60 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/86af14bc2aa55c27023df363881bcd22.pdf 3902bc40c22049db084f451751c1fff0 PDF Text Text The post-treatment deterioration of marine archaeological wood – where to now? Godfrey, I. M.1*, Richards, V. L.2 and Cha, M. Y.3 Abstract As waterlogged wood is ubiquitous in excavation sites, being used for structures (ships and buildings), tools, personal effects and for decorative artefacts, this material has been the subject of most conservation research and treatment over the past few decades. The development of disfiguring white deposits on treated timbers from the Skuldelev Viking ships from Roskilde Fjord in the late 1970s was initially treated as a minor cosmetic problem. The seriousness of the situation was soon realized when more timbers were affected and the destruction of timber tissue became evident. Similar problems have also been encountered with the Batavia timbers from Western Australia, the Shinan ship in Korea and artefacts from the Mary Rose in England. Problems associated with the presence of iron corrosion products in treated, formerly waterlogged timbers were further highlighted in 2000 with the development of highly acidic regions on some Vasa timbers and associated artefacts. These outbreaks on the Vasa were thought to be related to the inability of the climate control system to keep the relative humidity in the gallery below 60%. These post-treatment developments prompted a significant period of focused research and conservation activities, this time involving multi-faceted analyses and the development of strategies to address a problem that has the potential to affect all waterlogged timbers excavated from anaerobic sites. This paper reviews the current situation regarding the role that iron species play in promoting the formation of acidic species and in catalyzing the oxidation of reduced sulfur species, cellulose and polyethylene glycol and the steps being taken to reduce post-treatment deterioration of formerly waterlogged wood. The implications for future conservation treatments of waterlogged wood are discussed. Introduction Waterlogged wood is ubiquitous in wet terrestrial or underwater excavation sites, being used for structures (ships and buildings), tools, personal effects and for decorative artefacts. As a result waterlogged wood has been the subject of much conservation research and treatment over the past few decades. The work has been essential because waterlogged wood may be irreversibly damaged by shrinking, cracking, warping and possibly even crumbling into fragments should it be allowed to dry in an uncontrolled fashion (Figure 1). 1 Corresponding author, Dr Ian Godfrey, Department of Materials Conservation, Western Australian Museum, AUSTRALIA, ian.godfrey@museum.wa.gov.au 2 Department of Materials Conservation, Western Australian Museum, AUSTRALIA, vicki.richards@museum.wa.gov.au 3 Underwater Excavation and Conservation Division, National Research Institute of Maritime Culture Heritage , KOREA, cmy040301@nate.com �Figure 1: Cross-sectional view of conserved (top) and untreated wood (bottom) showing the extent of shrinkage if highly degraded wood dries without treatment (Copyright: Western Australian Museum). The aims of all conservation treatments should be to stabilize artefacts so that as much of the original material is preserved as possible, the dimensions of the object are retained and the causes of deterioration are ameliorated. Designated treatments should involve minimum intervention and if possible, applied treatments should be reversible or at least retreatable. Although reversibility is often quoted as an important principle for conservation treatments, it is often very difficult to achieve in practice. As long as dimensional change is avoided, the ability to retreat organic objects is enhanced if voids in structures are left unfilled, allowing future access to either solvents or alternative treatment chemicals. The importance of being able to retreat organic archaeological objects is clearly highlighted in the case of alumtreated waterlogged wood that has subsequently become highly acidic (Braovac and �Kutze in press). If it was not possible to retreat this wood, highly valuable archaeological objects would be lost forever. Many different conservation treatments have been applied to waterlogged wood. Most treatments focused on preserving the wood surfaces and dimensions upon drying. From the mid 19th century to the 1960s, heated, saturated alum solutions [KAl(SO4)2] were the most commonly used treatment for waterlogged wood (Herbst 1861:174-176). The aim was for the alum to displace the water and fill the pores with a material that would solidify when cooled and dried. Unfortunately alum was not able to fully penetrate the wood, was non-uniformly distributed throughout the wood and left it prone to collapse. In addition, over time, many alum-treated objects became highly acidic and deteriorated. In the early 1960s, the raising of the Vasa and excavation of the Skuldelev Viking ships from Roskilde Fjord stimulated further research into waterlogged wood treatment methods. As a result the alum treatment was abandoned and the use of polyethylene glycols (PEG) adopted as the preferred method for the conservation of waterlogged wood. For the past 45 years PEG, applied in different media and with various molecular weight and percentage compositions, has remained the most commonly used treatment for waterlogged wood. In addition to PEG however, many other techniques and chemicals have been used to impregnate and consolidate waterlogged wood. These include sugars and other polysaccharides (Franguelli 1971:339-346; Imazu and Morgós 1997:235-254; Imazu and Morgós 1999:210-214; Imazu and Morgós 2002:413-428; Zhang, et al. 2009:253-269), melamine/formaldehyde (Haas and Muller-Beck 1960:150-158; Wittköpper 1998:277-282), radiation-induced polymerization of vinyl monomers (Braeker and Bill 1979:97-145; Munnikendam 1967:70-75; Tran, et al. 1990:217234), silicone oils (Smith 2003) and acetone-rosin (McKerrell 1972:111-125). Despite the successful application of many of these techniques to waterlogged wood of varying degrees of degradation, none of these methods has overtaken PEG as the main treatment method for these archaeological materials. Post-treatment problems have surfaced however, in PEG-treated archaeological wood. The development of highly acidic regions in the Skuldelev Viking ships (Jespersen 1989:141-152), the Batavia (Ghisalberti, et al. 2002:281307), the Vasa (Sandström 2003), the Shinan ship (Kim and Yang 2004) and on artefacts from the Mary Rose (Wetherall, et al. 2008:1317-28) highlighted issues related to display environments and the complex chemical reactions that continue in waterlogged wood post-treatment. This paper examines the situation with regard to PEG-treated wood, presents the results of the latest research and discusses the implications with respect to the future conservation and research requirements of waterlogged wood. The nature of the problem The acid salts problem associated with PEG-treated wood was first highlighted in the late 1970s when disfiguring white deposits formed on treated timbers from the Skuldelev Viking ships recovered from Roskilde Fjord. The issue was initially treated as a minor cosmetic problem, with the powders simply brushed away and the spots camouflaged with tinted paint. The seriousness of the situation was soon realized when more timbers were affected and the destruction of timber tissue became evident (Jespersen 1989:141-152). Kirsten Jespersen’s analyses identified the white powder as hydrated iron sulfate, formed by oxidation of insoluble iron sulphides (FeS �and FeS2). Astutely, Jerspersen also recommended relative humidity control as being the key to protecting treated timbers from deterioration and encouraged cooperation with chemists to find methods by which iron salts could be removed prior to impregnation treatments. Similar problems had also been encountered with the Batavia timbers and as a result, subsequent research focused on further refining the problem, examining whether the problem was purely chemical in nature or if microbiological activity also played a role (MacLeod and Kenna 1991:133-142). Problems associated with the presence of iron corrosion products in PEGtreated wood were further highlighted in 2000 with the development of highly acidic regions on many Vasa timbers and associated artefacts. These outbreaks were thought to be related to the inability of the climate control system to keep the relative humidity in the display gallery below 60% (Sandström, et al. 2003). High relative humidity is also strongly linked to the development of acidity in the Batavia timbers when the climate control system breaks down and in the Shinan ship due to the naturally high summer humidity and temperatures in South Korea. The Skuldelev ships, the Batavia, the Shinan ship, the Vasa and wooden artefacts from the Mary Rose have common problems related to the complex interactions between the wood and the assorted chemicals incorporated into the wood structure during their immersion in the marine environment and as part of their conservation treatment. Corrosion products from corroding iron objects/fastenings and sulfur produced by sulphate reducing bacteria under anaerobic conditions in the marine environment permeated the timbers prior to excavation. Recovered timbers were then treated with PEG. Storage and/or display in high relative humidity environments encouraged chemical reactions between iron salts, reduced sulfur species, PEG and degraded cellulose that led to the development of highly acidic regions in and on timbers and other wooden artefacts from these iconic shipwrecks (Figure 2). This prompted extensive scientific investigations into the complex chemistry associated with these problems and suitable treatments to reduce acidity and ameliorate further deterioration. �Figure 2. Acid-affected region on a hull timber of the Shinan ship (Copyright: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, Korea). Iron compounds found on and inside acid-affected timbers include reduced and oxidized species, specifically pyrite, goethite, melanterite, rozenite, jarosite, natrojarosite, magnetite, siderotil and siderite (Cha in press; Ghisalberti, et al. 2002:281-307; Jespersen 1989:141-152; MacLeod and Kenna 1991:133-142; Sandström, et al. 2003). Acid levels in iron-rich areas range from pH4 0 to 3.5. Although only very low levels of pyrite were detected in Vasa timbers, relatively high levels of sulfur were found, predominantly in the form of elemental sulfur and thiols 5 of the cysteine6 type (Sandström, et al. 2003). In Batavia timbers however, higher levels of pyrite and only small quantities of elemental sulfur were found (MacLeod and Kenna 1991:133-142). The development of acid salt problems focused attention on the role that iron plays in promoting the formation of acidic species and in catalyzing the oxidation of reduced sulfur species, cellulose and PEG. Catalysed oxidation of reduced sulfur species, such as pyrite and elemental sulfur, leading to the production of sulfuric acid, was initially thought to be one of the main degradation mechanisms occurring in treated archaeological timbers (Ghisalberti, et al. 2002:281-307; Sandström, et al. 2003). While acidic hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicelluloses undoubtedly 4 pH – negative log10 of the hydrogen ion concentration. thiol - an organosulfur compound that contains a –C–SH or R–SH group where R represents an alkane, alkene, or other carbon-containing group of atoms. 6 Cysteine – a thiol-containing α-amino acid. 5 �contributes to deterioration of treated timber, subsequent studies demonstrated that there was less degradation in organically bound sulfur-rich areas of the Vasa and higher levels of degradation in low sulfur, high iron regions (Almkvist 2008). These findings indicated that organically bound sulfur was acting as an anti-oxidant and reducing the catalytic effects of iron compounds in these areas. In addition to the contribution to acid development by the oxidation and hydrolysis of iron salts and the production of sulfuric acid, iron species have also been implicated in free radical reactions, the acid hydrolysis of cellulose and other species, the oxidative depolymerisation7 of cellulose and PEG (Almkvist 2008; Elding in press; Godfrey, et al. in press; Lindfors, et al. 2007:57-63), the depolymerisation of hemicellulose and the formation of increased amounts of low molecular weight organic acids (formic, oxalic, acetic and glycolic acids) in sub-surface Vasa timber sections that have high iron to sulfur ratios (Almkvist 2008). While acetic acid generation can be directly linked to hemicellulose breakdown, the presence of greater amounts of formic acid in PEG-rich areas indicate that oxidative degradation of PEG is the major source of this acid (Almkvist 2008; Godfrey, et al. in press). It became clear that the situation in iron-impregnated, PEG treated wood is far more complex than originally thought, with more than just sulfuric acid contributing to the acidity of the timbers. Where to now? The increased knowledge regarding post-treatment deterioration of waterlogged wood necessarily imposes on cultural heritage professionals the need to carefully consider their actions with regard to the management of this valuable cultural resource. Some of the questions facing heritage management professionals include:  What can be done to minimise further deterioration in archaeological wood that is already in a treated, dry state?  If timbers are excavated with the intent of conservation, how should current treatment regimes be altered to minimise on-going post-treatment deterioration?  For already excavated timbers for which conservation treatments are not yet complete, can treatment regimes be modified to take into account recent research developments?  Should timbers continue to be excavated for study and conservation and if excavation is undertaken, is study, documentation and then re-burial an appropriate preservation management strategy? Conserved, dry wood It is clear that although waterlogged timbers initially appear to be stable after treatment with PEG, deterioration may continue long after the timbers have been dried. As low molecular weight PEGs are hygroscopic8 their presence in wood, combined with elevated relative humidity levels, enables sufficient moisture to be retained for chemical reactions to continue in the ‘dry’ archaeological wood. For already treated archaeological wood there are limited options to minimize further deterioration, all of which come at a significant cost. These options depend on the 7 8 Depolymerisation – a reaction which leads to the break up of polymer chains into smaller units. Hygroscopic – readily absorbs moisture from the air �condition, size and state of the wood - are they part of a hull structure for instance? In this latter case, as typified by timbers in the Vasa, post-PEG treatment options are extremely limited due to the restricted access to individual timbers in the multilayered hull structure. More options are available however for the timbers in the Batavia hull reconstruction as each timber can be individually removed and re-treated if necessary. As first muted by Jespersen (1989:141-152), environmental control of the storage/display environment, primarily by a reduction in the ambient relative humidity, is critical to the mitigation of deterioration mechanisms. While the capital cost for humidity control systems and the on-going running costs are very high, for large objects such as complete hull structures, this may be the only option available to minimise further degradation. The Vasa Museum installed a new air conditioning system in 2004, reducing the relative humidity in the display environment from upper levels of 65 – 70 % to a target range of 51 – 59 %. The effectiveness of this change has been reflected in a dramatic decrease in the number of acidic outbreaks that have occurred following this change in display conditions (Hocker, et al. 2009:469481). By comparison, the conditions in the Batavia display gallery are currently maintained at 47 – 57 %, reduced from 50 – 60 %, in an attempt to reduce the incidence of acidic outbreaks. Conservation professionals continue their efforts to determine the best treatment options for recovered waterlogged wood and to examine methods by which already treated wood can be better preserved. In order to minimise the post conservation problems associated with treated timbers, it is necessary to examine the kinetics of deterioration processes, the rate of oxygen consumption in treated timbers, and the environmental requirements that are needed in order to minimise deterioration processes. Research is continuing in all of these directions with recent research shedding further light on aspects of deterioration processes including PEG degradation (Almkvist and Persson 2005:269-278; Mortensen, et al. 2005:261-267; Mortensen et al. in press), oxygen consumption and measurement in conserved archaeological wood (Matthiesen and Nordvig in press) and the effects of consolidants on moisture absorption (and hence on the rates of chemical reactions) in conserved wood (Jensen, et al. in press). These and more studies are needed in order to fully understand the nature of the problem and the best way(s) to reduce degradation of treated archaeological wood. Treatment of excavated archaeological wood Despite research into alternative impregnation and consolidation regimes, PEG impregnation is still the most widely used treatment method for waterlogged wood. Disadvantages of its use however, include its cost, surface finish (dark, waxy and unnatural colour unless carefully cleaned) and its hygroscopicity that necessitates careful control of the relative humidity of storage and display environments for PEG treated wood. PEG is viewed by some as being only suitable for short-term stabilization because of its degradation over time (Christensen, et al. 2010:1-7). Mikkel Christensen also considers that research is needed in order to develop a more appropriate consolidant that leaves ‘an airy structure in order to allow re-treatment in the future’ and that modern materials science should be applied to develop more durable impregnation regimes, possibly involving ‘foaming a polymer’, a combination of nanoparticles with a polymeric ‘spider web’, a framework using biomimetic �materials such as an artificial lignin or via biomineralisation with an inorganic skeleton (Christensen 2010:1-7). Until such time as a more appropriate consolidant is developed however, PEG use is likely to continue. If this is the case then it is critical that any treatment regime include steps to remove iron compounds from waterlogged wood. The extent of iron removal needed to minimise continuing degradation of polysaccharides and PEG is still to be determined. Research efforts should therefore be made to determine if there is a threshold concentration of iron at which these degradation mechanisms are of minimal impact. Unfortunately the complex nature of deteriorated wood components, incorporated chemicals from the burial environment and the differing grades, concentrations and purities of PEG used to treat archaeological wood, complicate research efforts in this area. In the early 1990s preliminary experiments on the extraction of iron corrosion products from degraded, iron impregnated waterlogged wood found that the use of sodium dithionite in conjunction with diammonium citrate and PEG solutions, at neutral pH, was very effective in removing iron minerals from iron impregnated timber whilst successfully stabilising the wood structure (MacLeod, et al. 1991:119-132; MacLeod, et al. 1994:199-211). More recently, high performance iron chelators, diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) and ethylenediimino-bis (2-hydroxy-4methylphenyl) acetic acid (EDDHMA), have been successful in removing iron corrosion products from acid-affected, PEG treated waterlogged wood (Almkvist and Persson 2006:678-684). Potential problems with the latter treatment however, include degradation of hemicelluloses due to the alkaline nature of the chelating solution9 and post-treatment removal of the rich red colour that the iron-EDDHMA complex imparts to the wood. While research continues in this area, a comparison of the sodium dithionite/ammonium citrate/PEG treatment with both the DTPA and EDDHMA treatments, found that the former solution was significantly more effective in removing iron from waterlogged wood (Richards et al. in press). Reburial of waterlogged wood Excavation, study, documentation and reburial of waterlogged, archaeological wood may be a valid conservation management option for some, though not all, of these problematic materials. Reburial of excavated archaeological materials has long been used as a management tool, particularly in cases where large numbers of similar artefacts have been recovered, where the conservation budget is insufficient to allow the treatment of all objects, where the display or further research value of objects is limited or when sufficient archaeological information can be obtained from the objects without the necessity of a full conservation treatment (Bergstrand, et al. 2005:9-39; Godfrey, et al. 2004:343-351; Manders, et al. 2008:179-203). Depth of burial has been found to be a very important parameter when relating the degree of wood decay to the local environment. Many authors have shown that the extent of biological degradation of wood decreases considerably with burial depths greater than 50cm (Björdal and Nilsson 2002:235-244; Gregory 1999:78-83). However, recent studies have indicated that to decrease degradation of wood to almost negligible levels the depth of burial may need to be significantly greater than 9 Chelating solution – a solution containing a chemical that binds strongly to a metal, forming a soluble, complex molecule. �50cm (Bergstrand and Nyström Godfrey 2007:207-224; Nyström Godfrey, et al. 2011; Richards, et al. 2009:113-160). So based on past and current research, long-term preservation of reburied wood requires burial depths of over 50cm, in an environment which is sub-oxic to anoxic, is strongly reducing in nature with near neutral pH and dominated by anaerobic chemical and microbiological processes (sulphate reduction and methane production). In addition, the porosity of the reburial sediment should be low and possess almost negligible levels of interstitial organic materials such as dead seagrass, other dead/decaying organic matter or organic pollutants. More importantly, the area in which the material is reburied needs to be stable and not subjected to significant sediment movement through excessive water movement, such as strong current flow, large tidal ranges and frequent storm events (Nyström Godfrey, et al. 2011). Conclusions Although the guidelines for the conservation and preservation of underwater cultural heritage, developed by UNESCO in 2001, strongly endorse the in situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites and artefacts (UNESCO 2001), wood will continue to be excavated from at least some underwater sites. Port developments, underwater pipeline construction and dredging operations for example, often interact with shipwreck or other submerged archaeological sites. In these instances, excavation and either documentation, conservation or reburial, even at an alternative site may need to be considered. 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Tran, K., Ramière, Preservation of waterlogged wood, Impregnation with radiationR., and Ginier- curing monomers and resins. In R. M. Rowell and R. J. Barbour (Eds), Archaeological Wood, Properties, Chemistry and Gillet, A., Preservation, Advances in Chemistry Series 225, American 1990 Chemical Society, Washington DC, pp 217-234. Wetherall, K. M., Sulfur and iron speciation in recently recovered timbers of the Mary Rose revealed via X-ray absorption spectroscopy, in Moss, R. M., Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 35, pp 1317-1328. Jones, A. M., Smith, A. D., Skinner, T., Pickup, D. M., Goatham, S. W., Chadwick, A. V., Newport, R. J., 2008 Wittköpper, M., Der aktuelle stand der konservierung archäologischer 1998 naßhölzer mit melamin/aminoharzen am RömischGermanischen Zentralmuseum. Arbeitsblätter für Restauratoren Gruppe 8: Holz Heft 2, pp 277-282. Zhang, J. P., Lactitol conservation of the 1st century BC extremely degraded Imazu, S., and waterlogged archaeological wooden figures and objects Morgós, A., excavated at the tomb of one of the kings of the ancient Sishui 2009 Kingdom in China. In K. Straetkvern and D.J. Huisman (Eds), Proceedings of the 10th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Amsterdam, 2007, Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten (RACM), Amersfoort, pp 253-269. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural UNESCO, Heritage, UNESCO, Paris. 2001 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The post-treatment deterioration of marine archaeological wood - where to now? Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource As waterlogged wood is ubiquitous in excavation sites, being used for structures (ships and buildings), tools, personal effects and for decorative artefacts, this material has been the subject of most conservation research and treatment over the past few decades. The development of disfiguring white deposits on treated timbers from the Skuldelev Viking ships from Roskilde Fjord in the late 1970s was initially treated as a minor cosmetic problem. The seriousness of the situation was soon realized when more timbers were affected and the destruction of timber tissue became evident. Similar problems have also been encountered with the Batavia timbers from Western Australia, the Shinan ship in Korea and artefacts from the Mary Rose in England. Problems associated with the presence of iron corrosion products in treated, formerly waterlogged timbers were further highlighted in 2000 with the development of highly acidic regions on some Vasa timbers and associated artefacts. These outbreaks on the Vasa were thought to be related to the inability of the climate control system to keep the relative humidity in the gallery below 60%. These post-treatment developments prompted a significant period of focused research and conservation activities, this time involving multi-faceted analyses and the development of strategies to address a problem that has the potential to affect all waterlogged timbers excavated from anaerobic sites. This paper reviews the current situation regarding the role that iron species play in promoting the formation of acidic species and in catalyzing the oxidation of reduced sulfur species, cellulose and polyethylene glycol and the steps being taken to reduce post-treatment deterioration of formerly waterlogged wood. The implications for future conservation treatments of waterlogged wood are discussed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Godfrey, I. M. Richards, V. L. Cha, M. Y. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8d87d78d46c3dca6c0a564b0ba97b372.pdf 4201c17d4aab2a18c96a9a725fb4b32e PDF Text Text The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia Wisnu A. Gemilang1 Nia N. H. Ridwan1 Guntur A. Rahmawan1 Ulung J. Wisha2 1 Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Jl. Raya Padang-Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245 2 National Research and Innovation Agency ABSTRACT The potential of shipwreck site resources in “Spice Routes,” Ternate-Tidore, reflects several historical pieces of evidence relating to archaeological remains from the Portuguese and Spanish eras in the surrounding sea and coastal areas. In the 1990s, a plethora of archaeological remains were salvaged. An integrated archaeological study is an initial step to optimize the use of underwater archaeological resources in the area of interest. The survey consisted of local coordination, expert consultation, literature study, field surveys and underwater observations, mini excavations using water dredging, artefact samplings site measuring and documentation, artefact desalination, and C14 carbon dating analysis for wooden materials found within the site. Moreover, the water quality survey for marine tourism interests and Trinidad ship reconstruction is significant in supporting 500 years of circumnavigation of the earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano and supporting publication and dissemination. Based on the present study, it is observed that Soasio and Tongowai sites have the potential to be developed as the centre of integrated marine ecotourism with maritime archaeology-based sites. This consideration is due to plenty of historical artefacts and tourism feasibility assessments. Therefore, local and regional regulations relating to regional spatial planning are crucial before implementing the ecotourism project in this area. Keywords: Maritime archaeology, shipwreck sites, sustainable marine tourism, Tidore List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: The distribution of underwater archaeology sites in Tidore Islands. Source: Field survey, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, 2021. Figure 2: The distribution map of historical sites in Tidore Islands. Figure 3: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; shipwreck indication (a); ceramic findings (b); jars and earthenware findings (c); bird’s eye view of Soasio site (d). Figure 4: Biodiversity in the surrounding Soasio site; coral covers (a); fish ecosystem (b), sediment substrate (c). Figure 5: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; underwater cannon finding (a); excavated cannon from Tongowai site (b); A pile of earthenware (c); coral covers and ecosystem in Tongowai site (d). Table 1: The formulation of the underwater heritage trail development strategy. 1 �INTRODUCTION Tourism is an essential aspect for a country, which can increase state and local government revenue (Runtunuwu 2020, 1). Tidore Island is becoming the preferred ecotourism destinations in North Maluku Province. Exotic natural panoramas combined with cultural-historical sites create an enchanting paradise in eastern Indonesia (Wijayanti et al. 2022, 1). Tidore Island is worthy of further development due to its strategic position and many mesmerizing coastal areas as a potency for supporting marine tourism. However, in developing the tourism potency of this region, many aspects should be considered since there many existing problems (Kader 2017, 20), such as the local facility and the low awareness of the underwater cultural heritage UCH importance (Fahri & Alhadar 2022, 2; Runtunuwu 2020, 2). The existence of two underwater archaeological sites, Soasio and Tongowai Sites, highlight the potential for underwater archaeology in the Tidore Islands. Aside from high biodiversity within the sites, these two primary sites have a historical value related to the shipping and international trade in the 15-17 centuries AD (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 173). Therefore, the further development should be supported by a tourism development strategy. Local tourism management and third party’s authorities should contribute to conserve the remains by establishing policies and protections (Masberg and Morales 1999, 290). Therefore, this research article on "The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia" is significant to support the development of underwater historical tourism in the Tidore Islands. CASE STUDY Based on information from the local community and local government in Ternate and Tidore, around the 1990s, there was a lot of goods looting in several archaeological sites in Tidore waters. The lack of knowledge of the local government and the community about the existence of UCH makes the remains more vulnerable and less protected (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 170). Therefore, identification of underwater archaeological potential in Tidore waters is essential as a basis for further conservation, development, and decision-making in terms of protecting the underwater archaeological remains. In addition, this study is expected to promote the potential of the site for marine tourism and other preservation strategies in dealing with the vulnerability of the site and its aquatic environment. RESOURCES As mentioned earlier, the primary location of this study is in the Soasio and Tongowai sites, Tidore Island, North Maluku Province (Figure 1). Many historical objects have been managed as an attraction for supporting the tourism aspect, such as the Tidore Sultanate Palace, Torre Fort, Tahula Fort, Sonyine Malige Museum, Sultan Nuku Tomb, Sultan Mosque and Sultan Pier (Sosmiarti and Fahlefi 2019, 282). However, the Tidore Islands underwater history is less promoted and even rarely visited due to the lack of local awareness regarding the importance of UCH. Therefore, in this study we will exhibit the underwater archaeological resources in Tidore and further development planning to promote and manage the remains. 2 �Figure 1. The distribution of underwater archaeology sites in Tidore Islands. Source: Field survey, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, 2021. FRAMEWORK The primary data of this study were obtained from a research report by the Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) in 2019 and 2021. The research activities included: mapping bathymetry, hydro-oceanography, geology, and diving to observe archaeological sites' photos and videos, and the quality of the ecosystem and aquatic environment (Irani et al. 2022, 3). In addition, local interviews with the government, village officials, and communities around the site were also carried out. Masberg and Morales (1999, 290) suggest that five factors are included in ecotourism development: (1) an integrated approach; (2) planning and a slow start; (3) Education and Training; (4) maximizing local benefits and (5) evaluation and feedback. Outcomes are for a successful and viable ecotourism development; these five factors ensure the objectives are achieved. Artefact data analysis identified UCH from the Soasio Site and the Tongowai Site (Figure 1). We aimed to determine artefacts type, age, and the place of origin of production. In addition, observations of the position of the sites and GPS tracking data of important historical sites along the coast near the Soasio and Tongowai sites were also carried out, which were analysed to know the spatial distribution in relation to the two sites. 3 �RESULTS Historical Tourism and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Tidore Islands The oceanography of the Soasio site is characterized by relatively weak currents so divers can dive anytime. Aside from the underwater archaeological remains, clear seawater with various types of coral reefs and fish are attractions. The Soasio seabed has a slope of about 130 degrees. The distribution of artefacts in ship wood, ballast stone, and ceramics is 15-20 m deep (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 175). Figure 2: The distribution map of historical sites in Tidore Islands. Another site is situated in Tongowai Village where the cannon was found at a depth of 37-42 m (Figure 2). According to local interviews, the cannon had previously been lifted along with other artefacts by a salvage company in 1998. This was done by Japanese investors, as proved by the existence of two drums and ropes tied to the cannon, which were used to lift the cannon. The artefacts discovered in 1998 are stored in a Central Halmahera Guesthouse in Itagapura. The lifting of the artefacts at the Tongowai Site occurred when Tidore Islands was under the Halmahera Tengah Regency. The Significance of Underwater Archaeology in Tidore Islands Underwater Archaeology in Soasio The presence of shipwrecks at the Soasio site was known based on findings of four meters of wood in an inclined position at the depth of 12 meters. The remains are mostly covered by coral reefs and sediment deposits (Figure 3a). According to the historical records and local interviews, only Spain and 4 �Portugal colonized Tidore Island. Therefore, initial suspicions were that the ship was a Spanish or Portuguese ship anchored in the port of Tidore. However, the results of the C14 analysis show the oldest wood sample is from 1054 AD, and the youngest is from 1379 AD. The ceramics found at the Soasio site are categorized as porcelain and stoneware. Ceramics made from porcelain have a white glaze and blue-white colour under the glaze. One intact plate is known as Swatow blue and white porcelain, which was produced during the Wanli period (1575 – 1659 AD) of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), and a bowl fragment is known as blue-white porcelain from the time of Emperor Tianqi (1621 – 1627 AD) of the Ming Dynasty (Figure 3b). The findings of earthenware jars based on their size consist of large and small jars. There are seven large jars and two small jars. The jars are glazed brown, and three of them have four ears. The jars are all incomplete (Figure 3c). In the water area of the Soasio Site, there are interesting remains in the form of rock formations deliberately arranged from ancient times that look like wave breakers or beach protectors (Figure 3d). Figure 3: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; shipwreck indication (a); ceramic findings (b); jars and earthenware findings (c); bird’s eye view of Soasio site (d) The ecosystem around the Soasio site is covered by coral reefs, of about 60% (good condition) at a depth of 4-15 m, with the basic contour being a reef slope. The coral reef genera found included: Acropora sp, Merulina sp, Giniastrea sp, Montipora sp, Porites sp, Pectinia sp, Symphyllia sp, Favia sp, Astreopora sp, Montastrea sp, and Diploastrea sp (Figure 4a). Meanwhile, the types of fish found were indicator fish or associated fish and target/economic fish such as grouper, snapper, and pelagic 5 �fish (Figure 4b). The seafloor substrate consists of rubble/dead coral rubble, sand deposits and sediment resulting from landslides around the coast (Figure 4c). Based on the results of the calculation of the tourism suitability index, the Soasio site is included in the quite suitable category with a value of 73.02%. The suitability index value is based on the water brightness parameter, coral community cover, life forms, types of reef fish, archaeological site depth, current velocity, and reef depth. Figure 4: Biodiversity in the surrounding Soasio site; coral covers (a); fish ecosystem (b), sediment substrate (c). UCH in Tongowai Site The Tongowai site at a depth of 37-42 m is where the cannon was discovered. The artefacts found at the Soasio site are more scattered than at the Tongowai site. According to locals documented in Rahmawan et al. (2021, 175), the observed cannon was an artefact left over from salvage conducted in 1998 (Figure 5a). Another cannon, earthenware, and ceramics were removed in 1998 by a Japanese company and are in the government house of Halmahera Tengah Regency (Figure 5b). The condition of the pottery was not conserved, so a white surface was observed due to salting (Figure 5c). The brightness or visibility on the seabed of the Tongowai Site reaches 25 m. The bottom contour of the Tongowai waters is made up of reef flat and reef slope, with the bottom substrate consisting of dead coral fractures and sand deposits. Coral reefs are found at depths from 1 - 25 m with concentrations of dense coral cover at depths of 2 - 10 m. Percentage Cover (PC) of live coral reaches 6 �50 % (Good Condition…Figure 5d). The coral genera that can be found include: Acropora.sp, Montipora sp., Seriatopora sp., Oxipora sp., Porites sp., Stylopora sp., Pectinia sp., Psammocora sp., Galaxea sp., Fungia sp., Pocillopora sp., Favia sp. and Hidnopora sp., Goniastrea sp., and there are sponges, soft corals, and sea fans/Gorgonians. Based on the results of the tourism suitability index calculation, the Tongowai site's location is categorized into entirely appropriate for tourism with a value of 77.8%. Figure 5: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; underwater cannon finding (a); excavated cannon from Tongowai site (b); A pile of earthenware (c); coral covers and ecosystem in Tongowai site (d). Maritime and Underwater Heritage Trail Developments The places where the shipwreck and the underwater remains do exist in the Tidore Islands have potential for marine tourism, especially for underwater diving objects. Based on the process of identification and analysis of the data, a strategy for further protection and development of sustainable UCH in the Tidore Islands can be initiated. The formulation of the management strategy for developing underwater archaeology potential in the Tidore Islands is shown in Table 1. 7 �Table 1: The formulation of the underwater heritage trail development strategy. No Identified Criteria Strategic Plan  Aligning the vision and mission makes the Soasio and Tongowai 1 Mutual commitment sites sustainable tourist destinations  Involve community members in decision making. 2 People empowerment  Ensure that local communities receive benefits.  Ensure environmental sustainability.  Develop a tourist image (brand image) Gurabunga in line with the existing tourism image in the area.  Raising the history of various old buildings in the Tidore Island area, especially Tongowai and Soasio site  Environmental conservation. 3 Village attractiveness  Preservation of traditional customs and culture  Development of tourism product packaging in the form of enrichment of tourist attractions, development of tourism packages, and integrated tourism promotion.  Provision of supporting facilities for local product development.  Develop tour packages in Soasio and Tongowai village.  Education and training on village tourism and tourism awareness.  Tourism-based entrepreneurship courses/training for residents of productive age and school dropouts in order to develop local crafts, 4 Human resource development souvenirs, etc.  Intensive guidance to local guides on tourist assistance (especially climbing guides).  Provide knowledge to the public about UCH.  Formation of tourism awareness group.  Increase the creativity of the existing community.  Provide capital strengthening for the provision of support for tourism development, both for business capital for souvenirs and capital for 5 Villagers’ motivation supporting equipment for artistic attractions.  Equipping tourist companions, especially diving companions, and providing adequate diving support equipment.  Encouraging local regulations that facilitate licensing of business operations in the tourism sector in Soasio and Tongowai villages.  Planning and development of facilities & infrastructure adapted to the concepts and strategic plans of tourist destinations (coordination with Indigenous elders and the Tidore city government).  Building support facilities for unique traditional tourism activities.  Prioritizing the development of road infrastructure to facilitate access for tourists to Tongowai and Soasio Sites and adjacent villages.  Re-enable the security post along with the security forces or officers, 6 Facility and infrastructure to avoid criminal acts while in the tourist area.  The addition of a homestay in an adequate resident's house.  Public toilet construction.  Make a spatial/land use plan in the context of developing an environmentally friendly tourist village.  Install mooring/marking buoys on the two sites (Figure 8a).  Promoting Soasio and Tongowai to various mass media, namely print media, electronic media and also online media.  Make booklets and leaflets containing information on Soasio and Tongowai Village and guidebooks about UCH tourism.  Conduct counselling and socialization for tourism actors. 7 Promotion  Holding various events related to Tidore UCH.  Participate in national tourism festival events or exhibitions.  Installation of information boards (heritage trail) that tell the history of the sinking of the Trinidad ships and the history of the presence of the Spanish and Portuguese in Ternate-Tidore (Figure 8b). 8 �The right strategy for developing tourist destinations in Tidore UCH is through Community-Based Tourism, which reflects the diversity of culture, traditions, natural beauty, crafts and cuisine. Aim to become the local identity with a concentration of tourist destinations that does not compete for tourists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Research Institute of Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV), Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesia for research funding in 2019 and 2021 in Ternate-Tidore. Gratitude is also given to the local communities of Tidore who have assisted during the field surveys. BIBLIOGRAPHY Fahri, J., Abubakar, R. and Alhadar, F.M. “Strategy for developing excellent tourist destination (A case study of Gurabunga Village, Tidore Island Municipality, North Maluku).” Journal of International Conference Proceedings 5, no.1 (2022): 1-12. Irani, H.R., Golverdi, M., Rastegar, R. and Rezaei, S. “Rapid ecotourism development and challenges: the case of ecolodge in Iran.” Tourism Recreation Research (2022):1-6. Kader, Abdurrahman. "Development planning of tourism destination as local superior economy sector: study at Tidore city islands." International Journal of Management and Administrative Sciences 5, no. 3 (2017): 19-25. Masberg, B.A. and Morales, N. “A case analysis of strategies in ecotourism development.” Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management 2, no.3 (1999): 289-300. Rahmawan, G.A., Ridwan, N.N.H., Wisha, U.J., Ilham, I., Gemilang, W.A., Andriani, F.W., Sudaryadi, A. and Irwansyah, I. “Ekowisata Terintegrasi Situs Kapal Tenggelam di Tidore Kepulauan, Maluku Utara.” Jurnal Kelautan Nasional 16, no. 3 (2021): 169-184. Runtunuwu, P.C.H. “Tourism sector development strategy in North Maluku: A case study of Tidore Islands.” International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality in Asia Pasific 3, no. 3 (2020): 1-8. Sosmiarti, S. and Fahlefi, U.A. “Pengembangan Potensi Wisata Sejarah Dan Kearifan Lokal Masyarakat Soasio Melalui Program Paket Wisata Dan Rumah Budaya Sebagai Pusat Kesultanan Tidore.” Buletin Ilmiah Nagari Membangun 2, no. 2 (2019): 94-108. Wijayanti, H., Marfai, M.A., Mutaqin, B.W., Hadmoko, D.S., Lavigne, F., Faral, A. and Riasasi, W. “Ecotourism in a Hazardous Small-Volcanic Island: Tidore Island, Indonesia.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1039, no.1 (2022): 12021. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 21: New Technologies and Interdisciplinary Strategies for the Promotion and Protection of Maritime Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 21 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 21 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia Description An account of the resource The potential of shipwreck site resources in “Spice Routes,” Ternate-Tidore, reflects several historical pieces of evidence relating to archaeological remains from the Portuguese and Spanish eras in the surrounding sea and coastal areas. In the 1990s, a plethora of archaeological remains were salvaged. An integrated archaeological study is an initial step to optimize the use of underwater archaeological resources in the area of interest. The survey consisted of local coordination, expert consultation, literature study, field surveys and underwater observations, mini excavations using water dredging, artefact samplings site measuring and documentation, artefact desalination, and C14 carbon dating analysis for wooden materials found within the site. Moreover, the water quality survey for marine tourism interests and Trinidad ship reconstruction is significant in supporting 500 years of circumnavigation of the earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano and supporting publication and dissemination. Based on the present study, it is observed that Soasio and Tongowai sites have the potential to be developed as the centre of integrated marine ecotourism with maritime archaeology-based sites. This consideration is due to plenty of historical artefacts and tourism feasibility assessments. Therefore, local and regional regulations relating to regional spatial planning are crucial before implementing the ecotourism project in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wisnu A. Gemilang Nia N. H. Ridwan Guntur A. Rahmawan Ulung J. Wisha Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Gemilang, Wisnu A., Nia N. H. Ridwan, Guntur A. Rahmawan and Ulung J. Wisha. 2023. “The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Hans van Tilburg. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1916 Asia-Pac Session 21 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Reigns of the Empress Wu, Chung-tsung and Jui-tsung (684-712) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard W. L. Guisso Denis Twitchett Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Richard W. L. Guisso Editor Denis Twitchett Item Type Book Section Book Title Sui and T’ang China Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series The Cambridge History of China Title A name given to the resource The Reigns of the Empress Wu, Chung-tsung and Jui-tsung (684-712) Volume 3 China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Reigns of the Empress Wu, Chung-tsung and Jui-tsung (684-712) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard W. L. Guisso Denis Twitchett Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Richard W. L. Guisso Editor Denis Twitchett Item Type Book Section Book Title Sui and T’ang China Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series The Cambridge History of China Title A name given to the resource The Reigns of the Empress Wu, Chung-tsung and Jui-tsung (684-712) Volume 3 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/fb0a4f392e4dbb0d0256e78f3346f42b.pdf 01646eb484c6fc8f205da555ec70d71a PDF Text Text The responsible in-situ accessibility and promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage as a strategy for its protection. A discussion based on recent initiatives in the Mediterranean. Angelos Manglis (Founder, Civil Engineer MSc) Anastasia Fourkiotou (Archaeologist MA) Dimitra Papadopoulou (Dipl. Environmental Engineer MSc) (Atlantis Consulting S.A. Greece) ABSTRACT This paper discusses the current challenges in the protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) and proposes the in-situ preservation and responsible accessibility of UCH sites as a strategy for their protection. The questions in focus are the sustainable management and operational framework that can ensure the UCH sites are protected and accessible for the purposes of both research and raising public awareness. Broad accessibility including divers and non-divers can thus enhance the sustainable operation of sites in the long term. This work focuses on the Mediterranean region in Europe and presents initiatives which have been implemented or are still ongoing under various national or transnational projects towards the goal of accessible UCH. The results of the efforts so far include the operation of the first accessible underwater archaeological sites in Greece and integration of technology to reach a wider audience through digital exhibitions, serious games, and dry dive apps available in museums and knowledge awareness centers. This work further discusses how the planning of underwater archaeological field surveys should include considering parameters related to the responsible promotion of the site in a later phase, after the end of excavation or conservation works, as a protection practice. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage, promotion, protection, in-situ accessibility List of Figures Figure 1. The Accessible Underwater Archaeological Site of Peristera in Alonissos, Greece. (Photo by Matteo Collina, UNICAL, DIMEG © Ministry of Culture & Sports, Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities. INTRODUCTION UNESCO emphasizes the preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) sites in their original location and encourages responsible and non-intrusive access for observation or documentation purposes when necessary and appropriate, subject to certain conditions. This approach helps to raise public awareness of the significance of UCH and the need to protect it, as all cultural heritage, for the next generations. Safeguarding UCH entails among other challenges preventing trawling, anchorage or looting. Strict legislation and delimitation have proven ineffective so far to this purpose. When people are educated about their cultural heritage, they come to realize its value and the need for its protection, while citizens acknowledge the UCH sites as part of their history and develop a sense of pride for their heritage and a local cultural identity. It is indeed the broad awareness and public accessibility to UCH that are crucial for the protection and sustainability of the sites. Moreover, accessible UCH creates various benefits for societies from a cultural, educational and socioeconomic development standpoint. There are different approaches to UCH promotion with both advantages and challenges in terms of accessibility and sustainability. One kind of model is the land-based maritime museums with recovered artifacts of wrecks. Another model is the museums with restored ships with several examples in Europe such as the ARQUA National Museum of Underwater Archaeology in Spain, the Mary Rose Museum in the UK, the Roskilde Viking Ship Museum in Denmark, or the Vasa Museum in Sweden. However, the model of in-situ preservation such as in the case of Accessible Underwater Archaeological Sites (e.g., underwater parks, underwater archaeological trails) is unparalleled in terms of efficiency and operational sustainability in the long term. In the Mediterranean, management strategies of UCH vary depending on the site (material, preservation, accessibility), either applying protective frames over the 1 �remains or involving diving centers for the sustainable operation of underwater parks. Recent technological advancements on underwater survey and digitalization have enriched physical dive trails and enabled virtual dives as well. Herein we present different approaches and models of sustainable management, responsible accessibility and promotion of Accessible UCH sites in the Mediterranean. DEVELOPING MODELS FOR INCLUSIVE ACCESSIBILITY OF UCH SITES New approaches to standard technologies can contribute significantly to raising public awareness of UCH protection. Several projects have been implemented or are currently ongoing to promote Accessible UCH sites in the Mediterranean. The CREAMARE project aims to create a cross-sectoral collaboration framework to co-produce creative content to promote UCH and raise awareness about environmental threats to the oceans. The project is testing the framework through the co-production of a Serious Game that allows players to visit highly realistic three-dimensional digital replicas of underwater cultural sites and learn about UCH (shipwrecks, finds, submerged cities, ancient trade routes etc.) and environmental threats. Furthermore, an ad-hoc web platform is being developed to facilitate the matching and collaboration among cultural organizations, creative teams, and technology experts to enable knowledge transfer, synergy and coproduction, to autonomously create three-dimensional models and digital contents of UCH and use those datasets to monitor the conservation state and contribute to the creation of digital apps for their promotion. I-BLUECULTURE is another ongoing research project co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund and Greek national funds that is developing a three-dimensional virtual diving and exploration system in a video-streaming, which is captured underwater in real-time. The system allows non-divers to ‘navigate’ (dry-dive) in selected Accessible UCH sites of the Greek archipelago, including three byzantine shipwrecks with amphoras at Peristera, Alonissos island and the modern wreck of a cargo ship at Skopelos island. The system can be installed in different contexts (e.g. at museum exhibitions or portable devices) allowing dry dives in a virtual reality (VR) environment, textured with live-streaming underwater video. Such three-dimensional virtual explorations can be experienced whether users are on-site, at the sea surface (e.g. on board with a smart phone), or away from the site, on land (e.g. at an awareness kiosk with a VR installation). The MAREBOX project is yet another example of a project that brought together the cultural, artistic, and creative sectors with technology to create an art exhibition and a virtual walkthrough under the theme of the current challenges of the sea. The outputs included a dry diving augmented reality (AR) application for the shipwreck of the classical period in Peristera, in Alonissos Greece. MeDryDive project, using augmented and virtual reality apps and taking personalized dry dive experiences a step further, created a thematic tourism product that included a multi-country approach with Accessible UCH sites in Greece, Italy, Croatia, and Montenegro. The project developed the first serious game on UCH, enriching the experience of tourists and stimulating their interest in UCH and thematic diving. Utilizing augmented and virtual reality increases accessibility to UCH sites for a broad audience. This model of promotion can offer an immersive experience of the underwater environment, which may not be possible otherwise for individuals with mobility impairments or disabilities. The virtual tours and dry diving experiences allow them to explore UCH sites and interact with their surroundings in a simulated underwater environment. 2 �BLUEMED MODEL: EXAMPLE OF CLUSTER OF ACCESSIBLE UCH SITES AT aLONISSOS, GREECE The site and the story The BLUEMED project aimed to raise public awareness on UCH and at sustainable tourism development in coastal regions and islands in the Mediterranean. Based on international good practices for UCH protection, a framework for the sustainable management and promotion of Accessible UCH sites was developed and pilot-tested in three countries, including the “Capo Rizzuto” Marine Protected Area in Italy, the ancient shipwrecks in Alonissos and Western Pagasitikos in Greece, and the submerged sites of Cavtat in Croatia. Figure 1. The Accessible Underwater Archaeological Site of Peristera in Alonissos, Greece. (Photo by Matteo Collina, UNICAL, DIMEG © Ministry of Culture & Sports, Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities). The ancient shipwreck of Peristera is located at the islet of Peristera in Alonissos island and lies at a depth of around 27 meters (m). It is dated around 425 BC with a cargo of transport amphoras of the Mendean and the Peparethian type, both from famed Greek wine-production centers in antiquity, Mendi in Chalkidiki and Peparethos (modern Skopelos island), respectively. The wreck forms an impressive concentration of around 3000 amphoras that seems to maintain the shape of the merchant ship, indicating also that vessels with huge volume cargoes sailed in the Mediterranean already in the fifth century BC (Figure 1). The other three Greek pilot sites nearby are located at the Western Pagasitikos Gulf, near the village of Amaliapolis. A shipwreck from the eleventh-thirteenth century AD at the islet of Kikinthos lies at a depth of three to 11 m with a concentration of pithos and amphoras sherds. At Cape Telegraphos there is a shipwreck of the Roman period at a depth of 17 to 27 m with scattered amphoras sherds of three main types, while at a shallower depth of 10 to 20 m there are also the remains of a second shipwreck from the twelfth-thirteenth century CE. In Cape Akra Glaros at Nies Bay, several shipwrecks of different periods have been discovered, among which a shipwreck of the Middle Byzantine period at a depth of 15 m, with big amphoras sherds and anchors of different eras, and a second shipwreck at about 20 m depth, with intact amphoras and scattered fragments of a great stone stock of a wooden 3 �anchor of the Archaic period (seventh-sixth century BC). The several shipwrecks of different time periods indicate the diachronic trade activity in the area. The project To enhance accessibility at UCH sites and include non-divers, BLUEMED developed digital documentation, three-dimensional-site reconstruction and a virtual diving system, offering a dry-dive experience and providing augmented and contextual site and marine environment information, in a fun and educational context. To host an exhibition of the sites, either on a VR environment or through interactive touch screens, BLUEMED introduced the concept of Knowledge Awareness Centers (KACs), a type of an information center that can host digital exhibitions, showcase replicas of underwater finds or the actual recovered artefacts and hold events to raise awareness among local communities and visitors. KACs can also support the operation of the Accessible UCH sites if located nearby, indicatively provide information about the operating hours of the site, while the VR dry dive system hosted the KACs can become a tourism attraction in the area. Four KACs were established under the BLUEMED project in total. There is a KAC hosted at the National Archaeological Museum of Capo Colonna, in Crotone, Italy and another one in the Archaeological Museum of Konavle, in Croatia. In Greece, two KACs have operated since 2020, one in Chora in Alonissos and another one in Amaliapolis. A web platform was also developed to further introduce users to sites, diving parks, maritime museums and KACs, and offering dry dives at selected sites. BLUEMED as a case study of an integrated approach to UCH sustainable management BLUEMED has developed an all-inclusive model comprising policy recommendations, development strategies, and a management framework to support the sustainable operation of the sites and the KACs. The primary objective of the model is to help competent authorities and managing bodies in issuing policies and managing the sites effectively and sustainably, with the ultimate aim of protecting them. The model focuses on long-term operation sustainability with monitoring of key performance indicators covering cultural, environmental, and socioeconomic aspects, and it employs a validation methodology that assesses the operation of both sites and KACs. Additionally, a roadmap is provided for the uptake of the model, which can be adapted to local conditions. The roadmap is a guide that outlines the technical, operational, and policy requirements that must be fulfilled, the barriers that must be overcome, and the risks and limitations that must be considered, such as funding, legislation, limited promotion, and lack of tourism infrastructure. The roadmap also accounts for the unique characteristics of each site and its location and provides a checklist of steps to follow for the protection, responsible promotion, and sustainable management of the sites. F action plan may develop as a multidisciplinary synergy of different fields and bodies, including the The i Ministry of Culture, regional authorities or municipalities, universities and research institutions, g international organizations or local associations, diving centers, museums etc. u r e BLUEMED roadmap The S E The roadmap is an agile action plan, adjustable to the conditions and circumstances of an island or Q coastal area where a UCH site is located nearby. Its milestones are the crucial issues to consider, yet F these steps can be in overlapping phases and not necessarily in progressive order. Going beyond the i g that meet all the proposed requirements, the roadmap is applicable in cases where the sites may sites u some of the standard features. The core milestones of the roadmap are: lack r e 1.\ * 2.A R A B 3.I C 1 . T h e a Mapping, Assessment and Selection of site(s). Potentials for sustainable tourism development (diving centers, tourism attraction, services and attractions in the area). Stakeholders Engagement. 4 �4. Risk Assessment and sustainability KPIs. 5. KACs operation. The roadmap considers various parameters (environmental, cultural, social, economic) in an area (locality) as well as the policy and technical aspects for an action plan. Offering either a bottom-up or a top-down approach, it is a multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral approach, building upon local community and stakeholders’ involvement, joined by competent authorities and policy makers. The outcomes In BLUEMEDPLUS project, as a continuation of the BLUMED to transfer its good practices, such results have been transferred to three new territories, respectively in Italy, Montenegro and Albania, along the lower Adriatic that preserves an immense UCH that is still barely known and valued. This new effort has aimed to enable the transfer of skills and knowledge gained and improve the management of underwater sites of historical/archaeological interest, promoting new destinations as resources for the sustainable development of coastal tourism. The operation of Peristera Underwater Archaeological Site in Greece has been considered successful, with 260 dives recorded annually since its opening in 2020 and funding secured until 2023. Additionally, as of 2022, four other Accessible UCH sites in Alonissos are open to the public for diving under supervision by archaeologists of the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities. These sites include ancient shipwrecks with cargo amphoras at an average depth of around 35 m: the shipwreck in Cape Tzelios on Peristera islet from the Hellenistic period, the shipwreck in Skantzoura island (end of the fourth century BC), a mid-twelfth century CE shipwreck at Aghios Petros, Kyra Panagia island, and an archaic period shipwreck in Fagrou islet. These efforts have resulted in the creation of the largest Accessible Underwater Archaeological Park in Greece with a cluster of five ancient shipwrecks, dropping the pin for cultural diving tourism worldwide at Alonissos. With the creation of a cluster of five Accessible UCH sites, there is now the possibility of more dives and an extended visit to the area, making it ripe for the development of a weekly-based tourism product. A promotional strategy can be developed to include not only the Alonissos sites but also the ‘CHRISTOPHOROS’ modern wreck, a popular diving site in Skopelos island nearby. The establishment of a KAC in Skopelos and the development of a dry dive app for the site have contributed to its popularity. All these developments make the area an exciting destination for cultural diving tourism. CONCLUSIONS The results and impact of all efforts have documented the benefits of accessibility of underwater cultural assets not only among divers but in the general public. We consider the integration of innovative technologies such as AR and VR applications and the operation of KACs essential to the implementation of the proposed model. The surge of underwater cultural tourism will undoubtedly enhance the socioeconomical benefits in the long term, especially if combined with high quality services and tourism infrastructure in the area. Tourists consider culture a strong asset of a destination and alternative tourism is an emerging trend globally. Still, even though coastal tourism is among the priorities of the EU strategy for blue growth, UCH is rarely included in the touristic promotion strategies and campaigns. UCH can be beneficial for islands and coastal areas in terms of socioeconomic development, while recreational diving can generate multiple advantages for the local economies such as direct and indirect revenues from cultural tourists. Therefore, challenges and prospects of UCH related to blue growth global trends or tourism also need to be considered by policy makers. 5 �This paper presents different models for the sustainable management and responsible accessibility and protection of Accessible UCH sites that have been developed in the framework of several projects with pilot implementation in the Mediterranean. The examples demonstrate the advancements in technology that allow responsible accessibility of UCH under EU and/or national funding. However, the focus needs to shift towards the operational sustainability of these Accessible UCH sites. Synergies between policy makers, managing authorities, and stakeholders will ensure the sustainable management of the sites, focusing on issues such as monitoring and safeguarding, attractive content and ticketing policy, responsible promotion, and secure funding. Considering that responsible promotion of UCH contributes to its protection, planning of underwater archaeological surveys, excavation or conservation works at UCH sites need to take into consideration in advance the available options for the responsible promotion of the site(s) and the prospects. Making the site responsibly accessible to all, following a plan of both in-situ preservation and accessibility from a distance, and raising awareness of the value of UCH among the locals is key to safeguarding cultural heritage for future generations. Acknowledgements A.M. A.F. and D.P. acknowledge funding from the MeDryDive EU co-financed project under COSME Programme, MAREBOX Bridging culture and audiovisual content through digital - EACEA 06/2019, BLUEMED project funded by INTERREG MED Programme 2014-2020 and co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), CREAMARE project CREA-CULT-2021-COOP managed by the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) under Creative Europe Programme Bibliography Beattie-Edwards, M. “England’s protected wreck diver trails and the economic value of a protected wreck”. In A heritage for mankind, Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on Underwater Archaeology (IKUWA V), Cartagena, October 15th18th, 2014; Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte Eds. Spain, 198-212, 2016. Bruno, F.; Lagudi, A.; Barbieri, L. “Virtual reality technologies for the exploitation of underwater cultural heritage”. In Latest developments in reality-based three-dimensional surveying and modelling; F. Remondino, A. Georgopoulos, D. GonzálezAguilera, P. Agrafiotis Eds.; pp. 220–236, MDPI: Basel, Switzerland, 2018. Bruno F., Ricca M., Lagudi A., Kalamara P., Manglis, A., Fourkiotou A., Papadopoulou, D., Veneti A. “Digital Technologies for the Sustainable Development of the Accessible Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites”, J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 8, no. 955 (2020). Chand, M. “Residents' perceived benefits of heritage and support for tourism development in Pragpur, India”. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal 61, no. 4, (2013): 379-394. Dwyer, L.; Edwards, D.; Mistilis, N.; Scott, N.; Roman, C.; Cooper, C. “Megatrends Underpinning Tourism to 2020: An analysis of key drivers for change”. CRC for Sustainable Tourism: Australia, 2008. El‐Kady, M. “Potentials of underwater cultural heritage in tourism from the perspective of tour guiding in Alexandria, Egypt”. Journal of Tourism Research 17 (2017): 222-238. EU Commission. “Report on the blue growth strategy. 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Responsible Innovation & Entrepreneurship, Proceedings of the 2019 European Triple Helix Congress on Responsible Innovation & Entrepreneurship (ETHAC 2019), Thessaloniki, Greece, 30 September–1 October 2019, Thessaloniki, 171–175, 2019. 6 �Manglis, A.; Fourkiotou, A.; Papadopoulou, D. “The Accessible Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites (AUCHS) as a sustainable tourism development opportunity in the Mediterranean Region”. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal 68, no. 4 (2020): 499-503. https://doi.org/10.37741/t.68.4.9 Manglis, A.; Fourkiotou, A.; Papadopoulou, D. “A Roadmap for the Sustainable Valorization of Accessible Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites”. Heritage 4 (2021): 4700–4715. https:// doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040259 Papageorgiou, M. “Stakes and challenges for underwater cultural heritage in the era of blue growth and the role of spatial planning: Implications and prospects in Greece”. Heritage 2, no. 2, (2019): 1060-1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage2020069 Stefanile, M. “Underwater cultural heritage, tourism, and diving centers: The case of Pozzuoli and Baiae (Italy). In A heritage for mankind”. Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on Underwater Archaeology, Cartagena, Colombia, 15–18 October 2014; Cartagena, Spain, 213–224, 2016. Thurley, S. “Into the future. Our strategy for 2005-2010”. Conservation Bulletin 49 (2005): 26-27. Tikkanen, S. “The Nordic experience: access through maritime dive trails and virtual simulation”. In Proceedings of the UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on factors Impacting Underwater Cultural Heritage, UNESCO regional Meeting on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: Conference Book Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels, 13-15/12/2011; 62-65, 2012. UNESCO. “Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage”; UNESCO: Paris, France, 2001. UNESCO. “The Benefit of the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage for Sustainable Growth, Tourism and Urban Development”. Elaborated by the UNESCO Secretariat and the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 2001, 2013. Vodeb, K.; Nemec Rudež, H. “Which attributes are important to tourists in a mature seaside destination? A case of Opatija in Croatia”. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal 65, no. 3 (2017): 267-279. Zmaić, V. “The protection of Roman period shipwrecks “in situ”. In Underwater Museums. In Exploring Underwater Heritage in Croatia: A Handbook; edited by L. Bekić, L., Miholjek, I. 18-19. Zadar, Croatia, 2009. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 20: Effective Ways to Deliver Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 20 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 20 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The responsible in-situ accessibility and promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage as a strategy for its protection. A discussion based on recent initiatives in the Mediterranean. Description An account of the resource This paper discusses the current challenges in the protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) and proposes the in-situ preservation and responsible accessibility of UCH sites as a strategy for their protection. The questions in focus are the sustainable management and operational framework that can ensure the UCH sites are protected and accessible for the purposes of both research and raising public awareness. Broad accessibility including divers and non-divers can thus enhance the sustainable operation of sites in the long term. This work focuses on the Mediterranean region in Europe and presents initiatives which have been implemented or are still ongoing under various national or transnational projects towards the goal of accessible UCH. The results of the efforts so far include the operation of the first accessible underwater archaeological sites in Greece and integration of technology to reach a wider audience through digital exhibitions, serious games, and dry dive apps available in museums and knowledge awareness centers. This work further discusses how the planning of underwater archaeological field surveys should include considering parameters related to the responsible promotion of the site in a later phase, after the end of excavation or conservation works, as a protection practice. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Angelos Manglis Anastasia Fourkiotou Dimitra Papadopoulou Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Manglis, Angelos, Anastasia Fourkiotou, and Dimitra Papadopoulou. 2023. “The responsible in situ accessibility and promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage as a strategy for its protection. A discussion based on recent initiatives in the Mediterranean.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Bill Jeffery. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1967 Asia-Pac Session 20 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2b025dc658519af2369571e723593e36.pdf 1f5cc197d24e650c481acfd42e8b5f29 PDF Text Text The Role of ICOMOS, ICUCH and NAS in Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection in the Pacific Mark Staniforth Monash University Melbourne Australia Email: mark.staniforth@monash.edu Abstract This paper outlines the role played by ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), which is an international non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to the conservation of the world's cultural monuments and sites and specifically in awareness raising and training related to underwater cultural heritage protection. ICOMOS membership requires an individual to be a practicing cultural heritage professional or have professional qualifications in the fields of conservation or preservation such as architect, archaeologist, town planner, and engineer, administrator of heritage, art historian or archivist. ICOMOS International Scientific Committees (ISCs) (such as ICUCH) are the vehicles through which ICOMOS brings together, develops and serves its worldwide membership according to their fields of specialized interest. ICOMOS expects the ISCs to be at the heart of scientific inquiry and exchange in their domains and to share knowledge among them to foster multidisciplinary approaches to heritage protection and management. ICUCH (International Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage) was founded in 1991 by ICOMOS Australia to promote international cooperation in the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage and to advise ICOMOS on issues related to underwater cultural heritage around the world. ICUCH currently has ten members from the Asia and the Pacific region and this paper will discuss the role of ICUCH in the region. Furthermore ICUCH’s mission will only be achieved in conjunction with other stakeholders, such as the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS). NAS training aims to increase public awareness at local, provincial and national levels about the extent and nature of underwater and maritime cultural heritage as well as about underwater and maritime archaeology. Key words: Training; Collaboration, Cooperation, Public awareness, Underwater cultural heritage protection Introduction The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) is a global, professional non-governmental organization (NGO) established in 1965 that is dedicated to the conservation and protection of the world’s cultural heritage monuments and sites (see http://icomos.org/en/). The Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) is a global non-government organization (NGO) based in the UK that had its beginnings back in 1964 (see http://www.nauticalarchaeologysociety.org/). Non1 �government organisations, such as ICOMOS and NAS, are often dependent on membership fees for the majority of their funding and therefore tend to have limited funding available to conduct ‘activities’ on a ‘paid’ basis. They also often have a very small number of paid staff and therefore it is up to the membership, working collaboratively, and individual members, usually working with other partners, to volunteer their time (usually at no cost), find funding and conduct activities ‘under the auspices’ or ‘on behalf of’ a particular NGO. Clearly ICOMOS, NAS and other ‘membership-based’ NGOs depend on their membership to take a proactive role in initiating, and contributing to, collaborative activities often volunteering their services pro bono (at no cost). This paper considers ICOMOS and one ICOMOS ISC - ICUCH (International Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage) together with NAS and the NAS Training Programme. It discusses a range of activities conducted by ICOMOS and NAS members, in relation to raising public awareness and conducting training about the management, preservation and protection of underwater cultural heritage in the Asia and the Pacific region. Unlike the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage had no fund to pay for activities included in the original convention although an account has now been established to allow for pooling donor donations to support certain projects and programmes (Jeffery, 2006; Parthesius and Jeffery, 2011: 281). This lack of funding as well as inadequate numbers of trained and experienced maritime archaeologists and underwater cultural heritage managers in many countries in the Asia and the Pacific region are recognized as significant problems. The 2001 UNESCO Convention, nevertheless, has two articles related to public awareness and training. The first is Article 20 - Public Awareness that states: Each State Party shall take all practicable measures to raise public awareness regarding the value and significance of underwater cultural heritage and the importance of protecting it under this Convention. and the second is Article 21 - Training in underwater archaeology, which states: States Parties shall cooperate in the provision of training in underwater archaeology, in techniques for the conservation of underwater cultural heritage and, on agreed terms, in the transfer of technology relating to underwater cultural heritage 2 �The need for raising public awareness about, as well as training and teaching (capacity building) in, maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage management in the Asia and the Pacific region have been identified as important issues for more than a decade including during at least three UNESCO supported regional meetings and in their resultant action plans or recommendations. The first arose from the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Regional Workshop on the 2001 UNESCO Convention held in Hong Kong in 2003 (Prott, 2006: 158-160). The second was from the 2010 International Meeting on Protection, Presentation and Valorisation of Underwater Cultural Heritage held in Chongquig in China (Shuguang, 2011: 433434). The third was the Asia-Pacific Meeting on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage held in Koh Kong, Cambodia in 2012. ICOMOS ICOMOS has more than 11,000 members, over 100 National Committees and nearly 30 International Scientific Committees. International Scientific Committees (ISCs) focus on specialist areas of heritage conservation and are made up of ICOMOS members drawn from those specialist areas. ICOMOS expects the ISCs to be at the heart of scientific inquiry and exchange in their domains and to share knowledge among them to foster multi-disciplinary approaches to heritage protection and management see http://www.icomos.org/en/about-icomos/committees/scientific- committees ICOMOS works for the conservation, protection, use and enhancement of cultural heritage monuments, sites and places including buildings, historic cities, cultural landscapes and archaeological sites. ICOMOS is dedicated to promoting the application of theory, methodology, and scientific techniques to the conservation of the world's architectural and archaeological heritage. Its work is based on the principles enshrined in a number of ICOMOS Charters including the 1964 International Charter on the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (the Venice Charter), the 1996 Charter on the Protection and Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the 2000 International Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage (see http://icomos.org/en/chartersand-texts). ICOMOS works closely with UNESCO, ICOM, ICCROM and other partners, across a wide range of areas in relation to cultural heritage protection, preservation, management and training. ICOMOS is primarily composed of its National 3 �Committees (NCs). Within the Asia and the Pacific region (as defined by UNESCO and comprising of 50 nations) there are more than 20National Committees at present plus ICOMOS Pasifika which covers all of the island nations of the Pacific Ocean. Many of these National Committees have websites and for a complete list of National Committees with contact details and website addresses see http://icomos.org/en/network/national-committees/list-of-national-committees. ICOMOS Pasifika was created in 2007 and aims to further the conservation and protection of heritage places in the Pacific Islands, with a focus on the cultural and natural specificities of the region. In particular, ICOMOS Pasifika aims to raise awareness with regards to the conservation of heritage places in the Pacific Islands amongst local, national and regional cultural organizations in the region (see https://www.facebook.com/pages/Icomos-Pasifika-International-Council-onMonuments-and-Sites/357945310963424). ICOMOS holds a General Assembly (Congress or Conference) every three years – the 18th ICOMOS General Assembly with the main theme of “Heritage and Landscape as Human Values” will take place in Florence, Italy from 10 to 14 November 2014 (see http://www.icomos.org/en/about-icomos/governance/general-information-about-thegeneral-assembly/18th-general-assembly-florence-2014). To date the only ICOMOS General Assembly to be held in the Asia and the Pacific region was the 15th General Assembly held in Xi’an, China in 2005 (see http://www.international.icomos.org/xian2005/home_eng.htm). ICOMOS membership requires that an individual be working as a practicing cultural heritage professional and/or to have formal qualifications in one of the fields related to cultural heritage conservation/preservation such as architects, archaeologists, historians, town planners, engineers, administrators of heritage, art historians, geographers, anthropologists or archivists. The author, for example, has been an ICOMOS member for more than two decades. Individuals, and institutions, can apply for membership through their National Committee and there are more than 100 ICOMOS National Committees. If there is no National Committee in a particular country, however, then membership requests can be made through the ICOMOS International Secretariat for approval by the ICOMOS Executive Committee (see http://www.icomos.org/en/get-involved/join-icomos). The author encourages all underwater cultural heritage professionals in the Asia and the Pacific region to join ICOMOS and to get involved in ICOMOS ISCs. 4 �ICOMOS provides a network of experts that benefit from the interdisciplinary exchange of its members and who are available to provide assessment and advice on cultural heritage matters. ICOMOS publishes reports and special editions on cultural heritage topics such as the Heritage at Risk – Special edition titled Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk (2006) which can be downloaded from the ICOMOS website (see http://www.icomos.org/en/component/content/article?id=195). In addition ICOMOS supports open access, free and unrestricted, to scientific publications, through the project ICOMOS Open Archive: EPrints on Cultural Heritage (see http://openarchive.icomos.org/). Part of the ICOMOS mission is to help to raise public and government awareness about cultural heritage protection and cultural heritage issues. It also encourages ICOMOS members to volunteer and participate in capacity building and training activities. These parts of the ICOMOS mission provide the general basis for members of ICOMOS ISCs to undertake, and be involved in, awareness raising, training and capacity building activity, which is the main focus of this paper. ICUCH ICUCH (International Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage) was established as an ICOMOS scientific committee in 1991 to promote international cooperation in the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage and to advise ICOMOS on issues related to underwater cultural heritage around the world (see http://icuch.icomos.org/the-icomos-international-committee-on-the-underwatercultural-heritage/). ICUCH has a global membership of professionals and focuses on international cooperation, legislative issues, and quality standards for interventions and training and closely cooperates with regional and international NGOs, including NAS, in raising public awareness. In the early 1990s ICUCH developed the ICOMOS Charter on the Protection and Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage which was ratified by the 11th ICOMOS General Assembly in Sophia, Bulgaria in 1996 see: http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/underwater_e.pdfICUCH also assisted in the drafting of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001) and continues to lobby for its ratification (see http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/2001convention/official-text/). The aims of ICUCH include to: stimulate international interest in the conservation of the world's underwater cultural heritage among government and private institutions, 5 �practitioners and the general public; establish standards for the training and qualification of practitioners involved with the conservation and management of underwater cultural heritage sites; and share experience and expertise in the conservation and management of underwater cultural heritage sites. For more than a decade ICUCH membership was restricted to one member from each country but this situation changed as a result of the Eger-Xi’an Principles for the International Scientific Committees of ICOMOS adopted by the 15th General Assembly of ICOMOS at Xi’an in October of 2005, as amended by the Scientific Council in July 2008 (Eger-Xi’an Principles, 2008) see: http://www.icomos- uk.org/committees/international-scientific/. Since 2009 ICUCH can, and does have, more than one member from a number of countries including Argentina, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Lebanon, South Africa and the USA. In addition, over the past five years, ICUCH has considerably expanded its membership from about 20 to 48 members. The Asia and the Pacific region (as defined by UNESCO) currently has 10 ICUCH members (one from each of Japan, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, India, Indonesia and China and three from Australia). It is clear that, just as ICOMOS need more members in the Pacific, ICUCH needs one, or more, members from the Pacific. ICUCH membership is not simply an issue for the Asia and the Pacific region, for comparison, the Europe and North America region has 19 members while the Africa region has just 5 members and the Arab States just 4 members. Fortunately in 2014 ICUCH will be considering an expansion of ICUCH membership as part of the flowon effects from the Eger-Xi’an Principles. The author has been a member of ICUCH since 2009 and for a full list of ICUCH members see: http://icuch.icomos.org/icuchmembers/ ICUCH’s Vision, Mission and Strategy for the period 2009-2012 were formulated at the Annual General Meeting of ICUCH in Québec in 2008 and include the following missions: ▪ To assist other stakeholders in the field of maritime archaeology to manage, protect, carry out sound study, and share knowledge on underwater cultural heritage. ▪ To raise public awareness of the existence of the world’s archaeological underwater cultural heritage. ▪ To promote the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage through facilitating development of national and regional cooperation, programmes, and legislation. 6 �▪ To encourage an inclusive approach in underwater cultural heritage. These particular missions were to be carried out using the following strategies: ▪ Promoting and actively assisting in capacity building in all the roles mentioned in the Annex of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. ▪ Promoting education in underwater cultural heritage at all levels. ▪ Being strongly involved in raising public awareness. These ICUCH missions and strategies, specifically those that encourage ICUCH members to undertake, and be involved in, awareness raising, training and capacity building in underwater cultural heritage protection and management, are the main focus of this paper. ICUCH, for example, is an official partner of UNESCO Underwater Cultural Heritage Partners in Asia and the Pacific see: http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/uch/partners/ As part of the Asia-Pacific Regional Capacity-Building Programme in Underwater Cultural Heritage several ICUCH members, including the author, were invited to contribute to three UNESCO Foundation Courses and two Advanced Courses on Underwater Cultural Heritage between 2009 and 2011 (Staniforth, 2010). These courses were primarily funded by the Government of Norway with support from the Government of Thailand but they have not been run since 2011 as a result of a lack of available funding. These courses were primarily held in Chanthaburi (Fig. 1) in Thailand see: http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/uch/capacity- building/courses/foundation/ One valuable product of this particular collaboration has been the development of the Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural heritage in Asia and the Pacific (UNESCO Bangkok, 2012). This training manual can be downloaded (for free) at: http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/uch/uch-publication/. Another publication that a number of ICUCH members contributed to is the Manual for Activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage published by UNESCO in 2013 (Maarleveld, Guerin and Egger, 2013) which is available to be downloaded (for free) at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/ In addition to involvement in awareness raising, training and capacity building individual ICUCH members have been involved in collaborative research and 7 �underwater cultural heritage management projects in the Asia and the Pacific region (Kimura et al., 2014; Lê et al., 2011; Manders, 2010). Fig. 1 First UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Chathaburi, Thailand in 2009. (Mark Staniforth) NAS The Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) was formed to promote interest in underwater cultural heritage and is dedicated to advancing education in nautical and maritime archaeology for everyone – its members, the general public and across the global archaeological sector. NAS membership is open to everyone regardless of qualifications and NAS publishes a quarterly member’s newsletter as well as a peer reviewed academic journal twice a year – the highly respected International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (IJNA). The NAS International Training Programme has been delivering courses in maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage for nearly 30 years see: http://www.nauticalarchaeologysociety.org/content/what-nastraining-programme The NAS Training Programme has a modular structure, starting with a one day Introduction course and working through the Part I, II and III Certificates and finally the Part IV Diploma. The NAS programme has a published handbook available, now in its second edition (Bowens, 2008) and is open to everybody with the Introduction course requiring no prior learning or qualifications. The NAS Training Programme is designed with courses in a wide range of topics and subject areas within nautical 8 �and maritime archaeology. The author has been involved with the NAS Training Programme since the mid 1990s when the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (AIMA) introduced NAS training into Australia (Moran and Staniforth, 1998). From 1997 AIMA tailored the NAS Training programme to suit Australian conditions and sites and the author served for five years as the first AIMA/NAS Senior Tutor in Australia. Over the last fifteen years or so, dozens of AIMA/NAS Training courses have taught hundreds of people in all states of Australia about underwater cultural heritage and maritime archaeology (see: http://www.aimaunderwater.org.au/parts-i-iv/). In addition AIMA/NAS Training has also been successfully incorporated into university level studies in maritime archaeology, for example, those conducted at Flinders University (Staniforth, 2008). In 2012 the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) gave permission for a pilot program of NAS training to be conducted in Vietnam (at no cost) on a “one-off” basis. NAS Training was conducted at the Institute of Archaeology building in Hanoi, over a three-day period during November/December of 2012. Early in 2013 NAS granted a free NAS International license to the Institute of Archaeology (IA) in Vietnam and the author was appointed as the NAS Senior Tutor for Vietnam for a five-year term. With support from the Nghe An province an NAS Introduction to Maritime Archaeology training course (1 day) was held in Vinh city on Thursday 16 October 2013. Thanks to the Hoi An People's Committee, which agreed to sponsor NAS training at Hoi An in November 2013, an NAS Introduction courses (1 day) took place on 7 November followed by an NAS Part 1 course (2 day) on 8 and 9 November 2013 (Fig. 2). The NAS Training programme in Vietnam has been designed to increase awareness at local, provincial and national levels about the extent and nature of Vietnam’s underwater and maritime cultural heritage as well as about underwater and maritime archaeology. With the assistance of partners, sponsors and contributors, NAS training has been provided free of charge to more than 100 Vietnamese students, government agency personnel, archaeologists and others in order to raise awareness about underwater cultural heritage and maritime archaeology in Vietnam. Hopefully, this should help Vietnam to preserve and protect its underwater cultural heritage see: http://www.themua.org/vietnam/nas.php 9 �Fig. 2 NAS practical training at the Nghe An Museum in Vinh City, Nghe An, Vietnam. (Mark Staniforth) University level teaching UNESCO has suggested that the minimum qualification for an archaeologist is: “A degree in archaeology or similar qualification recognized by the country in which the archaeologist is working” see: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-culturalheritage/underwater-heritage-tutorial/tutorial/ Throughput the world, tertiary qualifications at some level from undergraduate degrees through to Doctoral level degrees from a fully accredited university are usually seen as the basic qualifications required for professional underwater or maritime archaeologists and underwater cultural heritage managers (Staniforth, 2008a; 2008b; 2009; 2010). Unfortunately university level teaching in maritime archaeology is both limited and expensive in the Asia and the Pacific region, which means that only a limited number of maritime archaeologists and underwater cultural heritage managers have been able to benefit from this level of training. One of the few examples where university level training has been made available at no cost to participants, was organized partly using ICUCH networks, when the Maritime Archaeology Program (MAP) at Flinders University was awarded funding from Aus AID, the Australian federal government’s overseas aid organization, to bring 11 midcareer professionals involved in maritime archaeology from the Asia-Pacific region to Australia for a 6 week training program (Staniforth, 2011). Mid-career professional 10 �training like this goes some way to fulfilling social justice and equity aspirations to make university level teaching in maritime archaeology available to more people in the Asia and the Pacific region (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 Opening ceremony of the Flinders University Intensive Progam on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Adelaide, South Australia in 2009. (Jun Kimura) Language of Instruction There is no doubt that for training courses with participants who come from a number of different countries, such as the UNESCO Foundation courses, there is a need for a single common language. One result is that most previous training activities in the Asia and the Pacific region have been conducted in English. Nevertheless, in order to successfully conduct public awareness raising and training within an individual country, the content really has to be interpreted and translated into the national language. The language of instruction was seen as one of the key issues for NAS Training in Vietnam, for example, where it was clear that we needed to have the training both interpreted into spoken Vietnamese and translated into written Vietnamese. Fortunately the Institute of Archaeology (IA) has been able to provide interpretation services for NAS training and, in addition, the entire content of the NAS Introduction course (11 sessions) has now been translated into Vietnamese. One of the benefits of this approach has been to increasingly involve IA archaeologists in NAS training with the stated aim of allowing NAS training to be primarily taught by Vietnamese archaeologists within five years. In 2013 IA was also able to establish an Underwater 11 �Archaeology Department, headed by Dr. Le Thi Lien, which was, in a small part, as a result of the NAS training initiative and will aid NAS training over the next few years. Conclusion ICOMOS, ICUCH and NAS can and do provide networks, advice, support and training programmes but they are by no means the only ways of conducting these activities. It is hoped that some approaches outlined in this paper can be adopted and adapted by other countries, organizations and individuals in the Asia and the Pacific region as the basis for effective collaboration and co-operation in awareness raising, training and teaching of underwater archaeologists and underwater cultural heritage managers. Acknowledgements I would like to particularly thank my colleagues in ICUCH, NAS and at Flinders University for their contributions to, and support for, the networks, programmes, projects and field schools that this paper discusses. Also the enthusiasm and interest of the trainees and students has helped to make these activities productive as well as enjoyable to conduct. I hope that they enjoy their involvement with underwater cultural heritage as much as I have. References Bowens, A., (Ed.), 2008. Underwater Archaeology: The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice. Wiley-Blackwell and the Nautical Archaeology Society, Portsmouth. ICOMOS., 2008. Eger-Xi’an Principles for the International Scientific Committees of ICOMOS. ICOMOS, Paris. Jeffery, W., 2006. Federated States of Micronesia. In S. Dromgoole (Ed.), The Protection of the Underwater Cultural heritage: National Perspectives in light of the UNESCO Convention 2001. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden: 145-59. Kimura, J., Staniforth, M., Lien, L. T., and Sasaki, R., 2014. Naval Battlefield Archaeology of the Lost Kublai Khan Fleets. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 43 (1): 76-87. Lê, Thị Liên., Nguyễn,Thị Mai Hương., Pham, C., Staniforth, M., Delgado, J. P., Kimura, J., and Sasaki, R., 2011. Understanding the Bach Dang battlefield from recent research results. In M. Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional 12 �Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. Asian Academy for Heritage Management. Manila: 77-90. Maarleveld, T. J., Guerin, U., and Egger, B., (Eds.), 2013. Manual for Activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage: Guidelines to the Annex of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. UNESCO, Paris. Manders, M. J., 2010. Dutch involvement in Asian Underwater Cultural Heritage management: building upon old connections. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 5 (2): 117-127. Manders, M. R., and Underwood, C. J., (Eds.), 2012. Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural heritage in Asia and the Pacific. UNESCO Bangkok, Bangkok. Moran, V., and Staniforth, M., 1998.The AIMA/NAS Part 1 Training Program. The Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 22: 137-138. Parthesius, R., and Jeffery, W. F., 2012. Building country-relevant programmes in the context of the implementation of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. In S. J. van der Linde, M. H. van den Dries, N. Schlanger and C. G. Slappendel (Eds.), European Archaeology Abroad: global settings, comparative perspectives. Sidestone Press, Leiden: 267-286. Prott, L. V., 2006. Finishing the Interrupted Voyage: Papers of the UNESCO AsiaPacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Institute of Art and Law, Leicester. Shuguang, L., (Ed.), 2011. 2010 International Meeting on Protection, Presentation and Valorisation of Underwater Cultural Heritage. Chongqing, China: Proceedings. Cultural Relics Press, Beijing: 433-4. Staniforth, M., 2008a. Strategies for teaching Maritime Archaeology in the 21st century. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 3: 93-102. Staniforth, M., 2008b. Collaboration is the key: Developing field and work skills in collaboration with government, museum and commercial underwater cultural heritage organizations. In R. Radic Rossi, A. Gaspari and A. Pydyn (Eds.), Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists (Zadar, Croatia, 18-23 September 2007. Session: Underwater Archaeology), Hrvatskoarheoloskodrustvo – Profil, Zagreb: 111-120. 13 �Staniforth, M., 2009. Work-Integrated Learning in Maritime Archaeology: An Australian Approach. The International Journal of Learning, Vol. 16 (8) Publisher Site: http://www.Learning-Journal.com Staniforth, M., 2010. Issues in Education in Maritime Archaeology. In R. Amoeda, S. Lira and C. Pinheiro (Eds.), Heritage 2010: Heritage and Sustainable Development. Greenlines Institute for Sustainable Development, Evora, Portugal: 315-322. Staniforth, M., 2011. The Flinders University Intensive Program in Underwater Cultural Heritage Management. In M. Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage. Asian Academy for Heritage Management, Manila: 613-623. Mark Staniforth is an Adjunct Senior Research Fellow in the School of Geography and Environmental Science at Monash University and an Adjunct Associate Professor at Flinders University in Australia. He has been an ICOMOS member for two decades and he is an expert member of two ICOMOS International Scientific Committees - ICOMOS - ICUCH (International Committee on the Underwater Cultural Heritage) and ICOMOS - ICAHM (International Committee on Archaeological Heritage Management). Mark is also the NAS Senior Tutor for Vietnam. Mark was the Convener of the Maritime Archaeology Program (MAP) in the Department of Archaeology at Flinders University for 14 years (1997-2010) where he taught topics in undergraduate and postgraduate maritime archaeology and underwater cultural heritage management. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 1: UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Cooperation Description An account of the resource The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the UN. It has 195 Member States. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted in 2001 is the international community’s response to the destruction of submerged archaeological sites by treasure hunters and industrial activities. It reflects the growing recognition of the need to ensure the same protection to underwater heritage as that already accorded to land-based heritage. It provides legal protection, enables States Parties to adopt common approaches to preservation and provides effective professional guidelines on underwater cultural heritage. The Convention and its Annex have been officially endorsed by most professional associations of underwater archaeologists. The 2001 Convention entered into force on 2 January 2009. Today it has been ratified by 44 States. The objectives of the UNESCO session are to: * Enhance understanding of the 2001 Convention in terms of its background, its benefits, its ethics and its potentials for contributing to sustainable development, * Identify a strategy for enhancing capacity in the protection and research of underwater cultural heritage, * Identify a way forward for increasing ratifications of the 2001 Convention by the countries in the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Etienne Clement Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Role of ICOMOS, ICUCH and NAS in Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection in the Pacific Description An account of the resource This paper outlines the role played by ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), which is an international non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to the conservation of the world's cultural monuments and sites and specifically in awareness raising and training related to underwater cultural heritage protection. ICOMOS membership requires an individual to be a practicing cultural heritage professional or have professional qualifications in the fields of conservation or preservation such as architect, archaeologist, town planner, and engineer, administrator of heritage, art historian or archivist. ICOMOS International Scientific Committees (ISCs) (such as ICUCH) are the vehicles through which ICOMOS brings together, develops and serves its worldwide membership according to their fields of specialized interest. ICOMOS expects the ISCs to be at the heart of scientific inquiry and exchange in their domains and to share knowledge among them to foster multi-disciplinary approaches to heritage protection and management. ICUCH (International Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage) was founded in 1991 by ICOMOS Australia to promote international cooperation in the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage and to advise ICOMOS on issues related to underwater cultural heritage around the world. ICUCH currently has ten members from the Asia and the Pacific region and this paper will discuss the role of ICUCH in the region. Furthermore ICUCH’s mission will only be achieved in conjunction with other stakeholders, such as the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS). NAS training aims to increase public awareness at local, provincial and national levels about the extent and nature of underwater and maritime cultural heritage as well as about underwater and maritime archaeology. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mark Staniforth, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Zotero Editor Van Tilburg, H. Tripati, S. Walker Vadillo, V. Fahy, B. Kimura, J. Asia-Pac Session 1 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/127f4e9676ecc066f564fa683dca32da.pdf 4263c4ec4942ac6ab6327a6125ff0ed8 PDF Text Text The Sacred and Cultural Maritime Sites of Fiji-An Inventory in the Making Elia Nakoro Archaeology Department The Fiji Museum Thurston Gardens Suva, Fiji Email: rocksfel@yahoo.com.au Abstract The Fiji Museum Archaeology Department, since 2015, has begun inventorying the different underwater and maritime sites in Fiji. Ratification of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and review of the legislation on the Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Palaeontological Interest Act (Chapter 264) has had little fruition due to limitations in manpower and resources. The Fiji Museum has however taken first steps towards realizing the amendment of the legislation by developing and drafting an overarching policy for the institution. The Fiji Museum continues to deliberate on the draft policy encompassing all aspects of its services, which includes underwater and maritime cultural heritage sites, to ensure that Fiji’s cultural heritage is protected. This paper will elaborate on the different types of underwater/maritime cultural heritage sites in Fiji and the inventory process of documenting and creating a database, including challenges and opportunities. It will highlight the importance of the database in assisting the Fiji Museum in its work to raise awareness and provide advice to Government and relevant authorities in the respect, preservation and protection of these submerged historical treasures. The paper will also highlight the various agencies with common goals to protect underwater cultural sites and discuss the importance of interagency collaboration. Key words: Cultural heritage, maritime, preservation, and protection �Introduction The Fiji Islands The island nation of Fiji encompasses over 300 volcanic islands. About 100 of these are inhabited, rich in biodiversity and cultural heritage. Fiji is located in the tropics of the southern hemisphere and has a total land area of approximately 18,300km2 that covers the region positioned between a latitude of 12°N-21°S and longitude 176°E-178°W (Nakoro, 2014). Fig 1: Map of the Fiji Islands. (Fiji Museum) The Republic of the Fiji Islands is a multicultural nation with a tapestry of cultural traditions of Indigenous Fijians (iTaukei), Indians, Europeans, Chinese and other minority cultures. While all the various cultures can be linked to the underwater heritage of the nation through shipwrecks, the �iTaukei people are custodians to a special, sacred and mysterious connection to the land, which includes sacred underwater or maritime sites. In capturing the fascinating connection between the sacred maritime sites and its owners, the Archaeology Department embarked on a digitization project in 2015 to document details pertaining to the sites and protection under legislative powers1 entrusted to the Fiji Museum. Utilizing the basic Microsoft Access tool, the department developed its maritime sites database. The Fiji Museum The Fiji Museum is located in a historically significant site within an old fortified village that was called Suva. During the expansion of the city, the inhabitants of the old settlement were relocated across the harbor. Today, the area known as the Thurston Gardens complements the Fiji Museum in the background. Currently under the jurisdiction of the City Council, the Thurston Gardens have great potential for a facelift with plans in the pipelines for this to eventuate before the end of 2017. Adjacent to the Gardens is the historic and newly refurbished Albert Park where the monoplane Southern Cross, piloted by Sir Charles Kingsford Smith made a safe landing on its first transpacific flight from Hawaii to Fiji en route to Australia in 1928. Similarly the northwestern fringe contains the remnants of the World War II underground tunnels and the Allied forces military headquarters, which now accommodates the residence of the British High Commission and Fiji’s presidential palace and compound �Fig. 2: Location of Fiji Museum. (Google Earth) Since its establishment in 1904, the Fiji Museum has been governed by two legislations - the Fiji Museum Act and the Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Palaeontological Interest (POAPI) Act, enacted in 1940. The latter, which is administered by the Archaeology department of the institution, is the legal instrument covering the protection of cultural heritage sites in Fiji. This legislation has a more generalized definition of cultural heritage where underwater cultural heritage sites such as shipwrecks, planes, sunken villages, islands and the likes are not specifically mentioned but in the clause which reads ‘…or any objects of archaeological, anthropological, ethnological, prehistoric and historic significance....’ covers any form of culturally significant sites and objects without distinction of their location. As such the Fiji Museum, Archaeology Department with limited manpower and resources tries to cover all aspects of Fijian cultural heritage. In early 2017, the institution underwent a change in leadership involving the designation of a new Director and Board of Trustees members. The �driving force behind changes to the Museums’ priorities, new leadership identified gaps in legislation of the safety of cultural heritage sites in Fiji, as a target area to be addressed. The Board endorsed the review of the legislation and the Archaeology Department is currently in the process of forming the relevant committees to spearhead this process. These committees will be tasked with development of policies to strengthen the role of the department and its legislation. The Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage has also been highlighted as an ideal approach in the near future. The Archaeology Department Cabinet endorsed the legislation that governs the work of the Archaeology Department in 1940, however the Archaeology unit of the Fiji Museum was not formally established until over 5 decades later in1995. Since its establishment, the Archaeology Department has been involved in the identification, documentation and protection of terrestrial archaeological and cultural heritage sites of the nation. This includes the protection of ancestral old village sites, sacred grounds, cemeteries, caves, or any prehistoric or historic significant places discovered from the impacts of development. Today, the Archaeology unit at the Fiji Museum is comprised of four staff members who look after the entire Fijian group of islands. At present the team, focuses much of its efforts on terrestrial cultural heritage sites meeting an influx of community requests to survey, record, document and protect places of cultural heritage significance against the ever-looming threats of development. Most of these issues are related to a complicated land acquisition system that was developed in the early stages of Fiji’s colonial administrative system. �The Archeology department plays a crucial role in the implementation of Archaeological Impact Assessments (AIA) in line with Environment Impact Assessments (EIA) for national development projects such as tourism development, infrastructural development, agriculture, and other land use development. In addition to this, the department is engaged in national projects for climate change mitigation and reducing carbon emissions through carbon trade with the Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation and Foster Conservation (REDD+) and the Mangrove Ecosystem Conservation and Livelihood (MESCAL) projects. This includes the setting up of new forest reserves where a rapid survey is warranted. The Archaeology team’s role in these projects is to identify cultural heritage sites within the earmarked forest boundaries and to examine and record the ancient forest system - in particular, evidence of the impacts of human activities on natural systems. The Archaeology Department is mandated under the same legislation to issue archaeological research permits for local and international researchers and field schools. During the course of the research, the officers of the Archaeology Department are required to be present providing advice to researchers, conducting the various traditional protocols on their behalf and ensuring that proper procedures itemized in the research permits are carried out. This paper will explore and discuss the different types of underwater cultural heritage sites in Fiji with focus on traditional maritime sites. It will highlight the inventory process of documentation and the creation of a database to assist in the preservation and protection of these submerged historical treasures. �The paper will also feature the various institutions or agencies with mutual goals to protect underwater cultural sites and discuss the importance of stakeholder collaboration. Maritime Cultural Sites Database Fiji is one of the more developed nations in the Pacific region making it particularly vulnerable to the destruction and loss of significant cultural features related to the history and identity of its people. With limited resources and manpower, the Archaeology Department is at the forefront of defending the nation’s cultural heritage from such threats. At present the department manages six databases, as listed below: 1. Terrestrial Cultural Heritage Sites 2. Traditional maritime cultural heritage sites 3. Shipwrecks 4. Excavated Archaeological Research Materials 5. Lapita Sites 6. Oral History recordings Excavated archaeological research materials that are kept in the department’s storage facility and oral history recordings are managed using the Microsoft Access platform. Terrestrial cultural sites, maritime heritage sites, shipwrecks, and Lapita sites, on the other hand are maintained using the Geographic Information System (GIS) program ArcGIS. Since the information has spatial attributes, the ArcGIS program is an appropriate tool for such systematic recording, information analysis, mapping, and data sharing within national authorities on the preservation of cultural heritage sites. After each survey, the Archaeology team members marked each site visited using a Global Positioning System (GPS). The GPS data is later �transcribed for report compilation and corresponds to the national register or database. The database is rather a useful tool in decision-making, advising authorities dealing with national development on the existence of cultural heritage sites in earmarked project areas. Given that a small team looks after the various functions of the Archaeology unit for the whole country, managing four separate databases on ArcGIS was a challenging responsibility that fell solely on the Head of Department. A combination of limited human resources, a lack of capacity in team members and no centralized system contributed to a constant backlog in updating the database. Ideally, the vast information database managed by the Archeology department needed to be maintain on a single database as all databases shared common coordinates from the various sites surveyed, the only difference being in the key thematic areas. In June (2017), the Fiji Museum successfully installed a file server for a centralized mechanism available to all the museum departments. This was a great boost to the institution, as each department ceased to have separate databases of the same contents to manage. Soon after the installation of the server infrastructure, the Archaeology Department embarked on a weeklong staff capacity building in the areas of field mapping with the use of conventional survey methods, the use of GPS, GIS and database management including Microsoft Access. This enabled all team members to update the database in a shared folder as and when needed, freeing up time for departmental heads to carry out their supervisory functions improving productivity greatly. Merging the 4 data sets was advantageous and crucial to improve database management efficiency while ensuring that all four themes of �terrestrial sites, maritime sites, shipwrecks and Lapita sites are equally represented in the Archaeology departments work. Legislation Pertaining to the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites in Fiji Currently, the overarching legislation (POAPI Act) makes feeble reference to the safeguarding of underwater or maritime sites. However, it is encouraging that there are agencies that share similar goals to protect Fiji’s cultural heritage including underwater sites. In the past year, these agencies have taken a stance on the activities within Fiji’s Exclusive Economic Zone propelled by a nationwide implementation of marine protected areas towards the sustainable monitoring and use of marine resources as food supply and transport. The global concerns of mitigating climate change and the different treaties and conventions that Fiji is a signatory to have elevated these agencies to take action. Below is a list of these agencies, which include Government, civil society organizations and regional institutions now in the forefront of maintaining marine protected areas. Government Agencies 1. Maritime Safety Authority of Fiji (MSAF) MSAF is responsible for the registering, regulations and safety of shipping services and shipping routes in Fiji. As a member state of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the United Nations specialized agency with responsibility for the safety and security of shipping and the prevention of marine pollution by ships, Fiji is trying to secure the international recognition for the protection of two significant sea areas recognized for ecological, socio-economic, cultural and scientific reasons which may be vulnerable to damage by international maritime activities (www.imo.org, �16th July 2017) under the Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA) special protection action by IMO. Fiji has several maritime ports of entries and two of these have been identified as meeting the criteria for PSSA. This further enhances the local regulations in the protection of maritime cultural significant areas. The two sites, the Beqa Passage and the Vuda Passage, may have shipwrecks and other sensitive cultural components necessary for submission to have the passages protected. The Archaeology Department is a new member of the taskforce for the PSSA. On the 14th of July, 2017, the taskforce held its second meeting since its establishment and many stakeholders attended. The PSSA taskforce is in the early stages of information gathering and report submissions. 2. The Department of Environment (DOE) Mandated to protect the environment and regulate development procedures in the country, the DOE, under the Environment Management Act (EMA-2005) is vital in the protection of coastal cultural sites. In July 2017, the Fiji Museum was consulted to assist in the protection of three World War II lookouts constructed out at sea threatened by a development application for the construction of a jetty. 3. The Fijian Naval Unit under Republic of the Fiji Military Forces The Fiji Navy is responsible for the maritime needs in boarder control such as watching over Fiji’s exclusive economic zone ad organizing task and rescue missions. Similar to any naval force, the Fiji Navy is equipped with a dive team that recently (2017) spearheaded a diving expedition to assess the discovery of seven chests in Fiji waters. The chests were believed to contain explosives and arms. Unofficial information stated that �these would have been WWII materials-mine. The Fiji Museum continues to work closely with the Fiji Police to confirm the contents of the chests. 4. iTaukei Affairs Board (iTAB) i-Taukei Affairs Board is the Government arm that looks after any matters concerning indigenous Fijians or i-Taukeis. With crucial mandates for safeguarding Fiji’s indigenous culture and traditions, it is vital that iTAB is aware of the significance of the maritime sites as all the sacred sites are of iTaukei origins. iTAB has access to legal expertise to be able to assist with the protection of intangible cultural heritage. Non-Governmental Organizations 5. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) The IUCN is heavily engaged in conservation works in the Pacific and in Fiji, with a regional office in Suva, Fiji. The organization has signed a Memorandum of Agreement with the Fiji Government to provide advice and review legal frameworks, policies, legislations and conventions in safeguarding and protecting Fiji’s environment. In 2016, IUCN included the cultural heritage sites (an area that is usually overlooked) in its list of marine protected areas and consulted the Fiji Museum for information and advice (H. Wendt and N. Yakub, personal communication, July 12, 2017). Regional Institutions 6. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) Similar to the role of the IUCN, SPC has the expertise and equipment for underwater surveys. SPC also has a unit that looks after the cultural affairs of the Pacific region and is aware of the significance of underwater cultural heritage. �While these institutions and agencies have a shared vision to promote the protection of Fiji’s underwater cultural heritage sites, there is a need to inform these stakeholders on the role and functions of the Fiji Museum in safeguarding UCH. The Archaeology Department needs to lobby and promote the significance of UCH and the need for collaboration between all stakeholders involved. Sacred Maritime Sites Fiji is filled with many traditional or cultural sites and practices which cannot be explained with scientific knowledge. Attempts by Mr. David Attenborough, a BBC documentary reporter in the early 60s were futile as he tried to explain some of the practices he came across such as the fire walkers of Beqa, the turtle calling in Koro, the fishes in the lake on Vanua Balavu. Below is captured some of the fascinating and respected maritime sites that the Archaeology Department has already listed in its database: �Fig. 1: Map showing the names of places mentioned in the Sacred Maritime Sites section. 1. The sacred fishes of Naigani Island On the eastern coast of mainland Viti Levu, the paramount chief of Verata, Rokomoutu holds and can be identified with the traditional title 2of the ‘Ratu.’ It was said that when the first Fijian’s left Lake Tanganyika in Africa for Fiji, the daughter of Lutunasobasoba (the chieftain of the group) asked to take with her some pet fish. In Fiji, the fishes (Sardinella fijiense) known as Daniva or sardines, were put in the Verata waters by the princess. So catching the fish with a spear or using of fine nets or fishing lines were prohibited. Normally the Trevallies would swim after the Daniva and push them close to land and during this pursuit there would be a lot of splashing �noise on the beach. People would normally go to the beach and pick the Daniva. When the fishes were in Verata, Rokomoutu, one day tried to use his spear on them. He threw his spear, missed them and it landed on the rocks. He slipped, hitting his knee on the rock (today, the mark of his spear and his knee on the rocks are still evident). Furious, he said to the fishes, “go down to Naigani (an island about 37.5 kilometers north of Verata as shown on the map) where I will not see or hear you, and when I want to drink boiled water, I will come down for you” (oral history recording with Naigani village elder, 2004) The people of Naigani would catch the Trevallies as they come close to land with the sardines. Similar to the Norse folklore of Thor and his goats, when consuming the Trevallies, the bones are not allowed to be broken. The bones are then carefully placed back in the water where it comes back to life. According to the people of Naigani, one can easily tell the difference between a newly formed Trevally from an old one and this is a traditional practice that is still carried out today. 2. The sacred passage between the island of Ovalau and Naigani One of the oral accounts collected from Naigani was that there were two cousins named Laginiwasa and Rakavono. One day, the cousins ate the young germinating coconut palms, which is called ‘vara’ in the iTaukei dialect. The vara had been planted by Laginiwasa’s father Ratu (chief) Matanabalavu. Hearing Ratu Matanabalavu coming, Rakavono fled but not before he was seen by Ratu Matanabalavu. Encountering Laginiwasa and enraged at his behavior, Ratu Matanabalavu banished him from the island. Laginiwasa took his double hull canoe (drua) and fled to the island of Moturiki which is south of Ovalau Island (Ramoli and Nunn, 2001). �A few days later Ratu Matanabalavu confronted Rakavono and told him that he must leave the island as Laginiwasa had done. Lacking his own drua, Rakavono swam to Rukuruku on the northwestern coast of Ovalau island (Ramoli and Nunn, 2001). According to the oral narrative, the path when Rakavono swam, is a warm passage about 8 kilometers in distance. Several fishermen from both Naigani and Ovalau have swam the passage without any swimming aid stating that the warmth provided buoyancy and any cold water encountered during the swim meant that the path where Rakavono swam was not being followed. 3. The sacred stone of Matuku Matuku is an island located in the Lau group (southeast of Viti Levu). It was also the only island in the Lau group that was not conquered by the Tongan army led by the Tongan prince, Enele Ma’afu’out’itonga (around the 1840s). On the eastern end of the island, there is a stone which is submerged during high tides. The stone, reddish in color is almost rectangular in form and about 1 meter x 1.5 meters in dimension can be found amidst beach cobbles near Levukaidaku village. This reddish stone displays traditional relationships between Levukaidaku and the neighbouring village, Raviravi. According to the oral accounts collected from both villages, giant tidal waves occur instantaneously when a villager from Raviravi walks past the stone. Similarly, another reddish stone which is smaller in size is located about 20 meters west of the previous one happens to cause giant tidal waves when it is disrespected through speech or action. �The giant waves can only be calmed when a clan member from Levukaidaku performs a ritual by covering the red stones with leaves from a particular tree. 4. The sacred mosquito crevice, Matacaucau Along the eastern coast of the main island, Viti Levu, there is a mysterious maritime site. This is a crevice at the foot of a cliff at high water mark. The crevice is called ‘Qara ni namu.’ Qara is opening and namu is mosquito. The Qara ni namu contains mythical history. It is said that this was a gift by Rokomoutu who was the leader of one of the migrating party from the hills of Nakauvadra. While sailing across towards Verata Ucunivanua, strong winds tore his sails and he decided to seek shelter close to land to mend his sails. As a gift for the people that helped him, Rokomoutu presented a parcel containing mosquitoes, which was supposed to be his present to the Turaga na Ratu from Verata to awake him every morning. This was instead gifted to the people of Matacaucau for their assistance. The villagers of Matacaucau relayed stories that anyone who disturbed the Qara ni namu would suffer dire consequences in that mosquitoes would swarm the village resistant to repellents and sleeping nets. It was also relayed that during ceremonial festivities young men would purposefully stir the Qara ni namu to Conclusion Pacific Islanders are deeply connected with the ocean. The ocean as the source of life, the medium for transportation between islands and sustaining livelihoods, much of the Pacific’s history is related to the use of the ocean where some of it are now underwater. �Similarly, the Fiji Islands is littered with historical sites related to maritime heritage. This paper offers a glimpse of the diversity of distribution of maritime heritage sites, most of which are connected through myths and legends and have unexplainable occurrences. However, these mysterious heritage sites are considered in the iTaukei language as the ‘sau ni vanua’ or the power of the land and its people. On the contrary, current climatic conditions should also be considered. Fiji is experiencing the threats of global sea level rise where a total of 64 coastal villages are earmarked for relocation. More than 3 villages have already been relocated under the National Climate Change Fund and the Archaeology Department is mapping a proactive strategic plan on the potential of documenting all community related heritage in affected villages which will add to the list of underwater heritage in the future. Given that human and financial resources are lacking, the Fiji Museum will slowly proceed and continue to document underwater cultural heritage sites while working in collaboration with other government agencies and NGOs in creating awareness on the significance and protection of UCH. Endnotes 1 Preservation of Objects of Paleontological Interest Act: (Laws of Fiji, Chapter 264) 2 Title, name by which a person or group is identified, the (usually honorific) name by which a kin-group is known or, less commonly, their plant, fish or other animal (Gatty, 2009). References Gatty R, 2009, Fijian-English Dictionary with notes on Fijian culture and natural history, Publication under the Auspices of the Southeast Asia program Cornel University, New York. �Government of Fiji, 1940. Chapter 264: Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Palaeontological Interest in Laws of Fiji. Government Printery, Suva, Fiji Islands, Pp 2 Nakoro E. 2014. The Fiji Museum’s Efforts Towards the Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites in Fiji, Session 3, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development, the Proceedings of 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, May 12-16, Honolulu, Hawaii. Pp 99-112. Nakoro E. and Matararaba S. 2014, Archaeological Assessment Report: Report prepared for the Vanua of Waimaro Levulevu specifically for the villages of Verata Ucunivanua and Matacaucau, Fiji Museum, Suva, Fiji. Ramoli A. and Nunn P. 2001, Naigani Island and its historical connections with Ovalau and Moturiki Islands: convergences between legend and fact, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247769057, accessed on the 16th July, 2017. BBC, 1960, The People of Paradise, video, episodes 1 & 2 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 1: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) spanning human history from the Stone Age to the atomic age. Since the first Pacific UCH Workshop held in Solomon Islands in 2009, the Pacific island nations have been progressing in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme by awareness raising, research and capacity building activities through inter-disciplinary cooperation and promoting synergy with the Pacific World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage Programmes. Notable progresses include, among others, the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Outcome Document of the 3rd UN International Cooperation on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Samoa, 2014) that contains references to the importance of UCH for sustainable development of SIDS and SIDS ratification of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), as well as the enhanced cooperation between universities in the Pacific islands and professional training institutions through UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN) for Underwater Archaeology. With this as its background, the session “Underwater and maritime archaeology and capacity building in the Pacific Islands” will be held with the aims to: i) share information on recent progress in awareness raising, research and capacity building activities in underwater and maritime archaeology in the Pacific Islands, ii) identify priority actions, iii) foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. The session especially welcomes presentations focusing on the protection and management of UCH belonging to indigenous community shared UCH in the Pacific, addressing challenges and opportunities facing Pacific SIDS in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme and the promotion of the UCH Convention, presenting good practice in ensuring the effective engagement of Pacific island countries and community in UCH management for their sustainable development, and proposing collaborative projects in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, Samoa Andrew Viduka, Maritime and Commonwealth Heritage, Australian Government, Nicolas Bigourdan, Western Australian Museum Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Sacred and Cultural Maritime Sites of Fiji-An Inventory in the Making Description An account of the resource The Fiji Museum Archaeology Department, since 2015, has begun inventorying the different underwater and maritime sites in Fiji. Ratification of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and review of the legislation on the Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Palaeontological Interest Act (Chapter 264) has had little fruition due to limitations in manpower and resources. The Fiji Museum has however taken first steps towards realizing the amendment of the legislation by developing and drafting an overarching policy for the institution. The Fiji Museum continues to deliberate on the draft policy encompassing all aspects of its services, which includes underwater and maritime cultural heritage sites, to ensure that Fiji’s cultural heritage is protected. This paper will elaborate on the different types of underwater/maritime cultural heritage sites in Fiji and the inventory process of documenting and creating a database, including challenges and opportunities. It will highlight the importance of the database in assisting the Fiji Museum in its work to raise awareness and provide advice to Government and relevant authorities in the respect, preservation and protection of these submerged historical treasures. The paper will also highlight the various agencies with common goals to protect underwater cultural sites and discuss the importance of interagency collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elia Nakoro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Elia Nakoro Asia-Pac Session 1 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Sea Route of the Sunken Ancient Vessel on the Seabed off Sinan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mu-Byong Youn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 1977 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Mu-Byong Youn Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 1977 Pages 18-23 Publication Title Korea Journal Title A name given to the resource The Sea Route of the Sunken Ancient Vessel on the Seabed off Sinan China Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5a1d178ee063643692aeb3f7a48d0ba9.pdf 5caa9671e99f98b4dbcc98e38dfb0c2f PDF Text Text The sea stories and stone sails of Borobudur Douglas Inglis Texas A & M University PO Box 114, Waimanalo, HI, 96795 US E-mail: divingarchaeology@gmail.com Abstract The most profound examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found on the walls of the 9th century Borobudur monument in central Java. As the contemporary assemblage of nautical iconography from Southeast Asia is limited, the ship reliefs play an important role in debates over trade and expansion in India, Indonesia and mainland Southeast Asia. The Borobudur ships are technical depictions, and contain data about rigging, rope use, rowing configurations and outrigger construction. Elements in their design have persisted independently as Indonesian watercraft evolved, including outriggers, bipod masts, canted rectangular sails, and quarter rudders. Discussion has focused on construction features, and scholars have made various assertions about how the vessels might have been built, how they were used, and their origin. The vessels' artistic context is often ignored. The ship reliefs are part of a religious narrative which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should ultimately interpret them. The stories provide important clues as to where each vessel was headed, who was aboard, and what is happening on deck. Despite their detail, the Borobudur vessels should be interpreted cautiously, and not as ancient blueprints. They are artistic renditions that were never meant to float they were meant to inspire. Key words: Borobudur, bas-reliefs, Sailendra, Indonesia, Java, nautical archaeology Introduction The most informative examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found on the ninth century CE Borobudur monument in central Java (Fig. 1). Borobudur is a massive terraced pyramid, decorated with thousands of bas-reliefs that tell stories from the lives of the Buddha, Bodhisattvas and other saintly figures. Javanese artisans depicted 11 boats within the 1,460 elaborately carved stone panels (Fig. 2). Due to the quality of their technical detail, the artistic, religious, and narrative context of the Borobudur vessels is often ignored. This is problematic, because the vessels are 1 �components of Buddhist narratives which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should interpret them. Moreover, examining the Borobudur vessels in the context of their associated seafaring stories provides unique insights into the Javanese perception of sailing, the ocean, and its dangers. Borobudur Members of Java’s Śailendra Dynasty erected Borobudur sometime between 780 and 832 CE (Miksic, 2010:29). Viewed from above, Borobudur’s nine terraced levels resemble a series of nested concentric squares and circles. Fig. 1: Eastern Indonesia, showing the location of Borobudur Thislayout is similar to that of a mandala, a sacred diagram that represents the structure of the universe (Miksic, 2010:37). The unique design of the monument has generated more than a century of debate, yet its ultimate nature remains a mystery. Borobudur seems to have been a place of pilgrimage and instruction. Over the centuries, diverse groups of monks and devotees deposited thousands of votive stupas and clay tablets at the monument (Ray, 2005:318). The visitors continued their pilgrimage as they slowly circled the monument, ascending level by level. The panels on the lower levels depict the core of Buddhist teaching: the Mahakarmavibhanga (laws of karma), the Jātakas (stories of the Buddha's past incarnations), the Lalitavistara (stories from the Buddha's final incarnation), and the Avadānas (stories of other enlightened beings) (Soekmono, 1976:20-36). It is probable that once these basic lessons were mastered, monks might have permitted select pilgrims to ascend to the upper levels containing the more challenging and esoteric teachings of the Gandavyuha and Bhadracari (Miksic, 2010:71). Surrounded by reliefs of holy figures, miracles and magical stories, the visitor was within a scared, mystical world (Miksic, 2010:46). 2 �The Ship Reliefs and Their Artistic Context Eleven ships Borobudur’s are depicted reliefs. They in are remarkably technical depictions, with data about rigging elements, rope use, rowing configurations, and Fig. 2: Vessel I.b.86, Minister Hiru’s ship (from Van Erp, 1923) outrigger construction. Numerous scholars have used the reliefs to expand our understanding of ancient sailing vessels including Van Erp (1923), Hornell (1946), Mookerji (1957), Needham et al. (1978), Horridge (1982), Manguin (1993), Ray (1994), Jahan (2006), and numerous others. Debate has focused on five outrigger vessels with canted rectangular sails, bipod masts, and rowing galleries; they are most akin to kora kora of the 16th and 17th century (Horridge, 1978:9). Due to their exquisite detail, the Borobudur vessels are often treated as ancient blueprints, while their artistic context is ignored. This is problematic, because the vessels are components of religious narratives which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should interpret them. The vessel depicted in panel I.b.86 has inspired several reconstructions. These sailing hypotheses combined information from the reliefs with evidence available from artwork, ethnography, archaeology, and indigenous seafaring traditions. These reconstructions include Sarimanok, commissioned by Robert Hobman and sailed from Java to Madagascar in 1985 (Dennison, 1985), Philip Beale’s full-sized replica, which was launched in 2003 and sailed from Jakarta to Ghana (Beale, 2005), and the Spirit of Majapahit, launched from Jakarta in 2010 on a goodwill voyage to Brunei, the Philippines, Japan, China, Vietnam, Thailand, and Singapore (Antara, 2010, July 5). Erik Peterson used I.b.86 as a set of blueprints to draft a detailed reconstruction (Fig. 3). Petersen (2003:42) hypothesized that the artist "started by making a precise picture of the ship as seen from the side.” To accommodate for some of the obviously skewed 3 �elements, Peterson suggested that the artist changed perspective to illustrate the rowing galleries and outriggers “as seen from above and from in front." Peterson executed this blueprint experiment well, but there are several problems with the 1 Fig. 3: Erik Peterson’s elegant reconstruction of I.b.86 (from Peterson 2003). underlying assumptions. carvings The are not schematic side profiles with elements added in contrary views. The artist who created I.b.86 was a master stone-carver (Van Erp, 1923:19). They chose to depict I.b.86 sailing toward the viewer at an angle, an incredibly difficult illusion to attempt in bas-relief. To show this perspective, the artist exaggerated the stagger of the bipod mast legs and depicted the forward face of the outrigger booms, none of which would be visible in schematic view. The ship tapers dramatically from stem to stern to further reinforce this perspective. The point where the bow enters the water (marked by a furled wave) is close to the lower part of the frame while the break of the stern is positioned much higher. When combined with the tapered form, this slanted waterline gives the impression of an oblique view. The artist tried to simulate this viewpoint in panel I.b.53 as well. The strake lines sweep up to the stem, and down the other side, giving us a head on view of where they meet at the bow. More importantly, I.b.86 is not sitting upright in the water. The artist went to great efforts to show the ship under full sail. The canvas billows in the wind. The rigging is taut. The artist also exaggerated the forward rake of both stem and stern to show that the vessel is heeling over on its side and responding to the force of the wind (this was not corrected in Peterson’s model, which has retained the extreme forward rake of the stem and sternpost).1The artist was attempting to show a dramatic three-dimensional view. 4 �Peterson (2003:42) hypothesized that while the individuals aboard the vessels were exaggerated, "the relative size of all the ship parts seemed to be accurately represented.” In his reconstruction of I.b.86, Peterson insightfully suggested that each of the modules in the rowing gallery accommodated one individual, and derived a waterline length of 16.4m (23.4 m overall) by estimating that the distance between each of the "modules" in the rowing gallery was 1 m (Petersen, 2003: 52). However, size is seldom realistic in ancient iconography. Manguin (1993:263) correctly observes that "with very few exceptions, iconographic representations of sailing vessels teach us little of the structure and size of the craft depicted… …What one learns from these depictions concerns the superstructure: how many masts and sails were used and what their shape was, the position and number of rudders, and whether or not outriggers were present." Fig. 4: Multiple panel layouts. I.b.53 has three subdivision, while I.b.86 is divided in two (based on images from www.photodharma.net, Anandajoti, 2013). 5 �Panel proportions and division are the primary factors determining the size, shape, and complexity of the Borobudur vessels. The long panels of the first gallery are commonly divided in half or in thirds (Fig. 4). These sub-divisions show related scenes, a progression of events, or serve to clarify the characters and activities depicted. The watercraft in half-panel format (I.b.86, I.b.88 and I.b.88) have much more detail than those compressed into third-panel format (I.a.115, I.b.23, I.b.53, I.b.82) or those on the Balustrades (I.B.a.54 and I.B.a.193).We can see the effects of compression when we compare three of the outrigger-type ships, I.b.53, I.b.86, and I.b.88. Each has the exact same configuration of an outrigger with three booms, rowing galleries, bowsprit, and two bipod masts. I.b.53 is shortest, with 6 rowing stations and 6 sailors, I.b.88 has 10stations and 10 sailors, while I.b.86 is the longest with 12 stations and 19 sailors. One could argue that each panel represents different sized vessels (Manguin, 2010:185). This is not necessarily the case. Vertically, each ship consistently fills 90-95% of the panel. The yard ends nearly reach the top of the frame, while there is only a small gap of water between the outrigger and the bottom of the frame. I.b.86 fills a much greater horizontal area than I.b.53, which makes I.b.86 appear long and skinny while I.b.53 looks practically tubby. They have the exact same configuration, and likely represent the same type of vessel, just compressed and uncompressed according to the work space. The point of these observations and critiques is that the Borobudur Vessels were not created in a vacuum. They are framed by other scenes. The needs of those scenes dictated how much space the artist could work with. If space wasample, they created a beautiful, intricate vessel such as I.b.86. If they had to include more events, the artists allocated less space to the ships and compressed their features, as with I.b.53.In examining the details of these ships, it is important to remember that the vessels are components of stories. The activities and individuals aboard are the centerpieces of the narratives, while the watercrafts are elaborations. Seafaring Stories and Buddhism The maritime folklore associated with the Borobudur vessels is critical to their interpretation. Sea stories have deep roots in the literature of India. The second millennium BCE hymns of the Rigveda mention merchant voyages and sailing to distant 6 �islands.2 Although Vedic literature mentions incidents in the sea, it does not provide evidence of extensive maritime travel (Ray, 2003:13). Shaw (2012:131) observes that surprisingly, almost no travel by watercraft occurs in India’s great epics the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana. Where sea travel is mentioned, it is in similes and metaphor. For instance, the Karna Parva (Book 8 of the Mahābhārata) describes overwhelming grief like "shipwrecked mariners struggling on the bosom of the vast deep" (Ganguli, 1889:II) while the Anugita Parva (Book 14) compares joy to the elation of castaways who have made it safely to shore (Ganguli, 1896:LXX). The absence of sea travel likely reflects the prohibitions against travel by boat found in Indian scripture and codes of law. The dharmasūstras goes as far as to equate sea travel and maritime trade with crimes such as theft from a Brahmin (Shaw, 2012:13).3 Later codes of laws, such as the Manusmṛti (from the beginning of the first millennium CE), deal with practical aspects of riverine transport (Buhler, 1969: pt. 8). Buddhist maritime folklore demonstrates a familiarity with seafaring that is not found in earlier Indian literature. The Jātakas contain numerous references to ship building and ship operation (Ray, 1994:180). The texts knowledgably describe the roles of captain and crew (Schlingloff, 1988:198).This familiarity is not surprising, as the Jātaka and Avadāna traditions matured in the first half of the first millennium CE when a series of Fig. 5: Vessel I. .a. , sho ing up raga and the mouth of the ocean (from Van Erp, 1923) trade booms between China, India and the West drove new developments in sailing, the expansion of maritime trading networks, and the proliferation of ports (see Hall 1985; Ray 1994; Christie 1998; Manguin 2004). During this period, developments in Buddhis men courage maritime development by removing Brahmanical stigmas associated with travel, trade, and outsiders (Wheatley, 1983:272) and by embracing private wealth as a vehicle that could serve spiritual needs 7 �(Holcombe, 1999:280).Hall (1985:37) concludes that Mahāyāna Buddhism was a direct response to the expanding world of commerce. Pilgrims, missionaries, and monastics traveling along the trade networks between India and China spread Buddhist teachings as they went. Kandahjaya (2004:73-79) calculates that between the third and sixteenth centuries CE, approximately half of these initial Buddhist “transmitters” followed the sea lanes that connected India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, China, and the Indonesian Archipelago. Buddhists established monastic communities which conscientiously served the spiritual and material needs of the laity. This created intimate connections with local villages and trading groups resulting in an “interactive support system” (Ray 1994:122; Ray, 2005:320). The resulting contact between Buddhists and maritime communities created conditions conducive to the incorporation of maritime folklore into Buddhist scripture. Seafaring stories would have been an important part of the oral traditions, song, dance, and dramatic performances throughout maritime Asia (Shaw 2012:132). 5Buddhists capitalized on the excitement, danger, avarice, and courage inherent in maritime folklore, and populated Jātakas and Avadānas with greedy merchants, daring sailors, horrible sea monsters, oceans filled with treasure, islands populated by demons, spirits, and goddesses. These dangers and temptations became components of a vast metaphor in which the ocean represents saṃsāra, the endless cycle of death and rebirth, and crossing the ocean represents the process of awakening, searching for understanding, finding salvation, acquiring merit, and obtaining enlightenment (Shaw 2012:133; Tatelman 2013:114). Just as the Buddha offered salvation from the cycle of saṃsāra, bodhisattvas developed into saviors that could be called on by sailors during times of distress (specifically Avalokiteśvara/Padmapāni/Guānyīn, see Rao, 1991: 1856; Ray, 1994: 153; Ohnuma, 1998: 337-40). Heroes and Mariners Buddhist seafaring stories are unique, both in their presentation of the nautical/maritime traveler as hero (Shaw, 2012:130), and in their focus on the lower classes of people(e.g. traders, craftsmen, sailors, etc.) who are generally below description in the Vedic texts (Hall, 1985:37). Borobudur’s intricate reliefs provide an intimate look at both heroes and 8 �sailors as they were conceived in the ninth century CE. An example is the story of Suppāraka/Supāraga the blind navigator (Jātaka No. 463, the Suppāraka-jātaka and Jātakamāla No. 14, Supāraga-jātaka), carved in panels I.B.a.53-55). Suppāraka (a former incarnation of the Buddha) was a master navigator. He lost his sight as he grew old, and retired from seafaring. A group of merchants (from Bharuch, west India) beseeched him to join their voyage to suvarṇabhūmi, the lands of gold (often identified as the Malay Peninsula).A gale blew their ship across sixseas until they eventually came to the jaws of the ocean at the end of the earth. Suppāraka knew that only a miracle could save them. He cried out "Friends, bathe me speedily in scented water, and put new garments upon me, prepare a full bowl, and set me in front of the ship" (Rouse, 1901: 90). Properly prepared, Suppāraka leapt to the bow, used both hands to pour libations into the sea, and uttered his saccakiriyā, an assertion of truth so powerful that it can transform reality (Fig. 5).6The power of his invocation propelled the ship back across all six oceans in a single day (Rouse, 1901: 86-90). Fig. 6: A close-up of figures from the relief, sho ing upp raka pouring out libations in I.B.a.54, and prayer and ceremony from I.b.86 (based on images from www.photodharma.net, Anandajoti, 2013). 9 �Without knowing the story of Suppāraka, it would be difficult to identify many aspects of the crowded ship depicted in I.B.a.54. Clearly the sea monster is a source of distress. However, without knowing the story, it would be impossible to know that it represents the devouring mouth of the ocean at the edge of the world. The Jātakamāla (No. 14) describes the behavior of the ship’s crew during the horrendous gale: “Some were overcome by affliction and stood speechless with terror, some behaved courageously and were busily working to avert the danger, and some were absorbed in prayers to their tutelar deities”(Speyer, 1895: 177 vv. 8). The exact same three reactions (terror, courage, and prayer) are mirrored in the stones of Borobudur. Some of the crew are acting courageously, fighting to control the sail. One is standing on the yard and wrestling with the sail while three are in the stern hauling on the ropes. Desperate passengers in the center of the ship are jettisoning the cargo. Two sitting figures have placed their faces in their hands, sobbing in despair. Another figure has his hand raised high, perhaps calling on the gods. Thanks to the Pāli text (Jātaka No. 463), we know that this figure on the bow is Suppāraka, pouring forth libations exactly as described in the narrative (Rouse, 1901:89), Van Erp, 1923:16). Importance of the Narratives The actions and reactions of the nearly one-hundred figures aboard the Borobudur Vessels provide important insights into how the Javanese perceived seafaring. Panel I.b.23 shows mariners laboring to raise a sail while their comrades spend time catching fish. Panels I.b.108, I.B.a.54, and I.B.a193 show us how seamen reacted to a storm – some struggle to save the ship, a few pray to their gods, others yet cling to the rigging in terror while their comrades are thrown into the tumultuous sea. Panel I.b.86 is famous because it provides elaborate technical details of how Southeast Asian shipwrights constructed watercraft during the classical age. However, I.b.86also teaches us a great deal about ancient seafaring. Hiru’s voyage in the Rudrayana-avadana (Divyāvadāna No. 37) is the epitome of a successful expedition; its depiction in I.b.86 correspondingly shows us what an ideal voyage should look like. The crew are lively about the ship, hauling on the rigging and setting the sails. They show bravery by conducting daring acts at the masthead and bowsprit. They are religious and mindful, performing the 10 �proper rituals at the bow of the vessel (Fig. 6). Hiru sits high in the stern, vigilant, and directing his ship to a successful landfall. The Borobudur vessels are components of Buddhist narratives which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should interpret them. Examination of the figures demonstrates that the Borobudur vessels can provide more information about ancient seafaring than just the technical configurations of Southeast Asian watercraft. They are material evidence of the intimate connection between Buddhism and seafaring, and provide unique insights into the Javanese perception of sailing, the ocean, and its dangers. Footnotes 1 If we look at other vessels of this type, the forward rake of the stem is not as prominent, and the sternpost is actually raked slightly aft (as with I.b.88 and I.b.108). 2 For examples, see Griffith (1896: v. I.25.7, I.48.3, I.56.2, I.116.3-5, and VII.88.3). 3 Shaw (2012: 130–1) also points out that Brahmins were traveling between India and Southeast Asia, so the prohibitions may not have been as serious as these laws seem to indicate. 4 The Manusmṛti contains rules concerning - , 1969: pt. 8). 5 Shaw (2012:132) suggests that these vernacular versions probably thrived in ancient India, but were almost never preserved in Hindu literature as high“ adventure, or ” 6 S k ā “A T ” “T ” w k k ā k w w w S ā k w T w manifest the speakers wish, in this case, delivering the ship back to shore (Kong, 2012: 7–8). w l and fact (in the case of Bibliography Anandajoti, Bhante, 2013. Photographs from the Photodharma.net. Accessed August http://www.photodharma.net/Indonesia/Indonesia.htm Borobudur 10, Monument. 2013, Antara, 2010 (July 5). Spirit of Majapahit to sail to eight countries in pride building sea voyage. The Jakarta Globe. 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Barabudur: Archaeological Description. Vols. I. Martinus Nijoff, The Hague. Manguin, Pierre-Yves, 1993. Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 36 (3): 253-280. Manguin, Pierre-Yves, 2010. The Ships on the Borobudur Reliefs. In John. N. Miksic, Noerhadi Magestari, Jan Fontein, Timbul Maryono, and Idham Bachtiar Setiadi (Eds.), Borobudur: majestic, mysterious, magnificent, Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur, Prambanan & Ratu Boko; Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia:180-185. 12 �Miksic, John N., 2010. Borobudur in the Beginning. In John. N. Miksic, Noerhadi Magestari, Jan Fontein, Timbul Maryono, and Idham Bachtiar Setiadi (Eds.), Borobudur: majestic, mysterious, magnificent, Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur, Prambanan & Ratu Boko; Sleman, Yogyakarta, Indonesia:26-75. Mookerji, Radha Kumud. 1957. 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Rao (Ed.), Recent Advance in Maritime Archaeology: Proceedings of the Second Indian Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries January, 1990. Society for Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Archaeology, Goa, India: 185-188. Ray, Himanshu Prabha, 1994. The winds of change: Buddhism and the maritime links of early south Asia. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Ray, Himanshu Prabha, 2003. The archaeology of seafaring in ancient South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ray, Himanshu Prabha, 2005. The Axial Age in Asia: the archaeology of Buddhism (500 B.C.-A.D. 500). In Miram T. Stark (Ed.) The Archaeology of Asia, Blackwell Publishing, Malden and Oxford. Rouse, W. H. D. (trans.), 1901. he Jātaka; or, Stories of the Buddha's former births.Vol. IV. Cowell, Edward B., (Ed.). University Press, Cambridge. Shaw, Sarah, 2012. Crossing to the farthest shore: How Pāli Jātakas launch the Buddhist image of the boat onto the open seas. Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, Vol. 3: 128-56 Schlingloff, Dieter. 1988. Studies in the Ajanta paintings: identifications and interpretations. Ajanta Publications, Delhi. 13 �Tatelman, Joel. 2005. The heavenly exploits. New York University Press, New York. Wheatley, Paul, 1983. āgara and c mmandery: origins of the Southeast Asian urban traditions. University of Chicago, Dept. of Geography, Chicago. Van Erp, Th., 1923. Voorstellingen van vaartuigen op de reliefs van den Boroboed er M n graphie n ver unst en ultuur 1. di-Poestaka: 'S-Gravenhage. Biography Douglas Inglis studies the archaeology of seaborne exploration and contact. He is a graduate student in the Nautical Archaeology Program at Texas A&M, a professional archae l gist at ultural Surveys Ha aiʻi and a member the Explorers Club. Doug served as assistant director of the Warwick Shipwreck Project in Bermuda and the ongoing Rockley Bay Research Project in Tobago. He is passionate about public history and outreach, and writes about nautical archaeology at http://divingarchaeology.com. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The sea stories and stone sails of Borobudur Description An account of the resource The most profound examples of ancient Southeast Asian ship iconography are found on the walls of the 9th century Borobudur monument in central Java. As the contemporary assemblage of nautical iconography from Southeast Asia is limited, the ship reliefs play an important role in debates over trade and expansion in India, Indonesia and mainland Southeast Asia. The Borobudur ships are technical depictions, and contain data about rigging, rope use, rowing configurations and outrigger construction. Elements in their design have persisted independently as Indonesian watercraft evolved, including outriggers, bipod masts, canted rectangular sails, and quarter rudders. Discussion has focused on construction features, and scholars have made various assertions about how the vessels might have been built, how they were used, and their origin. The vessels' artistic context is often ignored. The ship reliefs are part of a religious narrative which directly influenced how the panels were designed, how the ships were portrayed, and how we should ultimately interpret them. The stories provide important clues as to where each vessel was headed, who was aboard, and what is happening on deck. Despite their detail, the Borobudur vessels should be interpreted cautiously, and not as ancient blueprints. They are artistic renditions that were never meant to float - they were meant to inspire. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Douglas Inglis, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Sea-craft of Prehistory Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Paul Johnstone Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Routledge & Kegan Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Paul Johnstone Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Routledge & Kegan Paul Title A name given to the resource The Sea-craft of Prehistory