57 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c324f807126d85486f05e06ece461e66.pdf 8f528ef644788043b01fc83bbe99327b PDF Text Text The Introduction of Conservation Treatment of Maritime Artifacts in Korea Dr Whan-suk Moon1 Abstract Since 1976, the underwater excavation program, which began with the Shinan ship, has yielded some 94,500 relics and eleven shipwrecks (including two foreign ships) from 18 sites in Korea. To conserve each material appropriately conserved on site and then the artifacts salvaged from the sea were safely moved to the laboratory. In particular the hulls of the ships were salvaged by separated pieces. Treatment of PEG 2-step method was applied for several years. The two ship hulls (Shinan and Wando) have been displayed after conservation treatment, and one is being prepared for a new display. We first tested pre-conservation treatment for safe stabilization and then have applied the best method of pre-study results to the ceramics, wooden tags, metallic objects, bones, crops etc. We excavated many bamboo artifacts after 2009, and are currently studying preconservation treatment. 1. Introduction The dominant maritime relics found in Korea are shipwrecks and their artifacts. They represent specific points in history, which like time capsules, clearly assert the culture of previous eras. The number of declared maritime discoveries in Korea has spanned approximately 242 cases since 1971. Underwater scientific research began in 1976 with the excavation of the Shinan artifacts. To date, there have been 18 excavations of underwater sites which have yielded 94,500 artifacts, 11 vessels, including 9 Korean vessels from the Goryeo dynasty, as well as 2 Chinese vessels. Underwater salvaging was implemented after determining which areas had the greatest spread of artifacts. The Mokpo Conservation Center was established for the conservation of the Shinan shipwreck site in 1980, and has taken full charge of the relics since then. This paper describes the introduction of conservation treatment of maritime artifacts salvaged in Korea. 1 Chief of Underwater Excavation & Conservation Division, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH), KOREA, moon118@hanmail.net �2. Conservation treatment and management of maritime artifacts 2.1. Types of underwater artifacts So far, the salvaged underwater artifacts are predominately the vessels themselves as well as the porcelains contained within the site. In the case of the Shinan shipwreck, interest from several international maritime institutes led to its collaborative excavation in 1970. During that excavation, 20,000 Chinese ceramics, red woods (native plants in India and west Asia), 28 tons of coins, pewter bars, wooden tablets (shipping manifest), and the vessel kitchen utensils were recovered. At the Taean underwater site over 29,000 Goryeo porcelains, grains, salted foods, and small portable dining tables made of bamboo were salvaged. Scholastically speaking, the ship's manifest in the form of wooden tablets were of the most interesting. These recorded a sailing time, an owner of the cargo ship, the quantity of goods, as well as other important data. Also in the Mado vessel excavation at Taean, more than 62 stone anchors were salvaged, which demonstrates the frequency of marine accidents in the area. Historical documents from that era note a lack of national finance as a direct result of these frequent maritime accidents. 2.2. Conservation treatment of an organic materials 2.2.1. Conservation treatment of old vessels If it is the case that a salvaged ship is not identified in Korea, then it is named after the region (the sea) where it is excavated. To date, 10 vessels have been salvaged, which includes the Shinan, a 14th century merchant vessel from China. Salvage operations on Mado vessel number 3 are currently underway. The vessel's hull was normally made of pine, but the nails were made of more durable oak. Because wooden nails were used in the vessel's construction, this made it easier to separate the boards during the salvage operation. The boards were then cut into smaller sections and labeled. Similarly, the Shinan was cut into four sections to facilitate its recovery. The base plate of Mado vessel number 2 was also made of oak. The Jindo ship was constructed with camphor wood. In the first stage of the preservation process the hulls of the ships were placed in a desalination tank for 2~5 years. A consolidation process was also necessary because of serious deterioration. The ships had been in tidal flats for hundreds of years attacked by marine borer, bacteria, and soft rot. The percentage of water content was up to 500%. The outer surface was substantially deteriorated, but the interior remained consistent to that of green woods. In the consolidation process, the wood is first impregnated with 5~20% of PEG 400 (Polyethylene glycol) at 40 , to begin the consolidation with PEG. In the second stage the wood is saturated with 25~70% of PEG 4000 for 5~10 ℃ �years. The conservation process of two ships is now complete, and they are currently being exhibited. The third ship is being stored after the second stage of the consolidation treatment. The fourth ship is now being dried after consolidation. The Jindo ship, which is made of camphor wood, requires special care and is being dried using the fixative FRP to prevent deformation and warping. The drying conditions are being closely monitored. Figure 1. Storage and desalination in pool (NRIMCH) Figure 2. PEG treatment tanks for salvaged ship (NRIMCH) Figure 3. Display condition after reconstruction of Shinan ship (NRIMCH) 2.2.2. Conservation treatment of wooden tablets From the underwater excavation at Daesom, Taean in 2007, bamboo tables and wooden tablets (ship's manifest), which describe the type of cargo, the quantity, the place of shipment, and the receivers were excavated. These tablets and tables were constructed with bamboo, pine, ash, and chestnut wood. Several kinds of small tools were used to remove mud from the surface of the wooden tablets, and the wood was immersed in a 2% solution of EDTA-2Na. Next, a low concentration (5~40%) of PEG#4000 (in t-butanol) was used to �make the inscriptions on the wood more visibly distinct for accurate translation. After that, a vacuum freeze-dry conservation treatment was applied. For sufficient stabilization of the tablet dimensions, the PEG density of the immersed tablets was gradually increased in stages over 15~20 days. 2.2.3. Conservation treatment of crops At the Taean Mado 1 site many crops such as rice, buckwheat, and millet, were salvaged. Only the husks remained because the crops’ main component of starch had dissolved and disappeared after more than 800 years of being underwater. The safest conservation method for the crops, was chosen among the waterlogged wood conservation treatments, using Sucrose, PEG immersion, PEG (in t-butanol), a vacuum freeze-dry conservation treatment, an high quality alcohol method (cethylalcohol,1 : 1 = cethyl alcohol : stearyl alcohol), which involved distoetion, color change, by visual observation, and surface observation using a stereoscopic microscope. It was determined impossible to keep the logged crops in a consistent dry form without conservation treatment first. Shrinkage was evident at 9.34% in length, and 26.0% in width. In such cases, it is essential to apply conservation treatment prior to the drying process. The formation and color of crops were well preserved in high quality alcohol method (cethylalcohol). Also the impregnation was concluded in 70% grade, since there was no difference between 70% and 100%. Figure 4. After conservation treatment (NRIMCH) 2.3. Conservation treatment of metals Most of the salvaged metals at the site were shipboard utensils such as metal pots, copper dishes, and spoons. These were processed for conservation treatment by initial examination, desalination, stabilization, consolidation and restoration. In the case of metal pots, 0.5M NaOH was used to desalinate and eliminate rust on it. Specifically, cast metals might have been severely damaged �because cracking can occur during the drying process if the artifact is not prepared properly. Cracking was prevented and reduced with the addition of adhesive. 0.1M Sodium Sesquicarbonate was used to desalinate and wash the bronze dishes and spoons. It was also noted that a Citric acid wash easily removed debris from coins; especially debris on the many salvaged coins dating back to the Chosun Dynasty. The coins were then treated to prevent corrosion, dried, and consolidated to complete the conservation process. 2.4. Conservation treatment of pottery As this paper previously mentioned, the staple of underwater excavation is porcelains. The salvaged pottery was mostly intact with defined forms, but when it was damaged, restoration was completed on speculation and through reconstruction as best could be determined. The pottery that had shells fixed to their surfaces were placed in HCI, and the shells were removed using a bamboo knife. They were set in 60 immersion for desalination. After that the acid was removed by placing the artifacts in flowing water. Fragments of similar shaped porcelains were recovered in large quantities, thus making the reconstruction process in the laboratory difficult. However, the more technical and high quality fragments, such as inlaid celadon, were restored and colored as well. ℃ 2.5. Management conservation and subsequent change research after There are two methods for managing finished conservation artifacts in Korea; one method is to exhibit the artifacts, and the other method is to keep the artifacts in storage. The latter method keeps the relics stabilized at a constant temperature and humidity. The Shinan and Wando vessels are currently on exhibition after completion of the conservation treatment. However soon after the exhibition of the Shinan vessel, corrosion began to occur for two reasons. First, the metal nails the shipbuilders used to connect the parts of the vessel began to corrode. Secondly the PEG used as consolidant appeared to increase the metal corrosion. This type of phenomena was observed in the Vasa, Mary Rose timber, Batavia and other vessels. Experts are now conducting investigative research to help prevent this sort of event from occurring. Likewise, we have also been monitoring the state of change regularly since September 2010. The two ships in exhibition are currently being monitored. This involves measuring temperature and humidity, time-lapsed photographic comparison to check the state of change, and illumination photometry. Oxidization of the Shinan ship became apparent about a year after it was first exhibited in 1995. PEG was leeching out of both the Wando and Shinan vessels. But until currently the amount of the PEG has been small enough to be removed. Based on the monitoring research results, our Institute is assured of the budget to improve the constant temperature and humidity of exhibition spaces. �3. Conclusion To sum up, this paper has dealt with the introduction of conservation treatment of underwater excavated artifacts in Korea. Conservation of underwater relics began with the Shinan vessel excavation. At first, our Institute was in charge of vessel conservation treatment only, but has treated all types of other artifacts as well. The primary step in conservation of salvaged artifacts is on-site preliminary processing, and the treatment of the artifacts prior to laboratory applications. In Korea, underwater archaeologists and laboratory conservators must work together to ensure complete treatment and conservation of the Korean maritime heritage. For this purpose, a new conservation facility in Taean near the excavation site, now processes everything immediately in conjunction and cooperation with the conservation treatment centered at our division. However, even with the addition of this new facility at Taean, the diverse variety and large amount of materials makes it difficult to deal with conservation of all artifacts perfectly. For this reason a collaborative research project has been instituted through an exchange program of personnel with other foreign maritime conservation organizations; Western Australia Museum being one. Both institutions are working on research projects set up together. We are specifically trying to solve the corrosion problem in the Shinan vessel. This will improve not only our capacity to better treat maritime artifacts, but also their overall safer conservation treatment in general through global cooperation and exchange of knowledge. Bibliography Bowens, A., (ed) 2009 Underwater Archaeology - The NAS Guide to Principles and Practice.. Cultural Heritage Administration. 1984 The Wando Wreck Underwater Excavation. Cha, M. Y., in press Conservation of shipwrecks in Korea, International Meeting on Protection Presentation and Valorisation of Underwater Cultural Heritage, UNESCO and Chinese Academy of Cultural heritage, Chongqing, November 2010. Cha, M. Y. and Yonn, Y. H., 2011 Conservation of Waterlogged Archaeological Rice Seeds. The 33rd National Conference of the Korean Society of Conservation Science of Cultural Heritage, Korea: 123-124. Cultural Heritage Administration. 1988 The Shinan Wreck Underwater Excavation �Mokpo Conservation Report on The Excavation of Jindo Log Boat. Institute for Maritime Archaeological finds. 1993 Moon, W. S., B. K. Kim, I. J. and S. S. On-Site Conservation of the Underwater Objects Excavated, Conservation Studies 25, National Research Yang., Institute of Cultural Heritage. 2004 National Maritime Museum. 1999 Report on The Excavation of Talido Shipwreck. National Maritime Museum. 2004 The Conservation and Restoration Report of Ship. National Maritime Museum. 2005 The Underwater Excavation of the sea off Sibidongpa Island, Gunsan. National Maritime The Excavation of Anjwa ship. ․ Museum Sinan-gun. 2006 National Maritime Museum. 2008 Nation Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. 2009 Pearson, C., 1987 Ansan Daebudo Ship Sea Site Submarine Excavation. ⅠⅡ Taean Treasure ship , - Submarine Excavation. Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Introduction of Conservation Treatment of Maritime Artifacts in Korea Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource Since 1976, the underwater excavation program, which began with the Shinan ship, has yielded some 94,500 relics and eleven shipwrecks (including two foreign ships) from 18 sites in Korea. To conserve each material appropriately the artifacts salvaged from the sea were safely conserved on site and then moved to the laboratory. In particular the hulls of the ships were salvaged by separated pieces. Treatment of PEG 2-step method was applied for several years. The two ship hulls (Shinan and Wando) have been displayed after conservation treatment, and one is being prepared for a new display. We first tested pre-conservation treatment for safe stabilization and then have applied the best method of pre-study results to the ceramics, wooden tags, metallic objects, bones, crops etc. We excavated many bamboo artifacts after 2009, and are currently studying pre-conservation treatment. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr Whan-suk Moon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c1533cde635f46a15ced79111b4ae56d.pdf 68cbd8b6f8e30e8c16513cc98c636d6c PDF Text Text The Iron Grapnel Supposed to Belong to the Sinan Shipwreck and Other Anchors in East Asia Mitsuhiko Ogawa Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology qq3a3qt9@poppy.ocn.ne.jp Abstract In 2016 an iron grapnel was shown in some special exhibitions marking the 40th anniversary of the Sinan shipwreck excavation in Korea. The grapnel 2.3m length has four arms, and it had been raised by a fisherman’s net in 1972 before the wreck was discovered. Around the Song Dynasty of China, stone anchor stocks composed of wooden shanks were generally used; their distributions ranged from the Primorsky region of Russia in the north to the south in Vietnam and the Philippines. In Korea and in Japan, crude stone anchor stocks modelled after Chinese anchors were widely used at that time. From the Takashima underwater site associated with the Mongolian invasion of Japan in the 13th century or during the early Yuan Dynasty, stone anchor stocks of separate type were frequently discovered. After the Ming Dynasty, iron grapnels started to be used in large, but at the same time wooden anchors were also kept in use on different styles from region to region. In Japan, iron four-armed grapnels were appeared in some art pictures after the Muromachi Period, and then during the Edo Period those grapnels became popular as the mainstream of Japanese anchors. The iron four-armed grapnel, which is considered to have belonged to the Sinan shipwreck, seems to have equipped on a Japanese vessel dated from the Edo period to early modern times as its characters are found among Japanese grapnels. However, the possibility that it still belonged to the Sinan shipwreck could not be denied completely, because the actual origin of Japanese grapnels is unknown; Chinese manufacturing technology of grapnels, which is known for the time being, was different from Japanese one, but another technology, which would have an impact upon both Japanese and the Sinan shipwreck’s grapnels, might have existed in China. Key words: Sinan shipwreck, Korea, grapnel, anchor �Introduction: The Iron Grapnel Believed to belong to the Sinan Shipwreck In 2016, an iron grapnel was displayed along with the reconstruction/restoration model of Sinan Shipwreck in a special exhibition that commemorate the 40th year anniversary of the Excavation of the Sinan Shipwreck in Korea. This iron grapnel displayed along with the restoration model was stated that it was a Chinese steel anchor from the Yuan Dynasty, and it belongs to ‘the Sinan shipwreck’ (National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2016). The grapnel is 2.3m in length and has four arms. It was raised by a fisherman’s net in 1972, before the wreck was discovered (National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, Korea, 2016). The author has observed iron grapnels at museums in China; these anchors were dated later than the Ming Dynasty. Also in Japan, iron grapnels were used from the Edo Period to modern era. The author only had a brief knowledge of iron grapnels that were widely used in China and Japan, and he never had conducted a research on it. Moreover, the author could not find any researches focused on iron grapnels conducted by other scholars. The author has observed an interesting point on these anchors that, about morphology-wise, the iron grapnel found near the Sinan Shipwreck site was very similar to Japanese type. In this paper, the author shares his comparative studies on iron grapnels that was believed to belong to the Sinan Shipwreck and other ones which were widely used in China and Japan. Chinese Iron Grapnels �Tiangong Kaiwu, a Chinese technical document at the end of the Ming Dynasty, described methods to manufacture ‘Iron anchor anchors’ (Song, 1639). To build an iron grapnel, individually made four arms were joined to a shank on after another at the end. For forging, materials from an old earth wall sieve were sprinkled on the forging areas. On the iconography that explain the forging processes, total 15 people were displayed, including who supported shanks and arms and who forging. From these iconographies, peculiar rectangle sectional shapes of the grapnel were not yet confirmed. Around this time, a ship carries 5 to 6 Iron anchors; the largest one is about 500 loaves, and it is used in emergency. In addition, it was described/instructed that Iron grapnels could not be used on the stone bottom area; it had to be used on sandy and mud seabed. Also, there is a description that a ship applied sudden stop by dropping a stern anchor to avoid collisions to ships in front. According to Guanzhuo Wang, a historian who studies ships in China, it is said that ‘stone anchor’, ‘wooden anchor’ and ‘Iron anchor’ coexisted simultaneously in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, while primarily ‘woodstone anchor’ was widely used (Wang, 2000). In Chiming Uekgo Picture of the Northern Song Dynasty, a ‘small iron anchor’ was depicted near the bow of the river ship. In Jilin City, Jilin Province in 1975, a small three-arm iron grapnel (22.5cm in length) dated the early in the Kim Dynasty was found. In historical written sources from the Song and Yuan Dynasties, these were descriptions on different types of anchors: ‘iron anchor’ and ‘iron anchor with four nails’ were widely used; in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, ‘iron anchor’ was used in the northern sea area of hard mud bottom; ‘wooden anchor’ was used in the southern deep sea of soft mud bottom, both are respectively used depending on the types of sediments; and for river ships ‘iron anchor’ was widely used. Regarding �archaeological examples of ‘iron anchors’, an iron grapnel was found on the Ming dynasty shipwreck during its excavation in the Songji River, Liangshan, Shandong Province, in 1956. This anchor was 1.36m long and had inscriptions on the surface, and it said ‘Hongwe 5th made’ and ‘85 loaves of heaviness’. Another archaeological example was found from Quanzhou, Fujian, in 1981; it was an iron grapnel which was 2.68m long and 758.3kg. The author also visited and observed a few iron grapnels; he visited the sea castle in Penglai City in Shandong Province, the Quanzhou Bay Old Ship Museum in Quanzhou City, Fujian Province, the Guangzhou Museum in Guangzhou City in Guangdong Province. Additionally, there are reported documents about iron grapnels excavated from the Penglai Sea castle (Chen,1989) (Fig. 1). The author analysed and studied characteristics of those iron grapnels from these materials, but since the amount of information is too big to share in this paper; therefore, detailed descriptions of individual materials shall be reported in another occasion. Fig. 1 (left): Iron Grapnel Excavated from Penglai Sea Castle. (Chen, 1989) �Chinese iron grapnels were built by forging individually forged arms to the shank; in many cases, the joint points between arms and the shank displayed peculiar shapes of remnants created by the forging (Fig. 2). Additionally, there were examples that used/forged steel sheets on the joinery points as a reinforcement. The cross-sectional shapes of the shank and arms have irregular circular shape or irregular square shape; there are no examples of clear rectangle shapes that can be seen on iron grapnels found in Japan. The anchor ring had a small circular shape, and its inner diameter was relatively small. It indicates that the end of the shank was molded to make a hole. In many cases, those forging marks were conspicuous. Also, there were examples that wood leaf-shaped fluke were attached at the tip of arms. The shape of four arms formed a ‘+’ shape when it was seen from the crown side (Fig. 3). �Fig. 2 (left): Iron Grapnel of the Ming Dynasty at the Dengzhou Museum. Fig. 3 (right): Iron Grapnel of the Qing Dynasty at the Dengzhou Museum. Japanese Iron Grapnels Ishii Kenji, a scholar who studied history of ships in Japan, explained weights of the ‘the first anchor’ of the Bezai ship. He also studied transition/evolution of Japanese anchors (Ishii, 1983). His studies on history of Japanese anchors started with ancient simple stone anchors that composed of a rope tied to a natural stone. On the ships traveled to Tang (China), as well as on ships used between Heian Period and the Medieval Era in Japan, wooden anchors were commonly used. The wooden anchors used on these ships composed of a flat stone sandwiched by two branches of hook-shaped trees. Based on iconography that ‘iron grapnel’ and ‘wooden anchor’ were depicted in the Scroll ‘Jinguu Kougou Engi Emaki’ in 1443, he believed that iron grapnels �might be used on Daimyo's warships and other large ships around the 15th century. Yet, Ishii indicated that there must be technical difficulties to forge iron grapnels if Japan tried to build it domestically around that time; and the its cost for mass-production must be another problem. Therefore, he suspects that the iron grapnels in the 15th century were imported from China. In the 16th century, use of iron anchors become popular among warships. Yet, wooden anchors were often depicted with merchant ships in the first half of the 17th century; the beginning of wide spread uses of iron grapnels might need to wait until the middle of the 17th century. Other Japanese scholars agree with Ishii 's theory about date of its beginning and wide distribution of iron grapnels. Matsui analyzed 49 iron grapnels found mainly northern area (Hokuriku) in the main island of Japan, and he concluded that the transition to iron grapnels occurred sometime in the 18th to the 20th centuries based on morphological analysis on anchor rings and attached rings (Matsui, 2013). Ishihara restudied researches on wooden anchors conducted by Wang, Ishii, Tamura, and several other researches, and he concluded that transition from wooden anchors to iron grapnels were caused/triggered by shipworms which ate wooden products in the sea (Ishihara, 2015). Ninomiya examined the maritime traffic in Tokyo Bay and the Sodegaura fishery industry based on literature/historical sources; also, he descrived the perspectives of trading and distribution of iron grapnels in the Edo Period in Japan (Ninomiya, 2017). Tamura, a folklore scholar, conducted folklore investigations on ‘anchor blacksmith’ in Fukuyama City, Hiroshima Prefecture. Tamura noted that iron grapnel was forged by superimposing plate-like steel called ‘Yao’ (Tamura, 1978). He also described the �manufacturing process of the iron grapnels: each part, such as four parts of arms, a shank, an anchor ring and an attached ring were individually prepared first, and then the arms and anchor rings were forged onto the shank, and arms were spread into form 4 arms, then the loop of anchor ring was expanded. His investigation was very important to conduct a comparative study of manufacturing methodology of different anchors; therefore, his research is especially important for the author’s researches In Japan, at least 50 iron grapnels are known to be exist. The author studied characteristics of these anchors; however, its information may be too detailed to share in this paper, so that he has to wait to share such detailed information until other opportunities. In general, Japanese iron grapnels were composed/welded of separately built plate-shaped steels, so that the cross-section of the shank and arms display a clear-cut rectangular shape (Fig. 4). Fig. 4: Iron Grapnel Raised up off Suzu City, Ishikawa Prefecture. Although sometimes it displays slight lamellar traces and forge contact traces due to forge weld, surfaces of Japanese iron grapnel are flat. �Nonetheless, there are no examples in Japanese grapnels that shows wrapped steel sheets reinforcements on arms alike Chinese grapnels. The arms of Japanese grapnels were forged into the shank, and then the arms were expanded after; henceforward, many of the (side-profile) shapes of anchors showed a gentle ‘J’ shape (Fig. 5). And the shape of the four arms from the crown exhibited a ‘X’ shape (Fig. 6). Although the anchor ring displayed a large almond shape; the introduction of the electric hammer in the modern period has made it smaller and the crosssectional shape tends to be circular. Fig. 5: Iron Grapnel at Fukuura Shika Town, Ishikawa Prefecture. �Fig. 6: Iron Grapnel at Fukuura Shika Town, Ishikawa Prefecture, from its Crown Side. Anchor of the Era before and after the Yuan Dynasty Regarding the small iron grapnels, the first evidence appeared in the North Song and Kim Dynasties. Although, the word/noun of ‘iron anchor’ and ‘iron anchor four nails’ appeared in literatures of the Song Dynasty, the first archaeological evidence of iron grapnel had to wait until the beginning of the Ming Dynasty (Wang, 2000). Anchors that widely used in the Song Dynasty were ‘wood-stone anchor’ with ‘mono style stone anchor stock.’ Regarding Yuan Dynasty, wood-stone anchors with ‘separate style stone anchor stock’ were main archaeological evidence found from the underwater site at Takashima Island, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan; this site is also known for the Mongolia Attack to Japan in 1281. Contrarily, mono style stone anchor stocks were rarely found in this site (Takashima Town Board of Education, 1996). In the Takashima Island site, however, a mono-style stone anchor stock was cut in half and �converted as ‘separate style stone anchor stock’. This may indicate that the both types had been coexisted, or it was at their transition period (Ogawa, 2008a and 2008b). Those wood stone anchors with this ‘separate style stone anchor stocks’ was also used at Penglai Sea Castle in Shandong Province and Quanzhou Bay in Fujian Province (Li, 1998). Afterwards, ‘wood-stone anchor’ with ‘mono style stone anchor stock’ had shifted into ‘wooden anchor’ with wooden stock. Iron grapnels appeared at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, yet it did not mean that wooden anchors disappeared due to the appearance of iron grapnels. An iconography from Qing dynasty displayed sea boats using both wooden anchor and iron grapnels. Therefore, for the Sinan Ship dated the middle of the Yuan Dynasty, there is a possibility that Sinan Ship used wood stone anchors (or wooden anchors) and iron grapnels at the same time. Conclusion The cross-section of the shank likely belonging to the Sinan shipwreck is rectangular in shape, and a part where the arms as well as the anchor ring are attached to the shank is pounded to connect by a flat piece of iron. The arms curve gradually inward and make a figure of ‘J’. The crosssection of the arm is flat rectangular. The anchor ring is large, narrowly long and almond like shape. Moreover, the cross-section is flat rectangular. There features obviously resemble the futures of Japanese iron grapnel; based on those reasons, the author believed that the grapnels that believed to belong to the Sinan shipwreck was most likely belonged to the iron grapnels of the Japanese vessels dated from the early modern period to the modern period. �In the current state, however, it is difficult to establish precise dating of the Japanese style iron grapnels due to lack of the data and information for establishment of manufacturing. On the other hand, there is another possibility for the iron grapnel from the Sinan shipwreck to seek its origin in China. There might be some manufacturing techniques in China that would become the origin of Japanese grapnel manufacture later. This possible original manufacture technique has not been found/confirmed yet in China; however, it could be possible that Sinan shipwreck had carried Chinese iron grapnel that produced by Chinese manufacturing techniques that would be taught to Japanese later was onboard the Sinan shipwreck of the Yuan Dynasty. Nonetheless, the author concludes that, under these circumstances, it was most likely that the iron grapnels that is believed to belong to the Sinan shipwreck was a Japanese iron grapnel from the early modern period to the modern period. Acknowledgements The detailed data on the four-armed iron anchor that believed to belong to the Shinan shipwreck has been shared by Dr. Hong Soon-Jae and Dr. Park Ye-Ree of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. Mr. Yuichiro Tashiro also helped me greatly for the related articles on the webpages. I deeply express my gratitude toward them. References Chen, T.,1989. Penglai Old Ship Belongings Analysis: Penglai Old Ship and Dengzhou Old Port. Dalian Maritime College Publishing House, Dalian (in Chinese). Ishii, K., 1983. Zusetsu Wasen Shi Wa, Zusetsu, Nippon Kaiji Shi Wa Sosho, Vol.1. Shiseido, Tokyo (in Japanese). Ishii, K., 1995. Wa Sen I, Mono to Ningen no Bunkashi, Vol. 76, Hosei University Press, Tokyo (in Japanese). Ishihara, W., 2013. Ikari No Bunka Shi, Book Series of Bukkyo University, Shibunkaku Publisher, Kyoto (in Japanese) �Li, G., 1998. Ancient Chinese anchors: their rigging and conservations. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 27(4): 307-312. Matsui, H., 2013. Yotsuzume tetsuikari no kisoteki kenkyu: fune ni kakawaru mono no keishiki gakuteki kosatsu. Bulletin of Archaeology (Department of Archaeology University of Kanazawa), Vol.134: 27-52 (in Japanese). National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2016. http://blog.naver.com/seamuse1994/220889730348 National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2017. http://www.seamuse.go.kr/seamuseweb/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do? nttId=1155&bbsId=BBSMSTR_000000000249&pageIndex=2&searchtitle =&searchcont=&searchkey=&searchwriter=&searchWrd=&searchCtgryY n=A&mn=KO_02_04#link Ninomiya, T., 2017. Yotsu zume ikari ni tsuite, Study of the History of Sodegaura City, Vol.18: 69-79 (in Japanese). Ogawa, M., 2008a. Kaiiki ajia no ikariishi koroshi. In Y. Yokkaichi (Ed.), Mono Kara Mita Kaiiki Ajiashi, Kyudai Ajia Sosho, Kyushu University Press, Fukuoka: 1-37 (in Japanese). Ogawa, M., 2008b. Higashi ajia kaiiki ni okeru chugoku sutairu ikariishi no Kkenkyu. Proceeding of the First Korea-Japan Underwater Archaeology, Korea: 103-144 (in Japanese and Korean). Song, Y., 1637 (1969). Tiangong Kaiwu (in Chinese), Trans. K. Yabuuchi, Toyo Bunko, Vol.130, Heibonsha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Takashima Town Board of Education, 1996. Takashim Kaitei Iseki III, Takshima-cho Bunkazai Chosa Hokokusho, Vol. 2. Takashima Town Board of Education, Takashima-cho (in Japanese). Tamura, Z., 1978. Tomo no ikari to kugi. In Hiroshima Prefecture (Ed.), History of Hiroshima Prefecture: Folk Custom, Hiroshima Prefecture, Hiroshima: 709-716 (in Japanese). Wang, G., 2000. Chinese Old Ship Graphic Chart. SDX Joint Publishing Company, Beijing (in Chinese). �Biography Mitsuhiko Ogawa was bone in Ishikawa Prefecture in 1968. He received MA degree in Archaeology from the University of Kanazawa in 2005. He is majoring in underwater archaeology, especially, in anchors and stone anchor stocks as well as in Chinese ceramics. He became a member of the Kyusyu Okinawa Society for Underwater Archaeology in 1992 and has been a senior research associate of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology since 2011. He has excavated many underwater archaeological sites such as Takashima Island, the Maegata Bay or Ojika Island (Yamami), and has also involved in the survey of underwater cultural heritage around the Japan Sea. He has published many papers related to underwater archaeology in East Asia. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Iron Grapnel Supposed to Belong to the Sinan Shipwreck and Other Anchors in East Asia Description An account of the resource In 2016 an iron grapnel was shown in some special exhibitions marking the 40th anniversary of the Sinan shipwreck excavation in Korea. The grapnel 2.3m length has four arms, and it had been raised by a fisherman’s net in 1972 before the wreck was discovered. Around the Song Dynasty of China, stone anchor stocks composed of wooden shanks were generally used; their distributions ranged from the Primorsky region of Russia in the north to the south in Vietnam and the Philippines. In Korea and in Japan, crude stone anchor stocks modelled after Chinese anchors were widely used at that time. From the Takashima underwater site associated with the Mongolian invasion of Japan in the 13th century or during the early Yuan Dynasty, stone anchor stocks of separate type were frequently discovered. After the Ming Dynasty, iron grapnels started to be used in large, but at the same time wooden anchors were also kept in use on different styles from region to region. In Japan, iron four-armed grapnels were appeared in some art pictures after the Muromachi Period, and then during the Edo Period those grapnels became popular as the mainstream of Japanese anchors. The iron four-armed grapnel, which is considered to have belonged to the Sinan shipwreck, seems to have equipped on a Japanese vessel dated from the Edo period to early modern times as its characters are found among Japanese grapnels. However, the possibility that it still belonged to the Sinan shipwreck could not be denied completely, because the actual origin of Japanese grapnels is unknown; Chinese manufacturing technology of grapnels, which is known for the time being, was different from Japanese one, but another technology, which would have an impact upon both Japanese and the Sinan shipwreck’s grapnels, might have existed in China. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mitsuhiko Ogawa Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Mitsuhiko Ogawa Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/59e0f43444e6dc4b9ee02a88b508e760.pdf c798578e0cb81af17f7b9c5a4eddf124 PDF Text Text The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site. 1 2 Peter D. Fix, PhD (Texas A&M University, Associate Research Scientist) Russell E. Matthews (Air/Sea Heritage Foundation, President) ABSTRACT The topic of the paper, entitled “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis, and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site,” best fits within the session, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges due to its context and subject matter. Before sunrise on 1 February 1942, aircraft from the USS Yorktown (CV-5), sortied as part of Task Force-17’s attack on the Japanese Mandated Islands of Jaluit and Milli, in present day Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Makin, the northernmost island in the Gilbert Islands chain. During the raid, two TBD-1 Devastator torpedo bombers [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] were forced to ditch in Jaluit Lagoon as each aircraft was low on fuel. The aircrews of both planes survived the water landing, were captured by Imperial Japanese Naval forces, and survived captivity in POW camps in Japan. Since 2004, a group of scientists, engineers and researchers have undertaken seven expeditions to the resting place of these aircraft in a remote section of the lagoon to document and conduct analysis on aspects of the artifacts’ preservation. As part of the monitoring and assessment, plans have been generated to potentially recover one of the aircraft to archaeological and materials conservation standards. KEYWORDS: World War II, Naval Aviation, TBD-1 Devastator, Marshall Islands INTRODUCTION Since 1 February 1942, two TBD-1 Devastators [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] have remained submerged in Jaluit Lagoon, the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Each artifact was the result of a controlled emergency landing on water when the pilots determined that it would not be advisable to try to return to their carrier strike force. The location, on a remote atoll in the central Pacific Ocean, and the even more isolated western side of Jaluit Lagoon, has sheltered them and protected each plane from inadvertent contact or vandalism. The first of the two aircraft was identified during a US National Parks Service sponsored cultural survey in the late 1990s while the second was relocated a few years later following a dedicated search by local divers. Although slightly different, the preservation level of each submerged structure is exceptional. Starting in 2004, a team of scientists and historians have visited the site seven separate times to document and assess their condition. The two aircraft provide a unique opportunity for in situ study. One is submerged at an average depth of (-)50 feet and has overwhelmingly been assimilated into the surrounding environment of a coral head. The other is submerged at a depth of (-)110 feet and lying on a coralline sandy plain where there is considerably less biologic activity. Over the course of the seven expeditions to the site, the planes have been thoroughly documented by hand measurements, photomosaic models and one of them, BuNo. 1515, the deeper wreck, was thoroughly laser-scanned with subsea LiDAR. Along with on-site corrosion testing, engineers have assessed the aircraft’s structural integrity, and samples have been exported under permit for metallurgical analysis. The archaeological documentation and preservation analysis have helped guide the formation of plans to potentially archaeologically recover and stabilize one of the submerged structures for future museum installation and display. This conference paper is an overview of the project and draws directly from the Permit Report (2018-1) submitted to the US Navy History and Heritage Command, Underwater Archaeology Branch in 2021. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Shortly after clambering from the wing of their TBD-1 Devastator into the small, three-man inflatable life raft, James Dalzell, RM/1c, Radioman/gunner on BuNo. 0298 recalled looking up and seeing “…number 6 hit!” The number six Dalzell referred to was BuNo. 1515. Herbert R. 1 approximately 100 yards from his position. It Hein, Jr., as it made an emergency water landing was down to good fortune, skill, and the experience of pilots LT. Harlan T. ("Dub") Johnson aboard torpedo bomber �BuNo. 0298 and ENS. Herbert R. Hein, Jr. in BuNo. 1515 that all six members of the combined aircrews survived their planes’ ditching into the lagoon at Jaluit Atoll on 1 February 1942, and that none suffered serious injury during the event. The floatation bags meant to keep each aircraft afloat deployed as designed, allowing time for the aircrews to inflate the rubber life rafts and escape with whatever survival gear that was immediately available. Once the raft was clear of BuNo. 0298, the crew attempted to puncture the floatation bags with .45 caliber bullets from their service pistols so the plane would not fall into enemy hands. Unfortunately, the small bullet holes failed to deflate the bags sufficiently, and the Bombardier, ACMM Charles E. Fosha had to reenter the bobbing plane to retrieve what he called his “sword,” a long, dagger-shaped blade that he kept with him in the center cockpit in case the floatation bags unintentionally inflated during flight. The dagger worked and BuNo. 0298 slowly disappeared beneath the surface of the lagoon. Over on BuNo. 1515, the crew did not have the same trouble sinking the aircraft, however the radio antenna anchor point inadvertently snagged and punctured the life raft during evacuation and it began to deflate. Suddenly, only one rubber boat remained for six men. Taking turns, half the men stayed in the water while the group slowly steered their raft about a mile and a half to Pinglep Islet on the western perimeter of the lagoon. Once safely ashore, they were given shelter, along with food and water by the resident Marshallese. Several days after the incident, both aircrews were captured by marines of the Imperial Japanese Navy, who had been dispatched from the seaplane base located on the eastern side of the lagoon. Taken as some of the earliest American POWs, the six US Naval airmen were transferred to the Japanese home islands where each survived the duration of the war by working as prisoner laborers. The two TBD-1 Devastators and their aircrews were part of combined airstrikes on the Japanese Mandated Islands of the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, by two United States carrier task groups centered around the USS Enterprise (CV-6) and the USS Yorktown (CV-5). The USS Enterprise was at the center of Task Force 8 under the command of Vice Admiral William “Bull” Halsey Jr., which attacked the northern atolls of Kwajalein, Wotje and Taroa. Task Force 17, under the command of Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher and centered around the USS Yorktown, attacked Jaluit and Mili Atolls in the Marshall Islands, and Makin Island in the Gilbert Island Chain. On the morning of the launch, heavy squalls and lightning were reported in the direction of Jaluit. Since Jaluit was the furthest target from the carrier, 17 Douglas SBD Dauntlesses of Bombing 5, and 11 Douglas TBD-1 Devastators of Torpedo 5 were the first to launch from the ship and all were reported clear of the deck by 0517. With the thick, overcast cloud cover and storms nearby, few of the aircrews were in visual contact with each other during the 140-mile journey to Jaluit Atoll. It was not until they broke through the ceiling at approximately 1,000 feet that they could begin to assess their targets around the islet of Jabor. Each plane dropped their bombloads and many continued to strafe targets on land and in the harbor. Shortly after dropping bombs over the target harbor area at Jabor, Jaluit Atoll, the pilot, Lt. Johnson of BuNo. 0298 determined that his plane would not have enough fuel to make it back to the carrier, and they might not even be able to make “Point Truck”. “Point Truck” was an area south of the atoll that had been designated as the rendezvous location where a destroyer would be stationed to act as a lifeguard and pick up the crew of any downed aircraft in the event they could not get back to the carrier task force. The first offensive action by the United States Navy in the World War II Pacific Theater following the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, the two aircraft’s connection to the raids on the Marshall and Gilbert Islands, alone, would elevate each to the classification of “significant” and qualify them for inclusion on the US Secretary of the Interiors’ list of National Historic Landmarks. The two aircraft, however, could also be considered “significant” for their revolutionary designs. With an overall length of 35ft and a height of 15ft 1in, the Douglas Aircraft Company’s TBD-1 Devastator recorded several firsts for any aircraft built for the US Navy. It featured an all-metal structure of semi-monocoque construction. The single low-mounted wing was 50ft across but was fitted with revolutionary power actuated hydraulic folding mechanisms that would cut the wingspan virtually in half (down to 25ft 8in) to better store more aircraft on the crowded hangar decks of fleet aircraft carriers. It also boasted the debut of independent Bendix® wheel brakes on its main landing gear, and completely enclosed the 2 �crew positions (pilot, bombardier, radio operator/gunner) under a glass canopy. Incorporated within the airframe and skin were still more technological advances including the integration of special alloy metals such as Alclad® aluminum. Of the 129 TBD-1 Devastators built for the United States Navy, none were preserved in any museum or collection and the location of only eleven wrecks is currently known. Seven are at the bottom of the Coral Sea, approximately 500 miles off the eastern coast of Australia. These Devastators are associated with the wreckage of the aircraft carrier USS Lexington (CV-2), which was located and documented by the research vessel R/V Petrel on 4 March 2018, resting at a depth of approximately 9842 feet. Two other examples lost in stateside training accidents have also been found. One is off the coast of Miami, Florida in approximately 500 feet of water, while the other is off the coast of San Diego, California in approximately 800 feet of water. Of all these aircraft, the two in Jaluit Atoll lagoon, by far, combine the highest level of preservation with the greatest accessibility. RESEARCH DESIGN The overlying archaeological research design for this project has sought to study the two planes for both their historical and archaeological value, while monitoring the submerged structures’ physical integrity and level of preservation, to determine the best plan to potentially recover and conserve the most promising example. Data collected during the seven individual site visits has been augmented with archival research, oral history interviews, and lab analysis to develop a more complete narrative of the raid on Jaluit, and detailed data on the Douglas Aircraft Co. TBD-1 Devastator. Access to the site for the first four expeditions was through small regional dive boats that had to make the 100 plus nautical mile trip from Majuro to Jaluit. Later trips were from larger live-aboard dive charter boats moored nearly on top of the site. On each trip however, the dive platform was some form of self-contained breathing apparatus. Most divers reached the two sites by diving on compressed air, and strictly adhering to Navy Dive Tables, which limited an individual’s bottom time to approximately 10 minutes, but greatly increased the safety factor while working in such an isolated area. In 2013, dive team members Brett Seymour and Brian Kirk dove using a mixed-gas fraction of Nitrox, which allowed Brett to stay on site longer than the rest and gain the images required to assemble a photographic mosaic of the deep wreck BuNo. 1515. During the 2018 site visit, Brett Seymour and Evan Kovacs both dove on a closed-circuit rebreather system, which allowed them considerably greater bottom time on the site, less decompression time, and a shorter surface interval. Throughout all expeditions extensive documentation has been conducted on both sites that include still photography and videography, sketches, written descriptions, hand measurement, LiDAR scanning and the use of several analytical instruments. ARCHAEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND SITE FORMATION The two VT-5 Devastators ditched into the lagoon at Jaluit on the same day, under the same conditions, and barely 100 yards apart. Each sank to the bottom within minutes of one another and appear to have received only minimal damage in the process. The only notable difference between the two aircraft is that one slid 50 feet down the west side of a reef face, while the other sank to a depth of 110 ft and landed on a relatively flat section of bottom sediments. In the process, both received nearly the exact same overall structural damage. Archaeologically, the two planes provide an excellent opportunity for comparison between the two series of aircraft. BuNo. 0298, the shallow wreck, represents the first batch of 114 aircraft delivered to the US Navy by the Douglas Aircraft Co. BuNo. 1515 was part of a second order of 15 planes that replaced aircraft that had crashed in operational accidents or were considered beyond repair and stricken from the US Navy inventory. While very similar there were slight nuances between the two separate aircraft orders that can only be confirmed by the side-by-side comparison of the two Jaluit TBDs. A catalog of missing features or damage to the structure of the Jaluit Devastators was made by visual observations during the expedition dives, comparison of the two aircraft, and through review of 3 �historic photographic and written resources. Each can be divided into two categories: accident damage incurred during the initial ditching event and damage due to long-term immersion in saltwater. Damage or missing features attributed to the ditching: 1. The two floatation bag cover plates on each aircraft are not on the site. 2. The tail wheel for each aircraft is missing and not on site. 3. The engine on each aircraft is either disassociated from the structure or the engine bolts originally holding the engine in place have fractured. 4. A small section of the skin on the underside of the fuselage aft of the recess for the torpedo has been ripped and folded back. 5. The outboard end of the port aileron frame (“shallow wreck”) is bent and folded from contact with a coral head after sliding down the reef face. 6. The port bombsight door is open on the “deep wreck.” 7. The port wing of “deep wreck” may be slightly bent aft. 8. The upper skins on the horizontal tail surfaces (most evident on the port side of the “deep wreck”) are deformed inwards, presumably due to water pressure acting on the still air-filled watertight compartments within as the planes sank. 9. Port leading edge landing light on the “shallow plane” is hanging loose. 10. Pilot’s seat in the “deep wreck” is out of alignment (twisted to the left) and possibly broke loose during the ditching. Missing or Damaged Features 1. .30 Caliber M-2 Flexible Mounted Machine Gun from the “shallow wreck” is missing. 2. The Pilot’s map case from the “deep wreck” (the same could not be verified on the “shallow wreck” because of coral intrusion). 3. Norden Bombsights on both wrecks are missing. 4. The fuel tank filler plate on each wing from both planes is missing. 5. The port side of BuNo. 0298’s top canopy has shattered. 6. The starboard horizontal stabilizer on BuNo. 0298 has recently separated from the tail structure and now hangs from its internal control linkages with the outboard edge resting on the seabed. Undisturbed Features 1. Pilot’s cockpit 2. Bombardier’s cockpit 3. Gunner’s cockpit PRESERVATION ASSESSMENT By the time the first group of project researchers dove onto the site in 2004, the two submerged structures had already been subjected to a little over 62 years of immersion in salt water. Corrosion had been, and remained, active in several notable places, but the overall condition of the aircraft was exceptional considering the environment. Engineers that assisted in the project frequently noted how much strength and integrity the structures appeared to hold. Part of the challenge of assessing the level of preservation for any aircraft is the number of different types of metals that were incorporated into the aircraft. For the Aluminum and steel categories, there are approximately twenty to twenty-five additional variations of metal created through alloying or plating. Finishing processes also change the material properties of a metal, which in turn alters its corrosion resistance. The TBD-1 metals were cast and wrought, heat treated and cold worked, annealed, and quenched by different mediums. On site, observers specifically searched for visual evidence of active corrosion of the structural metals. 4 �1. 2. 3. 4. Signs of galvanic action, or dissimilar metal contact. Signs of stress corrosion (especially on extruded pieces). Signs of pitting corrosion or copper deposition. Signs of accelerated corrosion due to differential aeration cells, including crevice corrosion. Visual observations and documentation of metals deterioration has been undertaken on each trip through written descriptions and a photographic record. This has allowed for monitoring and comparison analysis over the duration of the project. In addition, corrosion potentials (Ecorr) have been taken on several trips and one trip employed ultrasound to determine the overall thickness of the aircraft skin. Disarticulated samples from each aircraft were collected during the 2006 site visit and exported under permit to laboratories at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX for metallographic analysis and to determine if microbial influenced corrosion could be playing a role in the deterioration of the metal structure. CONCLUSIONS Both TBD-1 Devastators in Jaluit Lagoon are historic and hold considerable archaeological information. Information that can be found nowhere else, but on these two sites. Galvanic corrosion and differential aeration cells resulting in crevice corrosion, and the growth of soft corals and sponges across the surfaces of the planes, which is presumed to be forming new differential aeration cells, are beginning to accelerate the deterioration rate of both planes. Since it is closer to the surface and affixed to a coral head, BuNo. 0298’s assimilation into the environment is far more extensive and coral growth on top of the plane’s engine and pilot’s cockpit is flourishing. Because removing it from this environment would undoubtedly cause irrevocable harm to the ecosystem, and since BuNo. 1515 offers additional information not available in the original drawings or blueprints of the plane type, the Devastator Project scientific team has moved forward with developing plans to recover the deeper wreck. The engineering team is currently working out some final aspects of the initial lift off the bottom. Considerable logistical planning remains, but when completed the proposal will be submitted to the US Navy History and Heritage Command, Underwater Archaeology Branch for approval and permission to move forward. The Devastator Project team is likewise consulting regularly with the RMI Historic Preservation Office as well as the local and traditional leaders of Jaluit Atoll, working together to determine the best path to protect and preserve these unique cultural heritage resources. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Christiansen, Henrik, The Archaeology of World War II in the Marshall Islands, Five Volumes: Vol I Torwa (80 pages); Vol II: Wojja (65 pages); Vol III: Jalwoj (55 pages); Vol V: Tourism: (33 pages). Historic Preservation Office, Majuro, 1994. Dalzell, James W., RM/c, Radioman/rear gunner TBD-1 BuNo. 0298, Narrator, Ric Gillespie, and Russ Matthews Interviewers, 2004. Douglas Aircraft Company. Handbook of Instructions for the Erection and Maintenance of the Model TBD-1 Airplane for the United States Navy. Santa Monica, CA: Douglas Aircraft Company, 1937. Douglas Aircraft Company. Pilot’s Handbook for the Model TBD-1 Airplane. Santa Monica, CA: Douglas Aircraft Company, 1937. Fix, Peter D. and Russell E. Matthews. Final Report: US Navy History and Heritage Command, Special Use Permit #20181. MS on file. 2021. Gillespie and King, The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery, “Jaluit Submerged Aircraft Survey,” TIGHAR Tracks Vol 20, #3 July 2004. Harris, M., & Martin, L-E, Jaluit “Underwater Survey, Final Report,” Historic Preservation Office, Majuro, 1997. Lundstrom, John B. 1984. The First Team: Pacific Naval Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute. Macleod, Ian. “In-situ Corrosion Studies on Wrecked Aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy in Chuuk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35(1):128 – 136. Plaia, T.W. et al., Investigation of Bacteria Associated with WWII Aircraft Wrecks in Jaluit Lagoon, Marshall Islands: Implications for Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion. Published Report submitted to Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval Historical Trust, Department of Navy, 2006. National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, as amended, 54 U.S.C. 300101 et seq. (2014), and Protection of Historic Properties, 36 CFR part 800. United States Navy; Office of Naval Intelligence. Early Raids in the Pacific Ocean, Combat Narrative, The Raid on the Marshall and Gilbert Islands February 1, 1942, Washington, DC: Publication Section, Combat Intelligence Branch Office of Naval Intelligence, United States Navy, 1943. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site. Description An account of the resource The topic of the paper, entitled “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis, and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site,” best fits within the session, Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges due to its context and subject matter. Before sunrise on 1 February 1942, aircraft from the USS Yorktown (CV-5), sortied as part of Task Force-17’s attack on the Japanese Mandated Islands of Jaluit and Milli, in present day Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Makin, the northernmost island in the Gilbert Islands chain. During the raid, two TBD-1 Devastator torpedo bombers [BuNo. 0298 (5-T-7), and BuNo. 1515 (5-T-6)] were forced to ditch in Jaluit Lagoon as each aircraft was low on fuel. The aircrews of both planes survived the water landing, were captured by Imperial Japanese Naval forces, and survived captivity in POW camps in Japan. Since 2004, a group of scientists, engineers and researchers have undertaken seven expeditions to the resting place of these aircraft in a remote section of the lagoon to document and conduct analysis on aspects of the artifacts’ preservation. As part of the monitoring and assessment, plans have been generated to potentially recover one of the aircraft to archaeological and materials conservation standards. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Peter D. Fix Russell E. Matthews Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Fix, Peter D., Russell E. Matthews. 2023. “The Jaluit Atoll TBD-1 Devastators: Archaeological Analysis and Preservation Assessment of a WWII Site.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1897 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mark P. Parillo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Mark P. Parillo Item Type Book ISBN 1557506779 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Edition First Edition Num Pages 256 Place Maryland Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Title A name given to the resource The Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Jesuits, Japan, and European Expansion in the Sixteenth Century Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Derek Massarella Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deutsche Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Derek Massarella Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Deutsche Gesellschaft für Natur- und Völkerkunde Ostasiens Title A name given to the resource The Jesuits, Japan, and European Expansion in the Sixteenth Century Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Kautilya “Arthasastra,” Part II Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource R.P. Kangle Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Bombay Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Editor R.P. Kangle Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972 Edition 2nd Place Bombay Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Bombay Title A name given to the resource The Kautilya “Arthasastra,” Part II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Kumano-no-morota-bune, Or, the Many-paddled-ship of Kumano Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shinji Nishimura Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Society of Naval Architects Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1920 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Shinji Nishimura Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1920 Extra External Resources: Find this item at Abebooks.com (Bookseller) Find this item at Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America (Bookseller) Find this item at Biblio (Bookseller) Cite This Item Search for versions with same title and author | Advanced options ... Edition: 2nd ed. Language: English Responsibility: by Shinji Nishimura. More Records: Show record information Entry: 19910419 Update: 20060412 Provider: OCLC Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 44 Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Society of Naval Architects Series Nishimura, Shinji, 1879-1943. Study on the ancient ships of Japan ;; pt. 1; Variation: Nishimura, Shinji,; 1879-1943.; Study on the ancient ships of Japan ;; pt. 1. Title A name given to the resource The Kumano-no-morota-bune, Or, the Many-paddled-ship of Kumano Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Lady Washington at Kushimoto, Japan, in 1791 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jim Mockford William S. Dudley Michael J. Crawford Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brassey’s Inc. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Jim Mockford Editor William S. Dudley Michael J. Crawford Item Type Book Section Book Title The Early Republic and the Sea Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Pages 83-100 Place Washington DC Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brassey’s Inc. Title A name given to the resource The Lady Washington at Kushimoto, Japan, in 1791 Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d57ed3d4a256bb16fcf29a276d4c89c9.pdf dd21585de62507eb045b9432dc382821 PDF Text Text The Lashings and Knots of the Chau Tan Shipwreck Ian McCann ABSTRACT The Chau Tan shipwreck is the oldest ocean-going cargo ship yet found in Vietnam dating from around the 8th9th century CE. It provides a unique opportunity to study the construction methods of a lashed- lug ship from that period. Over 40 of the ship’s timbers were retrieved but unfortunately all the lashings connecting the lugs were severed during the salvage and no record was made of the salvage. There was still enough in situ ropes to start to build a small list of the types of simple knots and complicated flat braided lashings that were used in its construction. For this paper ropes were made using simple technology that may have been available at the time the ship was built. The two knots used on the Chau Tan ship are widely used, even today. The braided lashings are a different matter, they do not appear in any maritime archaeology or sailing literature that the author could access. First the author had to work out how the lashing was tied. It was then tested for strength to try and further understand it's utility. The results were surprising and emphasised the value of experimental archaeology. Keywords: Lashed-lug, rope strength, experimental archaeology List of figures Figure 1. Lashings on timber CT-T3 Figure 2. Lashing loops Figure 3. Lashing model of some of the Punjulharo lashings and Chau Tan Figure 4. Lashing after the stringer was removed and after the lashing was removed from the through holes. INTRODUCTION The Chau Tan vessel was carrying a cargo of mainly ceramics from Changsha, Ding and Yue kiln sites in Hunan province, China (Kimura 2015:3; Kimura 2016:51, Giang 2016:74). The shipwreck was discovered close to the village of Binh Chau in the province of Quang Ngai in Central Vietnam in the early 2000’s. Severe weather had stripped metres of sand from the seabed, allowing the salvage of its cargo. Over 40 of the ship’s timbers were also recovered and sold to a local collector, Lam Du Xenh. THE LASHINGS When found, the wreck was in a remarkable state of preservation with nearly all the lashings that held the vessel together intact. Later, the salvors cut the lashings to facilitate the removal of the timbers. The boat’s internal structure, such as the frames, thwarts etc. had been removed during salvage operations and not saved. The few intact lashings were of one type, a woven lashing that may have held longitudinal round battens with a flattened face that may have held some form of caulking in direct contact with and along the join of the hull planks. This lashing has also been found in Thailand on the Bueng Kum shipwreck inspected and recorded in early 2023 by Wongsakorn Rahothan and Naphat Piromrak (2023, 8). These lashings and their position on the timbers can be seen in Figure 1. Most of the lashings are located within 70mm of the corner of each lug. On top of the lashings are overhand knots and a single fisherman’s knot (Figure 1 lower right). These helped determine how the lashings were tied. 1 �Figure 1. Lashings on timber CT-T3 circled in red and two intact lashings. (Photo Kevin Edward and Author). Each of the hull timbers have through holes drilled in the face and the side with matching holes on adjacent timbers. During Vietnam Maritime Archaeology Projects (VMAP) fieldwork in 2017 the author selected 26 through holes where the quantity and diameter of ropes that were threaded through the holes were measured. Each of the matched holes has a rope of two strands threaded through them and this rope appears to be one continuous length that is wrapped around from between 18 to 26 times. The difference in the number of wraps is due to the variation in the thickness of the rope, being from between 3.2 mm to 5.49 mm. This variation may indicate that the strands were crudely made by hand or with simple tools. ROPE HISTORY Rope has been a staple technology for humans for millennia and rope making techniques, through trial and error, have resulted in different cultures constructing rope in similar ways. The longevity of techniques used in rope making is demonstrated by a painting on a wall in the tomb of Nefer at Saqqara, Egypt, circa 2465–2323 BCE. It shows a method of making ropes using a rope spinner to twist the ropes (Wendrich 2008, 1909). A photograph taken in Egypt before 1916 shows the same process (Mackay 1916, 126). In both illustrations the person making the strands is using a rope spinner. This illustrates an unchanged method of rope making spanning over 4000 years. It is likely that this long use of an unknown rope making methodology has been repeated in the Indo Pacific region. This rope spinner method was chosen by the author to make the ropes due to its longevity of use, not that it may have been a method of rope production used in the Indo Pacific region. 2 �Early rope making in Asia is shown in two photographs from the Bristol Historical Photographs of China website, pictures pa01-24 from the W. Palmer Collection and picture ba05-120 from the Bannister Family Collection. These two photographs show rope being woven by hand from a stiff fibre, possibly bamboo. A 1960s photograph of a Vietnamese rope factory in Qui Nhon in the (Dalby and Thede 1962, A11-18) shows two rope makers extending the length of a thick coiled rope, each working from opposite ends. Again, the material used is a stiff fibre and again the twisting is done by hand. What these three photographs demonstrate is that ropes can be made with basic tools and wherever flora with suitable fibres are found. ROPE FIBRES One of the complications of studying flora used to make rope is the lack of a database of identified waterlogged material (Haw 2019, 510). Allied with this is the variety of plant species in each genus. Palm trees are a common source of natural fibre for making ropes but there are between 2400 (Eiserhardt 2011, 1392) to 2600 known species (Baker and Dransfield 2016, 209). Fibres from the palm tree Arenga pinnata have been identified by archaeologists as being used on the construction of Southeast Asian boats, (Lacsina 2016, 9; Mochtar 2018, 15). We need to differentiate between palm species as this may help narrow down the geographic region of where the ropes were made and help to determine where the boats using those ropes may have been constructed or repaired. It must also be a consideration that rope may have been traded. Multiple types of rope fibre have been used, and still used, on boats. Different parts of a palm tree, such as the upper trunk and leaves, will produce a fibre of different colour, the latter being dark and the former being lighter, as well as of different texture and strength. This further complicates species identification. During a visit in 2016 to the island of Taumako in the Duff Island group, the author recorded a recently built Vaka, a large ocean voyaging outrigger canoe. Four different types of rope were used in its construction: two from palm trees, the leaves and upper trunk; one coconut fibre rope and the third, bamboo. After the Vakas first sea trial some palm fibre rope lashings were strengthened using strips of bamboo, indicating that different materials from possibly different locations may be used on any given vessel. MAKING THE ROPE In attempting to make rope the author constructed a rope spinner similar to the example seen on the Egyptian tomb and photograph and a simultaneously rotating three-hook system were the rope making ‘machines’ used. The only fibres that could be sourced were sisal (Agave saliana) and hemp (Cannibis sativa). Both rope makers worked well with around 10 metres of 3.5mm two strand rope being made in 45 minutes and 30 minutes respectively and with a little practice, a uniform rope could be made. Two of the most important things learnt by making rope is that a tightly spun, uniform diameter rope will produce a better-quality lashing, and when tightly spun, a rope will expand in diameter and tangle once the rope is released of any tension. If the tension is maintained on the rope for several hours by stretching it between two fixed points, the rope maintains the same diameter, does not tangle and is a stiffer, denser rope. When discussing the modern rope manufacturing process with Kent Mills from WA Ropes and Hardware, he explained that the diameter of a natural fibre rope will expand after manufacture. A 14 mm diameter hemp rope could measure up to16mm when on a spool, as the diameter of the rope is measured during manufacture when it is still under tension. 3 �LOAD TESTING THE ROPE A device was set up to measure the breaking strain of the rope. A 5,000 lb capacity analogue Dillion dynamometer to measure the load, and a high ratio yachting winch or a 1,500 kg lever block to apply the load, were used. Ten samples from each batch of two strand rope were tested for their breaking strain. Next the ropes’ breaking strain was tested first with an overhand knot and secondly a single fisherman’s knot. The figures were rounded to the nearest kilogram. The average breaking strain for the sisal rope was 24kg and for the manila rope, 29 kg. The overhand knot in both the sisal and manila reduced the strength of the rope by an average of 33 per cent, the single fisherman’s knot by 21 per cent. Commercially produced rope made from sisal, manila, jute, bamboo, nettle, seagrass, raffia, Egyptian flax and an artisanal coir rope from Vietnam were also tested. All these ropes had a similar percentage reduction in breaking strains when knotted. Comparing the breaking strains of different ropes made from different materials is problematic. Fibre strength, length and the aging process are a few of the factors that can affect the results. One of the main factors observed during these tests that impacted the breaking strain of the rope is the manufacturing process. Refined rope with a consistent density and diameter, such as the Egyptian flax, nettle and bamboo broke just outside the knot. The Vietnamese coir, handmade sisal and hemp often broke where there was a visible defect in the rope, such as a point where the diameter of the rope was noticeably thinner or where coarser fibres could be seen. To help set some meaningful benchmark strength for the different fibres, the weight of a given section of rope in relation to its diameter was recorded. A 100 mm length of rope from each test was weighed and this provided a strength, diameter and weight ratio. For example, the two-strand spinner made rope, when held under stress after making, would be between 15-30 per cent thinner than when the same type of rope was immediately released from any tension. With the tension released, the rope would tangle and expand in diameter. REPRODUCING THE LASHING A wooden model was made by reproducing a section of the hull, the model was made using short timbers and were joined by wooden dowls or treenails with through holes for the lashing. The hull planks were made from a hardwood and the stringer from a softwood. The intact lashings on the Chau Tan wreck had an internal diameter of approximately 47 mm which indicates the diameter of the wooden stringer that it held. A piece of wooden pole representing a stringer was carved to this size for the lashing to be woven around (Figure 2). The rope made from sisal and made using the rope spinner was chosen to make the lashing. Two 3800 mm lengths of rope were wound around the stringer and through each of the through holes 24 times, creating a continuous bundle of loops that were secured with an overhand knot, (Figure 2 bottom left). Two wooden wedges were placed between the round wooden stringer and the hull planks creating a gap of approximately 10 mm. This gap was needed to allow the binding rope to be fed around the bundles of loops. As the weaving of the lashing progressed, this gap would be gradually reduced to where the lashing had drawn the stringer tight onto the hull planks. Two 1,200 mm lengths of rope were secured to the top of the looped bundles on top of the stringer (12 o’clock) and secured with an overhand knot (A). These ropes were then woven around the bundles as figure two lower left and right. One of the 120 mm ropes is passed on the inside of the bundles, between the bundles and the stringer (B), over the top of the bundles (C) and fed under itself (D), in effect making an overhand knot (E). The knotted rope is pushed up to the top of bundles (F) then pulled tight. The same process is repeated on the opposite bundle with the same rope. This sequence is repeated until the lashing is formed a quarter of the way around the wooden stringer. Then the second 1200 mm rope is woven from the top down on the opposite side of the stringer until it formed a quarter of the way around the other side of the stringer. Now both 120 mm ropes are at the maximum diameter of the stringer (three and nine o’clock) and the bundles of loops now are vertically above the through holes. The ropes can be threaded through and 4 �pushed up the lashing as there is a growing gap between the round stringer and the vertical ropes of the loops. The remainder of the 1200 mm ropes are used in the same fashion until the stringer is held tight against the hull timbers. Once the lashing was completed, (Figure 2 top right), the stringer was held fast. A total of 10 metres of rope was needed to make the lashing. Figure 2. Above left. the lashing loops set up, right the lashing completed, and lower right and left the sequence used to make the lashing. PURPOSE OF THE LASHING This lashing appears to perform two functions; it pulls the stringer hard against the hull planks and at the same time, pulls the two planks together. This is a unique feature of the Chau Tan vessel; other lash lugged vessels have longitudinal stringers sitting on top of the ribs or frames leaving a gap between the stringer and the hull planks. As an intact internal structure from the Chau Tan shipwreck does not exist it is not known if the timbers were stringers or if they serve different functions. Figure 3 is a photograph of a model with a combination of lashings from the Punjulharo boat (1 and 2) with the large frame sitting across lugs and the stringers on top of one of the large frames (Lacsina 2016, 130; Mochtar 2018, 52). The small lashing (1) is securing a small batten that is at 90 degrees to the joins of the hull planks (Manguin 2019, Figure 7, Mochtar 5 �2018, 58). Three and four show how the Chau Tan stringers might have been placed under the frames, between the lugs and in direct contact with the hull planks seams. Figure 3. Lashing model of some of the Punjulharo lashings (1 and 2) and how the Chau Tan stringer or batten may have been lashed (3 and 4). (Model and photo by the author). The small lashing (Figure 3, 1) has some of the same physical characteristics as the Chau Tan lashing. Two bundles of loops are threaded through opposite holes on opposing planks. These bundles are then bound together with another rope that passes over a small batten with a continuous loop. The batten is sitting across the hull plank seam and its purpose is to provide a physical link between the two hull timbers and hold them tightly together at that point. The Chau Tan lashing and stringers also join the two hull planks tightly together, adding strength to the internal frame from the sizable stringer and helping to distribute loads across the internal structure. They could also be used as another system of caulking if the bottom of the round stringer was flattened. There are examples of battens lashed along the seam lines of a boats hull timbers as part of the caulking system. The bronze age Ferriby boat has a wooden batten or capping lath lashed with yew along the joins of the hull planks, (Wright 2104,16), with caulking moss between the batten and the hull planks. These thin battens would not provide much additional strength to the vessel. LOAD TESTING THE LASHING When weaving the lashing four 2,200 kg sewn slings were placed between the stringer and the hull timbers. Two of the tapes were attached to the 1,500 kg lever block and anchor point, the other two to the dynamometer and a second anchor point. This set up was used for the static load test of the lashing. A load was gradually applied until a measurement of 1,160 kg was reached, there was no movement of the lashing and no gap between the stringer and the hull timbers. The test was stopped at this stage due to the lever block starting to malfunction and concern in case the lashing failed as the author had to be close to the test rig to apply the load. 6 �With the testing model intact and with no visible damage a second load test was set up, this time applying a dynamic load. A peak load of 1,270 kg was reached. The lashing was still intact but both sides of the lashing had stretched; the left by 4mm the right by 18mm. None of the fibres had broken; however, where the strands passed over the edge of the wooden holes, a slight flattening of the fibres could be seen. This is the point where the lashing would most probably fail if the lashing was tested to destruction. The stringer could now be slid out from the lashing, (Figure 4 left) and by cutting two of the bundles of loops the whole knot could be removed from the model (Figure 4 right). This allows the structure of the knot to be clearly seen. Figure 4. Figure 4. Lashing after the stringer was removed and after the lashing was removed from the through holes. CONCLUSION The Chau Tan lashing has been proven to be a very strong lashing and simple to make. The gap between the curve of the stringer and the lashing would allow a rope to be bound around the looped bundles to tighten the lashing if it stretched. If damaged at sea it would be possible to completely replace the lashing whilst underway. Making rope using simple technology is straight forward and surprisingly quick. By following a few basic principles, a uniform rope of good quality can be made. Making rope can be as simple as rolling fibres in the hands to form strands and then twisting those strands to form rope. Alternatively, a simple wooden device, such as a wooden rope spinner, could be used. What this shows is that rope can be made almost anywhere, even on board a sailing vessel, if suitable material is at hand. More research is needed on identifying the species of plant used to make ropes particularly those that have been waterlogged. A comprehensive comparison of the strength of the different lashings systems in relation to the internal structural configurations of strakes, thwarts, stringers, knees and frames that have been used to construct lash lugged vessels is needed. This will give us a better understanding of the strengths, weaknesses, and flexibility of the lash lugged tradition of boat building. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Baker, William J., and John Dransfield. "Beyond Genera Palmarum: progress and prospects in palm systematics." Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 182, no. 2 (2016): 207-233. Conard, Nicholas J., and Maria Malina. "Außergewöhnliche neue Funde aus den aurignacienzeitlichen Schichten vom Hohle Fels bei Schelklingen." Archäologische Ausgrabungen in Baden-Württemberg 2015 (2016): 60-66. Dalby, M., and W. Thede. "The Junk Blue Book." A Handbook of Junks of South Vietnam (1962). Eiserhardt, Wolf L., Jens-Christian Svenning, W. Daniel Kissling, and Henrik Balslev. "Geographical ecology of the palms (Arecaceae): determinants of diversity and distributions across spatial scales." Annals of Botany 108, no. 8 (2011): 1391-1416. Giang, Do Truong. "Diplomacy, trade and networks: Champa in the Asian commercial context (7th-10th Centuries)." Moussons. Recherche en sciences humaines sur l’Asie du Sud-Est 27 (2016): 59-82. Haw, S.G., “The genus Afzelia and the Belitung ship.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 29, no. 3 (2019):505-518. https://hpcbristol.net/ Historic Photographs of China, Bannister Family Collection ba05-120 and W. Palmer Collection pa0124. Last accessed 22/3/23. Kimura, J. Shipwrecked? New developments in Southeast Asian maritime archaeology and the safeguard of shipwrecks in the region. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 44 no. 1(15), pp. 1–4. Kimura, Jun. "Maritime archaeological perspectives on seaborne trade in the South China Sea and East China Sea between the seventh and thirteenth Centuries." Crossroads: Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World 11 (2016): 47-61. Lacsina, Ligaya. "Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques." PhD diss., Flinders University, School of Humanities and Creative Arts., 2016.Mackay, E., 1916. Note on a new tomb (No. 260) at Drah Abu'l Naga, Thebes. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 3(1), pp.125-126. Lacsina, Ligaya. "Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques." PhD diss., Flinders University, School of Humanities and Creative Arts., 2016. Manguin, Pierre Yves. "Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: the stitched-plank and lashed-lug tradition." International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 48 no. 2 (2019): 400-415. Mackay, E., 1916. Note on a new tomb (No. 260) at Drah Abu'l Naga, Thebes. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 3(1), pp.125-126. Mochtar, Agni Sesaria. "The Seventh-Century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashedlug boatbuilding tradition." PhD diss., Flinders University, College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences., 2018. Wendrich, Willemina. "Ancient Egyptian Rope and Knots”. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. pp 1908-1909. 2008. Rahothan, Wongsakorn and Piromrak, Naphat. Bueng Kum Ancient Shipwreck. Unpublished report Division of the Thai Fine Arts Department, 2023. Wright, E.The Ferriby Boats: seacraft of the Bronze Age”. City: Routledge, 2014. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Lashings and Knots of the Chau Tan Shipwreck Description An account of the resource The Chau Tan shipwreck is the oldest ocean-going cargo ship yet found in Vietnam dating from around the 8th9th century CE. It provides a unique opportunity to study the construction methods of a lashed- lug ship from that period. Over 40 of the ship’s timbers were retrieved but unfortunately all the lashings connecting the lugs were severed during the salvage and no record was made of the salvage. There was still enough in situ ropes to start to build a small list of the types of simple knots and complicated flat braided lashings that were used in its construction. For this paper ropes were made using simple technology that may have been available at the time the ship was built. The two knots used on the Chau Tan ship are widely used, even today. The braided lashings are a different matter, they do not appear in any maritime archaeology or sailing literature that the author could access. First the author had to work out how the lashing was tied. It was then tested for strength to try and further understand it's utility. The results were surprising and emphasised the value of experimental archaeology. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ian McCann Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. McCann, Ian. 2023. “The Lashings and Knots of the Chau Tan Shipwrecks.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1941 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4aa437aae0f4b03e1556034917967a78.pdf d81539f5a6662f3363d36e1fd15e2d3a PDF Text Text The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime heritage resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Hans Van Tilburg NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Honolulu, Hawaii 96825, USA Email: hans.vantilburg@noaa.gov Abstract The systematic investigation of underwater cultural heritage in the islands started in 1989 with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program. This slowly grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history. Manned submersibles with the Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab contribute to deep water discoveries and site surveys. Today the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries continues heritage resource site assessments in Hawai`i, in collaboration with partner agencies and programs. The underwater cultural heritage in Hawai`i reflects a multicultural diversity of archaeological and historic properties, such as coastal stone fishponds, submerged heiau, 19th century plantation landings, inter island steamships etc. Major events like World War II left behind numerous naval shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. These are the physical elements of maritime cultural landscapes that describe Hawai`i’s maritime past. Key words: Hawaii, World War II, Culture landscapes, Heritage preservation, Maritime archaeology Introduction Hawai'i’s underwater cultural heritage speaks directly to the ancient past, the multicultural historical period, and the forces of modernization and globalization leading to the modern present. It is a testimony to dynamic change. The resources that reflect this diversity lie beneath the warm blue waters of the North Pacific, generally unknown to the public, on the slopes of the tallest mountain on Earth (including the undersea portion). Discovering these resources opens windows on elements of the Islands’ otherwise unseen history. Awareness of the value of this unseen heritage has been increasing steadily over the past two decades. This paper provides an introductory description of the current state of underwater cultural heritage investigations in the main Hawaiian Islands and some of the chief types of heritage resources found in Hawai'i. (Note: the term “UCH” here includes U.S. national criteria, 50-year limit, etc.) 1 �Current State: Surveys in the Context of Education Academic investigation started in 1989 with an in-water workshop and small symposium hosted by the University of Hawai'i’s Marine Option Program. The Marine Option Program (MOP) provides hands-on marine education experiences for students from any field of study, operating across the ten-campus university system. MOP’s maritime archaeology component was initiated partially in response to the passage of the U.S. Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 (ASA, 1987). Over time the symposium grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history, led by an instructor trained at East Carolina University’s Maritime Studies Program. Between 1996 and 2002 MOP offered annual classroom and field courses in maritime history, anthropology, and a six-week maritime archaeology field class. Numerous students obtained the specialized certificate, and some went on to Masters-level studies at Texas A&M University or East Carolina University (Van Tilburg, 2002). Though the maritime archaeology certificate program no longer exists, a two-week field survey class for university students continues today under a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/University of Hawai'i partnership. The class is known as the Maritime Archaeology Survey Techniques (MAST) course. Taught by NOAA staff, students are introduced to broad aspects of the UCH preservation field in the classroom, prior to beginning the underwater survey. Study sites are selected among the main Hawaiian Islands, and students gain field experience while documenting previously unrecorded heritage resources, thus contributing to the State’s archaeological inventory. Non-diving days are used to explore local heritage among the Hawaiian Islands (e.g. monuments, museums, other archaeological sites) and talk with local divers and Hawaiian cultural practitioners about marine resources and preservation management. NOAA instruction in maritime archaeology also takes the form of public outreach (in addition to formal university education), as Maritime Heritage Program staff have been certified to teach the Nautical Archaeology Society’s (NAS) training curriculum. NAS is a non-profit organization based in the United Kingdom and dedicated to advancing education in nautical archaeology at all levels. To date, NOAA has conducted six NAS Intro and Level One courses in the Pacific (Juneau and Anchorage in Alaska, Seattle in 2 �Washington State, and several courses in the Hawaiian Islands). Maritime archaeology field courses taught at the University of Hawai'i also give the students the opportunity to obtain the NAS training credential. From its early inception until today, the University and now NOAA have also supported the annual Symposium on the Maritime Archaeology and History of Hawai'i and the Pacific. The maritime symposium, now in its 24th year, regularly draws 60-70 professional and avocational participants, as well as local divers and the general public. The three-day event includes presentations, panels, receptions, field trips, and usually an informal back-yard barbeque for the conference “banquet,” local-style grinds. NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program In 2002, NOAA launched its Maritime Heritage Program under its Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. The Maritime Heritage Program is designed to support maritime heritage discovery and resource preservation across the sanctuary system. The sanctuary system serves as the trustee for a national network of 14 marine protected areas encompassing more than 170,000 square miles of marine and Great Lakes federally protected waters (Fig. 1). More than half of these protected areas are in the Pacific: Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (NMS), Cordell Bank NMS, Gulf of the Farallones NMS, Monterey Bay NMS, Channel Islands NMS, National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa, Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale NMS, and the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. With the incorporation of cultural resource management, maritime archaeologists could begin to take existing equipment, capacities advantage of platforms, and diving previously Fig. 1 NOAA map of sanctuary system locations (NOAA ONMS) 3 �dedicated to purely natural resource research missions. More importantly, cultural resources and historic properties within marine protected areas began to gain consideration as unique, significant and worthy of protection. The legal mandate to protect cultural resources was actually already an integral part of the sanctuary systems’ founding legislation, the National Marine Sanctuary Act of 1972, which allowed designation of marine protected areas of special national significance due to their “conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, archaeological, educational, or aesthetic qualities…” (emphasis added…NMSA, 1972). Today the NMSA is one of the most important pieces of federal legislation in the United States for protecting cultural submerged resources in the oceans and Great Lakes. The Maritime Heritage Program is vital, but not large. With five sanctuary sites on the U.S. West Coast, and three in the island Pacific, there are currently only three NOAA archaeologists in the Pacific region. Deep water surveys (beyond typical scuba depths) are often cost-prohibitive. Fortunately Hawai'i benefits from a unique manned submersible program known as the Hawai'i Undersea Research Lab (HURL). HURL was established in 1980 as a joint NOAA/University of Hawai'i center with the primary responsibility of advancing knowledge of the nation’s deep water resources and marine processes. Simply put, operations director Terry Kerby and his HURL team, with the two three-person submersibles Pisces IV and Pisces V, have located more underwater heritage sites than any single other program in the State. These discoveries have been accomplished through surveys conducted during HURL’s pre-season preparatory dives, (testing/training dives for both subs and pilots), cost-efficient opportunities for target site identifications and assessments. Maritime Cultural Landscapes in Hawai`i To date, there has been no single comprehensive assessment of these resources in the waters around the main Hawaiian Islands. Rather, information comes from different sources: the HURL deep water database; the University of Hawai`i’s collection of student site reports; a desk-based assessment of U.S. Navy properties in Hawaiian waters (Van Tilburg, 2003); and local journalists and avocational researchers combing through historic newspapers. Importantly, trust is slowly being built between 4 �management agencies and the general public, and sport divers are beginning to report their own investigations and discoveries. This has led to a partial resource inventory in the main Hawaiian Islands of some 150 underwater ship and aircraft locations, many of them potential heritage properties. It is impossible here to list all the heritage sites discovered and all the maritime archaeology projects conducted in the Islands, but rather than discussing sites individually, contextual understanding of Hawai`i’s UCH can be gained by considering thematically-organized maritime cultural landscapes, for it is the cultural context of human activity that patterns this resource. This approach also better integrates archaeological data with the existing and broader ecosystem-based marine management approaches. Resources associated with three types of maritime cultural landscapes will be introduced here: 1) ancient aquaculture production; 2) the plantation and ranching era; and 3) the military landscape. Ancient Hawaiian Aquaculture Systems Prior to Western contact, the stone seawalls and gates of coastal fishponds, or lokai'a, were prominent features of the Hawaiian landscape. Hundreds of coastal ponds of various sizes produced protein for a large population by taking advantage of nutrientrich runoff from the highlands through the loʻi or taro fields and the brackish coastal setting. Ocean tides through the seaward gates or makaha created flow through the ponds, while the long seawalls protected juvenile fish populations from marine predators. Each island had a handful of notable and productive ponds, while the island of Moloka'i, with is shallow shoals, featured the greatest number of coastal pond locations. The construction and maintenance of these systems represented an impressive commitment of labor and social structure. Most of the traditional ponds are now in ruins, submerged, orcompletely distroyed. Coastal development and sedimentation, as well as the degradation of upstream runoff, have combined to serious effect. Fishpond sites are vulnerable to these larger-scale processes, rather than to the perhaps more familiar individual impacts of divers on historic resource sites. However, an increasing effort exists today to physically restore some of these fishponds to productivity (Handy et al., 1972). 5 �University of Hawai'i students assisted in mapping the shallow submerged remains of stone fish traps and fishpond wall at Kaloko Honokōhau National Park on Hawai'i Island in 1997 with limited success, and have also pursued surveys of other lithic sites including the ruins of an underwater heiau or temple, and the distribution of stone fishing tools (basalt sinkers, anchors, etc) at specific off shore locations (Fig. 2). Statewide archaeological studies assessing the styles and conditions of the many fishpond locations around the main Hawaiian Islands have been completed, but there has been no other underwater archaeological survey conducted on the structural remnants of this type of coastal cultural resource. Existing archaeological reports are exclusively terrestrial, while the ruins of the fishponds are often totally submerged. The question should be posed: would the type of archaeological survey techniques designed for historic UCH properties like shipwrecks be appropriate or even effective for scattered and broken stone walls often buried in coastal sediments? Fig. 2 (left) University of Hawai`i students mapping submerged fish trap structures at Kaloko Honokōhau National Historic Park, 1997. (J. Kuwabara UH MOP) Fig. 3 (right) Near shore survey work on a plantation-period steamship wreck, Shipwreck Beach, Lanai. (J. Kawabata UH MOP) Hawai`i’s Historic Plantation and Ranching Period The early to mid-19th century saw the skills associated with both sugar plantations and with cattle ranching introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, and subsequently plantations and ranches had an enormous impact on the economy and society of historic Hawai'i. Both ranching and plantation economies relied on maritime transportation to the transshipment port of Honolulu, and from there to continental destinations. Yet, with the few exceptions of Honolulu on O'ahu, Hilo on Hawai'i, and Kahului on Maui, the Islands 6 �lacked protected harbors where ships could lie in safety in all weather. Open roadsteads and narrow passages between fringing reefs were the usual setting, and often the skillful use of surf boats or cliff-side moorings and overhead wire systems were the only way to transport both passengers and products. Historic documents record the losses of hundreds of commercial sailing ships and steamers, generally clustered in the vicinity of historic landing locations (Thomas, 1983). Inter island commerce was hazardous business. The shipwrecks identified with Hawai'i’s early plantation history, some submerged in a high-energy warm-water marine environment for over 100 years, have experienced significant biochemical deterioration and mechanical break-up. Whether wood or iron or steel-hulled, Hawai'i’s known steamship wreck sites generally consist of only the heaviest machinery components (boilers, engines, propeller and shaft, anchors etc.) lying on the sea floor adjacent to scattered cargo, small artifacts, and hull debris. These components are often heavily encrusted in corals and coralline algae (Fig. 3). Some of the shipwreck sites were intentionally disposed hulks already stripped of useful equipment. Notably, rough and remote Shipwreck Beach on the north shore of Lāna'i was used by Hawai'i ship owners for many years to dispose of hardworking steam ships which had outlived their useful service. Lāna'i’s north shore was chosen as wind and water there would force the hulks firmly aground on a relatively uninhabited coast. The reefs along the island’s north shore also presented natural hazards to inter island shipping. The resulting cultural landscape at Shipwreck Beach therefore reflects not only Hawaiian settlements and history, but also at least a dozen accidental losses and intentional disposals of 19th and 20th century schooners, barges, and steamships. Several seasons of maritime archaeology fieldwork (1999, 2001, 2009) have been conducted at Shipwreck Beach (The Lāna'i Project, 2009). Nine wreck sites associated with the plantation and ranching era have been assessed to some level, and four of those (SS Maui survey in 2010, SS Kaua`i in 2012, SS Hornet survey in 2009, and an unidentified steamship in 2001) have been the specific subject of NOAA/UH field class surveys, with historical interpretations and site plans. Steamship landings are also considered as potential historic locations, with the potential to shed light on both land and marine human activities. Landing locations typically include pilings, heavy mooring chains and anchors, cargo handling equipment like 7 �winches and derricks, cable, pilings, and assorted artifacts like bottles, fire extinguishers, etc (Fig. 4). Only two of these landing sites have been surveyed in full by maritime archaeologists: Waimanalo plantation landing in 1999 and industrial Mahukona Harbor, former entry-point to the Kingdom of Hawai'i, in both 1994 and 2012. Fig. 4 The industrial archaeology of landing locations: loading derrick at the Waimanal plantation landing site, in-use circa 1880. (T. Casserley NOAA ONMS) Military Vessels U.S. naval activities in Hawai'i have evolved through a number of distinct phases, beginning with early goodwill visits in the 1820’s, and progressing through the commitment to develop a major naval base at Pearl Harbor by 1900, and beyond. The military construction boom and transfer of forces to the islands accelerated in the 1930’s prior to World War II. Hawai'i soon became home to the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and numerous air stations, naval stations and other facilities. Unprecedented naval activity took place among the Hawaiian Islands during the War, in the skies as well as on and under the sea. To understand the military landscape of heritage resources, though, we need to look beyond combat losses. The Hawaiian Islands only came under actual attack a handful of times: the attack on Pearl Harbor and O'ahu military installations on December 7th 1941; the Battle of Midway June 4-7th 1942; Japanese submarine shelling of Kahului, Nāwiliwili, and Hilo harbors on December 30th 1941; and a Japanese seaplane bombing incident on O'ahu March 3rd 8 �1942 known as Operation K. By far, the many known military properties in Hawai'i’s waters today are testimony to the intensive combat training operations (leading to accidental losses) during the war years, rather than direct attack. The known footprint of the military cultural landscape within the main Hawaiian Islands is significant in size and complexity, and may make up the majority of the underwater heritage resource sites. Thousands of naval aircraft and pilots took part in intensive training activities in preparation for combat operations in the Pacific. Records from 1924-1952 indicate over 1,485 naval aircraft sunk in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands during that period. Many of these submerged aircraft crash sites are also war graves. The submerged aviation landscape is not random, but patterned and island-specific. Often, naval aircraft are found in direct relationship to former naval air station runways. Locating and identifying these aircraft has become a popular pursuit for local sport and technical divers, particularly as closed-circuit re-breather (CCR) technology has advanced and become more available to the specialized public. Some submerged aircraft have become regular destinations for Hawai'i’s recreational diving industry. Several formal surveys have focused on documenting naval aircraft (Catalina PBY-5A in Kaneohe study 1994; Corsair F4U-1 survey in Maunalua Bay 2002; Helldiver SB2C-1 and Hellcat F4F in Mā'alaea Harbor 2011…see Rodgers et al., 1998). Additionally, HURL's research submersibles have located and identified dozens of deep water aircraft sites, including several Keystone PH-1 biplanes from the 1930’s, several Dauntless SBD’s, Avenger TBM’s, and Helldiver SB2C’s…and the giant Martin JRM-1 flying boat (Naval, 2004). Of the many aircraft lost in the islands, over 30 have been located and assessed to some extent. The Hawaiian Islands played a major role in the development of naval aviation in the Pacific (Fig. 5). In a fashion similar to the numerous aircraft, the wreck sites of amphibious landing craft (ramped craft delivering troops onto the beach) and amphibious assault vehicles (tracked vehicles transiting the ocean/beach and moving inland) are also ubiquitous in Hawai`i. Several surveys have focused on documenting the remains of these resources (LVT-3 AMTRACK Maui survey 2011; LVT (A)-4 AMTRACKs Maui survey 2013; LSM O'ahu survey planned for 2014). As with the aircraft, the distribution of these amphibious sites is also patterned and specific. Several areas in the main Hawaiian Islands served as amphibious training beaches 9 �prior to major amphibious operations during WWII (invasions of Saipan, Iwo Jima, etc). These include the shores of North Kohala on Hawai`i Island and the southern corridor of Mā'alaea to Mākena on Maui, both within the NOAA sanctuary (Fig. 6). Maui also featured facilities for the Maui Amphibious Training Center and the Combat Demolition Training Center on Mā`alaea Bay, where the first Underwater Demolition Teams (UDT) were trained in surveying and destroying undersea obstructions and in reconnaissance for shore invasions. (Maui’s WWII Legacy, 2011) Hawai'i proved to be the major combined forces Pacific training area for the innovation of amphibious tactics during World War II. Fig. 5 (left) A WWII dive bomber (SB2C-1 Helldiver) ditched 31 August 1944; now a popular recreational dive site. (H. Van Tilburg NOAA ONMS) Fig. 6 (right) MAST students at the site of an amphibious assault vehicle (LVTA-4 AMTRACK), near the former Maui amphibious training beaches, 2013. (H. Van Tilburg NOAA ONMS) There are many other military vessels in Hawaiian waters. The naval inventory lists over 80 US Navy ships and submarines lost in the vicinity (including inshore patrol vessels, fleet oilers, requisitioned fishing sampans, numerous auxiliaries) and many of these have been located and identified. Unlike the early whaling or plantation periods, the peak of military activity in Hawai'i during World War II occurred only a little over 50 years ago. Modern steel construction, pre-fabrication, and sheer industrial productivity account for the fact that there are many more identified WWII and military-related properties in Hawaiian waters than any older sites. Furthermore, several military sites directly associated with the December 7th, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor and O`ahu military installations have an importance far beyond individual archaeological surveys. 10 �The battleship USS Arizona BB-39, launched from the New York Navy Yard in 1915, was sunk in Pearl Harbor during the December 7th attack with the loss of 1,177 casualties. Much has been written about the USS Arizona, the reverence felt for this site, and the place it occupies in the American national narrative. In 1983 the National Park Service Submerged Resources Center initiated the archaeological survey of the site (Lenihan, 1989), and subsequent field projects took place in 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001, partnering at various times with academic, commercial, and military groups. Follow-up studies on bio-fouling and metals corrosion, as well as a site monitoring program, continue today. Multiple lines of inquiry revolve around questions of structural integrity, the specific processes of deterioration, the amount and location of fuel oil remaining in the ship, and the possibilities for long-term site preservation (Russell and Murphy, 2004). In many ways, these studies are defining the nature of submerged World War II resources and their relationship to the ecosystem. In 2002 Terry Kerby and his HURL team discovered a small two-man submarine sitting upright in over 1,200 feet of water off the south shore of the island of Oahu (Japanese Midget Submarine, 2005). This submarine was one of five secret weapons of the Japanese Imperial Navy involved in the attack on Pearl Harbor, which heralded America’s entrance into World War II in the Pacific. The sub sits upright and intact, in relatively good condition, with a slight list to port. Both torpedoes were still in their tubes, and no extensive exterior damage was visible except for a shell hole at the base of the conning tower’s starboard side, corresponding to the shot which sank the sub. Since then, agencies have collaborated on multiple survey and monitoring missions to the site, and a programmatic agreement for preservation management is currently being reviewed between NOAA, National Park Service, State Historic Preservation Division, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (Van Tilburg, 2007). Also since then, HURL has continued its efforts in deep water maritime inventory, and gone on to discover the fifth and last Japanese two-man submarine from the 1941 attack, and several other advanced and aircraft-carrying Japanese submarines scuttled after the war (I-14; I-201; I-401; I-400…see Kerby, 2013). The society in Hawai`i today was largely influenced by the Pacific conflict; the Islands were almost overwhelmed by the number of servicemen and military activity during the war. The heritage resources 11 �beneath the sea stand as the physical reminders of this period. The echoes of this major national and international event still strongly reverberate for island residents and visitors alike. Looking Towards the Future There is great potential for the investigation of Hawai'i’s submerged heritage resources, and the indigenous aquaculture structures, historic properties related to the plantation and ranching periods, and the extensive military resource base, will remain important additions to the story of Hawai'i’s past. Though there is no longer any academic UCH program in the state, the public agency collaboration between NOAA and the University of Hawai'i continues. The necessary prioritization, which is an inherent part of that effort, must carefully consider public opinion, for public agencies which employ maritime archaeology as a tool for public resource management have that responsibility. The field of underwater cultural heritage is relatively new to Hawai'i and not well understood. Effective education and outreach efforts remain, therefore, equal to or greater than efforts to simply conduct more individual site assessments. How the investigation of underwater cultural heritage resources in the islands can continue to be incorporated into marine planning processes, and how heritage sites can ultimately contribute to increasing ocean awareness and ocean resource stewardship, remains to be seen. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Dr. Cindy Hunter and the UH Marine Option Program, Terry Kerby and the UH Hawai'i Undersea Research Program, and the local divers and colleague scientists in Hawai'i who are sharing in the growing awareness and protection of our underwater cultural resources. References ASA Abandoned Shipwreck Act 1987. 43 USC ss2101-2106 http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/43/ch39.html, accessed 11 November 2013. Handy, E. S. C., and E. G., and M. K. Pukui, 1972. Native Planters in Old Hawaii. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 12 �Japanese Midget Submarine 2005 http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/midget_sub.html, Expedition. accessed 10 September, 2013. Kerby, T., 2013. Discovery of Imperial Japanese Navy Submarine August 1st, 2013. Hawaii Undersea Research Lab unpublished report, Honolulu. The Lāna`i Project. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/lanai/welcome.html, accessed 8 December 2013. Maui’s World War II Legacy. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/maui/ accessed 10 October, 2013. Naval Aviation and Deep http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/mars.html Water Discoveries. accessed 12 December 2013. NMSA National Marine Sanctuaries Act 1972.16 USC s1431 et seq. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/about/legislation/ accessed 10 November 2013. Rodgers, B. A., Coble, W. M., and Van Tilburg, H., 1998. The Lost Flying Boat of Kaneohe Bay: Archaeology of the First U.S. Casualties of Pearl Harbor. Journal of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Vol. 32 (4): 8-19. Russell, M., and Murphy, L., 2004. USS Arizona Preservation Project Research Rationale October 2004. National Park Service Submerged Resources Center, Santa Fe. Thomas, M., 1983. Schooner from Windward: Two Centuries of Hawaiian Inter Island Shipping. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Van Tilburg, H., 2002. Underwater Archaeology Hawaiian Style. In C. V. Ruppe, and J. F. Barstad (Eds.), International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York: 247-266. Van Tilburg, H., 2003. U.S. Navy Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: An Inventory of Submerged Naval Properties. Naval Historical Center report, Washington Navy Yard. Van Tilburg, H., 2007. The Japanese Midget Sub at Pearl Harbor. In J. H. Jameson and D. A. Scott-Ireton (Eds.), Out of the Blue: Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Resources, Springer Press, New York: 182-195. 13 �Biography Hans Van Tilburg holds a BA in geography from University of California Berkeley, an MA in maritime archaeology/history from East Carolina University, and a PhD in history from the University of Hawai`i, where he ran the graduate program in maritime archaeology and history. Hans has taught courses in world maritime history and published over 30 articles and book reviews, as well as several books. He has served as a consultant for UNESCO’s cultural heritage program and instructor for UNESCO’s UCH Foundation courses. He is currently the maritime heritage coordinator and unit diving supervisor for NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries in the Pacific. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime heritage resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Description An account of the resource The systematic investigation of underwater cultural heritage in the islands started in 1989 with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program. This slowly grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history. Manned submersibles with the Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab contribute to deep water discoveries and site surveys. Today the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries continues heritage resource site assessments in Hawai`i, in collaboration with partner agencies and programs. The underwater cultural heritage in Hawai`i reflects a multicultural diversity of archaeological and historic properties, such as coastal stone fishponds, submerged heiau, 19th century plantation landings, inter island steamships etc. Major events like World War II left behind numerous naval shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. These are the physical elements of maritime cultural landscapes that describe Hawai`i’s maritime past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014