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Title A name given to the resource The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-utan and the Bird of Paradise; a Narrative of Travel, with Studies of Man and Nature Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alfred Russel Wallace Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Macmillan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1902 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Alfred Russel Wallace Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1902 Edition 10th Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Macmillan Title A name given to the resource The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-utan and the Bird of Paradise; a Narrative of Travel, with Studies of Man and Nature Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/13c4043d24fd8aa226688a96e05d2248.pdf 20904f40b57b3fb135f8541dcd0715fa PDF Text Text The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Port of San Jacinto and the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, Central Philippines Catherine E. Villamor (Graduate student, University of the Philippines, School of Archaeology) ABSTRACT During the Spanish colonial period, European explorers noted that Ticao Island in the Central Philippines was the source of water, wood, and other galleon provisions. Hence, the Port of San Jacinto in Ticao was one of the last ports the galleons touched before sailing into the Pacific, and vice versa. Ticao Pass is the graveyard of galleons such as Encarnación (1649) and Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726) to the east of the island. Through the years, local histories have been written about the island's glorious past as a galleon port. However, only a little archaeology has been done on this subject. Thus, this study aims to report the status of the archaeological research on Ticao’s role in the galleon trade. This paper charts relevant historical sites, i.e., potential archaeological sites, for future reconnaissance. The resources available to conduct the work include ethnohistorical data, archival maps, maritime charts, archaeological reports, site discovery forms, and artefacts. These resources are deemed ample to illustrate the maritime cultural landscape of the Port of San Jacinto, the underwater archaeology of the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, and the lasting impact of galleon trade in the island, especially in the town of San Jacinto. Keywords: Ticao, Port of San Jacinto, galleon trade, galleon shipwrecks List of Figures Figure 1. Locational map of San Jacinto, Ticao Island and Ticao Pass - Murillo-Velarde map (1734) Figure 2. The location of the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass Figure 3. Maritime Cultural Landscape of Port San Jacinto Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1815) Figure 4. a. Reproduction of Cosme Bertodano’s Plano de el Puerto de San Jacinto (1792); b—Plan & View of St. Jacinto on Ticao (1763); and c. Plano de el Puerto de San Jacinto (1792) INTRODUCTION The history of Ticao Island in Central Philippines (Figure 1) is primarily intertwined with maritime traditions. In the Spanish colonial period, Ticao Pass was part of the treacherous route of the ManilaAcapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1812 CE) known as the Embocadero or the Paso de Acapulco (Schurz 1939). So, the Port of San Jacinto on this island ‘was celebrated for it served as a harbour for the famed galleons’ (Montero 1886, 338). It was also the source of water and wood; thus, it was the last port the galleons touched before sailing to the Pacific (Careri 1983). This paper investigates the extent of archaeological research on the role of Ticao Island and Ticao Pass in the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. It reviews the underwater archaeology done on the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass. The study also illustrates the maritime cultural landscape of the galleon port of San Jacinto from archival maps, nautical charts, and ethnohistorical accounts, which could be investigated archaeologically. Ultimately, this work discusses the lasting impact of the galleon trade on Ticao Island, especially in San Jacinto. 1 �Figure 1. Locational map of San Jacinto, Ticao Island and Ticao Pass [Satellite image: ESRI World Imagery] in relation to the route of Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade as shown in the Murillo-Velarde map (1734), the overview map on this figure [Source: Library of Congress] METHODS Library and archival research were conducted to gather historical and archaeological data that are relevant to the roles of Ticao in the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. This research also involves georeferencing archival maps published from 1565 to 1815 and geotagging relevant placenames and spatial references from ethnohistorical accounts using QGIS version 3.28.2. Some ethnohistorical 2 �sources are not directly linked to the galleon trade but apply to the maritime traditions in Ticao Island within its period, such as indigenous warfare, sea piracy, and slave raiding. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION According to Schurz (1939), from Cavite on Manila Bay, the galleons passed through the Embocadero towards San Bernardino Strait. However, storms would often coincide with the voyage, hence ‘galleons were… frequently becalmed for days’ (La Follette and Deur 2018, 169) and were ‘always delayed at San Jacinto on Ticao, or some other port in the vicinity’ (Schurz 1939, 222). The Galleon Shipwrecks in Ticao Pass Since Ticao Pass is part of the galleon trade route, it became the graveyard of galleons and other vessels during the Spanish colonial period. Some of the galleons that were wrecked in this passage were Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación (1649 CE), Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726 CE), San Cristóbal (1733 CE), Magallanes (1793 CE), and San Andrés (1798 CE) (Philippine Commission of Independence 1923; Schurz 1939; Warren 2012) (Figure 2). In the past thirty years, at least two of those galleons have been investigated archaeologically, namely Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación (1649 CE) and Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726 CE). Jago-on and Orillaneda first discussed the investigations of Encarnación and Santo Cristo de Burgos in the essay ‘Archaeological Researches on the Manila Galleon Wrecks in the Philippines’ (2019). Encarnación On its way to Manila, on 5 October 1649, Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación was struck by a typhoon near Bulan, Sorsogon. This maritime tragedy is attributed to Encarnación’s late departure from Acapulco. Two hundred passengers died, and all its cargo was sunk along with the galleon (Warren 2012, 195). On 28 November to 10 December 1985, the National Museum of the Philippines investigated the possible wreck of Encarnación. According to them, it was located approximately 1.5 kilometres westnorthwest of Bulan. Their team could not recover the ceramics and other cargoes of the galleons. On the other hand, they found ‘the double wall sidings of a wooden ship, the base of its mast, a probable cannon with heavy encrustations and a large piece of heavily rusted iron’ (Cuevas 1985, 1). An archaeological excavation was conducted from 28 December 1985 to 22 January 1986, where the team exposed wooden planks and ballast stones. However, due to strong currents, the team ceased the excavations ‘temporarily’ for their safety (Malones 1986, 1-2). Based on the available records, the wreck of Encarnación has not been re-excavated since then. 3 �Figure 2. The location of the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass Santo Cristo de Burgos The Acapulco-bound Santo Cristo de Burgos was hit by a typhoon near the shores of Ticao Island on 23 July 1726 CE. The galleon was described as a ‘500-ton fully laden vessel with a valuable cargo and unspecified number of passengers and more than 250 sailors. The only casualty of this tragedy was the ship’s master of the galley (Fish 2011, 508). However, while the, ‘crew and the passengers escaped… the cargo was mysteriously burned’ (Schurz 1939). Therefore, this maritime disaster underwent severe scrutiny from the Spanish authorities, who received tons of charges from aggrieved merchants (Schurz 1939, 260). They discovered that the galleon sunk during the storm because it was not anchored in its usual anchorage in the Port of San Jacinto. In October 1726 CE, the investigation committee concluded that the captain, chief pilot, and six officers were guilty of the loss of the galleon and its cargo. They were imprisoned, and the government seized their properties to compensate the aggrieved parties (Fish 2011). The National Museum of the Philippines surveyed the possible Santo Cristo de Burgos wreck site in July 1985. This underwater survey was mentioned and charted by Conese in the article ‘Underwater Archaeology in the Philippines’ (1989). The wreck, first discovered by a fisherman, is about 4.5 kilometres north of the Port of San Jacinto. Based on the survey form, they recovered tradeware sherds, earthenware sherds, and glass bottle pieces. Three anchors were also taken ashore, one of which was 15 feet long. From April to May 2004, the Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology, Inc. (FEFNA) launched the Santo Cristo Archaeological Exploration Project in San Fernando, approximately 10 kilometres south of the Port of San Jacinto. The artefacts recovered included an iron ring, a shell artefact, and ceramics (Alba 2004). It is important to note that the area FEFNA explored is about 14 kilometres from the San Jacinto Wreck Site. Moreover, the report for this exploration project did not reference the San Jacinto Wreck Site, which was first considered as the possible wreck site of Santo Cristo de Burgos. 4 �The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Galleon Port of San Jacinto Figure 3. The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Port of San Jacinto during the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade (1565-1815 CE) According to Westerdahl (2011, 735), ‘The occurrence of historic shipwrecks must have relied on a logistic network of the past which could be recorded in the same process’. Currently, the galleon port of San Jacinto has not been investigated archaeologically. Hence, archival maps and ethnohistorical accounts were reviewed to illustrate its maritime cultural landscape during the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade. Westerdahl (1992, 6) defines maritime cultural landscape as ‘the whole network of sailing routes, old as well as new, with ports and harbours along the coast, and its related constructions and remains of human activity, underwater as well as terrestrial’. In the Port of San Jacinto, this network includes places that are relevant to maritime activities (e.g., trade, shipbuilding, and piracy), such as sources of provisions, docks, ports, shipyards, and fortifications (Figure 3). These landmarks were geotagged based on the Bertodano 1792 CE map (Figure 4a) and ethnohistorical sources. In the late 1600s, Italian adventurer Gemelli Careri notes in his travel accounts that San Jacinto was a ‘good port with the conveniency of fresh water and wood and is, therefore, the last land the ships bound for New Spain touch at’ (Careri 1983, 42). Based on the Dalrymple 1763 CE map (Figure 4b) and the notes on the Bertodano 1792 CE map (Figure 4c), the most accessible source of freshwater for the vessels (such as the galleons) was the river northeast of the Punta de Bodega called Aguada. The other sources were the tributaries of the Estero de Santa Rosa. There were also two wells on both sides of the bay. 5 �Figure 4. a. Reproduction of the Cosme Bertodano’s Plano de el Puerto de San Jacinto (1792) by Príncipe de la Paz; b. Plan & View of St. Jacinto on Ticao (1763) by Alexander Dalrymple; and c. Plano de el Puerto de San Jacinto (1792) by Cosme Bertodano [Sources: Biblioteca Nacional de España and Archivo Museo Naval de Madrid] 6 �On the other hand, the wood was probably acquired from the ‘hillocky’ cove on both sides of the anchorage (See Figure 3b). In particular, the Patag, east of Población, was the area where hardwoods such as Ipil (Intsia bijuga), Barayong (Afzelia rhomboidea), and Hamorawon (Vitex parviflora) were sourced during the Spanish colonial period (Merillo 1981). Due to its proximity to the port, it was probably also the source of wood for the galleons. In addition, along the Port of San Jacinto, there were places relevant to the prosaic maritime activities. To the east of the Punta de San Juan was a ‘historical beach’ where small indigenous watercraft such as banca (small dugout boat) and cumpit (fishing vessel) docked. In addition, based on the local history, Sitio Fabrica near Rondajan was a dockyard for bancas and ships (Merillo 1981). Interestingly, the Real Astillero de Mobo on the island of Masbate was located at Barangay Fabrica (Non 1993; Pelorina 2015). It is important to note that in the Spanish colonial period, ships and other vessels were built in the Philippine archipelago to facilitate fishing, transportation, and trade and were instrumental in fighting against sea pirates and slave raiders (Non 1993). In San Jacinto, inhabitants ‘rode small bancas pretending to be fishing within the town's bay and outside the bay's mouth, which would distract the entrance of sea pirates’ (Merillo 1981, 45). A round-the-clock patrol was also done on land in Rondajan, and because of the rampant piracy, ‘In 1701 a formal union of the settlers was formed with the end in view to protect themselves from the Moro marauders’ (Almodal 1953, 2). This marked the birth of the Población (settlement) in the Port of San Jacinto. Aside from building houses, the inhabitants built ‘more and better fortifications’ (Almodal 1953, 2). Cannons were installed in several areas, such as the Garita Rock (Spanish for ‘sentry box’), the Bagalayag Rock (probably near the Punta de Bodega), and the Binantayan Rock (also known as Binantayan Point) (Merillo 1981). Watch posts (vernacular: bantai/bantay/bantayan) were also established in strategic points such as the Punta de Tajiran, Punta de Binantayan, and Punta Lagan. Moreover, two watch posts were installed on Bantayan hills. There, the sentinels would blow their balalong (hollowed tree trunk) or bodiong (carabao horn or conch) to warn the inhabitants of the incoming raiders (Morado 1953; Barrun 1953; Mallari 1989). More importantly, guards were assigned to the fortress and the church, which served as the primary refuge for the inhabitants amidst intrusions (Merillo 1981). These defence structures protected the inhabitants from the indigenous sea pirates but also against Dutch and British intruders. In 1646 CE, the bay of San Jacinto was the venue of one of the skirmishes of the Battle of La Naval de Manila between the Spanish fleet and the Dutch squadron. On 22 June 1646 CE, a sentinel reported seven Dutch warships approaching the waters of San Jacinto. A day later, the Dutch forces attempted to seize the Garita Rock to ambush two galleons. However, they were vanquished by the local and Spanish forces. As a result, the Dutch seized the Port of San Jacinto until 24 July 1646 CE. More than a century later, during the British Occupation of Manila (1762-1764 CE), one of the ships of the British fleet attempted to anchor in the Port of San Jacinto but received cannon fire from the fortress. On 20 December 1797 CE, the inhabitants of the Población fled after they were warned of the atrocities of some British entities. These intruders were demanding foodstuffs, cattle, and freshwater. When the Spanish and local authorities refused to give in, the intruders fired at the church with ammunition before finally leaving the port (Gerona 2012). The other ports in Ticao Island during the galleon trade Based on the Murillo-Velarde Map (Figure 1), the galleons usually anchored on the Port of Ticao (present-day San Fernando). It was approximately 10 kilometres south of the Port of San Jacinto. Another anchorage lies on the northernmost tip of the island, known as the Port of San Miguel. It was probably a port of call during the galleon trade since the galleons were ‘turning ENE around the Punta de San Miguel and the Punta del Diablo [both in San Miguel]; [before] coasting around the east side of Ticao to the anchorage at San Jacinto’ (Schurz 1939, 222). 7 �The Impact of the Galleon Trade on Ticao Island and San Jacinto When the Spanish arrived, Ticao Island had sporadic communities with trading and burial traditions (See Evangelista and Paniza 1962). Its centre was also named Ticao (present-day San Fernando). According to local history, Ticao became a pueblo in 1701 CE (Merillo 1980). However, unlike the galleon port of San Jacinto, protected by a fortress and at least five watch posts, Ticao was virtually defenceless. As a result, that town was easily crushed by Iranun slave raiders in 1757 CE (Warren 2002). After the atrocities, ‘All the inhabitants of Ticao Island were re-concentrated in the port of San Jacinto’ (Dery 1986, 160). By 1804 CE, San Jacinto was established as the new and only town on Ticao Island (De la Cavada 1876, 262). More than two centuries later, San Jacinto remains a quaint town with a seaport and various fish ports. Its past as a galleon port is immortalised in its church. Now called the Church of the Santo Cristo de Burgos, this parish used to house the relic of Jesus Christ that was saved from the burning galleon Santo Cristo (Gerona 2012, 78). Moreover, the galleon Santo Cristo's tragedy has been integrated into the oral tradition of San Jacinto, which has been passed down in the community for almost three centuries. In terms of resources, the southwest tip of Estero de Sta. Rosa (now the Tutuban River) in the Bertodano 1792 CE map (Figure 3c) is still the source of freshwater in the village of Tutuban. Its tributary pointing to the south is now a fishpond in Pararatngan, leading to Cueva in Burgos's village, ‘the source of the water system in San Jacinto’ (Espares 1953, 6). Lastly, the galleon trade and the Dutch and British intrusions made the port (and later the port town) of San Jacinto cosmopolitan. Hence, it has been passed down through oral tradition and local history that some Dutch, English, Portuguese, and Spanish crewmembers of the frigates and other vessels, such as the galleons, intermarried with the town’s inhabitants (Magdaraog 1968.; Merillo 1981). In particular, the ‘original families’ in the village of Tutuban, where the freshwater for the galleon was acquired, ‘were of mixed breed—Spanish, Dutch, and English’ (Villamor c. 1953, 1). BIBLIOGRAPHY Alba, Larry. Santo Cristo Underwater Archaeological Exploration Project. Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 2004. Almodal, Angeles V. “History and Cultural Life of San Jacinto,” Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines, c. 1953. Barrun, Hermogenes E. History and Cultural Life of the Barrio [Mabini],’ Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines, c. 1953. Beyer, H. Otley. “Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by Islands and Provinces.” The Philippine Journal of Science 77, nos. 3-4 (1947): 205-390. Bolunia, Mary Jane Louise A. “Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon.” In Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, edited by Hans Van Tilburg, Sila Tripati, Veronica Walker, Brian Fahy, and Jun Kimura. Honolulu, APCONF Committee, 2014. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Philippine Fisheries Profile 2020. Quezon City: BFAR, 2021. Careri, Giovanni Franceso Gemelli. A Voyage to the Philippines. Translated from Giro del Mondo del dottor D. Gio Francesco Gemelli Careri. Parte Quinta Contenente le Cose più ragguardevoli vedute nell´isole Filippine, published 1700. Translated by Filipiniana Book Guild. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1983. Conese, Eduardo E. Underwater Archaeology in the Philippines. Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 1989. 8 �Cuevas, Maharlika. Ticao Pass (Bulan) Underwater Archaeological Project: A Field Report. Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 1985b. De la Cavada y Méndez de Vigo, Agustin. Historia geográfica: geológica y estadiśtica de Filipinas. Con datos geográficos, geológicos y estadiśticos de las islas de Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao y Joló; y los que corresponden a las islas Batanes, Calamianes, Balabac, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao y Burias, situadas al n. so. y s. de Luzon, tompo 1-2. Manila: Imp. de Ramirez y Giraudier, 1876. Dery, Luis C. ‘The Era of the Kris: The Moro Raids in Sorsogon and Kabikolan and their impact on Philippine history, 15711896.’ National Academy of Science & Technology, 11 (1989): 145-166. Evangelista, Alfredo E., and Inocentes P. Paniza. A Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Survey of Burias, Ticao and Masbate Islands (April 1 to May 31, 1962). Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 1962. Espares, Bienvenido A. “History of the Barrio of Burgos,” Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines, c. 1953. Fish, Shirley. The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure Ships of the Pacific: With an Annotated List of the Transpacific Galleons 1565-1815. Milton Keynes: Authorhouse, 2011. Gerona, Danilo M. Las Islas de Masbate: A Beacon of Faith, A Fortress of Resistance. Masbate: Diocese of Masbate, 2012. Gerona, Danilo M. El Puerto Y Astillero Real de Pasacao. Pasacao: Office of the Mayor, 2018. Jago-on, S.C.B., Orillaneda, B.C. “Archaeological Researches on the Manila Galleon Wrecks in the Philippines.” In Archaeology of Manila Galleon Seaports and Early Maritime Globalization, The Archaeology of Asia-Pacific Navigation, vol. 2, edited by Chunming Wu, Roberto Junco Sanchez, and Miao Liu, 129-145. Springer, Singapore, 2019. La Follette, Cameron, and Douglas Deur. 2018. “Views Across the Pacific: The Galleon Trade and Its Traces in Oregon.” Oregon Historical Quarterly 119, no. 2 (2018): 160-191. Magdaraog, Victor. 1968. “San Jacinto, Ticao Island.” In The Historical and Cultural Heritage of the Bicol People, 2 nd Edition, edited by James J. O’Brien. Naga: Ateneo de Naga. Mallari, Francisco. “Camarines Towns: Defenses against Moro Pirates.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 17, no. 1 (1989): 41–66. Malones, Antonio Jr. The Encarnation. Unpublished Manuscript, Manila: National Museum of the Philippines, 1985 Merillo, Damaso. History of San Jacinto and Ticao Island Masbate. Unpublished Typescript, 1981. Montero y Vidal, Jose. El archipiélago Filipino y las islas Marianas, Carolinas y Palaos. Madrid: Imprenta y Fundación de M. Tello, 1886. Morado, Arturo B. c. 1953. “The Origin of the name “Bagahanglad” and its sitios,” Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines, c. 1953. Non, Domingo M. “Moro Piracy during the Spanish Period and Its Impact.” Southeast Asian Studies 30, no. 4 (1993): 401419. Pelorina, Renato. “Plunder of Paradise: The History of Forest Denudation of Masbate Island, the Philippines, 1870-1946.” Researchers World: Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce 6, no. 2 (2015): 52-66. Philippine Commission of Independence. Beautiful Philippines: A Handbook of General Information. Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1923. Realubit, Maria Lilia F. Bikols of the Philippines. Naga: A.M.S. Press, 1983. Schurz, William Lytle. The Manila Galleon. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1939. Villamor, Domingo S. “History and Common Life of the Barrio of Tutuban,” Historical Data Papers (San Jacinto, Masbate). Manila: National Library of the Philippines. c. 1953. 9 �Warren, James Francis. Iranun and Balangingi: globalization, maritime raiding and the birth of ethnicity. Singapore: NUS Press, 2002. Warren, James. ‘Weather, History and Empire: The Typhoon Factor and the Manila Galleon Trade, 1565-1815.’ In Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past, edited by Geoff Wade, and Li Tana, 183-220. Singapore: ISEAS, 2012. Westerdahl, Christer. “The maritime cultural landscape.” The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21, no. 1 (1992): 5-14. Westerdahl, Christer. “The Maritime Cultural Landscape.” In The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, edited by Alexis Catsambis, Ben Ford, and Donny L. Hamilton, 733-76. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 12: The Archaeology of the Manila Galleon at the APCONF: past, present and new interpretations. Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 12 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Port of San Jacinto and the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, Central Philippines Description An account of the resource During the Spanish colonial period, European explorers noted that Ticao Island in the Central Philippines was the source of water, wood, and other galleon provisions. Hence, the Port of San Jacinto in Ticao was one of the last ports the galleons touched before sailing into the Pacific, and vice versa. Ticao Pass is the graveyard of galleons such as Encarnación (1649) and Santo Cristo de Burgos (1726) to the east of the island. Through the years, local histories have been written about the island's glorious past as a galleon port. However, only a little archaeology has been done on this subject. Thus, this study aims to report the status of the archaeological research on Ticao’s role in the galleon trade. This paper charts relevant historical sites, i.e., potential archaeological sites, for future reconnaissance. The resources available to conduct the work include ethnohistorical data, archival maps, maritime charts, archaeological reports, site discovery forms, and artefacts. These resources are deemed ample to illustrate the maritime cultural landscape of the Port of San Jacinto, the underwater archaeology of the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, and the lasting impact of galleon trade in the island, especially in the town of San Jacinto. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Catherine E. Villamor Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Villamor, Catherine E.. 2023. “The Maritime Cultural Landscape of the Port of San Jacinto and the galleon shipwrecks in Ticao Pass, Central Philippines.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Jose L Casaban. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1959 Asia-Pac Session 12 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Maritime History and Nautical Archaeology of China in Southeast Asia: Song to Early Ming Dynasties (960-1435 C.E.) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1994 Type The nature or genre of the resource Thesis Zotero Author Hans Van Tilburg Item Type Thesis Call Number INQUIRE ON 4TH FLOOR Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1994 Extra : 1994 : 1994 : 175 leaves : ill., maps ; 28 cm : Submitted to the faculty of the Department of History : Thesis (M.A.)--East Carolina University, 1994 : Includes bibliographical references (leaves [154]-175) Other contributor: East Carolina University. Dept. of History Library Catalog abbott.lib.ecu.edu Library Catalog Short Title The Maritime History and Nautical Archaeology of China in Southeast Asia Title A name given to the resource The Maritime History and Nautical Archaeology of China in Southeast Asia: Song to Early Ming Dynasties (960-1435 C.E.) University East Carolina University China Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2bfbab86f9c95814ce7d063f429b5909.pdf 3fab7d417b621f41cdb0fa36aca9c9a7 PDF Text Text The methods of experimental archaeology apply in the reconstuctions of ship remains, the Ganzeng Warship Case Xu Lu1 and Jia Hao2 Abstract As one of the most important instruments of production in ancient time, ships are a complicated and systematic carrier. To study their uses one could broach the subjects of naval architecture, art of seamanship, fishing production, social function of trade and navy, and its anthropological meaning as a special settlement3. With respect to naval architecture our study divided it into the following: shipform, structure and principle of design. The method of experimental archaeology ship-reconstructions first in the late half of the last century in Europe. Initial endowment by the Danish National Research Foundation reconstructed a Viking ship. This methodology involves archeology, ancient documentation, and ethno-archaeological investigation of the same culture-tradition of shipbuilding. In this way, ancient ships can be restituted, rebuilt, and understood. —A.D.220). This Chinese junks had adopted the bamboo strip sail in the Western Han dynasty (B.C.206 tool was still in use in the Early Qing Dynasty (1644-1799) as evidenced by the Ganzeng warship. However, archaeologists have not found tangible evidence and are unclear on its structure and manufacturing methods. Nautical archaeology had never carried out an experiment on replica and reconstruction according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. The reconstruction of Ganzeng warship from the Early Qing Dynasty was based on the study of historic documents, integrated with methods of ship design and building traditions acquired from the ethnographical field work in Fujian province. This was the first full scale experimental anthropology reconstruction project in China. the design principle and method began with the preliminary sorting of the modular system of construction that was largely based on the study of the transverse watertight bulkhead, mast base structure, and the axis helm that can lift and swing bamboo strip sail. From this project we concluded that experimental reconstruction of ship remains is the only effective means to preserve the Chinese junk heritage. Furthermore, in this paper we introduce the use of modern technology and research tools used in experimental archaeology of ship remains. Key words: experimental archaeology, reconstruction sailing ship, ship remain, Ganzeng, naval architecture. 1 Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society, Xiamen, P.R.China 361005 2 School of History, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R.China 100875 3 Eric Rieth, 2006. Epaves, Archeologie Sous-Marine Et Histoire De L’architecture Navale. Histoire, Archeologie Et Societe Confererces Academiques Franco-Chinoises, Ecole francaise d’Extreme-Orient Centre, Beijing, Cabier No 13, pp. 1-20. 1 �1. Preface The encyclopaedia Heavenly Creation 4 (1637) has a chapter on naval architecture. The author Songyingxing divided the vessels into sea-going, river and other craft according to their environment. These classifications have been followed until now. In the book he elaborated parts on usage and navigation environments of ship, shipform and building procedure, design principle and modular proportion, design and manipulation of sail and helm, form and usage of anchor, sealant, rigging, log material and so on. Those have made the book the most systematic work of naval architecture of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and the decoding norms for traditional sailing junks till now. This study only focuses on sea-going junks. By the 21st century ancient Chinese sailing junks had disappeared, their memory only retained through studies in nautical archaeology, historic documents, the craftsmen traditions of shipbuilding, models and the odd recently-built traditional ships. The surmise of only four kinds of shipforms (ie. Shachuan, Niaochuan, Fuchuan, and Guangchuan) is incomplete and further study is required. Figure 1. Ganzeng style warship recorded in the middle of 18th century (Anonymous). 4 Song Yingxing, 2002. Heavenly Creations(Tian-Gong-Kai-Wu) in Sequel to Si-Ku-Quan-Shu, Zi radical, 1637, reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Press, Shanghai. 2 �2. Experimental archaeology 2.1 Conception and origins "Experimental Archaeology: The systematic approach used to test, evaluate and explicate method, technique, assumption, hypothesis and theories at any and all levels of archaeological research" (Ingersoll 1977). The field of experimental archaeology can generally be divided into four categories: controlled replication of recovered artifacts or known activities; testing the validity of methodological assumptions by applying them to known data or results; "contextual"; and ethnographic data. Experimental archaeology can also be described by using these questions: What was ancient man doing? Why? How? These questions can be answered in many different ways. “Experimental archaeology employs a number of different methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches in order to generate and test hypotheses, based upon archaeological source material, like ancientstructure or artifacts” (Mathieu 2002). One of the main forms of experimental archaeology is the creation of copies of historical structures using only historically accurate technologies. This is sometimes known as reconstruction archaeology. 2.2 Reconstruction experiment of ship remains The reconstruction experiment of ship remains chooses an original prototype from the historical documents, sets proper design and procedure application of the original tools and materials, copies the similar environment, reconstructs the replica, manipulates the replica under the similar navigation circumstances, and finally verifies and explains the set prototype. Followed the technical logic during all the procedures of building and voyage, previous conclusions need to be retested and re-evaluated, and sometimes previous hypothesis could be re-written. Or at least some possibilities of the unsettled questions could be expelled at the same time. Although experimental methods are not yet fully approved as scientific method in the European archaeology discipline be cause of the absence of common standards and untenable evidence. In nautical archaeology this method could be the most effective way to assemble all the information from shipwrecks, documents, interviews, models and operating ships, while also being the most effective in verification and preservation of the historical prototype. There are distinct differences between the experiments and other replicas. Firstly, the former are strictly document studies. Secondly, choosing the appropriate historical objects as prototype. The experiment replica could be ships with the ability to sail, proportionate models, specific sections or tools, or the clarify shipwrecks. 3. Reconstruction experiment of Ganzeng warship of early Qing dynasty Our team chose to conduct the experimental project on the Ganzeng warship of the Early Qing Dynasty based on evidence available in nautical and historical archaeology. The inital 3 �study of historical documents revealed multiple examples of European depictions of Fujian boats, these included: • The two large-scale trader in Zhujiang River printed by Netherlandish armada commanded by Cornelis Matelief de Jonghes5. The illustrations of side plate, gangway, deck castle, bamboo matting sail were particular for studies. • A middle 17th century, collection of Berlin Etnologisches Museum was the earliest meticulous color image of Fujian style junks6. • William Alexander’s colour images are the earliest and the best realistic portrayals of Fujian style junks available to us today7. We also studied Chinese historical documents and drawings from which we gained examples of shipforms during the reigns of Emperors Kangxi (1662-1722), Yongzheng (1723-1735) and Qilong (1736-1795). They were shrunk into medium(length over all under 30 meters) or small scales (length over all under 20 meters). The drawings largely consisted of double mast forms of warships and traders, with the majority of drawings being of single masted fishing boats. In and after the Jiaqing reign shipforms expanded. Examples include the Tongan Suochuan8 and Guangting warships of three masts. During the reign of Emperor Daoguang (1821-1850) large numbers of traders emerged with three masts. We believe the Ganzeng warship originated from the fishing junk of the Fujian and Zhejiang coast of the late Ming Dynasty (1600-1644). At the time it may have had a secondary use in trade. The first record of Ganzeng mentioned in Conquest Memoir9 by an official historian of Zheng Chenggong armed force named Yangyin in 1658, he mentioned that Zheng’s Navy dispatched a Ganzeng to salvage an European heavy cannon from a wrecked warship in Jieyang port (South-east of Guangdong Province). The first record found describing it as a warship is the 1664 August entry of East China Memoir10, written by Jiang Liangqi. In 1688 the ship served in the Fujian Navy to quard the coast of China. The final historical record is of an equipment list of the national navy, from the time of Emperor Guangxi's reign (1881). The first illustration of Ganzeng warship could be found in The Navy Abstract11 written by the east Guangdong regional commander Chen Liangshi during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. In the book, 14 kinds of seaman position, numbers of each kind, and the post requirements were firstly founded. It was the first document that explained the design principle and main modular system based on the length of main beam. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing12 was written by Huang Shujing between the years 5 6 7 This printing was cited by Isaac Commelin,1646. Beginning and Ending of the Dutch-East Company, Amsterdam. Anonymous, middle 17th century. The Island of Formosa, painted on parchment, collection of Berlin Ethnologisches Museum. William Alexander and George Henry Mason, 1988. Views of 18th Century China Costumes,History, Custom. 1796, reprint Portland House, New York. Jiang Youxian, 1817. Memorial to the throne with picture, 38cm×35cm, collection of The National Palace Museum, Taibei. 9 Yangyin, 1958. Conquest Memoir(Cong-Zheng-Shi-Lu), 1658, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. 10 Jiang Liangqi, 2000. East China Memoir (Dong-Hua-Lu), 1664 reprint Xueyuan Press, Beijing. 11 Chen Liangshi, 2002. The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), later 17th century, reprint Shanghai Ancient 8 12 Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang Shujing, 1957. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), early 18th century, reprint 4 �of the Emperors Kangxi to Yongzheng. Shujing was the first imperial senior government official in Taiwan during the Qing Dynasty. He used mandarin tongue to record and explain the dialect of about 100 details of the ship construction, recording materials, quantities and specifications needed to build the Ganzeng warship. In 1731 a Guangdong general named Cai Tianlue stated to the emperor the Ganzeng’s details of dimensions and materials. In the statement he included the depth of the hulk, the upper width and the lower width of watertight hulk measured by a Luban ruler13. All the evidence from the three documents mentioned above provided us with a practical base to conduct our reconstruction experiment. We had detailed information including principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, material data, and measures. The five historical documents that recorded units dimensions, two of them with detailed illustrations, are: The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy Of Fujian Province (Figure 1)14, Cai Tianlue’ memorial to the throne, The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships15, The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships 16, and The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk17. Among the documents, The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships had the most complete records of 17 Ganzeng’s specifications and a detailed list of the amounts and costs of materials used for the construction (Table 1). In our experiment, we used this document as the main base data, and considered the others as complements. Table.1 The key dimensions of all sizes of Fujian Ganzeng warships Number Qty Length of deck Beam Deep of hold Cabin 13 Liminary 3 22.2 m 5.61 m 21 Chap.1 5 13.8 m 3.96 m 1.29 m 15 Chap.2 2 16.2 m 4.71 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.3 4 15.0 m 4.38 m 1.46 m 16 Chap.4 9 16.5 m 4.71 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.5 14 17.1 m 4.86 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.6 8 18.6 m 5.01 m 1.66 m 17 Chap.7 3 19.5 m 5.52 m 1.84 m 18 Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. Cai Tianlue,1989. Memorial to the throne about Zhejiang province’s Ganzeng warships, 1731, reprint Jiangsu Ancient Book Press, Nanjing. Luban ruler is a Chinese yardstick to length named with the fonder of capenter in ancient legend and widely used by traditional Fujian shipwright till now, 1 Luban’s foot is about 0.3 metres. Anonymous, middle 18th century. The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji) , manuscript. 15 Anonymous, 2002. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai 14 Zhan Chuan Ze Li), 1768, woodblock edition. reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. 16 Anonymous, 1719. The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Jiang Su Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), collected by The National Science library, Beijing. 17 Anonymous, middle Qing Dynasty. The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk, 66cm×55cm, collected by The National Science library, Beijing. 5 �…… Chap.16 3 25.8 m 6.39 m 2.37 m 22 Chap.17 9 24 m 6.24 m 2.18 m 22 3.1 Reconstruction design Stage 1 Based on above studies of historical documents, and considering the difficulty of experiment and financials, we chose Qing 8 of Taiwan Navy recorded in Chapter 1 of The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, the length of deck 13.8 metre Ganzeng warjunk as the original ship, and applied the reconstruction design steps as follows: • Step 1: Listed all the units of 17 sizes according to The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, and compared the list of Chapter 1 Ganzeng to other sizes. We got a supplement list of Chapter 1 Ganzeng from the compare (Table 2), which was hold to testify or modify used above mention other historical documents later. Table.2 The specification of Chapter 1 Fujian Ganzeng warship Main measurement • • • • Length of deck 13.80 m Beam of middle bottom 3.06 m High sheer forward 1.20 m Length of tail 3.60 m High sheer tail 0.9 m Beam of tail deck 3.78 m Length of fore ship 5.40 m Beam of tail bottom 2.82 m Beam of forship deck 2.64 m Length of top-side plank 15.78 m Beam of forship bottom 2.40 m Height of top-sideplank 1.20m Length of middle 4.80 m Cabin 15 Beam of middle deck 3.96 m Deep of hold 1.29 m Step 2: Distinguished and sorted every component of the list according to the illustrations of The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy Of Fujian Province and the explanations of The Navy Abstract and The Taiwan Conversation. Step 3: The uncertain components and units were questioned in interviews conducted in the field investigation of traditional shipbuilding sites in Fujian, and the explanations were compared. The accordant explanations were accepted and the inconsistent ones were held for further tests. Step 4: The main technical parameters like thickness of bottom plates were sent to the master of craftsmen, and confirmed that the parameters were almost the same as the tradition of the master. The traditional Luban ruler was used as the measurement tool, whose 1 Luban’s foot (chi) was equal to 0.3 metres. Step 5: The complex list was sorted to five systems including configuration system, drive system, directional system, anchor system, decoration system. Then converted 6 �to a new List of The Specifications Of Components & Materials, including 977 wood parts and 27 metal parts, nailed with 17886 nails, and sealed with a mixture of 686 kilograms of shell ash, 276.5 kilograms of tung oil, 223.5 kilograms of net, 223.5 kilograms of bamboo fibers. • Step 6: The new list was handed to four teams for reconstruction detail design. The four teams were Fangshijian from Fuzhou, Hongzhigang from Hui’an, Chenfangcai and Chenrongliang from Jinjiang, Kongbinghuan and Xuxihui from Dongshan. All the teams are traditional shipbuilding specialists in Fujian. The design principle was to match all the units of the new list neatly to the traditional way and without any pieces remaining. The construction was based on the functions of main units and systems and was in the accordance with the documents and field investigations. stage 2 Compared four of the above mentioned ancient documents with three newly found documents: the Cai Tianlue’ memorial to the throne, The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships, and The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk. For prototypes we chose the length of deck at 22.2 m, based on the primary chapter of The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, and 21.9 m deck length, from chapter 11. Then organized List of The Specifications of Components & Materials and designed models. 3.2 Full scale reconstruction In 2007 the building of a full scale reconstruction began. The team from Jinjiang reconstructed the ship based on chapter 1 Ganzeng warship, length of deck 13.8 m, which followed the traditional shipbuilding. The teams of Fuzhou, Hui’an and Dongshan were technical support, the Longhai team painted, and the Zhaoan team finailized adjustments after the trial voyage. The reason of this prototype chosen was that it was the smallest one in the 17 sizes. Thus the expense was relatively small, and the dangerous factor of the voyage was relatively small too. The reconstruction ship was named Princess Taiping. The procedure of building ancient sea-going sailing junks is rarely found in the historical documents. And there have been many discussions between shell-first and frame-first design. The transverse watertight bulkhead, the most characteristic structure of Chinese sailing junk，is a frame-first system. The reconstruction’s procedure was carried out as illustrated (Figure 2): Figure 2. The sequence of construction. 7 �3.3 Testing and improvement The trial voyage from Shenhu to Xiamen was carried out during January to April of 2008 (Figure 3). The results of the voyage showed the Princess Taiping sailed at an average speed of 6 knots without wind with good stability but it had visible transverse drift, an issue in most Chinese sailing junks. The Princess Taiping entailed bamboo matting sails. The fabrication of bamboo matting was still mastered by several craftsmen along the Fujian coast18. We had no study of the manipulation technique of bamboo mattging sail so we used the cloth sail dyed by Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour. This was not in accordance with the historical prototype. Figure 3. Princess Taiping (Photo by Qiao Yang). 4. Modeling technology 4.1 Classification and cognition A three-dimensional reference frame could be set to classify the complex Chinese sailing 18 Xu Lu, 2006. The investigation on the traditions of naval architecture along Fujian coast. 8 �junks, which set time as the first coordinate axis, use space as the second one, and apply usage as the third axis. In this reference frame, every one of the warships, traders, fishers and ambassador ships from different time and space will find their own place. For certain ship forms the classification system of the Ming Dynasty’s encyclopedia of Heavenly Creations may be feasible. Every ship part and components in the classification should be tested in the field investigations and compared with the study of antique ships. The shapes, the positions, the functions and the behaviors of these parts should be observed on the spot, and recorded on the voyage. 4.2 Suppositional three-dimensional model Photoshop software and Illustration software are applied to produce the joint picture and vectorgraph of the shipmodel. Then 3dmax software was applied to create models of the ship units and whole ship. We first used this method of a three-dimensional model on the last traditional sailing junk built in Jinhuaxing in 2004, followed by the Ganzeng warship build in 2006 (Figure 4). Figure 4. 3D Components of Fujian Ganzeng warship. 9 �5. Conclusions and discussions 5.1 Conclusions Although shipwreck archaeology has very few cases of Chinese sea-going junks, many clues can be found in historical documents. Furthermore, the majority of sailing junks still voyaged in the middle of 20th century so the last traditional shipbuilding craftsmen are still alive. When we applied experimental archaeology methods to ship remains study, a distinctive prototype could be selected and craftsmen found to build the traditional design. The Ganzeng reconstruction therefore applied traditional technology with steps that trace back to the old building procedures. The structure of transverse watertight bulkhead was the most important character of all Chinese sailing junks, and watertight bulkhead was the soul structure in this project. The mixture sealant of tung oil and ashes, Chinese rugging sails, the axis ruddle that can swing and lift, the leeboard, and scull were inventions of ancient Chinese sailing junks19. As far as the choice of wood is concerned, a kind of natural fir tree Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.)Hook from Fujian a mountainous area was normally used for the parts of a ship’s shell that have direct contact with the sea, such as the keel (longgu), bottom, shuishe (literally water snake), and zouma (literally running horse), the deck and transverses (gecangban, literally cabin-separating boards), and natural small-leaf camphor for other parts of the body such as cangliang zhuo (base of cabin beams) liangtou (beam-end) and gecang fuqiang (cabin-separating strengtheners). For the rudder and anchor which required harder material, kundian wood, which was grown in Guangdong and Southeast Asia was used. Wood for the mast was the most carefully selected, natural fir trees from Fujian aged 80 or more were generally used. The craftsmen constructed the ships with the traditional techniques and tools. The aim of the reconstruction experiment is to reveal the technical logic of historical prototypes with similar techniques and environments. Reconstruction experimental archaeology is an effective method to study history. The replica will be on the trial voyage in same circumstance as it would have historically. Any baseless conjecture must be expelled, quantitative investigations and tangible evidences must be applied, as ship form essentially was the reflection of its wooden structure. This kind of historical study should be based on concrete practice rather than soely on documentation studies, and should avoid in interfusion by knowledge of modern naval architecture as a result like previous Zhenghe treasure ship study20. Modular systems are an important and traditional method in naval architecture. Modular system use the length of the keel or deck beam as the base structure. The Ganzeng reconstruction applied this system. This kind of traditional design uses lengths instead of angles as the measurement, which embodies the character of Chinese old math. The principle and method of design can not be understood until all the modulus are grasped. This is the essence of the technical logic in Chinese shipbuilding. The only way to preserve traditional technique is to conduct it. Reconstruction of ship remains is the rescue solution of heritage preservation. The rise of tourism at the sea may 19 Xu Lu, 2006. The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sailing Junks, an Overview. 20 Chen Yanhang, Yang Qiuping, Chen Xiao, 1986. A Study For The Peplica Of Zheng He’s Treasure Ship. Ship History Studies, Vol. 1986 (2). 10 �open a new space for the need of Chinese traditional sailboat. At the same time the resource of craftsmen continues. 5.2 Discussions Reconstruction of ship remains must be based on archaeological and historical evidences, integrated with methods of ship design and building acquired from ethnographic field work in traditional shipbuilding centres. The organization of all the resultant studies is the important part of reconstruction experiments. Some academic studies collect and sort domestic navigation documents of Chinese history, however the documents scattered in libraries and museums aboard have been neglected. To improve the effectiveness of retrievers and studies a visual database of documents organized by database including images and available on the internet need to be created. Classification could be according to use, time, region and type. Unlike shipbuilding of other indigenous areas, Chinese shipbuilding traditions changed little through time, and the last capable traditional shipbuilders are still alive. Western classifying studies of Chinese sailboats in the early of 20th century are just based on field investigations and interviews with the successors of traditional naval architecture. Projects need promptly undertake field investigation, with the case of the Manchuria railway being a precise and standard model of these studies. The terminology of traditional shipbuilding and navigation is usually passed on orally, and so are not always recorded in documents, and now some of have no equivalent word. Furthermore, the meanings of the words have changed through time and place. This continues to puzzel both Chinese and Western scholars21. Through the interviews we can distinguish the dialect, this must be the first step to syncronizing traditional andmodern-day terms. And the glossary of Chinese terms relevant to traditional Fujian junk should be authorized and translated to English and other languages for better communication. Besides the basic works mentioned above, the index of drawings, photos and models of traditional Chinese sailing junks need to be done, with the documents stored aboard copied and sorted. For example, the neglected series drawings made in Guangzhou in 19th century collected by Victoria and Albert Museum are the best illustrations of Western scholar’s classification. The scripts of François-Edmond Pâris22, Louis Audemard23, Etienne Sigaut24, Barbosa Carmona25 still have no Chinese versions, and some of them even have no English versions. These translation works are urgently needed. 21 There is an old adage in Fujian province that “Master of a particular shipyard builds ships exclusive to that shipyard.” Even in southern Fujian and speak idiographic Minnan dialect, different township have their own glossary system. 22 23 Musee de la Marine, 1992. Le voyage de la Favorite. Paris. L.Audemard, 1957,1959,1960,1962,1963,1965,1969,1970a,1970b. Les Jonques Chinoises, (10 volumes), Museum voor Land- en Volkenkund en Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik, Rptterdam. Etienne Sigaut (1887-1983) spent more than thirty years in China to investigate South Chinese junks since 1911, his manuscript and sketch however, have never been published and remain in National Maritime Museum of France. 25 Artur Leonel Barbosa Carmona, 1990. Lorchas,Juncos E outros Barcos no sul da China, repaint Museu e 24 Centro de Estudos Maritimos de Macau. 11 �The current experimental reconstruction project is the replica of a 10 meter length, later 19th century to early 20th century, Fujian style sea-going sailing junk. The original ship came from the manuscript on Junk-building of the Zheng Family of Haicheng in Zhangzhou in early Republican Period (1937). The detailed redesign was made by an 88 year-old master shipbuilder named Zheng Liangzhao. We aim to reconstruct this double-masted sailing junk for a trial voyage so as to grasp the sail manipulation methods and the navigation techniques which unavailable in any documents. Bibliography Alexander,W., Mason, G., 1988 Anonymous., middle 18th century Anonymous., 2002 Views of 18th Century China Costumes,History, Custom. 1796, reprint Portland House, New York. The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji) , manuscript. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), 1768, woodblock edition. reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Anonymous., The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going 1719 Warships (Qin Ding Jiang Su Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), collected by The National Science library, Beijing. Audemard, L., Les Jonques Chinoises, (10 volumes), Museum voor Land- en 1957,1959,1960,1 Volkenkund en Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik, Rotterdam. 962,1963,1965,19 69,1970a,1970b. Cai, T., Memorial to the throne about Zhejiang province’s Ganzeng 1989 warships, 1731, reprint Jiangsu Ancient Book Press, Nanjing. Carmona, B., Lorchas,Juncos E outros Barcos no sul da China, repaint 1990 Museu e Centro de Estudos Maritimos de Macau. Chen, L., The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), later 17th century, reprint 2002 Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang, S., The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), early 1957 18th century, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. Ingersoll, D., Experimental archaeology, Columbia University Press, New Yellen,J., York. Macdonald,W., (eds.) 1977 Jiang, L., East China Memoir (Dong-Hua-Lu), 1664, reprint Xueyuan 12 �2000 Mathieu, J. R., 2002 Rieth, E., 2006 Song, Y., 2002 Yang, y., 1958 Press, Beijing. Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes (British Archaeological Reports, International Series), BAR International Series 1035, Oxford. Epaves, Archeologie Sous-Marine Et Histoire De L’architecture Navale. Histoire, Archeologie Et Societe Confererces Academiques Franco-Chinoises, Ecole francaise d’Extreme-Orient Centre, Beijing. Heavenly Creations(Tian-Gong-Kai-Wu) in Sequel to Si-Ku-Quan-Shu, Zi radical, 1637, reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Press, Shanghai. Conquest Memoir(Cong-Zheng-Shi-Lu), 1658, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. 13 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/631d138d83cdfdf9277ba0960678ad2a.jpg 7a476381f2ef8bebb1bdb54c71900f78 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The methods of experimental archaeology apply in the reconstuctions of ship remains, the Ganzeng Warship Case Subject The topic of the resource Session 3 History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource As one of the most important instruments of production in ancient time, ships are a complicated and systematic carrier. To study their uses one could broach the subjects of naval architecture, art of seamanship, fishing production, social function of trade and navy, and its anthropological meaning as a special settlement . With respect to naval architecture our study divided it into the following: shipform, structure and principle of design. The method of experimental archaeology ship-reconstructions first in the late half of the last century in Europe. Initial endowment by the Danish National Research Foundation reconstructed a Viking ship. This methodology involves archeology, ancient documentation, and ethno-archaeological investigation of the same culture-tradition of shipbuilding. In this way, ancient ships can be restituted, rebuilt, and understood. Chinese junks had adopted the bamboo strip sail in the Western Han dynasty (B.C.206—A.D.220). This tool was still in use in the Early Qing Dynasty (1644-1799) as evidenced by the Ganzeng warship. However, archaeologists have not found tangible evidence and are unclear on its structure and manufacturing methods. Nautical archaeology had never carried out an experiment on replica and reconstruction according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. The reconstruction of Ganzeng warship from the Early Qing Dynasty was based on the study of historic documents, integrated with methods of ship design and building traditions acquired from the ethnographical field work in Fujian province. This was the first full scale experimental anthropology reconstruction project in China. the design principle and method began with the preliminary sorting of the modular system of construction that was largely based on the study of the transverse watertight bulkhead, mast base structure, and the axis helm that can lift and swing bamboo strip sail. From this project we concluded that experimental reconstruction of ship remains is the only effective means to preserve the Chinese junk heritage. Furthermore, in this paper we introduce the use of modern technology and research tools used in experimental archaeology of ship remains. Key words: experimental archaeology, reconstruction sailing ship, ship remain, Ganzeng, naval architecture. Xu Lu Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu Jia Hao Asia-Pac Session 3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Ming Treasure Shipyard Archaeological Report Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sally Church Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Advisory Council Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2008 Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference Paper Zotero Author Sally Church Item Type Conference Paper ISBN 978-0-9799909-6-0 Conference Name Society for Historical Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2008 Pages 30 - 38 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Advisory Council Underwater Archaeology Title A name given to the resource The Ming Treasure Shipyard Archaeological Report China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f7e6c38a8e7a5a8b65c8b42c965735ad.pdf 39c0810e13b97cbd49a14c4b1ef7351e PDF Text Text The missing crafts of Sri Lankan waters Rasika Muthucumarana Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Fort Galle, Sri Lanka, 80000 Email: muthurasika@gmail.com Arjuna Thanthilage Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, 407, Bouddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 00700 Email: arjuna_t@hotmail.com Abstract The artefacts were slowly removed and brought up one by one; certainly, they had been undisturbed for nearly two thousand years. The wreck and some of its cargo were analyzed and radiocarbon dated, and the results make the Godawaya wooden wreck found from the seabed of south Sri Lanka, the oldest shipwreck in the Asiapacific region. The inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. But we weren’t able to find the cargo or the ships that sailed through until 2008. This valuable wooden wreck was first found by two conch divers and later explored by the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka (henceforth MAU). Analyzing and artefact research were done not only to find the chronological order, but also to discover a hidden chapter on maritime activities and ship building techniques used in this region. The artefacts appear to be originally of the Indian subcontinent region; hence, it is possible that the origin of the ship may be traced to this region. A large number of potshards and stone quern indicate that these items may also be part of a trading commodity. The major part of the wreckage needs to be identified and that will reveal the kind of cargo ships used to carry at that time. The paper aims at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the results of analyzing the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012. 1 �Key words: Godawaya, Great Basses, Black & Red ware, Copper ingots, Port city From the past to the future A journey ends with terrifying suddenness, sending a majestic seagoing vessel to the ocean floor, ending the life of sailors and passengers. The wreck is now home to sea creatures, corals and sponges. Years later, detectives in the form of Fig. 1 Remains of the Godawaya shipwreck. (Rasika Muthucumarana) maritime archaeologists locate the wreck and start piecing together tiny bits of information. Like a forensic scientist who attempts to work out the cause of death, they try to unearth the story of that forgotten hulk sitting alone in its watery grave. This story is a small part of a larger one which consists of many – the cement between the bricks that make the whole tapestry of our history. But, what if there is a wreck without a story, or a wreck without any clue or evidence to trace its name, date of construction or when it sank? For the archaeologist, this is the beginning of a whole new episode, imaginary and real, the latter requiring interpretation of small clues – intense detective work. The maritime archaeologist’s task takes on a greater challenge as the wreck ages. The physical evidence that identifies the wreck hides under the sand and, in time, it becomes a sealed tomb. In 2008 archaeologists from Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of Galle found an isolated wreck, actually a mound surrounded by hundreds of potshards on the seabed near the Godawaya coast, a small fishing village situated between Ambalantota and 2 �Hambantota in southern Sri Lanka. The site was deep and undisturbed. The team located the site following an alert by two local conch divers from Godawaya area who found the site. When the team reached a dark and cold seabed at 32 m we faced coral mounds and sea plants on a sandy seabed. The artefacts were Fig. 2 View of the Buddhist temple from the sea. slowly removed and brought up one by one. It was certain that those had been (Rasika Muthucumarana) undisturbed for hundreds of years (Fig. 1). This find was a treasure trove for a maritime archaeologist. The potshards and other artefacts found at the site can be traced up to 2nd century BCE, which make this site the oldest shipwreck found in the Asian Pacific region. While there have been reports of several shipwrecks in and around the Indian Ocean countries during the last two decades, these wrecks were dated between the 9th century CE and the early 20th century CE. Thus, there is a paucity of information about early shipwrecks, so the Godawaya shipwreck site has provided much needed import to the maritime archaeology of this region. An inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. The paper is aimed at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the analysis results of the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012. Godawaya: the historical port city Godawaya is a small fishing village, located in the Hambantota district close to Ambalantota near the old estuary of the Walawe River, the fourth longest river of the island. However, the mouth of the river near Godawaya is blocked by sand deposit and now the river is debouching into the sea at Ambalantota, 3 km west of Godawaya. A 3 �Buddhist temple is located on a small rocky elevation on the left bank of the river mouth (Fig. 2). In ancient times, Godawaya was known as Godapavata-patanaha as is mentioned in a Brahmi inscription found in Godawaya dated to the 2nd century AD (Roth et al., 2001: 296), and in Mahavamsa the etymological identifiable term “Gotapabbata” is used (Geiger, 1912: 255). Two inscriptions found from this temple were first examined and reported by E.R. Ayortone in the early 20th century. Later, Professor Senarath Paranavithana published his findings on estampage found in this area (Paranavithana, 1983). The small and unclear inscription (No. 1) and the wellknown inscription (No. 2) were carved on a natural rock north of the Stupa. The inscription No. 2 clearly describes a seaport situated at Godawaya. It consists of two lines, and the letters, which have been clearly incised, are regular in form. These writings can be clearly identified with the first or second century CE (Paranavithana, 1983). The inscription describes the collection of customs duties called Godapavatha collected at this port (Fig. 3). The text of the inscription No. 2 and its translation: 1. Siddham Godapavata patanahi Su (ka) su(ri)yi 2. Raja Gamani Abaya viharata dini “Success! The customs duties of the port of Godapavata, King Gamani Abaya granted to the vihara (temple)”. The name Godapavatha, Gota pabbata or Godawaya refers to a kind of mound with a rounded shape, composed of rock (gota – short and round /pabbata – rock). The small stupa built on a rocky elevation south of the temple is clearly visible from the sea and may have been used as a landmark. Most probably the name Godapawatha could have been a name attributed to those early seafarers. When the excavation team dug a new trench under the rock with the main inscription mentioned above, they found another well-preserved threeline inscription (No. 3), one meter below the old one. It also describes some of the donations to the temple. The earliest archaeological evidence from Godawaya traces the history of Fig. 3 Inscriptions found from Godawaya. 4 (Upper - Inscription no 02/ Lower – Inscription No. 3). (Rasika Muthucumarana) �this region from the Mesolithic period onward. During the last two decades many explorations and excavations took place in and around the Godavaya temple. From an excavation that took place near the fishing village, part of an old maritime structure was found. It appears to be part of a jetty or a bridge built with stone pillars, which are very similar to the stone pillars seen in the shrine room of the old temple. Looking south from the temple, the river flows to the sea to the right and the Godawaya fishing village is to the left. Both of these may have been parts of the ancient seaport. This is not surprising as the bay of Godawaya with its beach with the stone pillars and fishing village is the safest landing place along the coastline of this area. The river mouth and the wide sluggish river also provide suitable access for transportation. Cargo from the vessels may have been transferred inland using boats and barges. The Walawe River flows through ancient settlements and monastic sites such as Ridiyagama, Mahanavulu Pura and the Ramba monastic complex. There are records of coins, mainly thousands of Indo-Roman, from private lands and paddy fields near the riverbanks. In 2003, an old stone anchor was found in the sea near the Godawaya fishing village. It was a granite triangle with a hole in the middle, resembling the stone anchors excavated from Galle harbour. These types of stone anchors are thought to have been used during the Fig. 4 Single hole stone anchor and stone pre-colonial period, especially by Indo- bench like object found from shipwreck site. Arabian and Chinese vessels (Rasika Muthucumarana) (www.mausrilanka.lk). In the following year two local well experienced conch divers (Sunil and Peminda) from Godavaya village found other valuable artefact. On one of their regular deep shell dives they found the area rich with potshards and a small stone object which bore a resemblance to a small bench. They brought it with them and marked the location on their GPS. The bench was handed over to the excavation project and was stored at the Tissamaharama storeroom at the Department of Archaeology. But the incident and bench were forgotten over time (Fig. 4). 5 �A new beginning In October 2008 the MAU started an exploration along the south coast with some funds from the UNESCO Bangkok office. The Godawaya site was at a depth of 30 meters and three kilometres from the shore. The presence of potsherds and artefacts like the stone bench strongly suggested the presence of a shipwreck, which warranted further investigation. The seabed near the site is composed of coralline rocky formations whereas a wide area is covered with thick grained coralline sand towards the northeastern part of the site. Under some mounds, which initially appeared to be a reef, we found Fig. 5 Rim of jar and potsherds at some timber sections. Those very fragile wooden Godawaya shipwreck site. (Rasika parts were covered with a thick layer of corals and Muthucumarana) plants (Fig. 5). Between and around two large mounds there were lots of potsherds. These were scattered over about a 100 square meter area. Other than the potsherds, we found some complete and near complete jars. Some of these jars were huge and encrusted and embedded with corals. This was a clear sign that the site was undisturbed. But it was not easy to understand the site formation, and we were not able to identify any parts of the ship’s construction. Many ships have been wrecked around Sri Lanka but Godawaya is a very unique shipwreck and no parallel has been reported in publications. We did some exploratory studies from which a site plan was derived and artefacts were brought up and studied. Most of the potshards were identified as black and red ware (BRW), a particular type of clay-ware unique to the South Asian region. This type of potteries goes back to the 13th century BCE. According to the comparative typological evaluation (with the typologies of the early scientific excavations in Sri Lanka and India) the shapes and the types found at the Godawaya site, the wreck has been tentatively dated at between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE. The symbols carved on the stone bench also belonged to the same era. Many shipwrecks have the potshards 6 �as cooking ware but the high density of the potsherds at this site indicated that this vessel carried pottery as cargo. Further, six glazed blue bun-shaped ingots at site 2 were retrieved for further analysis. These were widely used in the pottery industry. The stone bench was identified as a quern and thought to be used for the preparation of food or medicine onboard. This assumption was discarded when we found another three similar objects in 2010. These items may also be part of a trading commodity. Materials and methods Different types of artefacts and samples have been collected from the site during the field works till 2010 for study and analysis. Some of the samples were analyzed and studied at CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Goa; Physical Research Laboratory, Ahmedabad, India and PGIAR (Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology and Atomic Energy Authority), Sri Lanka. These studies were very helpful to date and understand the shipwreck, cargo and its origin. SEM-EDS analysis Clear specimens (size 2-4 mm) of these artefacts are placed on a carbon conductive tape stuck on a nylon stub. Each specimen is mounted on a separate stub in such a way that the surface to be analyzed faces upwards. These specimens are then sputter coated with about 20-nanometer thick gold coating using a Gold sputter coater. Each coated specimen image was analyzed by SEM (model JSM 5600) with an EDS attachment (model JOEL 5800 LV). Radiocarbon dating In order to remove the extraneous material such as carbonate specks within its pores, the wood sample was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid repeatedly and washed thoroughly with de-ionized water. The powdered and dried wood sample was combusted in presence of O2 to yield CO2. The CO2 obtained was converted to benzene for 14C measurement. The 14C activities were assayed using a low background liquid scintillation counter. The calculated 14C ages were calibrated using INTCAL09. Results Copper slag - A small lump of copper was also found from the wreck site; however, the identification of the object is difficult. EDS analysis at nine spots in the copper show that major elemental oxides present in abundance are CuO, SO3 and FeO. The average 7 �weight (%) of CuO, SO3 and FeO in the copper slag is 97.92, 1.95 and 0.293 respectively (Table 4). Interestingly, CuO wt (%) values range with minimum and maximum values of 97.00 – 98.59 while FeO is present only in four spots with an average wt % of 0.293. This shows that the copper sample is not from a slag as we described earlier. The 97% of CuO and the condition of the lump shows it is not a slag. It is almost in a pure combination which is melted and purified (unless it was found from a mine in a pure state). This could be a part of a lump/chunk or an ingot which was used in the ship or transport. We found this copper lump on 15th November 2010 while we were diving at the site for a monitoring purpose. We noticed several lumps of copper on the wooden parts of the main block at the place where we took the sample. Fig. 6 Representative EDS spectrum and SEM photograph of the glass ingot. (CSIRNIO) Glass ingots -The SEM-EDS results of five spots in glass ingot show (Fig. 6) that major elemental oxides present by the abundance are SiO2, Na2O, Al2O3, CaO, FeO, K2O, CuO, TiO2, MgO in the average weight % 62.67, 12.85, 8.10, 8.07, 3.33, 1.76, 1.37, 0.63 and 0.42. Silica Oxide (SiO2) is the major component 62.67% with a narrow range of minimum and maximum values of 60.61 – 64.17 %. Titanium Oxide is present in three spots with an average value 0.63%. These glass ingots weigh about 2-3 kg and having a diameter of about 20 cm (Table 2) Iron concretion The SEM-EDS results of four spots in Iron concretion show that major elemental oxides present in abundance are FeO, SO3, SiO2, Al2O3, MgO, CaO, and K2O with the 8 �average weight (%) of 77.54, 16.48, 7.06, 2.43, 1.39, 0.93 and 0,37 respectively. Iron oxide (FeO) is the major component (Av. 77.54%) with a range of minimum and maximum values of 66.58 – 83.96 %. Conclusion Relative dating and radiocarbon dating from the wood samples shows the site is approximately 1900 years old, which means it belongs to the era in which the inscription was written. There are several questions that remain unanswered: what kind of vessel was it? What was its destination and from where was it sailing? How did it sink and how was it preserved for so long? Until we find answers to these questions we need plausible stories to fill the gaps. The main mound containing the wooden remains can be the best way to find answers. The surface observation indicates that a large part of the wreck is buried in the sediment and the extension of the site can only be determined after a more complete investigation. With the archaeological information so far investigated it has not been possible yet to determine whether this wreckage is belonging to an inbound or outbound vessel to the country. By looking at the cargo the ship was transporting would be an efficient method to get an idea in this regard. Raw ingots of copper and glaze found along with the other findings could possibly be successful indicators in solving the question raised above. Here we are trying to compare the composition of raw copper ingot found from the shipwreck with the already known characteristic composition of locally produced copper in order to determine the destination of this cargo, if possible. Identification of locally produced copper Historical records and chronicles had indicated that Sri Lanka used its own source of copper during the historical period. It is also suggested that the Seruwila is the place which produced the copper (Seneviratne, 1995: 125). The Anuradhapura Gedige excavation had proved that the copper smelting was practiced here as early as 6th – 5th Century BC (Deraniyagala, 1972: 145; Seneviratne, 1995: 123). The use of Seruwila copper for the production of bronze Buddha images during the latter part of the Anuradhapura period has been proven through scientific means which will be described later (Thantilage, 2008: 41-44, 71-76). It has been suggested that the occurrence in metal artefacts of a particular element at an unusually high concentrations may be 9 �characteristic of a particular geographic or mineralogical origin (Reedy, 1997: 83-85; Craddock and Meeks 1987: 132). The compositional characteristics of the local Seruwila copper magnetite ore source had been determined by the Geological Survey Department of Sri Lanka by analyzing the copper ore samples obtained by deep coring and had shown the copper ore from Seruwila, the only known copper deposit in Sri Lanka, contained characteristic high nickel content and cobalt, nickel elemental ratio has been calculated as between 0.43 – 0.55 (Jayawardhana and Padmasiri, 1977). The same cobalt, nickel ratio values has been successfully utilized to identify the possible ore source for some South Indian bronze images (Sirinivasan, 1999 (a) and bronze images of Sri Lanka made out of copper from the Seruwila ore source (Thantilage, 2008: 41-44, 71-76). Because of the high nickel content and consistent copper, nickel ratio the copper artefacts found from the Anuradhapura Gedige excavation are attributed as has been made from ore from the Seruwila deposit (Maliyasena, 1987). Analysis of copper Ingot from Godawaya ship In this backdrop it was decided to analyze the bronze ingot from Godawaya ship wreck for trace elements qualitatively by XRF method using the facilities at the Atomic Energy Authority, Sri Lanka. The analysis proved that nickel, the characteristic indicator of the copper from the Seruwila copper source, is not present in the copper ingot. The absence of nickel in the copper ingot from the ship wreck would be a powerful indicator to exclude the possibility of origin of the copper ingot could be Sri Lankan. If this is the case, the ingot could have been on the way to the region. It has been shown through scientific means the existence of two schools of bronze Buddha image productions during the Anuradhapura period in Sri Lanka in which one school had not used the local copper for its production (Thantilage, 2008: 96-99). The copper ingots suggest that the ship was sailing to Sri Lanka. The wreck was probably a coastal trader that sailed around the country. It may have been making for the Godawaya port aiming to travel further inland towards settlements along the river. One possibility is that cargo was loaded from Godawaya and the vessel may have been heading for the east side or the far south to the Magampura settlements or this vessel may have been involved in international trade. It may have been travelling to the east coast of India or coming from India, or leaving for Southeast Asia or a vessel of foreign origin. To find these answers 10 �we need to inspect the hull remains through the remaining wooden parts. This part needs a detailed investigation not only underwater but also by taking a few samples for analysis. Gaining insights about the shape and size of the hull planking and fastening will provide details about the construction methods and its origins and reveal information about the ships used during ancient trade. If we compare this site with other underwater archaeological sites found so far in Sri Lanka, this is a site of high significance. The wreck is a unique example of this early period from this part of the world. Our conclusions are still a work-in-progress, so dating and cargo are still under investigation. This is an initial attempt and the story of this wreck is still being written and may change as more data comes to light – this is the story of maritime archaeology. Table 1. Detailed dimension and weight of glass ingots retrieved from the wreck site. Table 2. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of glass ingot. 11 �Table 3. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of Iron concretion. 12 �Table 4. EDS results of elemental oxide abundance (wt %) of copper slag. Acknowledgements Special thanks go to the Physical Research laboratory, Ahmedabad and Dr. A. S. Gaur, CSIR- NIO, Goa for analyzing the samples. Authors are also thankful to the funding agencies including the UNESCO and The Netherlands as well to other participants who partook in the exploration of the shipwreck. References Craddock, P. T., and Meeks, N. D., 1987. Iron in ancient copper. Archaeometry, Vol. 29 (2): Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Oxford University, UK. Deraniyagala, S., 1972. The Citadel of Anuradhapura 1969: Excavation in the Gedige Area. Ancient Ceylon No. 2, Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka: 145. Geiger, W., 1912. 1983. The Mahavamsa or the Great Chronicle of Ceylon XXXV, (Reprinted) from London 1980 and New Delhi. Jayawardhana, D. E., de S., Padmasiri S., 1977. Report on the Copper Magnetite at Seruwila Arippu Prospec”, Geological Survey Departmentm of Ceylon, Sri Lanka. Maliyasena, H. B., 1987. Metallurgical and Archaeological studies of some iron objects from the 1969 Anuradhapura Citadel (Gedige area) excavation in Seminar on the Archaeometallurgy of Sri Lanka, September 1987, IFS Kandy. Paranavithana, S., 1970. Inscriptions of Ceylon. Containing cave inscriptions from 3rd century BC to 1st century AD and other inscriptions in the Early Brahmi script, Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 13 �Paranavithana, S., 1983. Inscriptions of Ceylon. Containing Rock and other Inscriptions from the Reign of Kutakanna Abhaya (41 BC-19 BC) to Bhatiya II (140-164 AD), Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Roth, H., Kessler, O., Recker, U., and Wijeyapala. 2001. The Gadawaya Harbour Site. Report on the excavations 1994-97. In H. J. Weisshar, H. Roth, and W. Wijepala (Eds.), Ancient Ruhuna, A Sri Lanka-German Archaeological Project in the Southern Province, Vol. l, Verlag Philipp Von Zabern, Mainz Am Rhein: 291-326. Reedy, C. L., 1997. Himalayan Bronzes Technology, Style and Choices. University of Delaware Press. Seneviratne, S. 1995. The Ecology and Archaeology of the Seruwila copper magnetite prospect northeast Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities, Vol. 21 (1-2), University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Sirinivasan, S., 1999. Lead Isotope and Trace Element analysis in the study of over hundred South Indian metal icons. Archaeometry, Vol. 41 (1): 91-116. Somadeva, R., 2006. Urban origins in Southern Sri Lanka. Department of Archaeology and Ancient History Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden. Thantilage, A. 2008. An Archaeo-metallurgical Investigation of Sri Lankan Historical Bronzes, PhD Thesis (unpublished), Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. Biography Rasika Muthucumarana is a maritime archaeologist working at Maritime Archaeology Unit, of the Central Cultural Fund, the custodian agency for the UNESCO world heritage sites in Sri Lanka. He has obtained special Degree in archaeology at the University of Peradeniya, then joined the Avondster Project, which was the first field operation of the MAU. Since then he has been conducting most of the underwater archaeological projects of Sri Lanka and some of the UNESCO field school projects. Apart from underwater explorations, excavations and conservation, he is devoted to developing field archaeology and human resources of the MAU. Rasika is also a professional photographer and a landscape artist who loves to travel and stay close to nature. 14 �Arjuna Thanthilage is a senior lecture at the Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR) at the University of Kelaniya. He has got his degree and masters from University of Colombo for Physical Science and Analytical Chemistry, then began his career as a research assistant at the PGIAR and has obtained his PhD in 2008 on Archaeometallurgy. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The missing crafts of Sri Lankan waters Description An account of the resource The artefacts were slowly removed and brought up one by one; certainly, they had been undisturbed for nearly two thousand years. The wreck and some of its cargo were analyzed and radiocarbon dated, and the results make the Godawaya wooden wreck found from the seabed of south Sri Lanka, the oldest shipwreck in the Asia- pacific region. The inscription belonging to the 1st century, found at the Godawaya temple provides evidence to the world that the Sri Lankan people had well organized ports which took tax from the vessels. But we weren’t able to find the cargo or the ships that sailed through until 2008. This valuable wooden wreck was first found by two conch divers and later explored by the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka (henceforth MAU). Analyzing and artefact research were done not only to find the chronological order, but also to discover a hidden chapter on maritime activities and ship building techniques used in this region. The artefacts appear to be originally of the Indian subcontinent region; hence, it is possible that the origin of the ship may be traced to this region. A large number of potshards and stone quern indicate that these items may also be part of a trading commodity. The major part of the wreckage needs to be identified and that will reveal the kind of cargo ships used to carry at that time. The paper aims at bringing to light the recent discoveries and the results of analyzing the cargo. Especially the excellent copper lumps and Black & Red ware found and analyzed in 2012 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rasika Muthucumarana Arjuna Thanthilage, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Nanhai Trade: The Early History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gungwu Wang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Times Academic Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Gungwu Wang Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Edition 2 Place Singapore Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Times Academic Press Title A name given to the resource The Nanhai Trade: The Early History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e18e5e5a8709f4beba2462d73909aa3d.pdf a5f9c138ae3f59f1557c9d848cbb3566 PDF Text Text The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sea Going Sailing Junks: A Manuscript Xu Lu Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society Xiamen, 361003 People’s Republic of China Email: xuluxm2013@yahoo.com Abstract As the most important qualities of ancient Chinese sailing junks, the square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and the lugsails with bamboo mat and strip remained the same over thousands of years. Of which, the traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms for the ocean and oversea route in ancient China. This paper make an interpretation of Fujian style sea going junks through ship form and structure, principle of design, models, choice of material, sequence of construction, painting and decoration, tools, ship-builders, and ship component remains. This study is combined with the interpretation of Chinese historical documents and drawings, foreign historical drawings, ethnographical field work on main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast, reconstruction of traditional shipbuilding, land archaeology evidence, and especially gathers information from a newly discovered illustrated manuscript for shipbuilding. This manuscript at present is the most detailed manuscript found pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and amounts materials used for each ship form. The purpose of this paper is to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going sailing junks, then providing one set of helpful method to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Keywords: Fujian style Sea going junks, Traditional shipbuilding, Ship remains, Naval architecture, Manuscript Introduction The traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms in ancient China. But, what did that ancient junks look like? How were they made? How were they operated and maneuvered? China’s navigation and naval architecture constitute a history of this production technology with its root in the common people. Extant historical data is rather limited and therefore regrettably slight when contrasted with the 1 �art and expertise accumulated over time and the ancient and magnificent culture that it represents. The emergence of sea-faring wooden vessels, their development, transformation and eventual disappearance had a lot to do with the political and economic conditions as well as the available natural resources at any specific time. Without question, changes in available resources as well as in sea routes entailed modifications to form, size, function, names, and even the mode of operation of these vessels. Equally, the technological development and improvement in ship design had its effects on society and the subsequent trajectory of social history. Before, domesticated shipwreck archaeology was founded in the matching and displaying of wrecks, and never went further to carry out experiments on replica and reconstructions according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. Even after researching into the history of naval architecture and ancient writings, searching through relics from different dynasties, focusing mainly on the general conditions of ship-building and the wide variety of methods of manufacturing through every historical period, we are still unable to reconstruct history in its entirety. What could be done was to set up a systematic way of collecting data; then to summarize, understand and subsequently experiment with them. With this data as the foundation, the project became to produce a series of replicas using methods of construction that had been passed down from generation to generation, so that people today can see and experience them; replicas that may allow later generations to reconstruct actual history. Only by doing so can we answer the three questions pertaining to ship-building and sea-faring history listed above, an only then can the value of research be made clear. Ship Form and Structure of Fujian Style Junks Facing Taiwan across the strait, Fujian has 3,324 km of coastline and 1,404 small islands off the coast. The way of life of the ancient Yue people, Fujian’s early inhabitants, was sea orientated with sea travel as their main means of communication. Despite the hilly landscape and mountain ranges in Fujian’s hinterland, these proved no barrier to its economic interaction with other provinces and places overseas (Fig. 1). 2 �The inland, inshore and offshore sea-faring networks linked Fujian with the outside world thereby shipping continuously ensuring and that fishing developed. Fujian’s industries In addition, Fujian was rich in natural resources such as wood, iron, tong oil (Verniciafordii seeds oil), lihui (lime obtained by burning oyster shells), rattan, hemp and lacquer. With such handy materials that could be used to build ships, ship-building prospered across the province. Viewed from a different perspective, Fujian’s coastline was full of Fig. 1 A Color Images of Fujian Style War Junk. (W. creeks and inlets. Facing the Strait of Alexander) Taiwan, it was situated where warm and cold air currents mingled. Not only was the wind strength very inconsistent, it was also where typhoons move inland from the sea during the summer and autumn. Due to this complicated natural environment, certain demands had to be met with regard to form, function and structure of ships, and to the choice of materials and skills employed in their manufacture. It is such circumstances that gave birth to vessels with V-shaped bottoms, raised flat bows, indented sterns, flaring bulwarks, framing, stern-hung, lifting rudders lowering deeply below the keel line, and wide cambered decks that eased the drainage of water. These unique environmental and cultural factors together made the Fujian style junks one of the major vessel forms in ancient China. Building Fujian style junks required standard procedures in the choosing of ship form, design, materials and construction strategy, and involved manufacturing processes such as carpentry, metal work, sewing, painting and smelting. The Southern Song dynasty seagoing ship unearthed in Houzhu in Quanzhou in 1974, the mid-Yuan dynasty Fujian merchant ship discovered in Xin’an of Korea in 1982, and the many ships found in the sea-beds in Lianjiang, Pingtan, Putien and Dongshan in Fujian province are comprised solely of those parts of the ships that were below the waterline. 3 �Therefore, they provide no information on the complete form and design of these vessels. These remains, however, do prove that during the Song and Yuan dynasties the necessary skills developed to build the three-sectioned keel, the water-tight cabins and stern-hung rudders that could be hoisted and lowered. Historical Evidence The earlier records from extant historical writings that contain information on different types of ship from the Fujian style junk series were written around the late 16th to the mid-17th century. A middle 17th century collection of the Berlin Ethnologic Museum was the earliest meticulous color image of Fujian style junks (Anonymous, mid-17th Century). A mass of Drawings of Chinese ship anchored around Matsuura and recorded by local Japanese painters since last decade of 17th century (Oba, 1972) were of great value for study. In 1796, William Alexander’s colour images are the earliest and the best realistic portrayals of Fujian style junks available to us today (Fig. 2). Domestic sources were researched as well. The Navy Abstract, written in the year of the Emperor Kangxi (1654-1722) by the regional commander Chen Liang Shi contained an iconography for Fujian style warship (Chen Liang Shi, 2002). The Taiwan Conversation by Writing, written between the years of the emperor Kangxi to Yongzheng by Huang Shu Jing, recorded parts of materials, quantities and specifications needed to build the Ganzeng types of Fujian warship (Huang Shu Jing, 1957). The Illustrated Manual of Instruction in Shipbuilding for the Navy of Fujian Province, a manuscript between the years of the emperor Yong zheng to Fig. 2 The Coast of Fujian Province and the Qianlong by anonymous writer recorded Location of Sha Po Wei. (Xu Lu) by the order of the Admiralty (Anonymous, 4 �Mid-18th listed Century), the kinds of warships in use during that time. Types like Ganzeng, Shuangpeng, Pingdi, Fazhuo, Bajiang were listed, and their peculiarities and used for different areas and condition. The Regions Formula of Fujian Sea Going Fig. 3 The Old Dockyard in Sha Po Wei inside Xiamen Gang. (Xu Lu) Warships, a woodblock edition was written in 1768 by the order of the emperor Qianlong (Anonymous, 2002). Through putting together mostly-forgotten information that have been scattered all over the world, the appearance and design of junks traceable to the Song and Yuan dynasties are visualized. These sources show wahat ancient Fujian style sea-going junks probably looked like. Ethnographical Field Investigation and Manuscripts From 2004, we began to visit the main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast and carried out the field investigation of wooden sailing junks. We found 7 manuscripts recorded and inherited by 4 shipwright families. The Sha Po Wei inside Xiamen Gang (Old Amoy Port) is a famous traditional shipbuilding center up to the first half of the 20th century. It was comprised of more than 15 private dockyards around 3 hectares of shoreline (Fig. 3). The Chen family in one of largest and oldest dockyards in the region, the family migrating from Huian country to Xiamen Gang at least five generations ago. An illustrated manuscript of naval architecture was archived by Mr. Chen Yan Ning of this family. It is 51 pages of paper, 22.5 cm in length and 11cm wide, 6 vertical red lines to a page, badly written in the end of 1910s.The manuscript was drawn by Chen Yan Ning’s uncle, Chen Guo Zai (died in 1949), and then his son gave it to Chen Yan Ning. It contents size and cost of fourteen Fujian sea-going sailing junks, 5 �all the numbers expressed in Suzhou numerals (Table 1). It is the most detailed record so far pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and the amount of materials used for different ship forms. One of those is Da Pa, a junk that each side of hull is printed five gun ports (Fig. 4), it is the only civil junk with gun ports in the period of the Republic of China, alias Hei Bo or Feng Wei Chuan by recorded of G. R. G. Fig. 4 The Manual of Da Pai in the Naval Worcester (Worcester, 1948) (Fig. 5). Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family. (Chen Guo Zai) Design In ancient times, master ship-builders relied on their individual experience and the knowledge passed down from previous generations. They would make patterns on the spot rather than prepare drawings with precise dimensions in advance. Traditional shipbuilding was a conservative, physically demanding profession. Apprentices were people from the lower end of society who could not afford an education. Being mostly illiterate, ship-builders’ experience and knowledge was an oral tradition, passing it down to apprentices as they worked. In those days livelihoods very much depended on such skills, so what they learned they kept to themselves and seldom disclosed. For these reasons, illustrated construction manuals were rare. When designing a new ship, Fujian shipwright would decide on the measurements:  The length of the keel (longgu) and the rise at both ends based on the intended use of the particular ship;  The location of the four main transverses – those at the front and back, behind the mast and that which defines the main cabin;  The width and depth of the ship in proportion to the length of the keel (longgu), for example, the measurement of the transverse behind the mast should be 4/10 the measurement of the keel. 6 � All other measurements such as the bottom-width of the transverse behind the mast, the top and bottom widths and locations of other transverses were then defined based on experience and according to the type, usage and other requirements of the vessel.  The height of the mast depended on the top-measurement of the transverse immediately behind. So was the size of the major sail.  Finally, measurements of width and the size and shape of the rudder post and tiller were determined. The earliest historical document about design of Fujian style junk that has been discovered up to now is a document from the early Qing dynasty. Fig. 5 Feng Wei Chuan. (G. R. G. Worcester) Models The building process started with making a model. Measurements would then be proportionately enlarged for making the ship. This was a method recorded in documents from the Song dynasty onward and continues to be used even in the present. Currently, 7 �scholars take the making of models as the means by which to conserve and record the technology used to make a particular ship, but the ship-building industry knows well that components are difficult to reduce and reproduce to scale. Hence details that scaled down would be too small to show are often omitted. Furthermore, to build a ship requires totally different skills to those required for making a model. When detailed plans and descriptions are lacking, models can at times be misleading. Model offered the possibility of experimenting with various solutions before the replica in full scale was begun. Selection of Material As far as the choice of wood is concerned, a kind of natural fir tree Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb). Hook from Fujian a mountainous area was normally used for the parts of a ship’s shell that have direct contact with the sea, such as the keel (longgu), bottom, shuishe (literally water snake), and zouma (literally running horse), the deck and transverses (gecangban, literally cabin-separating boards), and natural small-leaf camphor for other parts of the body such as cangliangzhuo (base of cabin beams) liangtou (beam-end) and gecangfuqiang (cabin-separating strengtheners). For the rudder and anchor which required harder material, kundian wood, which was grown in Guangdong and Southeast Asia was used. Wood for the mast was the most carefully selected, natural fir trees from Fujian aged 80 or more were generally used. Extant historical documents prove that tight rules governing the selection and quantity of materials to be used for ships built in imperial shipyards existed from the mid Ming. The allowances, however, seem overly lavish. With experienced folk ship-builders, measurements of all the parts would be clear in their minds as they searched for materials. Any piece of wood was to them an assembly of some parts. Ship-building uses a lot of wood, but the availability of wood is subject to specific growth cycles. A shortage of supply occurred in Fujian from the early Ming Dynasty, and with it, the cost of ships went up. Wood was then imported in large quantities from Southeast Asia (Chen Xi Yu, 1991). At the same time, some folk-shipyards moved out of Fujian. Some relocated abroad where a few expanded to substantial size. With them Fujian shipbuilding technology spread overseas. 8 �Launched 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1915 1914 Type Owner Da Shuang Zhang (Jiang) Da Gu Da Gu Da Gu Qiu Xiong Da Pai Da Pai Da Pai 口 Cao (DiaoCao？) 1906 Jin Mu Chuan Chong Wu Changshun hang Chong Wu Cheng Chuan Chong Wu Chang Shun Xiu Chuan Jiu Zhi He Shang Tou Chuan De Bao Shui Chuan Length of keel (chi/meter) 28.4/8.72 Cost (Silver Dollar) 500 22.7/6.81 28/8.4 21/6.3 35/ 10.5 31.5/9.45 21/6.3 30.5/9.15 22/6.6 30.5/9.15 30.5/9.15 27/8.1 31/9.3 20/6 500 230 Table 1. The Contents of Fourteen Fujian Junks from the Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family. (Chen Guo Zai) Sequence of Construction Traditional production starts with establishing the keel (longgu), fixing transverses (longuyiban, literally dragon bone wing-boards), parts of bottom planking, gecangban, biban (bilge Keel), wen (stabilizer), lianggung (upper ribs), then the intermediate ribs between the transverses, and finally, the remaining bottom planking. After these, work on the weather deck begins. First the boards along the bulwarks, followed with shishe on the exterior of the bulwarks, shuixianmen (literally narcissus door) and then the bulwarks. The dragon-eye is usually installed on an auspicious day chosen by the boatman. When the making of the ship’s hull is finished, the filling or Lihui (Caulking) and all sewing work too come to completion. Before the new ship is launched, the exterior of the shell is first covered with a mixture of rice soup and lihui to protect against shipworms. The owner selects a date and time for the launching after which the mast is set up and the sails bent on. This pattern of ship-building is traditional for many 9 �areas along China’s coastline and continues to be used even up to the present. Scholars named it chuankefa, literally the Chinese frame first system. The modern Chinese building techniques for large wooden ships begins with the keel, then erects the frames or ribs and the bottom planking before completing the side planking. This method of ship-building first appeared in Shi Ryukyu Lu (Diplomatic Mission to Ryukyu) written by the Ming dynasty diplomat Xia ZI yang in 1606 (Xia Ziyang, 1970). Painting and Decoration That part of hull below the water-line is usually covered with baikehui (lime from white s hells). The flares (tuolang ban, wave-lifting boards near the bow) are also first covered with lime before painting the figure that characterizes Fujian junks with a solution made of glue, tung oil and natural color pigments. Some Fujian junks even come with a carved head of a lion at the bow. Dragon eyes on the bulwarks near the bow are usually made of camphor. Particular rules govern the size and shape of these eyes: the ratio between the keel length and eye should be 110:4; eyes for fishing boats should look downwards t o signal the search for catches while eyes for merchant ships should look at the route a head. Mulong (wooden dragon), i.e., loach poles (qiuyuji) are painted on the bulwarks n ear the stern, a seabird (muyi) on the yingban (the oval-shaped sern facing), and at the bottom of the yingban is the board which carries the ship’s registration number. Accordi ng to legend, qiuyuji, muyi bird and Matsu (Goddess of the Sea) are the three treasures that watch over the safety of ships. A statue of Matsu or a paper charm as its substitute may be placed in a sanctuary in the after part of the poop. Tools Confucius says, “Good tools are a prerequisite to the successful completion of a job”. For the execution of specific tasks, special tools are required, such as axes, chisels, saws, files, tweezers, awls, knives, rulers and modou (ink markers) used by carpenters, and hammers, large tweezers, sickles, paint-brushes, truncheons for working with lime are used by other workers. Axe: triangular in shape, the axe is the most important tool in ship-building. In traditional ship-building, the qualification of ship-building masters is measured by the number of years he has used an axe. Adze: shaped like a hoe, it is also named guangfu (smooth-out, or faying axe) meaning 10 �that it is used for smoothing out or faying in parts. Saw: for cutting raw materials into boards. Plane: for smoothening out wood surfaces. Lu Ban ruler: also known as “wengong ruler”, which, according to legend, was a system of measurement invented by Lu Ban following Daoist truth and the laws of the Eight Diagrams. With birth, aging, sickness, death and suffering as the basis, the ruler is divided into 8 parts named cai, beng, yi, li, guan, li, hai and ben. When using the ruler, cai is the top and beng the end, and it is important also to avoid the inauspicious and adopt what is auspicious. Modou: that part which serves as a container of ink is called mochi (ink-well) which holds cotton wool soaked in ink. There is a line reel at the end. Cotton thread comes through from the modou and is also soaked with ink. To use the modou, the cotton thread is first fastened to the piece of wood which requires marking at each end, and by gently pulling the thread outwards near the center and then letting it go, a clear and distinct ink line appears on a raw piece of wood or boards measuring several meters. Caulking iron: made of wrought iron and steel for the teeth. An iron loop forms part of the wooden handle and is used for mixing hemp, rattan and lime and inserting the mixture into crevices. Shipbuilders Over the centuries, ship-builders coming from Fuzhou, Quanzhou and Zhangzhou slowly gathered in Fujian. Apprenticeship generally started at the age of 11 or 12. Those who joined the profession were mostly members of ship-builders’ families; their children, cousins or relatives. No less than 3 years of training were necessary. In the beginning, apprentices were not allowed to handle the axe and helped only in menial duties such as mending or minor repair work. Only after a number of years of training, when students had picked up sufficient knowledge and skills from their masters, were they allowed to work on important components such as keels, helms and masts before they became masters. There is a common saying, “Master of a particular shipyard builds ships exclusive to that shipyard”. Each shipyard had its unique ship form. Generation after generation of ship-builders inherited the skills, expertise and 11 �experience passed to them by their predecessors, which over time established a given set of practices and forms. Crossed the Pacific Voyages In Donnelly’s Chinese Junks and Other Native Craft, he listed three most important crossed the Pacific voyages have been taken by type of Fuzhou pole junk and another one was make by Xiamen fishing junk.     “Keying”: length of 48.7 m, Hong Kong to London, 1848. “Whangho”: length of 30 m, Shanghai to San Pedro, 1906. “Ningbo”: length of 42 m, Shanghai to San Pedro, 1912. “Amoy”: length of 21.03 m, Xiamen to Victoria, 1922. Captain Eric de Bisschop sailed a Xiamen built 12 ton gross junk Fou Po II in the southwestern Pacific Ocean and East Indian Ocean. In 1955, a Fuzhou style cargo junk with a length of 23 m, Free China, sailed from Taiwan to San Francisco. In 2008, our experimental replica of Fujian Style warship “Princess Tai Ping” sailed form Xiamen to San Francisco and Hawaii. Conclusions Unlike shipbuilding in other indigenous areas, the Chinese shipbuilding tradition changed a little through all the time, the structure of square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and lugsails with bamboo mat and strip showed little change over thousands of years, and the last successors of traditional shipbuilding are alive. Western classifying studies of Chinese sailboats in the early of 20th century just based on the field investigations and the interviews with the successors of traditional naval architecture, such as the great achievements of François-Edmond Paris, Louis Audemard, Barbosa Carmona, Donnelly Ivon, G. R. G. Worcester and Etienne Sigaut, etc. It is last chance to be invested promptly on ethnographical field work investigation for Fujian coast traditional shipbuilding centers. The Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family provided most detailed database so far, yielding valuable information pertaining to principle of design, a modulus system, main unit data, and measures used for typical ship forms of traditional Fujian style sea going sailing junks. ~There are still 3 shipwrights alive in Sha Po Wei, a valuable ethnographic resource, soon to be lost. 12 �Therefore, historical and archaeological projects need to be invested into promptly to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going junks, which will provide helpful methods to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to all members of CSJES, the last craftsmen of traditional Fujian naval architecture and seamanship, who provided their invaluable experience and knowledge. I must also express my sincere thanks to Dr. Jia Hao and Miss Jia Xiaofan. Dr. jiahao helped me to search relevant historical materials and Miss Jia xiaofan revised the article format. References Chen Guo Zai., 1919. The Naval Architecture Manual of Chen’s Family, Manuscript (private collection), Xiamen. Anonymous, Mid-17th Century. The Island of Formosa (painted on parchment). Collection of Berlin Ethnological Museum, Berlin. Oba, Osamu., 1972. About Drawings of Chinese Ship Kept in Matsuura Historical Museum, Hirato: The Referential Material of Chinese Merchant Ship in the Era of Edo. Memo 5 of Research Institute of East and West Academicals Studies of Kansai University, Osaka suita: 13-49. Chen Liang Shi., 2002. The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), Reprinted from the Original in Late 17th Century. Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai: 329-337. Anonymous, Mid-18th Century. The Illustrated Manual of Instruction in Shipbuilding for the Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji), Manuscript. Anonymous, 2002. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), (Reprinted from the Woodblock Edition in 1768). Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang Shu Jing., 1957. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), Reprinted from the Original in Early 18th Century. Business Bank, Taipei: 35-37. 13 Economic Academe of Taiwan �Worcester, G. R. G., 1948. A Classification of the Principal Chinese Sea-going Junks (south of the Yangtze). Shanghai Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, Shanghai: 66-67. Chen Xi Yu, 1991. Chinese Sailing Junks and Overseas Trade. Xiamen University Press, Xiamen: 114-127. Xia Zi Yang, 1970. Shi Ryukyu Lu (Diplomatic Mission to Ryukyu), (Reprinted from the Original in 1606). Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei: 235. Biography Xu Lu is the initiator and director of Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society (CSJES), an exclusive institute focus on protect and study ancient Chinese naval architecture and nautical navigation. He also is commissioner of China Maritime History Studies Association. As a maritime archaeologist special in the field of junks, he spent over a decade on field work to investigate and ethnographic study the last traditional sailing craft still be built and operating in China, wrote and released numerous academic papers. He led an experimental archaeological ship-reconstructions project in 2007, Princess Taiping, a junk replica sailed across the Pacific. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sea Going Sailing Junks: A Manuscript Description An account of the resource As the most important qualities of ancient Chinese sailing junks, the square bows and sterns with transverse watertight bulkhead and the lugsails with bamboo mat and strip remained the same over thousands of years. Of which, the traditional Fujian style sea going junks is one of the major vessel forms for the ocean and oversea route in ancient China. This paper make an interpretation of Fujian style sea going junks through ship form and structure, principle of design, models, choice of material, sequence of construction, painting and decoration, tools, ship-builders, and ship component remains. This study is combined with the interpretation of Chinese historical documents and drawings, foreign historical drawings, ethnographical field work on main traditional shipbuilding centers along the Fujian coast, reconstruction of traditional shipbuilding, land archaeology evidence, and especially gathers information from a newly discovered illustrated manuscript for shipbuilding. This manuscript at present is the most detailed manuscript found pertaining to the principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, measures and amounts materials used for each ship form. The purpose of this paper is to recover the historical archetypes of ancient Fujian Style Sea going sailing junks, then providing one set of helpful method to explain and identify relevant ship remains excavated in future shipwreck underwater archaeological projects. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/49930b45db7e90226999b355c41c2ed9.pdf fa7982c3988e4735ab59b2773cb3c268 PDF Text Text The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect Wen-Yan Chiau (National Taiwan Ocean University & National Sun Yat-sen University, Chair Professor; Apconf-5, liaison for Taiwan) Email: chiau0717@gmail.com ABSTRACT In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in 2015 Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA). Although the law has been in force for seven years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and the raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. It is believed that the experience of Taiwan may serve as a reference to other countries concerned. Key words: underwater cultural heritage (UCH), Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA), Taiwan. 1. INTRODUCTION In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention), Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA) in 2015. Although the law has been in force for several years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will introduce the recent activities at UCH, illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. 2. RECENT ACTIVITIES IN UCH Since 2006, the Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) of the Ministry of Culture has promoted the “Project for the General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas of Taiwan”. This has included the investigation of waters surrounding the Penghu Archipelago (Pescadores), Green Island, Matsu Islands, Dongsha (Pratas) Atoll, and Taiwan Island. The project has already progressed through four stages of assessing the overall value of UCH in the waters of Taiwan. As of the end of December 2019, a total of 90 specific targets had been found through underwater verification by the underwater archaeology team led by Dr. Cheng-Huan Tsang. Of these, 20 objects have been identified as shipwrecks and other specific target objects. Six of these have complete underwater cultural inventories (Shy 2016; Underwater Cultural Heritage Network 2022). 1 �3. ISSUES IN THE IMPLIMENTATION OF UCHA Taiwan’s UCHA consists of seven chapters and 44 articles. The chapters cover general provisions, rights attribution and international cooperation, activities directed at UCH, in situ preservation of UCH, excavating out of the water, penalty provisions, and supplementary provisions (Kuo et al 2017). The Act was adopted in 2015 and amended in 2022 with minor revisions. Although the law has been in force for several years, it has not yet been fully implemented. The key issues are summarized as follows. 3.1 Enforcement capacity of competent authority Article 2 of the UCHA clearly stipulates that “the competent authority of this Act is the Ministry of Culture (MOC).” Operationally, its subordinate agency – BOCH – is the responsible authority for day-to-day management. Under the BOCH, there are four divisions and a research institute. Of these, the “Underwater Cultural Heritage Section” of the “Division of Antiquities and Archaeological Sites” is the body that is responsible for all relevant UCH affairs (BOCH 2021). However, the BOCH is essentially a land-based authority that is located in downtown Taichung in the City of Taiwan, and it is without any vessel or port facilities for enforcement of the UCHA. In addition, the BOCH is also in lack of underwater archaeology professionals due to the limitation of budget and manning quotas. 3.2 Establishment of the national UCH research institute Taiwan has long anticipated the establishment of a research institute dedicated to UCH. Referring to similar foreign cases (e.g., the National Research Institute of Maritime Culture Heritage (NRIMCH) in Mokpo, Korea (UNESCO 2023); the Department of Underwater and Marine Archaeological Research (DRASSM) in Marseille, France (Ministère de la Culture 2023), Article 7 of the UCHA stipulates that the BOCH may “designate” a dedicated organization for the preservation of and research on UCH. However, UCH is a new concern for Taiwan and as yet there is no such research institute. In this regard, the former legislators Wen-Yan Chiau and Yi-Hua Lin proposed an amendment bill to amend Article 7 of the UCHA to say: “The competent authority may ‘establish’ or designate a dedicated organization for the preservation of and research on underwater cultural heritage, to perform any necessary investigation, research, excavation, restoration, education, promulgation, international cooperation, and other activities with respect to UCH.” This amendment bill was passed on 15 November 2022 (Liberty Times 2022). Even with the legal support, the establishment of national UCH research institute still needs more supports from the central government. 3.3 In situ preservation and UCH protection zones Echoing the spirit of the 2001 Convention, Article 27 of the UCHA expressly stipulates that “the preservation of UCH in situ shall be the first option considered, before any activities directed at this heritage are allowed or commenced.” Further, the proper means for in situ preservation may include record management, protection zones, or other proper preservation measures. When the review committees decide that it is necessary to designate a specific UCH protection zone, according to Article 28 of the UCHA, the BOCH should consult with the relevant authorities to designate and publicize it within the relevant area to preserve the UCH in situ. To allow for public engagement, Article 28 also stipulates that the authority should hold a public hearing or explanation session inviting civilians or groups with an interest in the area to attend. Since Taiwan still does not have a UCH protected area, it is necessary to learn from countries that ratified the 2001 Convention some time ago, in planning and management matters in the future. 2 �3.4 Conditions for UCH excavation In principle, the UCH should not be removed from the water. Pursuant to Article 34 of the UCHA, exceptions are limited to the following situations: (1) the UCH is related to the historical status or recognition of the nation; (2) if the UCH were absent, it could preclude a full understanding of human history; (3) the UCH is of substantial commercial value that could not be protected without removing it from the water; (4) excavation is necessary for investigating and conducting research on the UCH; (5) the UCH could not be sufficiently preserved, protected, or managed without being removed from the water because of an emergency or changes in the existing environment; (6) other situations in which the competent authority deems it necessary to remove the UCH from the water. When excavation is to be undertaken, pursuant to Article 35 of the UCHA, a preservation and maintenance plan for the UCH should be proposed at the same time. In this plan, “nondestructive technology and survey methods should be used preferentially.” In addition, people with expertise in underwater archaeology, underwater operations, and preservation science should collaborate to design the measures for the excavation or emergency response. For more than a decade, nevertheless, the UCH affairs in Taiwan have focused on general surveys, and there are still no plans to excavate UCH from its waters. Many opportunities for UCH research and presentation were missed due to the overly conservative mentality of officials, lack of largescale funding, and the expansion of in-situ conservation to a no-excavation concept, which made it difficult to excavate. 3.5 Public education on UCH Article 12 of UCHA stipulates that “the competent authority shall promote the underwater cultural heritage education at each level of school. After consulting the Ministry of Education, the competent authority shall stipulate regulations related to the implementation and encouragement of the aforesaid education.” Although the authorities have organized many popular science exhibitions, special lectures and training of underwater archaeologists in recent years, the promotion of UCH at all levels of schools has not yet been launched. 4. STRATEGIES FOR BETTER PRESERVATION OF UCH In response to the above issues and challenges, a number of strategies are proposed to strengthen the protection of UCH in Taiwan. 4.1 Raising the public awareness on the importance of UCH In addition to the aforementioned education about UCH at all levels of school, it is necessary to raise awareness of the importance of UCH among the general public. The BOCH has held many underwater archaeology exhibitions in recent years, and has also used new technologies such as Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality, which have attracted many people (Tung 2020). However, the popularity of these exhibitions is still insufficient; In particular, in order to properly protect UCH, it is necessary the public understand that underwater archaeology is not treasure hunting, but protection of the common heritage of mankind. 4.2 Involving the stakeholders and designating UCH protected areas The Regulations on Delineation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones are derived from Articles 28, 30, and 31 of the UCHA. Multiple stakeholders (e.g., diving associations and tourism companies) will be highly interested in the nominated UCH waters. Therefore, before designating UCH protection zones, negotiation among stakeholders, nongovernmental organizations, and relevant agencies is essential to 3 �promoting UCH preservation and management. The BOCH already held a first-ever workshop on March 28, 2023 in Green Island, Taitung County on the delineation and management of “Green Island Wreck No. 1”. To win support from the local stakeholders it is recommended that the BOCH organise more workshops, explanation sessions and public hearings. 4.3 Conducting a pilot excavation project of important shipwreck In regards to the multiple purposes of research, restoration, training, education and exhibition, Taiwan needs to go further to identify a valuable shipwreck for excavation. Surely, this activity shall meet the requirements of excavation regulated in Articles 34 and 35 of UCHA. UCH professionals from other countries could initially provide guidance on the excavation projects. 4.4 Facilitating the international cooperation on preserving stone tidal weirs Based on recent investigations, there are approximately 600 stone weirs in the waters of Taiwan, nearly 350 of which are in the Penghu Archipelago (Penghu National Scenic Area Administration 2022; Stoneweir.info 2023). This example of UCH is important because these are included in the project “Indigenous People, Traditional Ecological Knowledge, and Climate Change: The Iconic Underwater Cultural Heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs, ID 180”. This project forms part of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021–2030 (IOC 2021). In this regard, Taiwan is urged to actively participate in this international cooperation project to preserve its abundant stone tidal weirs. 4.5 Establishing the national research institute of cultural heritage Pursuant to Article 7 of the UCHA, the Ministry of Culture may establish or designate an institute responsible for UCH preservation, protection and management. It is believed that this national-level institute can best integrate various research resources, including technologies, professions and budgets. As mentioned earlier, the French DRASSM is a national-level research institute of 50+ years. Equipped with research vessels and many professionals, the DRASSM has participated in various international UCH projects and achieved fruitful results with stable budgets and operations. In 2009, the NRIMCH was established in Korea to promote the country’s maritime culture and exchange research results with other international research institutions or museums. These institutes are all worth referring to as Taiwan establishes its own. In 2022, Penghu County Government entrusted Dr. Cheng-Hua Tsang of the National Tsing Hua University to conduct a project to establish the National Underwater Cultural Museum. The first step is to establish a research institute for the museum. 4.6 Integrating the planning and management of all marine protected areas The marine protected areas (MPAs) is an umbrella name which may include national parks, fishery resource protected areas, national scenic areas, national monuments and marine sanctuaries. However, the administrative jurisdiction of MPAs is scattered among Taiwan's numerous agencies. As the Government is drafting a bill on the Marine Protection Act, there is an opportunity to integrate planning and management of marine protected areas, including natural and cultural heritage. 4.7 Actively participating the international organizations and related meetings Although Taiwan is not currently a member of the United Nations, many laws and policies still follow international treaties and initiatives. UCH is an emerging matter, and Taiwan does not have enough experience in this regard, and needs to absorb the experience of other countries. Therefore, Taiwan should actively participate in international organizations and 4 �relevant meetings and cooperate with other countries or regions to jointly protect the UCH. 5. CONCLUSION In 2015, Taiwan adopted UCHA in accordance with the spirit and intent of the 2001 Convention. The passage and enforcement of UCHA represents Taiwanese determination to preserve, protect and manage this common heritage of mankind. As UCH is a new affair in this country, Taiwan still lacks experience in law enforcement, professional manpower, related technology, protected area designation and underwater archaeology excavation. In particular, better planning and stable funding support are needed for school education at all levels and the establishment of specialized research institutions. Eight years after the enactment of the law, therefore, it is necessary for Taiwan to review its UCH protection performance, learn from countries that ratified the 2001 Convention some time ago, and formulate the steps and projects to promote UCH protection. Bibliography [1] Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture (BOCH), Republic of China (Taiwan) (2021), Organization Chart, https://www.boch.gov.tw/home/en-us/Chart (Accessed 1 April 2023). [2] Kuo, C-C., Liao, C-P., Chiau, W-Y., Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Taiwan: Legislation and Challenges, paper presented at the Third Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 2017. [3] International Oceanographic Commission (IOC), UNESCO, Letter to Dr. Akifumi Iwaqbuchi, Ref.: IOC/VR/21.362/JB/AC/ml, 6 October 2021. [4] Ministère de la Culture, Department of Underwater and Underwater Archaeological Research (2023), https://www.culture.gouv.fr/en/Thematic/Archaeology/Actors-training/Archaeology-services-at-the-Ministryof-Culture/Department-of-Underwater-and-Underwater-Archaeological-Research (Accessed 3 Marc 2023). [5] Liberty Times, Adoption of the Third Reading of the Amendment to the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act, the competent authority may establish a dedicated institution, 25 November 2022, https://news.ltn.com.tw/news/politics/breakingnews/4123994 (Accessed on 4 April 2023) (in Chinese) [6] Penghu National Scenic Area Administration, Twin-Hearts Stone Weir, 12 May 2022, https://tinyurl.com/yvfh4nnm (Accessed 25 May 2022) [7]Shy, G-L., The preservation and reuse of underwater cultural heritage, In: Chiau, W-Y., and Huang, H-W., Blue Economy and Marine Conservation, The Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Ocean and Taiwan, 2016, 310-338. [8] Stoneweir.info, The Records of the Stone Weirs, https://stoneweir.info/List?M=CAT001&S=All&P=1 (Accessed 10 April 2023). [9] Tung, Y-Y., A Review of Taiwan’s underwater cultural heritage dissemination works and future prospects, Journal of Cultural Heritage Sep. 2020 (53): 7-26. [10]Underwater Cultural Heritage Network, Taiwan’s Promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Bureau of Cultural Heritage (BOCH) of Ministry of Culture, 2022, https://uch.boch.gov.tw/AboutHeritage/Promote (Accessed 4 April 2023). [11] UNESCO, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-roadinstitutions/national-research-institute-maritime-cultural-heritage (Accessed 28 April 2023). 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 17: The 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ Subject The topic of the resource Session 17 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 17 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect Description An account of the resource In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and to value the spirit of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in 2015 Taiwan passed its Underwater Cultural Heritage Act (UCHA). Although the law has been in force for seven years, there are still many important elements that have not yet been fully implemented. The main reasons are the insufficient capacity of the competent authorities, the lack of underwater archaeology talents, and Taiwan's special environmental conditions. For example, the implementation of in-situ preservation, the designation of UCH protected areas, shallow water survey technology, the establishment of a national research center of UCH, and the raising of public awareness and school education all need to be further studied and implemented. Therefore, this article will illustrate the intention of important parts of UCHA, as well as the challenges promoted by practice, and finally put forward some suggestions for future protection of UCH in Taiwan. It is believed that the experience of Taiwan may serve as a reference to other countries concerned. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wen-Yan Chiau Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chiau, Wen-Yan. 2023. “The Next Steps of Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation in Taiwan: A Legal Aspect.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Mariano Azna. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1910 Asia-Pac Session 17 2023