59 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/854b3dc5565480f16ba585b8cfed5361.pdf f5562a49b190d7aeac26899f686ff330 PDF Text Text The Old Biray in Pandan, Caoayan: An underwater cultural heritage assessment Eliza Agabin1, Michael Armand P. Canilao2, Marie Grace Pamela G. Faylona3 Abstract This paper presents the preliminary assessment arising out of a survey of Pandan Site (NM Site Code I4 2011-I1) , a maritime site featuring an abandoned traditional Biray vessel located along the Mestizo River in Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, Northwest Luzon. The site position is perpendicular to the West Philippine Sea (formerly South China Sea) and lies under an abandoned Abra Delta. It is considered as an inland and coastal boat. The structural remains of the vessel have a length of 18 meters (m) and a width of 5m. It is visible during low tide and is characterized by flat hull with ribs, pointed bow and stern. Initial investigation did not observe any evidence of a keel. Based on local oral histories, the boat may be between 80 to 150 years old. The role of this traditional vessel is re-examined in the Northern Luzon trade network extending as far south as Manila to as far North as the Babuyan Channel. An integral part of this research is the reevaluation of Biray and its cargo that traces old Biray trading routes. The paper also covers “historical data” on structure and construction of the boat that can come in handy for future maritime excavation of the vessel. The context, environment and condition of the site are also described. Moreover, it identifies the significance and vulnerability of the site. This concludes with an evaluation of the vessel and the position of the site as regards to underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Introduction Underwater archaeological investigations and related histories is a fairly new field that started in the 1960s as compared to terrestrial archaeology which dates back to the 14th century. As such land-based archaeology has yielded enormous information on our cultural heritage but the world’s water still retain many secrets that need to be discovered and explored. The Philippines is one of the biggest archipelagos in Asia which features different types of bodies of water. These bodies of water namely, oceans, seas and major waterways, played an integral role in Philippine navigation and maritime prehistory. In this paper, development of trade routes and boats used for trading is the focus of research. However, this research only confines itself to the province of Ilocos Sur located in Northern Luzon where a local boat called biray was reported. A biray or (sometimes called as virey, birey or viray) was described as an “unsteady” vessel navigated only near the shore (Galang 1941:304). This vessel is commonly found in Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur and La Union. 1 Heritage Affairs Office, Provincial Government Ilocos Sur eliza@eccena.org Archaeological Studies Program, University of the Philippines DIliman migscanilao@yahoo.com 3 Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines pamelafaylona77@gmail.com 4 the site is the 9th (letter I) archaeological site documented within the Ilocos political- administrative Region (Region I) and it was discovered in the year 2011. 2 �The Study Area Ilocos Sur Physical Background The province of Ilocos Sur lies on a north- south basin bounded on the east by the provinces of Abra, Mountain Province and Benguet provinces within the Grand Cordillera Mountains. The basin is divided into three main regions, namely: the Laoag embayment, the Vigan- Abra high, and the coastal folded belt. Folding and faulting are active in the region. It is said that the Ilocos plain is actually an uplifted deep marine sedimentary basin. This was caused by the active subduction of the West Philippine Sea seafloor under the Philippine plate (Dado 1997:3). This in turn resulted in active volcanism in the Western flank of Northern Luzon, wherein Ilocos served as the forearc basin. The coastal Ilocos plain measures almost 300 kilometers north to south with notable variance only in width. Some places are as wide as 120 kilometers. The Abra River breaking through the steep and high mountain chain is perhaps the grandest scenery in Ilocos - aptly called the Banaoang Gap. The West Philippine Sea puffs this plains area with the summer or southwestern monsoon from the West. Fortunately it is shielded on the east by the Grand Cordillera Mounts. This is the reason why the region is occasionally spared from the wrath of fully developed Pacific formed typhoons. Monsoon climate has also maintained the interchange of extremely rainy from May to October, and extremely droughty from November to April. Drought increases as one moves from Ilocos Sur to Ilocos Norte (Wernstedt and Spencer 1967:328-342). The Ilocos plain is not as agriculturally viable as the central Luzon plain mainly due to this extreme climate and the fact that stream-wash deposition causes a discontinuum in the agricultural cycle. Only hardy field crops like tobacco and corn can withstand such conditions. It has been said that the physical setting of Ilocos largely contributed to the hardiness and resilience of the Ilocano. Steep slopes, thin soils, strongly seasonal precipitation, and limited arable land have required maximum labors for survival. The Ilocano is well known, both in the Philippines and abroad for his willingness to work and his work capacity… An overcrowded homeland has encouraged out migration into other areas where his presence is quickly evidenced by his hardwork and attendant economic success (Wernstedt and Spencer 1967:332) Ilocos Sur Cultural Background, Ethnohistory and the Trading Routes Ilocos Sur has been straddled with ancient coastal maritime trading centers and secondary maritime trading centers long before the Spanish Contact period (16th c). This was further elucidated by Grace Estela Mateo talking about the history of Ilocos Sur: Geography favored Ilocos as a site for a trading entrepot. It’s location in the far north meant that it was the gateway to the Philippines for traders from Eastern Asia… the irregular coastline of Ilocos Sur and La Union formed fine harbors… it is not surprising then that it became a center of a regional and international trading network in the 16th c (Mateo 2004:43) �The Vigan- Caoayan trading center was probably the most sizeable entrepot to have developed in the area. Secondary centers may have included Santa Lucia, Salomague, Candon, Tagudin, and Sinait among others (Keesing 1962:97-98, 123124). In the pre-Hispanic Ilocano-Itneg epic Biag ni Lam-ang (The Life of Lam-ang), one of the earliest recorded oral literatures in the Philippines, one may get an idea of the close connections between the peoples of Ilocos and China as linked by trading routes (AA, Manila). The hero Lam-ang boasts: Dua pay ti sasakayan a balitok a bulawan nga agbubunag ti pinggan idiay ili a Kasanglayan, ta nalpas met a naikamang iti ari idiay Puanpuan. I have two gold tradeships plying between here and the Chinese country trading in porcelain. I have commercial connections with the king of Puanpuan, Isu ti partesko ken kabagian idiay ili a Kasanglayan, isu ti napanna nagbiahian tay barangayko a sampan; pamayak adda itan, ta napan nagkarga ti pinggan. (Yabes 1935: 38) My relative in that Chinese land. My boat sampan has gone there on a voyage, and probably now it has returned with its cargo of porcelain. The existence of pre-Hispanic trading entrepots in Ilocos was also confirmed in the documented initial Spanish incursion in the area led by the conquistador Juan de Salcedo ( de San Agustin 1572 in delos Reyes 1890). The Historical or Contact period in Ilocos was, in fact, ushered in by the entry of this youthful Spanish conquistador when his ship hugged the Ilocos coastline as he sailed around the northern tip of Luzon. Juan de Salcedo moved up North the coast of Ilocos Sur in 1572. He left Dumanquake (present day Santa Lucia) in early June that year then landed on Caoayan by nightfall. He sailed inland and reached the pre-Hispanic trading settlement of Vigan, where he was engaged by the Ilocanos in combat. Aside from the pueblo of Vigan, he also mentions that the very old neighboring pueblo called Bantay had a well protected port (Keesing 1962:123). The Ilocos shipping tradition probably paralleled the opening of port- entrepots in Ilocos Sur. The ports of Caoayan (Vigan), and Cagayan traded with Manila from as early as the 16th century (c). This exchange was mentioned in Description of the Philippine Islands, an unsigned document dated 1618. Cargo coming from Ilocos included agricultural products notably surplus rice and cotton. This surplus Iloko rice became an annual export to Manila during the dry season, when the northeast winds were favourable for sea travel between Ilocos and Manila. The Biray in Ilocos Sur Biray in the Know �The vessels used to facilitate the Manila- Iloko- Cagayan exchange were the Biray. Such vessels usually docked in Manila between February and March (Scott 1982:88). Maharlika Cuevas and Rey Santiago also give a brief description of the biray: (Biray) is a very light boat with two or three tiers of rowers per band, when they have people for it sitting down. It has counterweights made of bamboos and placed outside the body of the vessel on both sides. This boat is manufactured in the Ilocos region, while garay is used in Manila Bay and Laguna Lake areas. (Cuevas and Santiago 2004:8) Figure 1: Parts of a Biray (after Cuevas and Santiago 2004; C.Q. Caoayan) There are local terms for the different parts of an Iloko biray (see Figure 1). The vessel shell is called the kaha. The anchor is called angkla. The rudder is called the timon. The cabin is called the camarote. The two biray masts are called palo. The sail which is supported by the palo is called the layag, made of abel Ilocos, the thick and sturdy handwoven cloth of the region. Abacca rope or arsia is generally used as vessel rigging especially for the pala and layag. The pulley suspended in the palo is called the moton, which is itself suspended on a kawit moton. The bowsprit is called the cabrisante (CQ, Caoayan). The Site of Biray The Occular of the Biray in Pandan The remains of biray vessel are located in Brgy. Pandan in the coastal plain of Caoayan, Ilocos Sur (see Figure 2). It is located in the former delta of Abra with Global Positioning System (GPS) bearings of N 17.534266°, E 120.373916° with the bow oriented at 21° N-NE (stern at 201°). Further inland of the coastal plain are the ridges of Mount Binitalo and Mount Gusing. The biray is within the shore sands of Barangay Pandan. It is interesting to note that the vessel is visible only during low tides this indicates that the area has an active marine and land milieu. �Figure 2. Location map of the biray (after Googleearth 2010) The biray was observed to be leaning on its Starboard side. In fact, the stem post tilts starboard at 48° from upright position. Vessel dimension based on exposed ribs shows an overall length of approximately 18 m, and a widest possible width of between 4.5 to 5 m. �Figure 3: Photo of the Biray at Pandan site in situ circa 1980s (courtesy of G.S., Caoayan) The vessel is conclusively identified as a biray because oral historical accounts of Caoayan locals indicate that this biray is within living memory of the locals. In fact a maximum possible age of 100 was suggested (MI, Vigan). A photo of the Biray in situ was even made available by Mayor Goulart for reference (see Figure 3). �Figure 4: Biray in situ at Pandan Site with stem post at foreground (by Michael Canilao) Surveys Conducted in the Site Two surveys of the biray at Pandan site (NM site code I-2011-I1) were conducted in the second quarter of 2011. The first survey was initiated by the Provincial Government of Ilocos Sur through Vice Governor DV Savellano in coordination with the Municipal Government of Caoayan through Mayor Germelina Goulart. An authority for archaeological exploration of Caoayan Municipality was secured from the Director of the National Museum (CPD-SA-2011-05) by National Museum (NM) Research Associate Michael P. Canilao. The survey was, in fact, a component activity of a province-wide undertaking dubbed the Ilocos Sur Archaeological Project (ISAP). The Pandan survey �was done in conjunction with archaeological excavations done at Sapilang Site (NM site code I-2011-H1) in Sinait Municipality from late May to early June 2011. Caoayan Barangay officials have suggested that the survey be conducted at low tide in order to maximize visibility of the biray. Working closely with Eliza Agabin, the Heritage Consultant of the Province of Ilocos Sur, a survey was implemented in the first of May 2011 after due consultation with the San Fernando, La Union tide chart. A rakit (bamboo raft) was boarded for transit to the site. A second survey was led by a Museum Researcher Pamela G. Faylona of the Archaeology Division NM together with Barangay Captain John Subrano and Padre Burgos Museum personnel, Efren Vista in mid-June. Besides noting the vessel’s provenance, they also observe the geomorphology of the area. The vessel was located in a former delta and within the small to medium river channel. This shows that the present coastline is dynamic. The coastline is fed by a river and backed by a coastal plain with more than 5 km width. Moreover, it presents the shoreline change and coastal landscape development in Caoayan and neighboring coastlines. Observed in situ, what remains of the biray are boat ribs partially protruding out of the murky and brackish water. These ribs are visibly joined or fastened with what appears to be metal pegs. It can be surmised that most of the biray structure laid buried in sand since water depth at the time of survey was barely two feet. This indicates that there is a good chance that the buried part is still well-preserved. However, the exposed ribbing is also in tact because it is afforded protection from the elements by brackish water shells/ barnacles that have completely adhered to the exposed wood. Significance The Biray The biray played a very important role to the people of Ilocos, Cagayan, and Manila. Its operation brought in valuable goods to the Christianized population in the Cagayan valley (starting from the 16th c) which remained isolated for the most part of the Spanish- Contact Period. The birays travelling via the Babuyan Channel, north of the valley, were the only means of bringing in supplies to the valley which was bordered by the Sierra Madre to the east and the Cordillera Mountains to the west, both of which intersect to the south. For the local coastal communities in Northern Luzon, the cargo-carrying biray was central to traditional product exchange system from the pre-Spanish-contact (14th to 15th c) until the American contact period (late 19th to early 20th c). To Cagayan went rice, salt, garlic, onions, tobacco, damili earthenware, stoneware burnay, raw maguey fibers, and fish nets from Ilocos, as well as salt and bagoong (fermented fish paste) from Pangasinan (MI, Vigan). To Ilocos the biray carried forest items such as lumber and palm leaves from Cagayan (JL, Manila). The biray also served as a vessel not only facilitating the exchange of goods, but as well as people, technologies, ideas, and cultural communications among Ilocos and Cagayan. A significant number of the population of Cagayan are of Ilocano-descent. During the Spanish contact period its route to Manila was considered noteworthy, so much so that the vessel was defined as “Embarcacion pequeña que costeando llega hasta Manila” (Carro 1888:58). The biray was also important for Manila because Iloko �and Chinese products that were to be loaded on the Manila- Acapulco galleons (see Junco this volume) had to be transported to Manila through these highly dependable vessels. Birays eventually started to fade away from the Iloko scene with the advent of modern ships in the area during the post-World War 2 period (1950’s- 70s). The site and the 2001 UNESCO Convention Based from the preliminary surveys and study conducted in Pandan, the biray remains holds intrinsic value and is significant in terms of archaeological, historical and scientific value. The vessel remains are archaeologically and scientifically significant because, at present, it is considered rare and a representative of a particular trading vessel for the Ilocos region. It has historic value, for though it is relatively young (tentatively dated at 100 years), the technology and development of the traditional boat building is preserved with the biray remains. Moreover, the site is a historic port having been part of a local maritime trading route from c 1300 to 1950s. The vessel and the site demonstrate a way of life, particularly, maritime culture and traditional trading activities that transpired in the area that had influenced the Ilocos region and the greater area of Luzon island. The Biray as an Underwater Cultural Heritage: Issues, Challenges, and Recommendations The biray in Pandan site has archaeological, scientific and historic significance and thus may be considered an UCH site. An in-depth archaeological study has yet to be undertaken for the site and the current conservation plan is to keep the vessel in situ. The local oral history (MI, Vigan) and the 1980s picture of the biray (G.G. Caoayan) indicate that the vessel is not more than 100 years old. Even so, a study in the future can provide information on vessel structure. The surrounding environs of the vessel is highly unstable with an imminent threat of alluvial deposition and erosion as it is located in the deltaic floodplain of the mighty Abra River. This threat is magnified whenever the typhoon season sets in the Philippines from as early as May to December. Should a systematic archaeological excavation of the biray vessel be undertaken, the first task will be to secure the immediate vicinity of the vessel with a cofferdam structure that will protect the vessel from the Abra River. It is recommended that steel cofferdam be utilized for the site. A series of water pumps will then be used to remove the water prior to the systematic archaeological excavation of the vessel. It is fortunate that the Provincial Government of Ilocos Sur upon having learned of the significance of the underwater archaeological site, have pledged support in terms of funding for future archaeological studies on the site. There is a need to raise awareness and appreciation of the biray, to keep the memory, history, and linkages alive not only among the last generation biray sailors and builders but especially among the youth. The local municipal government is keen on establishing a small maritime museum featuring a replica of a biray to raise awareness among locals and tourists. However, along with the museum, it is being proposed as well to develop the banks of the Pandan port into a tourism area comprising of floating restaurants. While this may be viewed as an opportunity as it may mean income generation, on the conservation side, it may be considered as a threat to the biray remains and the site. The area �becomes more vulnerable and at-risk, without an in-depth archaeological study, appropriate legislation, and a comprehensive management plan in place yet. Thus first and foremost, the conservation of the biray should be undertaken to ensure protection of the biray prior to the area being utilized as a tourist site. A close coordination among the National Museum, academe University of the Philippines- Archaeological Studies Program (UP-ASP), with the local and provincial government is crucial to conserve the biray of the Ilocos, its adventures, and its memory alive for the present and the future generations to come. Oral Sources Arnold Azurin, Manila, 04 June, 2011, cited as AA, Manila. Carl Querubin, Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, 01 May 2011, cited as CQ, Caoayan. Germelina Goulart, Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, 29 April 2011, cited as GG, Caoayan James Ligero, Manila, 15 August, 2011, cited as JL, Manila. Malot Ingel, Vigan, Ilocos Sur, 29 April 2011, cited as MI, Vigan. Bibliography 1999 The Burra Charter: The Australia ICOMOS Charter for Places of Cultural Significance. 2001 The 2001 UNESCO Convention and the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. Bellwood, P., 1997 Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Carro, A., 1888 Vocabulario Iloco-Español, Manila, Est. Tipo-Litografico de M. Perez. Casino, E., 1978 “A Family of Boats: Our Largely Lost Tradition of Shipbuilding”, in (Ed) full name of editor, Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation, 3, pp.712-713, Lahing Pilipino Publishing, Manila. Cuevas, M., and Santiago R., 2004 Boat Building Traditions in Pre 18th Century Philippines, ASEAN-COCI Symposium and Publication on Maritime and Waterways. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Ministry of Culture Arts and Heritage. Dado, A., 1997 “Geology of Northern Luzon: Ilocos Basin”, Compilation of Papers for Geology 297, Quezon City. de San Agustin, G., 1572 Galang, R., 1941 “Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas” in Historia de Ilocos by Isabelo delos Reyes, Establecimiento Topografico la Opinion 1890. “Types of Watercraft in the Philippines”, in Philippine Journal of Science 75, 3, pp.287-304. Keesing, F.M., 1962 The Ethnohistory of Northern Luzon, Stanford, Stanford University Press. �Manguin, P.Y., 1993 “Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks”, in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 36, 3, pp.253-280. Mateo, G.E., 2004 A History of Ilocos: A Story of the Regionalization of Spanish Colonialism, Dissertation - Graduate Division, University of Hawaii, Hawaii. Pattañe, E.P., 1978 “The Outrigger in the Maritime Scene”, in Filipino Heritage: The Making of a Nation 3, pp.716-754, Lahing Pilipino Publishing, Manila. Peralta, J., 1980 Ronquillo, W.P. 1987 "Ancient Mariners of the Philippines", in Archaeology, 33, 5, pp.41-48. “The Butuan Archaeological Finds: Profound Implications for Philippines and Southeast Asian Prehistory”, in Man and Culture in Oceania, Special Issue, 3, pp.71-78. 1997 “Butuan Boats”, in (ed.) James P. Delgado, Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, pp. 79, British Musum Press, London. Scott, W.H., 1982 Cracks in the Parchment Curtain and Other Essays in Philippine History, New Day Publishers, Quezon City, Solheim, W.G II., 2006 Archaeology and Culture in Southeast Asia: Unraveling the Nusantao, University of the Philippines Press, Diliman, Quezon City. Tanudirjo, D.A., 2004 “The Structure of Austronesia Migration into Island Southeast Asia and Oceania”, in (ed.) Victor Paz, Southeast Asian Archaeology: Wilhelm G. Solheim II Festchrift, pp. 83-103, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City. Unsigned 1618 Description of the Philippine Islands. The Philippine Islands 1493- 1898, Vol 18, Cachos Hermanos Inc, Mandaluyong. Wernstedt, F., and J.E.S., 1967 The Philippine Island World: a Physical, Cultural, and Regional Geography, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Yabes, L., 1935 Zerrudo, E.B., 2008 The Ilocano Epic, Carmelo & Bauermann, Inc., Manila. Pamanaraan: Writings on Philippine Heritage Management, University of Santo Tomas Publishing House, Manila. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Old Biray in Pandan, Caoayan: An underwater cultural heritage assessment Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource This paper presents the preliminary assessment arising out of a survey of Pandan Site (NM Site Code I-2011-I1) , a maritime site featuring an abandoned traditional Biray vessel located along the Mestizo River in Caoayan, Ilocos Sur, Northwest Luzon. The site position is perpendicular to the West Philippine Sea (formerly South China Sea) and lies under an abandoned Abra Delta. It is considered as an inland and coastal boat. The structural remains of the vessel have a length of 18 meters (m) and a width of 5m. It is visible during low tide and is characterized by flat hull with ribs, pointed bow and stern. Initial investigation did not observe any evidence of a keel. Based on local oral histories, the boat may be between 80 to 150 years old. The role of this traditional vessel is re-examined in the Northern Luzon trade network extending as far south as Manila to as far North as the Babuyan Channel. An integral part of this research is the re-evaluation of Biray and its cargo that traces old Biray trading routes. The paper also covers “historical data” on structure and construction of the boat that can come in handy for future maritime excavation of the vessel. The context, environment and condition of the site are also described. Moreover, it identifies the significance and vulnerability of the site. This concludes with an evaluation of the vessel and the position of the site as regards to underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Eliza Agabin Michael Armand P. Canilao Pamela Grace Faylona Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Origins of the Islamic State Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya al- Philip Khuri Hitti Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Gorgias Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1916 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Baladhuri, Ahmad ibn Yahya al- Translator Philip Khuri Hitti Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1916 Edition 2002 Place Piscataway Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Gorgias Press Title A name given to the resource The Origins of the Islamic State https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/22956b36df72a3bcb053ef3752e44448.pdf 0b33eaca5bdcb99c11a935434240b525 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 11: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organizations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Session Organizer: Sila Tripati Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The ORU of Sri Lanka: A single outrigger craft of the northern Indian Ocean Description An account of the resource The signature watercraft of Sri Lanka, and other interconnected areas, is the ‘Oru’, which is presented here: a log-based single outrigger craft. Unlike most outrigger craft of the Pacific, south-east Asia and east Africa, the ‘Oru’ was a single-outrigger craft. It is possible to trace its roots to purely indigenous conditions but the use of an outrigger makes it necessary to consider it in parallel with other Indo-Pacific outrigger cultures. The ‘Oru’ culture lay beyond the typical Indian Ocean boatbuilding culture. Originally an inland water dugout, the ‘oru’ developed, first, into a seagoing craft and then into a single-outrigger cargo ship. Craft belonging to the ‘Oru’ culture sailed the waters off Sri Lanka, the Coromandel Coast, Kerala and Lakshadweep, the Maldives and the Andamans. It is a nautical craft-culture in its own right, specific to this northern Indian Ocean region, with Kerala-Sri Lanka as the axis. Kerala is seen as the preserver of this craft culture and Sri Lanka the innovator: reinventing the ‘Oru’ to challenge mechanized craft. Its origins, how it links Kerala and Sri Lanka, how it adapted itself to a marine environment, and how the resultant morphological changes led to the evolution of an outrigger cargo vessel, are dealt with: so are recent studies into the sailing characteristics and issues of stability of the classical ‘Oru’. The way the Sri Lanka ‘Oru’ faced and coped with challenges of a post-craft culture is traced in the paper. Craft often confused with ‘Oru’, namely the double outrigger of southeast Asia and the multiple-hull craft of the Pacific, are re-visited as early opinions stubbornly persist. Some opinions are expressed to seed a dialogue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Somasiri Devendra Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Devendra, Somasiri. 2021. “The ORU of Sri Lanka: A single outrigger craft of the northern Indian Ocean.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/693 Asia-Pac Session 11 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/14c8f3ea381590237f3f41e259b4b766.pdf d3965fcb793511b47d282a0415f9f200 PDF Text Text The outfitting and sailing of early sixteenth-century vessels in the Pacific: The Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions (1525-1536) Jose Luis Casabán Nautical Archaeology Program Department of Anthropology Texas A&M University College Station, TX, 77843-4352 USA Email: jlcasaban@tamu.edu Abstract This paper examines the information provided by primary written sources in relation to the outfitting and sailing of the ships used in the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions, which took place between 1525 and 1536. On July 24, 1525, seven vessels, under the command of Garcia Jofre de Loaysa, departed from La Coruña, Spain, to take the Moluccas for the king of Spain, Charles I. Only one nao reached its destination where the Spanish managed to thwart the Portuguese for several years with the help of the natives. In 1527, Hernán Cortés sent Alvaro de Saavedra with three ships from New Spain to find Trinidad, a ship from the Magellan’s expedition, and to find out the outcome of the Loaysa expedition. He never returned. A close examination of eleven documents written by survivors of both expeditions revealed one hundred and twelve references regarding the use of nautical technology and operational aspects of seafaring in the Pacific Ocean in the early sixteenth century. This data includes ship typology, rigging, navigation techniques, equipment, provisions and containers, ballast, hull maintenance, seagoing disasters and their remedies, ordnance, and naval warfare. This type of information is useful for nautical archaeologists since it can be compared with the data provided by contemporary nautical and shipbuilding treatises and be used to interpret the archaeological data. The analysis of such primary documents is analogous to the way an archaeologist approach an excavation site – the data is gathered and then interpreted by the nautical archaeologists. Keywords: Loaysa, Pacific Ocean, Outfitting, Saavedra, Sailing Introduction This paper examines the information provided by primary written sources in relation to the outfitting and sailing of the ships used in the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions, which took place between 1525 and 1536. Between 1825 and 1837, Martín Fernández de Navarrete, a Spanish Navy Officer and historian, published a collection of five volumes about the voyages and discoveries of the Spanish since the fifteenth century. 1 �The original documents used for this collection were compiled and transcribed by Navarrete in different Spanish archives and libraries since 1789.The Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions were narrated in the fifth volume published in 1837. The account was based on the original manuscripts written by members and survivors of both expeditions and published as an appendix in the same volume. Navarrete cited thirtyseven documents to narrate both expeditions although only eleven of them provided references related to ship outfitting and sailing in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Table 1). The data gathered includes references to ship typology, rigging, navigation techniques, equipment, provisions and containers, ballast, hull maintenance, seagoing disasters and their remedies, ordnance, and naval warfare. Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions (1525-1536) On July 24, 1525, seven vessels, under the command of García Jofre de Loaysa, departed La Coruña, Spain, where a Casa de las Especias (House of Spices) was briefly established (Spate, 1979). The objective of the expedition was to occupy the Moluccas and to control the spice trade. The expedition was a succession of disasters and only one ship, the nao Victoria, reached its destination where the Spanish managed to thwart the Portuguese for several years with the help of the natives. In 1527, Hernán Cortés sent Alvaro de Saavedra with three ships from New Spain to find the nao Trinidad, a ship from the Magellan’s expedition, and to find out the outcome of Loaysa’s expedition. He never returned. In 1532, the Spanish survivors learned through the Portuguese that king Charles I had sold his rights on the Spice Island to the king of Portugal in exchange for 350.000 ducats in 1529 (Pigafetta, 2002). Between 1534 and 1535, the last survivors of both expeditions were taken to Cochin (India) and from there to Lisbon, where they finally arrived in 1536. Types of ships The ships that took part in Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions are the typical oceanic vessels of this period such as naos and caravels although there are also a pataje and a bergantín (brigantine) (Table 2). However, the term nao (ship) is also applied to all these vessels in a generic manner. Moreover, the caravel Parral is defined as a galleon in some documents while Saavedra’s ship, Florida, is named caravel in another document (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). With respect to the other two ships of 2 �Saavedra expedition, they are simply called navíos (vessels) without providing any other details about them (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).The documents also refer to two fustas built at the Moluccas by the Spanish, and one galera (galley) used by the Portuguese in a naval combat. The variety of definitions for the same types of vessels reminds us that the debate about sixteenth-century ship typology still needs to be addressed. Additionally, the Spanish and Portuguese also adapted local boats from the Moluccas such as paroles (prahu) and caracoras (kora-kora). Sails The types of sails mentioned in the documents are the main, fore and mizzen sails. These references provide useful information about the sailing techniques during this period. For instance, all ships used the fore course for sailing while the nao Victoria’s main mast or Parral’s mizzen mast were repaired (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Moreover, the nao Victoria sailed 20 leagues only using the fore and mizzen sails while crossing the Pacific Ocean due to the bad weather (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).The documents also inform us about the sailcloth carried on board the ships. The nao San Gabriel transported cañamaza (hemp canvas) and holandesa (Dutch canvas) which might be used to tailor new sails during the voyage (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). During this period sailcloth was known in Spain as olona because a large proportion of sails mentioned on shipbuilding contracts came from Brittany’s towns such as Nantes and Olone (Smith, 1993). The word holandesais indicating a Dutch origin for this material. The San Gabriel’s pilot also tells us about the ship’s rigging lifespan that he estimates up to seven years (Smith, 1993). Navigation In his logbook, the pilot of the nao Victoria mentions that the position of the sun was measured every day at noon to determine the latitude. This routine was only interrupted when the sun was not visible because of the clouds. However, he does not indicate the type of instrument used for the observations, probably an astrolabe. In the same document there are several references to the use of sounding leads. This instrument was used to measure the depths and to identify the type of seabed. This data was crucial when ships navigated close to shore and it also helped to establish the position of the ship in relation to the coast (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). 3 �An emergency communication system was proposed by Elcano before the fleet crossed the Atlantic (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). If any ship got separated from the fleet before reaching the Strait of Magellan because of the weather, or any other reason, it would have to wait for twenty days at All Saints’ Bay (Brazil). After that time, a letter would be placed inside a clay pot buried under a cross placed on a visible spot. Then the ship would continue the voyage until the next meeting point where it would leave another message. This system was employed by the pataje Santiago which left a letter at Santa Cruz River that was found by the naos Victoria and San Gabriel. The letter informed the other ships that the Santiago and the rest of the fleet were on their way to the Cape of the Eleven Thousand Virgins (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).The same system was employed in the Pacific by Saavedra. On his way to the Moluccas he left a letter buried in an island of the Marshals where his ship got separated from the rest of his fleet (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Richard Hawkins used a similar system during his expedition to the South Sea in 1593. He left the messages inside a musket barrel place on the top of a hill instead of in a pot (Hawkins, 1970). Ships equipment The documents often mention the ships’ pumps although they do not indicate their type. Pumps are normally cited in plural so it is possible that the ships were equipped with two pumps or carried a spare pump in case the main one failed during the voyage. Two pumps were recovered from the Sancti Spiritus wreck at the Cape of the Eleven Thousands Virgins (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837), and the nao Victoria used two pumps while crossing the Pacific Ocean because of the heavy leaking of its hull (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).It has to be noted that the House of Trade issued an ordinance during the reign of Charles I which made mandatory for oceanic vessels to carry two pumps, one of them as a spare (Consejo de Indias, 1943). On the other hand, archaeology provides examples of ships equipped with two operational pumps such as the Highborn Cay shipwreck, an early sixteenth century caravel, and the Emanuel Point I wreck dated in 1559 (Oertling, 1996). Saavedra also mentions how exhausting was working at the pumps and how he had to transfer men to his ships to helpwith the work (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). In the same way, the naos San Gabriel and Victoriakidnapped natives from various islands to work at the pumps (Fernández de 4 �Navarrete, 1837). This could indicate that the ships were equipped with burr pumps that require a lot of manpower to ensure their effectiveness in comparison with the suction pumps. The documents also include references to small service boats such asesquifes and bateles. According to O’Scanlan (1974), these terms were equally used to name both types of boats although bateles were larger than esquifes. During the Loaysa expedition, esquifes were used to carry people and messages between ships, to explore the shore and provisioning, and to transport materials and equipment from one ship to another such as during the salvage of the Sancti Spiritus remains (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The loss of a small boat meant that the crew of a ship could not go ashore to get provisions because the larger ships were unable to anchor in shallow waters. In that case, the crews depended on the natives to get food and supplies which was often uncertain. That was the case of Saavedra’s first attempt to return to New Spain across the Pacific. He had to return to the Moluccas because of the contrary winds and the loss of the batel that prevented him to get provisions during the journey (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Moreover, various ships had to share one esquife after theirs were lost during a storm in Bay of la Victoria (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The references to the ground tackle provide information about the number of anchors carried on board the ships, their effectiveness, and strength. In several occasions, anchors started to drag even when more than one had been deployed. That was the case of the nao Victoria that ran ashore in Bay of la Victoria despite deploying five anchors (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). A few days later, the same ship was at risk again in Gallegos River when its anchor broke near the stock and had to set sail to Santa Cruz River (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Saavedra’s ship also experienced difficulties with its ground tackle while anchoring at the Marshalls. In this case, two anchor cables were damaged due to the rocky bottom and the ship had to kedge off to abandon the anchorage (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Moreover, a few days later the natives stole one of the two anchors he had deployed without a marker buoy (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). On the other hand, there are no references to the weight and dimensions of the anchors. 5 �Table 1. List of documents containing references to ships outfitting and sailing. (Navarrete, 1837) 6 �Provisions, containers and ballast These types of ships could not carry all the provisions needed by the crews to sail across the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. The documents tell us how the Loaysa’s fleet had to get provisions from various islands before crossing the Atlantic and once they reached the American coast, the crew of nao Victoria killed a sea lion in Santa Cruz River to get fresh meat (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). After leaving the Strait of Magellan, the fleet got separated. The crew of the pataje Santiago realized that part of their provisions was carried on board the nao Victoria because its hold as too small. The ship only carried four quintales of biscuit and eight pipas of water that were insufficient for a journey of 2,200 leagues (12,100 km) across the Pacific Ocean. Moreover, the ship had lost its esquife getting provision before arriving at the Moluccas seemed almost impossible. For that reason the crew decided to abandon the expedition and to sail to New Spain that was only 1,000 leagues away (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Finally, when Saavedra arrived at the Marshalls, he ordered to fill some pipas with saltwater to be used as variable ballast (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). This was an unusual procedure because this type of ballast generally consisted of cobbles and pebbles of rock, or even sacks of sand (Smith, 1993). Hull maintenance Although the documents indicate that emergency repairs were carried out on the ships of both expeditions, these references are not common. The lack of facilities such as shipyards, tools and materials limited the type of repairs that could be made. For example, the nao Victoria had to be abandoned in Moluccas because its hull was so damaged that it could not be repaired. Frames and knees were broken after running aground at Bay of la Victoria, the seams between planks were opened while navigating across the Pacific, and the vibrations produced when the naval ordinance was fired on board (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Additionally, the documents also indicate that the ships carried materials for hull maintenance such as the cauldron of pitch that caught fire on board the nao Victoria (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).On the other hand, the expedition members adapted local materials to repair their ships or to build new vessels. That was the case of the solution provided to mitigate the effects of the ship worms on the hull of Saavedra’s ship before departing from the Moluccas to New 7 �Spain. A sacrificial planking layer was added to the ship’s hull with a coat of local bitumen used by the natives to caulk their own boats (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Table 2. Types of ships used in the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions. (Navarrete, 1837) Seagoing disasters and their remedies The demanding sailing conditions of the oceanic voyages increased the chances of seagoing disasters. The texts provide several examples and also show the vital importance of the ships’ carpenters in these expeditions. Carpenters were sent on 8 �anesquife from the Sancti Spiritus to fix the mainmast of the nao Victoria when it broke after departing from La Gomera. It took them three days to repair it. Meanwhile, the nao Victoria rammed the stern the caravel Santa Maria del Parral and, once again, an esquife with carpenters and planks was sent to repair the ship (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Storms could also disperse damage or sink the ships. The caravel Lesmes was driven south by a storm before arriving at the Cape of the Eleven Thousand Virgins, and probably saw Cape Horn before rejoining the fleet (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The nao Victoria run aground during a storm near the Cape of the Eleven Thousand Virgins and damaged the rudder, keel and sternpost. The carpenters used planks and lead sheathing to fix the keel and sternpost and put the rudder back in place (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). This situation demonstrates that these ships carried on board enough spare materials to face this type of incidents, at least for limited period of time. Finally, another storm separated the Victoria, Lesmes, Parral and Santiago when they were leaving the Strait of Magellan (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837), and due to rough seas, the hull of the nao Victoria started to leak. In fact, the crew worked continuously at pumps until the ship reached the Moluccas Islands. Various members of the crew died of exhaustions due to the work and the food shortage (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Ships ordnance and naval combats The members of Loaysa’s and Saavedra’s expeditions fought during several years against the Portuguese at the Moluccas with the help of the natives. For that reason, there are also references to ship’s ordnance and naval combats in the documents. While sailing across the Pacific, the ordnance was probably stored in the hold of the nao Victoria and it was only put on deck when they were approaching the Moluccas, in case they encountered the Portuguese (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The ordnance had no use in the Pacific because the possibility of finding enemy vessels was highly unlikely. In addition, if the artillery was carried in the hold, its weight improved the ship’s stability. The documents also mention the combat between the nao Victoria and various Portuguese vessels, including one fusta, one batel and several prahus. The vessels were equipped with pieces of artillery as they intended to sink the Spanish ship. Part of the ship’s ordnance had been disembarked to defend the Spanish base on land 9 �(Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The lack of weight made the ship’s deck float too high on the water, making its artillery quite ineffective despite of the crew spending twelve quintales of gunpowder in firing the cannons. The cannon recoil caused more damage to the already weakened ship’s structure than the three shots taken from the Portuguese (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). After this combat, the nao Victoria was abandoned and two fustas were built using local timbers (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The Spanish carpenters ignored the characteristics of the local timbers and only one fusta was finally used because the other rotted before being launched (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).The documents also refer another naval combat between the Spanish fusta and a Portuguese galley. This reference includes the typical pieces of artillery of this period such as bronze pedreros, sacres, versos as well as iron versos, large falconetes, and culebrinas (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The ordnance was very versatile and could be used in different types of ships or on land. Finally, during the sixteenth century, the proportion of foreign condestables and gunners in the Spanish fleets was important although the number of Spanish gunners increased by the end of the century (Pérez-Mallaína, 1998). This situation is also reflected by the documents which mention the presence of Flemish constables between the Spanish crew (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Conclusions The analysis of these eleven documents written by the survivors of the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions reveal numerous references regarding the use of nautical technology and operational aspects of seafaring in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean in the early sixteenth century. This data includes ship typology, rigging, navigation techniques, equipment, provisions and containers, ballast, hull maintenance, seagoing disasters and their remedies, ordnance, and naval warfare. On the other hand, most of the information is provided in an indirect manner because the authors do not intend to teach us outfitting methods or techniques. They were just describing the situations in which they become involved and how they solve the difficulties encountered while traveling to the other side of the world. This type of information is extremely useful for nautical archaeologists because it can be compared with the data provided by contemporary nautical and shipbuilding treatises and archaeological data. The accounts also contain 10 �practical descriptions about the use and maintenance of numerous elements of the ship’s outfitting. However, the data is not provided in a direct manner as a nautical treaty does. The analysis of such primary documents is analogous to the way an archaeologist approach the excavation of an archaeological site – the data is gathered and then interpreted by the nautical archaeologists. References Consejo de Indias, 1943. Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de la Indias, mandadas imprimir y publicar por la Magestad Católica del Rey don Cárlos II. Nuetsro Señor. 4 impresión. Gráficas Ultra S.A., Madrid. Hawkins, S. R., 1970. The Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins. Da Capo Press, New York. Fernández de Navarrete, M., 1837. Colección de los viajes y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los españoles desde fines del siglo XV. Volumen V. Expediciones al Maluco, viages de Loaisa y de Saavedra. Imprenta Real, Madrid. O’Scanlan, T., 1974. Diccionario marítimo español: que además de las definiciones de las voces con sus equivalentes en francés, inglés e italiano, contiene tres vocabularios de estos idiomas con las correspondencias castellanas: redactado por orden del Rey nuestro señor. Museo Naval, Madrid. Oertling, T. J., 1996. Ships’ Bilge Pumps: a History of Their Development, 1500-1900. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. Pérez-Mallaína, P. E., 1998. Spain’s Men of the Sea: Daily Life on the Indies Fleets in the Sixteenth Century. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Pigafetta, A., 2002. Primer viaje alrededor del mundo. Dastin, Madrid. Smith, R. C., 1993. Vanguard of Empire: Ships of Exploration in the Age of Columbus. Oxford University Press, New York. Spate, O. H. K., 1979. The Spanish Lake. University of Minessota, Minneapolis. 11 �Biography Jose Luis Casabán is a PhD candidate in the Nautical Archaeology Program at Texas A&M University. His dissertation research focuses on the study of the 16th century Spanish seafaring and shipbuilding technology. He is also specialized in the applications of photogrammetry for underwater mapping and GIS. Since 2012, Jose is one of the co-directors of the Finisterre Project, whose objectives are the underwater survey, mapping, recording, and study of the remains of 1596 Armada shipwrecks discovered near Cape Finisterre, in the northwest of Spain. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The outfitting and sailing of early sixteenth-century vessels in the Pacific: The Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions (1525-1536) Description An account of the resource This paper examines the information provided by primary written sources in relation to the outfitting and sailing of the ships used in the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions, which took place between 1525 and 1536. On July 24, 1525, seven vessels, under the command of Garcia Jofre de Loaysa, departed from La Coruña, Spain, to take the Moluccas for the king of Spain, Charles I. Only one nao reached its destination where the Spanish managed to thwart the Portuguese for several years with the help of the natives. In 1527, Hernán Cortés sent Alvaro de Saavedra with three ships from New Spain to find Trinidad, a ship from the Magellan’s expedition, and to find out the outcome of the Loaysa expedition. He never returned. A close examination of eleven documents written by survivors of both expeditions revealed one hundred and twelve references regarding the use of nautical technology and operational aspects of seafaring in the Pacific Ocean in the early sixteenth century. This data includes ship typology, rigging, navigation techniques, equipment, provisions and containers, ballast, hull maintenance, seagoing disasters and their remedies, ordnance, and naval warfare. This type of information is useful for nautical archaeologists since it can be compared with the data provided by contemporary nautical and shipbuilding treatises and be used to interpret the archaeological data. The analysis of such primary documents is analogous to the way an archaeologist approach an excavation site – the data is gathered and then interpreted by the nautical archaeologists. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jose Luis Casabán, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3f74faa091ca2193bc4e60155e7b26e2.pdf 912548c30903d7a96047c00138444e0f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 4: Heritage Preservation and the Journey of the Sailing Vessel Free China Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Pacific Crossing of a Fuzhou Flathead Pole Junk Description An account of the resource It is well documented that Chinese sailing vessels of a certain type and length (up to 200-meter and nine-masted vessels) had sailed the waters Magellan and Columbus “discovered” half a century later. But to this day, in the eyes of the modern mariners these Chinese vessels remain a myth. Why aren’t junks seen outside of China? Why are there no junks with more than two masts? Why was there no recording of any junk crossing the Pacific Ocean? Are they fit for ocean sailing? Five fishermen and one professional diplomat took upon themselves in 1955 to seek answers to the myth. With no previous experience in sails, they took a 50-year-old Fuzhou “flathead pole junk” across the Pacific. Through hands-on experience, these seafarers discovered the junk’s unique features that made her the most seaworthy vessel they had ever set foot on, namely the watertight bulkheads, the self-draining deck, the shroud-less masts, the slanting foremast, the self-adjusting ballast tank, the battens that stretched the sails from luff to reach, the automatic reefing and an adjustable rudder that also served as a center-board. These Chinese vessels had explored the seas beyond China for thousands of years with one purpose: Trade and Cultural Exchange. Since there was not much culture and trade to the east of China before the 17th Century, the Pacific was left out. After the death of Emperor Zhu Di in Ming Dynasty, Confucians took over the ruling of the court from the adventure-seeking Eunuchs. They enforced a strong closed-door policy. Under this policy, all oversea voyages were banned. No ships with more than two masts were allowed. Violators were punishable by decapitation. As time went on, the tradition lasted to the day when steamships took over. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Paul Chow Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chow, Paul. 2021. “The Pacific Crossing of a Fuzhou Flathead Pole Junk.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/679 Asia-Pac Session 4 2021 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Parthian Presence in the Arabian Gulf Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource D.T. Potts Julian Reade Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author D.T. Potts Editor Julian Reade Item Type Book Section Book Title The Indian Ocean in Antiquity Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Pages 269-85 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Title A name given to the resource The Parthian Presence in the Arabian Gulf India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/350f886b04c6a769c804e263a7084103.pdf 639150c0e38d541f16505be487aa426d PDF Text Text The Past, Present, and Future Regeneration Opportunities of Stone Tidal Weirs - The Case of Taiwan Tung Ying-Ying ABSTRACT Stone Tidal Weirs can be found all around the world and were once an important way for our predecessors to sustain their livelihood through fishing. However, in recent years, due to technological advancements, stone tidal weirs have lost their economic value and many have been left to deteriorate and collapse. Studying stone tidal weirs has become an obscure topic. Nevertheless, stone tidal weirs were an important fishing method for coastal residents in human history, and have had a significant impact on human culture in tangible and intangible ways. Although there are few surviving "live" stone tidal weirs today, as they periodically appear above sea level, they are an underwater cultural heritage that the public can see and access without diving. They are one of the best materials for advocating and promoting education on protecting underwater cultural heritage. Taiwan has many beautifully shaped and numerous stone tidal weirs around its periphery. The government has made significant efforts in subsidizing restoration, cultivating talent for building stone tidal weirs, and researching and promoting education in hopes of preserving Taiwan's precious stone tidal weirs. Local communities and organizations in Taiwan are also making efforts to combine the cultural landscape of stone tidal weirs with tourism, utilizing the unique features of local stone tidal weirs to create diverse new opportunities for reuse. By combining the efforts of local residents and tourists, the shape and good condition of stone tidal weirs can be preserved, and the beauty and fishing culture of stone tidal weirs can be passed down to future generations, allowing them to exist sustainably. Keywords: Stone tidal weirs, fishing, underwater cultural heritage, Penghu List of Figures Figure 1. 2018 International symposiums poster (left), 2023 International symposiums poster (middle), 2021 4th APCONF web site (right). Figure 2 Research results of the Stone tidal Weir investigation provided. by Professor Lee, Ming-Ju. Figure 3 Jibe Stone Tidal Weirs. Figure 4 Research project results list. Figure 5 Publication (left), Media report (right). Figure 6 Xinwu Stone Tidal Weir Story House DB (left), The "Isle. travel” Studio facebook (right). I. INTRODUCTION This article, "The Past, Present, and Future Regeneration Opportunities of Stone Tidal Weirs The Case of Taiwan," is most suitable for the 12th topic of this conference, "Sticks, Stones, & Old Fish Bones: The Role and Cultural Heritage of Fish Weir Traditions in the Asia-Pacific Region." Stone tidal weirs were built by coastal residents in the intertidal zone, where they worked together to construct embankments to trap fish using the ebb and flow of tides. This was a way for the village to share their fishing harvest and a marine life culture. Taiwan has the most stone tidal weirs in the world, with over 574 in Penghu County alone. Some stone tidal weirs can even be traced back over 300 years ago. However, with the development of technology and the introduction of new fishing equipment, such as trawling, stone tidal weirs have easily been replaced in economic value. The decline of stone tidal weirs is a problem faced by all countries around the world. Nowadays, many countries leave their stone tidal weirs abandoned and collapsed. Stone tidal weirs require collective effort to build, maintain, restore, distribute fishing harvests, and manage registrations, but modern people are reluctant to invest labor and funds. Taiwan has numerous stone tidal weirs, many of which are still "live," meaning that they can still catch 1 �fish and are operational. This article explores the decline and revitalization methods of stone tidal weirs in Taiwan, which is in line with the 12th topic of the conference. II. CASE STUDIES The case studies being examined pertain to the many well-preserved stone tidal weirs in Taiwan, which serve as a great example of how proper utilization can not only preserve them but also transform them into new cultural heritages, resulting in a win-win situation. Therefore, we are pleased to share Taiwan's methods for preserving stone tidal weirs, particularly in the face of the issues of revitalization and sustainability. This article explores Taiwan's case studies, which include: 2.1 Accepting the fact that stone tidal weirs are in decline. 2.2 Ways to revitalize stone tidal weirs - Using Taiwan's preservation of stone tidal weirs as a case study. 2.3 Transformation and regeneration of stone tidal weirs. III. RESOURCES 3.1 Data collection: historical records and research reports on the preservation of stone tidal weirs in Taiwan over the years. 3.2 Interviews: scholars who have studied stone tidal weirs in Taiwan and local historians and cultural workers involved in the reuse of stone tidal weirs. 3.3 Policy making and budget allocation: the government's initiatives towards the preservation of stone tidal weirs. IV. FRAMEWORK 4-1 Facing the decline of the stone tidal weirs 4.1.1 The fishing yield is no match for modern fishing The economic benefits of stone tidal weir fishing are poor. The catch difference between stone tidal weir fishing and modern fishing boats is too great. In the past, small fishing boats had poor safety and could not go out to sea in bad weather, so they relied heavily on stone tidal weir fishing. Nowadays, fishing boats are safer and can catch more fish, so residents naturally give up the laborious way of catching fish through stone tidal weirs. 4.1.2 The technology for building stone weirs is gradually becoming lost. The construction of stone tidal weirs requires the participation of a certain number of villagers, and the repair of stone tidal weirs also requires the timing of the ebb tide. Whether under the scorching sun or in strong winds… building, repairing, and patrolling the weirs are all high-labor, outdoor work. It is not the best job option for young people nowadays, and they are unwilling to take over. The lack of inheritance of stone tidal weir construction and repair skills has resulted in a technical gap. 4.1.3 Stone tidal weir fishing cannot become a major job. The return on investment is not proportional, and it cannot become the main source of income for residents, resulting in intergenerational gaps. All declining industries in the 2 �world are due to the development of technology and changes in social lifestyles. Those engaged in the industry cannot obtain sufficient income to support their lives, and therefore turn to developing industries that can provide for their basic needs. The catch from stone tidal weirs is small, and after the investment, no one is willing to invest in the construction and repair of stone tidal weirs again. The decline of stone tidal weirs is an inevitable result of the operation of the times. 4-2 Ways to revitalize the stone tidal weirs 4.2.1 The government values the protection of stone tidal weirs. 4.2.1.1 Value the cultural status of stone tidal weirs and restoration techniques (1). Since 2006 and 2008, the Penghu County Government has successively logged the "Double Hearts Shihu"(雙心石滬 ) (2)and the "Jibe Shihu Group"(吉貝石滬群)(3) as a cultural landscape (Figure 1). In 2009, "Penhu Shihu Group" was selected by the Ministry of Culture as one of the 18 Potential World Heritage Sites in Taiwan(4). In 2010, the Ministry of Culture designated the "Penghu Marine Culture Association - Jibei Baohu Team"(石滬修造技術)(5) as a national cultural heritage preservation and technology preservation group. Since 2015, the Houlong WaiPu Stone tide Weirs group( 後龍外埔石滬群)(6) have been registered as a cultural landscape in Miaoli County. The preservation and maintenance of Stone tide weirs is an important project in the preservation of cultural heritage in Taiwan. The government actively subsidizes the restoration of stone tidal weirs throughout the country and holds local and international symposiums in 2018 and 2023 (Figure 1). In 2021, Taiwan hosted the Asia-Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference, with stone tidal weirs as the main topic (Figure 1). In recent years, the awareness of preserving underwater cultural heritage has gradually increased, and the study of stone tidal weirs has expanded to include the perspective of underwater cultural heritage. Figure 1. 2018 International symposiums poster (left), International symposiums poster (middle), 2021 4th APCONF web site (right) 4.2.1.2 Funding is being allocated to encourage scholars to research and restore Stone tidal weirs. Taiwan has a large number of scholars studying stone tidal weirs, and their research can inspire young students to participate, achieving the goal of passing down knowledge (Figure 2). The government provides funding for repairing damaged stone tidal weirs and hiring personnel for restoration work. Hosting international conferences can help understand the current status of stone tidal weir preservation in different countries, facilitate knowledge exchange, and promote the belief of protecting stone weirs among Taiwanese people. 3 �Figure 2 Research results of the Stone tidal Weir investigation provided by Professor Lee, Ming-Ju. 4.2.2 Research achievements and tourism performance establish confidence. 4.2.2.1 "Taiwan has the world's most densely distributed and beautiful stone tidal weirs. With over 600 households of stone tidal weirs, the ones in Penghu have unique shape and structures such as the fish trap houses(滬屋), which have become a popular tourist attraction due to their stunning and distinctive appearance. The public takes great pride in Taiwan's beautiful stone tidal weirs, enhancing their confidence.(Figure 3) Figure 3 Jibe Stone Tidal Weirs. 4.2.2.2 Teachers from schools located near stone tidal weirs actively participate in research. This encourages students' curiosity and awareness, as well as a culture of research. Such as Tamkangz University(淡江大學) and National Central University(國立中央大學) in northern Taiwan, and Tunghai University(東海大學) investigate Miaoli area. National Penghu University of Science and Technology(國立澎湖科技大學) conducts research on stone tidal weirs in Penghu. Through these research efforts (Figure 4), people gain a deeper understanding of the history of stone tidal weirs, community management methods, interactive approaches, and the unique characteristics of these structures. This 4 �makes stone tidal weirs a familiar and beloved part of our culture. Figure 4. Research project results list 4.2.2.3 The revitalization of stone tidal weirs brings tourism benefits. The largest quantity and most beautiful stone tidal weirs bring local characteristics and tourism benefits to the region. In order to revitalize the stone tidal weirs, young people have returned to their hometowns and combined tourism with innovative ideas to turn stone tidal weirs into new tourist attractions. This has not only created job opportunities for themselves but also brought in tourists to benefit the local community, creating a win-win situation and allowing for the preservation of the stone tidal weirs to continue. 4.2.3 Community involvement creates value for the revitalization of stone tidal weirs. 4.2.3.1 In regions of Taiwan where stone tidal weirs are alive, there is a commitment from local historians and young people to preserve them. including Tamsui(淡水), Sanzhi(三芝), Xinwu(新屋), and Houlong(後龍) in Taiwan island, as well as on the outlying island of Penghu. In addition to the 七美雙心石滬in Qimei(七美)Penghu, Jibe Village in Baisha Township(吉貝白沙鄉), Penghu boasts 116 stone tidal weirs, which are highly concentrated and beautifully shaped, earning it the title of "the land of stone tidal weirs." In these areas, young people have returned to their hometowns and, under the guidance of their elders, work diligently to learn the lost technology of building and repairing stone tidal weirs. They also bring new vitality to the stone tidal weirs through innovative marketing techniques that are unique to their generation. 4.2.3.2 The active reporting and publishing by non-governmental media and NGO are crucial for the preservation and maintenance of local cultural heritage in Taiwan. In addition to government efforts, the involvement of the private sector is the most stable force. NGOs publish various books introducing stone tidal weirs (Figure 5), and major media outlets report extensively on the history and characteristics of Taiwan's 5 �stone tidal weirs(Figure 5), making them more than just a term. Through media coverage of the history and unique features of stone tidal weirs, a strong momentum is created for the promotion of stone tidal weir preservation by the private sector. Figure 5 Publication (left), media report (right) 4.2.3.3 Active promotion of combining tourism with stone tidal weirs to create new economic value. Stone tidal weirs have become a source of pride for local people, and young people are willing to return to their hometowns to revive and operate them. By combining the preservation of stone tidal weirs with tourism, a new way of thinking about stone tidal weir tourism is created, making it possible to turn the preservation of stone tidal weirs into a viable and sustainable occupation. This approach leads to a win-win situation for the preservation of Taiwan's stone tidal weirs and the development of local tourism. 4-3 Transformation and Regeneration of Stone Tidal Weirs It is not only about reviving and preserving the technology of stone tidal weirs, but also about reviving the cultural value of stone tidal weirs that have lost their fishing value, creating new economic value, and transforming them into a sustainable industry. 4.3.1 Xinwu Stone Tidal Weir Story House(新屋石滬故事館)(7) is a converted old Police watchhouse and dormitory building by the seaside, where local cultural and historical workers introduce the history and stories of stone tidal weirs, exhibitions, and local cuisine. The locals are also invited to help restore the stone tidal weirs, which has gained their recognition. In addition, one-day tours and accommodation experiences centered around the stone tidal weirs have been developed, which are highly favored by locals and tourists alike (Figure 6). 6 �Figure 6 Xinwu Stone Tidal Weir Story House DB. (left), The "Isle. travel” Studio facebook(right) 4.3.2 Young people returning to their hometown, Penghu, establishing The "Isle. travel” Studio"(離島出走)(8) bringing an experienced local master to teach them how to build and repair stone tidal weirs while also documenting each step of the process to preserve the precious techniques of the master. Also they organize unique and exclusive stone tidal weir experiences for in-depth travel, setting themselves apart from other travel agencies. Promoting the experience of repairing stone tidal weirs, led by the local stone masters, to rediscover the craft of stonemasonry. By restoring the stone tidal weirs, it awakens people's memories and emotions towards the ocean, and helps them understand the island culture of stone tidal weirs (Figure 6). V. CONCLUSION As human civilization progresses, our way of life has undergone significant changes. With the advent of large fishing vessels, the income generated by stone tidal weirs can no longer compete with that of offshore fishing. As a result, many stone tidal weirs have been abandoned, collapsed, gradually disappearing beneath the sea. Without economic incentives, these stone tidal weirs have ceased to be popular topics of discussion, and many have quietly disappeared. However, in Taiwan, stone tidal weirs face the same challenges but are seen as important historical and cultural heritage. They were vital constructions for coastal communities hundreds of years ago, serving as important hubs for social interactions. Thanks to the efforts of scholars, government support, and active participation from the public, young people are willing to invest in the preservation and revitalization of these stone tidal weirs. They have become not only exclusive terms for seaside communities but also a unique tourist attraction where visitors can experience the traditional practices of carrying and stacking stones and fishing inside the weirs. Through innovation and regeneration, the history and features of these stone tidal weirs have spread across all walks of life, and the young people invested in their preservation have found meaning and value in them. Therefore, the regeneration of stone tidal weirs in Taiwan can be passed down from generation to generation and become a unique landscape feature that protects these historical structures. We hope that Taiwan's stone tidal weirs can become a world heritage list, and other countries can also value their preservation. Acknowledgements 7 �I appreciate the assistance provided by the consultant Rich Giomanni Wan and ChatGPT in translating. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. National Cultural Heritage Website國家文化資產網 https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/cultureOverview(Accessed 3 April 2023). https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/overview/culturalLandscape/20061027000001, National Cultural Heritage Website, "Double Hearts Shihu" logged as a cultural landscape. (Accessed 3 April 2023). https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/overview/culturalLandscape/20080602000001National Cultural Heritage Website, " Jibe Shihu Group " logged as a cultural landscape. (Accessed 5 April 2023). https://twh.boch.gov.tw/taiwan/intro.aspx?id=13&lang=zh_tw#ad-image-0, Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture Website, " Jibe Shihu Group " logged as a cultural landscape. "Penhu Shihu Group" was selected as one of the 18 Potential World Heritage Sites in Taiwan. (Accessed 5 April 2023). https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/overview/ptp/20100630000005, National Cultural Heritage Website, "Penghu Marine Culture Association - Jibei Baohu Team" designated as a national cultural heritage preservation and technology preservation group. (Accessed 8 April 2023). https://nchdb.boch.gov.tw/assets/overview/culturalLandscape/20151104000001,”Houlong Waipu Stone Tide weirs group” logged as a cultural landscape. (Accessed 16 April 2023). https://travel.tycg.gov.tw/zh-tw/travel/attraction/1607, Xinwu Stone Tidal Weir Story House Website. (Accessed 5 May 2023) https://www.facebook.com/isle.travel.TW/, "Isle. travel” Studio facebook website. (Accessed 5 May 2023). 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Past, Present, and Future Regeneration Opportunities of Stone Tidal Weirs - The Case of Taiwan Description An account of the resource Stone Tidal Weirs can be found all around the world and were once an important way for our predecessors to sustain their livelihood through fishing. However, in recent years, due to technological advancements, stone tidal weirs have lost their economic value and many have been left to deteriorate and collapse. Studying stone tidal weirs has become an obscure topic. Nevertheless, stone tidal weirs were an important fishing method for coastal residents in human history, and have had a significant impact on human culture in tangible and intangible ways. Although there are few surviving "live" stone tidal weirs today, as they periodically appear above sea level, they are an underwater cultural heritage that the public can see and access without diving. They are one of the best materials for advocating and promoting education on protecting underwater cultural heritage. Taiwan has many beautifully shaped and numerous stone tidal weirs around its periphery. The government has made significant efforts in subsidizing restoration, cultivating talent for building stone tidal weirs, and researching and promoting education in hopes of preserving Taiwan's precious stone tidal weirs. Local communities and organizations in Taiwan are also making efforts to combine the cultural landscape of stone tidal weirs with tourism, utilizing the unique features of local stone tidal weirs to create diverse new opportunities for reuse. By combining the efforts of local residents and tourists, the shape and good condition of stone tidal weirs can be preserved, and the beauty and fishing culture of stone tidal weirs can be passed down to future generations, allowing them to exist sustainably. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tung Ying-Ying Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ying-Ying, Tung. 2023. “The Past, Present, and Future Regeneration Opportunities of Stone Tidal Weirs - The Case of Taiwan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Paul Montgomery, and Bill Jeffrey. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Pattern of the Chinese Past Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mark Elvin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Stanford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Mark Elvin Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1973 Place Stanford, CA Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Stanford University Press Title A name given to the resource The Pattern of the Chinese Past China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Periplus Maris Erythraei Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Casson, Lionel Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Princeton University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Translator Casson, Lionel Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Place Princeton, N.J Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Princeton University Press Title A name given to the resource The Periplus Maris Erythraei https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c0c2c960eddf3d0d7bc8e78c8812a782.pdf 5d400ce7286c8057de763f3f71ba3adf Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Port of Uraga: Tokugawa Japan’s Choke Point to Edo Description An account of the resource Until the opening of Japan in the mid-nineteenth century, Uraga had been a port with both commercial and military significance on a domestic level arguably for the duration of the Edo period (1603-1868). Its international importance, however, lies in the initial years of the period (1603-1638), with considerable documentation showing a flourishing trade with Spain. Never before or after had a European superpower traded with eastern Japan until the nation industrialised during the Meiji period (1868-1912). The intent of this research has been to shed light on a period in Japanese maritime history that has remained overlooked to a large extent for over four hundred years with regards to the circumstances of its development and further growth, despite its overwhelming importance, using both archival and archaeological evidence from both Europe as well as Japan. This evidence suggests that the establishment of Uraga as a commercial and later diplomatic choke point with Spain was initiated and managed by William Adams under the auspices of Tokugawa Ieyasu, and that subsequent utilisation of the port as a point of controlled entry to Edo bay was the convention domestically as well until the end of the Edo period. With this trade, we see that the normal colonial relations Europe had over Asian ports had no hold on Japan. On the contrary, this paper puts forth the idea that Japan was successful at staving off such attempts due to Adams’ intercedence, producing a pattern of entanglement with the West that lasts to this day. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource T. Michael Perrin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource Enlish Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Perrin, T. Michael. 2021. “The Port of Uraga: Tokugawa Japan’s Choke Point to Edo.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/675 Asia-Pac Session 2 2021