal nature of salvage law and other related laws as they might apply to objects recovered in Southeast Asia over the past 40 years. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Craig Forrest Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Forrest, Craig. 2023. “The social history of artefacts and the law in Southeast Asia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1913 Asia-Pac Session 24 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The South-China-Sea Tradition: the Hybrid Hulls of South-East Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael Flecker Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Michael Flecker Item Type Journal Article DOI 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00109.x Abstract Note The South-China-Sea Tradition is a hybrid vessel-type combining structural features of Chinese and South-East Asian origin. It only occurs from the late-14th to the late-16th centuries and mirrors the production period of Thai export ceramics. This article examines 16 South-China-Sea-Tradition wrecks with a view to determining a well-defined list of characteristics, the origin of those characteristics, and the most likely builders. © 2006 The Author Access Date 2009-11-28 06:23:12 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Issue 1 Library Catalog Wiley InterScience Pages 75-90 Publication Title International Journal of Nautical Archaeology Short Title The South-China-Sea Tradition Title A name given to the resource The South-China-Sea Tradition: the Hybrid Hulls of South-East Asia URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00109.x Volume 36 China Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d8d9714ea01741734d9379eccaaa5c10.pdf 07ee134fc48130fa36d35bc2699a5a9d PDF Text Text The Southeast Asian Galleon Trade: A process towards a re-assessment of human-environment interaction Jennifer Craig and Carl Hughes McGill University Indian Ocean World Centre Montreal, Canada H3A 0E6 Email: Jennifer.craig2@mail.mcgill.ca Email: carl.hughes@mail.mcgill.ca Abstract In 1939, William Schurz published ‘The Manila Galleon’ that has been considered a seminal work in maritime history (in the English language). In it, he proposed the shipping route of the galleon trade in the Pacific Ocean during the 16th to 19th centuries. The directional flow of goods were purported to enter eastern Southeast Asia through the Philippine archipelago at the San Bernardino Strait. The same strait was also used as the exit point by the galleons that travelled northeast out of East Asia and east bound across the Pacific. This paper will reconsider Schurz’s hypothesis with input from up to date analyses based on environmental data. Our results are displayed in layers on digital seascape in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) format? These layers include detailed water-surface topography (small islands, atolls, reefs) as well as the dynamic atmospheric and oceanic environment. The data for these layers were gathered from accessible online datasets generated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These datasets were then reconfigured into algorithms and models for use in a set of geovisualizations using GIS and Google Earth. This is overlaid with Schurz’s hypothesized historic shipping route. The results are a comparison of human-environment interaction and a re-assessment of a 75 year old hypothesis. Keywords: Chart, Digital, Geovisualizations, Manila Galleon, Maritime, Pacific Ocean Introduction This paper is a case study and part of a larger project that re-evaluates historians’ works on shipping routes in Southeast Asia from the 14th to mid-18th centuries CE (Common Era) for maritime archaeology purposes. It discusses the methodology to produce dynamic charts that visually represent human-environment interaction. The 1 �direct comparison of contemporary data on human activity and environment action was problematic because there is little information on maritime environment data prior to the mid-19th century. To overcome this issue, we incorporated recent atmospheric and oceanic data generated from readily available reputable sources. The results are an original figure of a chart created in 1939 and three charts created using GIS software. The first figure is William Schurz’s interpretation based on the Spanish archives. Of the three figures created by this exercise, the first chart is a detailed shipping route through the Philippines for the eastward journey. Schurz did not repeat the details for the westward journey but he inferred similar directions that were followed through the Philippines to Manila. The second chart showed the breadth of the possible shipping routes eastward bound for the Americas. The third chart showed the breadth of possible shipping routes westward bound across the Pacific Ocean. Schurz’s hypothesis William Schurz’s (1939) ‘The Manila Galleon’ is considered a seminal work in maritime history (in the English language). Part of the reason why the book had such impact was because it contained The Chart of the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1; henceforth known as Schurz’s Chart). This is a visual representation of Schurz’s hypothesis of past Spanish shipping activity through the Philippines, across the Pacific Ocean and along the western coast of the Americas. However, the choice to include the figure at the beginning of the book is confusing because the chart did not represent Schurz’s whole discussion but only one of his subsections of a chapter. The subsection titled The Route (Schurz, 1939: 216-250) is summarized in Schurz’s Chart. Fig. 1 The Chart of the Pacific Ocean. (Schurz, 1939: no number) Image enhancement by Rachid Hedjam with Synchromedia laboratory, Ecole de technologiesuperieure de Montreal, University of Quebec, Canada. One can see from this figure that Schurz included the multiple possible routes the Spanish took to establish trade in Southeast Asia. Some of his directions may seem 2 �uncharacteristic of sailing; for example, when the ships heading eastbound suddenly switched direction from northeast to directly east. Other directions were unclear perhaps due to the scale of the chart, such as the route through the Philippines. The environment these voyages took place was highly dynamic; with air and water movement being the major contributors to the decision-making of shipping activity timing and location but the figure did not include this information. In fact, the water and air look placid, and appears practically non-existent. Perhaps this is a restriction during the time of writing because his text provided details of a very dynamic environment. Schurz expects his readers to be familiar with major planetary environment. For example, he writes of prevailing winds. Understanding where these winds blow are central to appreciating the degrees of latitude ships sailed on the Pacific Ocean’s east and west bound routes. Due to the Universal Laws of Gravity between the Earth, the Sun and the Moon, prevailing winds consistently blow across the Pacific Ocean eastward in the prevailing westerlies belt at latitudes 30º to 60º and westwards in the north-east trade winds belt between 5º to 30º(Thurman and Trujillo, 2001). Schurz’s exclusion of major water currents is not surprising. At the time of this publication, humans knew next to nothing about the seabed. In 1940, the Woods Hole Institute had just gathered survey information on the Indian Ocean and it was not until 1967 that Mary Tharp had completed her drawings of the bathometric rift and published her results in Mercador’s World (Tharp, 1967). Since then, oceanographers have discovered the planet’s ocean water currents are caused by the prevailing winds and effects of temperature caused by the Earth’s molten core seeping through the Earth’s Crust at seabed rifts (Thurman and Trujillo, 2001). In the Pacific Ocean, the atmospheric and oceanic action is separated by the Equator into Northern and Southern Hemispheres (Thurman and Trujillo, 2001). In both hemispheres, Subtropical Gyres are formed by the circulatory movement of water currents caused by the California Rift and Mariana Trench, along with wind direction caused by prevailing winds. The currents that form the north Pacific Subtropical Gyre are the Kuroshio Current, at approximately 15º latitude off the east coast of the Philippines, flowing northeast out of the Philippine Sea; to the east flowing the North Pacific Current; to the south, flowing California Current and returns westward across the Pacific Ocean from latitude 10-15º with the North 3 �Equatorial Current (Thurman and Trujillo, 2001). Although these are major systems of the Earth’s planetary causes there are other seasonal environmental effects. One of the seasonal details that Schurz discussed is the monsoon. Schurz pointed out the ‘traditional route’ took months to complete because of the monsoon winds. The longest stretch of the journey was going through the archipelago from Manila to the Embocadero and crossing the Pacific Ocean. For the purposes of this paper it will suffice to say that the sea, as displayed by Schurz, does not show the dynamism of his text. He expects the reader to be familiar with the local weather patterns and planetary functions known in the 1930s. When he mentions monsoon he does not explain the regularity of shipwreck caused by extreme weather but instead implies this by mentioning the need to be out of harm’s way at the start of the season. This is certainly the case for the westbound journey timing to enter the Embocadero and the eastbound journey’s timing for leaving Manila. In order to visualize a closer reality to the shipping activities of past sailors, the authors are currently developing a methodology to display dynamic charts with historians’ hypotheses included as layers. This will provide a platform for comparisons of data, recognition of gaps in the literature and provide information for maritime archaeologists to recognize areas of potential highrisk for shipwreck of particular cultural groups during specific periods of time. This exercise identifies cultural-group-specific corridors of maritime activity. It identifies locations of Spanish galleons in the Philippines at certain periods of time; or when a shipwreck is located these charts narrow down the possibilities of date and ship-type. Alternatively, it notes if a shipwreck is in an unexpected area, leading to the hypothesis of bootlegging. Methodology: The Digital Data Geovisualizations bring the dynamisms of the environment to historians’ hypothesized routes. The results of this exercise are displayed in layers on digital seascape in GIS format. These layers include detailed water-surface topography (small islands, atolls, reefs) and the dynamic atmospheric environment. The data for these layers are gathered from online accessible datasets generated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These datasets are then reconfigured into algorithms and models for use in a set of geovisualizations using GIS and Google Earth. 4 �This is overlaid with Schurz’s hypothesized historic shipping route for comparison and discussion. First, one had to prepare the data for GIS. This required ‘point creation’ of the geographical locations described in the historian’s text. With these points in place the authors followed Schurz’s text, the case study, to connect the points and sailing routes. The reader is reminded that the authors were focused on the Southeast Asian portion of Schurz’s data so the figures below do not include details about the route from the Pacific Ocean to the western coast of the Americas, nor along that coast. The westbound directions from Acapulco are assumed steady across the Pacific Ocean because, in comparison to the complicated course of the eastbound journey, the westbound journey is described as regular and straight across the Pacific to the Ladrones. For example, to describe the eastward route from Manila to the Embocadero Schurz (1939: 223-4) wrote 23.5 lines of text. From the Embocadero to the point where the galleon crossed the Pacific Ocean, Schurz (1939: 226-7) wrote 14 lines of text. The description for the westward route from Acapulco to Manila however, occupied only 8.5 lines of text (Schurz, 1939: 251-252). Results: Geovisualizations For the sake of clarity the ‘traditional route’ has been subdivided by the authors into six steps: 1) Manila to Embocadero; 2) Eastbound from Embocadero to Ladrones; 3) Eastbound from Ladrones to the Americas; 4) Southbound along the Americas; 5) Westbound from the Americas to Ladrones; 6) West-Northwest bound from Ladrones to Embocadero; 7) Embocadero to Manila. Steps 1, 2, 6 and 7 are displayed in full with only partial discussion of steps 3 and 5. Step 4 is not included in this paper. To discuss these locations and the consistent and seasonal environment the authors noted details of timing and direction. Our meaning of the term ‘Direction’ is specifically the geographical locations of the ‘traditional route’. ‘Timing’ discusses the months chosen for sail which correspond to environment data of seasonal high and low activity. Steps 1 and 7 are displayed in (Fig. 2). The east bound journey was timed to start with the beginning of the southwest monsoon. At this time, the winds were strong and would push the sails of galleons through the archipelago from early May to late September, with preference for timing during mid-June to mid-July (Schurz, 1939: 251-252). The route’s direction through the Philippines is provided in minute detail in the book’s text 5 �over two pages (Schurz, 1939: 221-222). However, Schurz’s Chart (Fig. 1) only showed Fig. 2 Schurz’s hypothesized Spanish galleon ‘traditional route’ through the Philippines from 1565 to 1730. (Schurz, 1939: 216-283 and Chart created by Carl Hughes) the exit/entry point of the Embocadero at the San Bernardino Strait. Figure 2 brings to the foreground the following interesting points. The passage for the shipping activity should be littered with shipwrecks. However, at this time the authors are unaware of any underwater archaeology activity from the Verde Passage eastward. Perhaps this has to do with the highly active environment. At this time, there is little data available on the surface currents and wind force of the Philippines. Although an Oceanography article discussed some of these details in the Sulu Sea region, the area is outside the route discussed by Schurz (Lermusiaux, et al., 2011). Interestingly, Schurz provided minute details when the route was directed around the entire coast of Capul Island. He included what was viewed at the portside and starboard along with, one of the few times it is mentioned, distance. This may have been the same case for San Bernardino Island 6 �situated near the entrance of the San Bernardino Strait. The directions on how a ship was to sail through this point are confusing, hence the hashed triangle over the island of San Bernardino and out towards Catanduanes, “northeast with Sorsogon coast to port and San Bernardino to starboard; northeast by east seven leagues to the Embocadero with San Bernardino now to port and the island of Biri to starboard” (Schurz, 1939: 222). Step 2 and half of step 3 are displayed in (Fig. 3). Mid-July was recorded as the best time to use the wind power of the monsoon in order to reach and sail across the North Pacific. The Spanish galleons were recorded to regularly leave Manila from mid-June and reach the Embocadero in mid-July; and then head from the 2nd Midpoint to the Americas in September through November. Throughout most of the year, the winds and currents run east from the 2nd Midpoint to the Americas. In (Fig. 3), October is labelled because it is the middle of that period. In order to get to the Ladrones, they would need to rely on the July winds to push them out of the Embocadero, up to the latitude where the current flows eastward and along a narrow band of latitude running parallel to the arrows on Figure 3. Our data shows that north of the July currents, the wind direction is straight north then curves west. If this were the case, then ships may not have only stopped into the Ladrones but also ported the islands south of China and/or Japan. Schurz (1939: 230) did remark that ships reached Japan, “a galleon occasionally passed close enough to make out the mountains of Hondo to the west”. On the chart where the lines are solid, very definitive directions are provided. Where the hashed triangles are is the potential extent of where the ships may have sailed. Schurz does mention the full breadth of the route extended from the Shichi-to Islands to Guam but he is clear that the main area the ships sailed were between the Volcanes and Uracas (Schurz, 1939: 230-231). The ships again follow a very strict route to Midpoint 1 at 31º latitude and longitude east of Manila 28.5º”, then east northeast on to Midpoint 2 at between 36º and 37º in longitude 40º. Within the area represented in the key as the Extent of the Route, Schurz indulged in Spanish lore of the islands Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata (‘Rich in Gold’ and ‘Rich in Silver’). He spent some time discussing the importance of these islands and stipulated the reason the ‘traditional route’ remained on course for the length of time it did was because of these islands. Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata had multiple locations over hundreds of years. They were often likened to 7 �Ptolemy’s Chryse. Argyre Henry and Yule (1882) placed a start point from Orissa, West Coast India and sailed east across the Bay of Bengal to Arakan, Argyre (in Burma) in parallel to the Ganges. From there one went south to Chryse within Indo-China (i.e. Pegu and Irrawady Delta Myanmar/Thailand). of Fig. 3 Schurz’s ‘traditional route’ eastward from the Embocadero to mid-way across the Pacific Ocean. (Schurz, 1939: 216-283 and Chart created by Carl Hughes) In 1885, William Muir in his publication on the Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society cited Yule but went on to place Ptolemy’s Argyre in Arakan, Burma and Chryse as a misnomer (Muir, 1885). This is interesting timing as the British were attempting to colonize this part of the planet. Later, when the Americans displayed strong presence in the Pacific Ocean, Japan was thought to be Chryse / Rica de Plata (Chassigneux 1933; Moriarity and Roberts 1975). Considering these comments, the authors believe this is still an area open for debate and one that seems to move geography according to political maneuvers in colonization. Half of step 5 and all of step 6 are displayed in (Fig. 4). The westbound voyage was timed based on the Philippines’ northeast monsoon. It was recorded as best timing to have the galleons in Manila by mid-April. This journey was only a matter of weeks so the suggested date for leaving Acapulco was during the month of February through to the end of March (Schurz, 1939: 225). Spanish galleons sailed westbound from the Americas to Ladrones, then west bound from Ladrones to Embocadero. The westbound journey, like the eastbound, also had a wide zone of possible sail route. Within which any of the islands from the Marianas to Guam were potentially ported. A Royal Decree in 1668 declared Guam as a regular stop point for all Manila Galleons. In 1681, Guam 8 �was fortified and a royal governor and friars were sent to administer and convert the local populace in the name of the Spanish crown. When timing is considered, Schurz referred to Humbolt on the ‘serenity of the sky’, and did not mention a specific month in which the galleons had favorable conditions; except that it was best to enter the Embocadero prior to the start of the northeast monsoon that runs from late April to early October. This corresponds with Schurz’s (1939: 225, 252) comments that galleons were not expected to reach Manila again until mid-April. Fig. 4 Schurz’s ‘traditional route’ westward from the mid-Pacific Ocean, through the Ladrones to the Embocadero. (Schurz, 1939: 216-283 and Chart created by Carl Hughes) Discussion and Conclusion The authors provided a methodology to create geovisualizations that displayed the complex seascape of exchange with details on shipping activity directions and timing. There are many and varied details to consider if one were to reassess the whole of Schurz’s chart so the authors narrowed their focus to only Southeast Asia and the western Pacific Ocean portion of Schurz’s ‘traditional route’, namely the Philippines and the Ladrones. The Philippines is an archipelago of over 7,000 islands that topographically intercepts the force of the Pacific Ocean in the Philippine Sea as it 9 �moves over/through the archipelago to continue to flow into the South China Sea, Sulu Sea and the Indonesian Throughflow. The Ladrones are the Marianas Islands (Schurz, 1939: 247), an archipelago to the east of the Philippine Sea and at the western boundary of the Pacific Ocean. The directional flow of goods were purported to enter westward into east Southeast Asia through the Philippine archipelago at the San Bernardino Strait. The same strait was also the exit point; then northwards close to Japan with the eastbound route out of East Asia and across the north Pacific. The locations mentioned in the text were all located and pinpointed on digital charts, along with lines drawn or hashed-marks used to display breadth of route. The geovisualizations provided more complete and dynamic figures to accompany the details of Schurz’s text. It also pointed out the locations of unexpected activities on the route, such as sailing around the entire island of Capul in the Philippine archipelago. With these more detailed figures, we can begin to surmise the possibility of bootlegging having occurred in the Ladrones. This area was visited by both the eastbound and westbound journeys. The long stay and the false ship manifests are other indicators that this area was a potential hotspot for illicit activity. The outcome of this exercise pointed out the inconsistencies between the text and figures. Schurz’s original chart (Fig. 1) showed an overlap of multiple documents. The key associated to the Schurz’s Chart entailed five routes, however in his text he discussed more. Schurz suggested that the galleon trade occurred within the period from 16th to 19th centuries, specifically from 1565 to 1815. The ‘traditional route’ existed from 1565 to 1762 without much argument but from 1762 to 1814 various other options were suggested, legislated, decreed and ultimately ignored. The Spanish consulado, “which embodied the commercial interests at Manila” (Schurz 1939: 226) nearly consistently argued to re-route different directions but these never took place (specifically in years 1777, 1782, 1786, 1791, 1794) (Schurz, 1939: 226). An example that Schurz does include in his chart but does not explain in the key is the Cape Bojeador option. It was never favored, nor followed by the Spanish (Fry, 1985: 17-18). It was endorsed by Philip Thompson, a British pilot of the royal navy who stated, “up the west side of Luzon [a sail ship] could climb to the twentieth parallel in two and a half or three DAYS” (Schurz, 1939: 224); whereas the ‘traditional route’ took nearly two 10 �MONTHS. Thompson’s route shortened the average time to Acapulco from five or six months to three months. If this is the case then why follow the southern Embocadero route? It was also interesting to note that modern day environment data was compatible for displaying the past seasonal environment information. The seasons Schurz discussed were from the archival records of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries and these matched the seasonality of the data collected by NOAA over an 18 year period, from 1992 to 2010. Acknowledgments We would like to thank our Team Leaders Brendan Gillon and Gwyn Campbell for their continued academic input and support. This project is funded by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada’s Major Collaborative Research Initiative for the project The Indian Ocean World: The Making of the First Global Economy in the Context of Human-Environment Interaction (http://indianoceanworldcentre.com/mcri). References Chassigneux, Edmond., 1933. Rica de oro et Rica de plata. In T'oungPao, Second Series, Vol. 30 (1-2): 37-84, Brill, available on the World Wide Web at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4527041. Fry, Howard. T., 1985. The Eastern Passage and Its Impact on Spanish Policy in the Philippines, 1758-1790. Philippine Studies, Vol. 33 (1): 3-21. GeoNames., 2013. GeoNames http://www.geonames.org/ Geographical Database, retrieved from Lermusiaux, Pierre, F. J., Haley, Patrick J. Jr., Leslie, Wayne, G., Agarwal, A., Logutov, Oleg, G., and Burton, Lisa, J., 2011. Multiscale Physical and Biological Dynamics in the Philippine Archipelago: Predictions and Processes. Journal of Oceanography, Vol. 24 (1): 70-89. Moriarity, James. R., III and Roberts, William, R., 1975. Between Cipango and Quivira: The Legends of Rica de Oro, Rica de Plata and Las Islas del. Southern California Quarterly, Vol. 57 (3): 223-242, University of California Press on behalf of the Historical Society of Southern California, Santa Cruz, accessed on the World Wide Web 26/11/2013 at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41170604. Muir, W., 1885.Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Vol. 17 (3): f1-f16, accessed on the World Wide Web 11 �26/11/2013 at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0035869X00165517. Schurz, W., 1939.The Manila Galleon. E. P. Dutton, (Reprinted 1959), New York. Tharp, M., 1967. Bathymetric Map. In Mercator’s World and reproduced for National Geographic Maps the 1999 November/December issue. Thurman, Harold. V., and Trujillo, Alan P., 2001. Essentials in Oceanography. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, Seventh Edition. Yule, H., 1882. Notes on the Oldest Records of the Sea-Route to China from Western Asia. In Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, New Monthly Series, Vol. 4 (11): 649-660, Wiley on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), London, accessed on the World Wide Web 26/11/2013 at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1800301. Biography Jennifer Craig is an underwater archaeologist. She attained two Archaeology degrees from Memorial University in Newfoundland and University of Bristol. She continues to thank all the people whose projects she was/is invited to join. Jennifer started her Doctoral degree at the University of Oxford and continues at McGill University. Carl Hughes is a GIScientist. He attained a degree in Geography from McGill. He continues to work on novel web based mapping methods in his Masters degree at McGill University. He would like to thank the support and resources provided to himfrom within the Indian Ocean World Centre. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Southeast Asian Galleon Trade: A process towards a re-assessment of human-environment interaction Description An account of the resource In 1939, William Schurz published ‘The Manila Galleon’ that has been considered a seminal work in maritime history (in the English language). In it, he proposed the shipping route of the galleon trade in the Pacific Ocean during the 16th to 19th centuries. The directional flow of goods were purported to enter eastern Southeast Asia through the Philippine archipelago at the San Bernardino Strait. The same strait was also used as the exit point by the galleons that travelled northeast out of East Asia and east bound across the Pacific. This paper will reconsider Schurz’s hypothesis with input from up to date analyses based on environmental data. Our results are displayed in layers on digital seascape in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) format? These layers include detailed water-surface topography (small islands, atolls, reefs) as well as the dynamic atmospheric and oceanic environment. The data for these layers were gathered from accessible online datasets generated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These datasets were then reconfigured into algorithms and models for use in a set of geovisualizations using GIS and Google Earth. This is overlaid with Schurz’s hypothesized historic shipping route. The results are a comparison of human-environment interaction and a re-assessment of a 75 year old hypothesis. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer Craig Carl Hughes, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Southeast Asian Ship, An Historical Approach Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pierre-Yves Manguin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Pierre-Yves Manguin Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Issue 2 Pages 266-76 Publication Title Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Title A name given to the resource The Southeast Asian Ship, An Historical Approach Volume 11 Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Southern Barbarians; the First Europeans in Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael Cooper Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tokyo, Palo Alto, Calif., Kodansha International in cooperation with Sophia University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Michael Cooper Item Type Book ISBN 0870111388 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 216 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tokyo, Palo Alto, Calif., Kodansha International in cooperation with Sophia University Title A name given to the resource The Southern Barbarians; the First Europeans in Japan Japan