57 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Diary of Richard Cocks: Cape-merchant in the English Factory in Japan, 1615-1622, with Correspondence. Thompson, Edward Maunde,; Sir,; 1840-1929, ; Ed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard Cocks Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available New York, B. Franklin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964, 1883 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Richard Cocks Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1964, 1883 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available New York, B. Franklin Series Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, 1st ser., no. 66-67; Variation: Works issued by the Hakluyt Society ;; 1st ser., no. 66-67. Short Title Diary of Richard Cocks Title A name given to the resource Diary of Richard Cocks: Cape-merchant in the English Factory in Japan, 1615-1622, with Correspondence. Thompson, Edward Maunde,; Sir,; 1840-1929, ; Ed. Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ports of the Red Sea and the Arabia-India Trade Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Steven E. Sidebotham Vimala Begley Richard Daniel De Puma Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Wisconsin Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1991 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Steven E. Sidebotham Editor Vimala Begley Richard Daniel De Puma Item Type Book Section Book Title Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1991 Pages 12-38 Place Madison Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Wisconsin Press Title A name given to the resource Ports of the Red Sea and the Arabia-India Trade India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. 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Proceedings of a Symposium, Kingdom of the Coral Seas, November 17, 2007 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard Pearson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available British Archaeological Reports Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-12-31 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Richard Pearson Item Type Book ISBN 1407303805 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-12-31 Library Catalog Amazon.com Place Oxford, England Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available British Archaeological Reports Short Title Okinawa; the Rise of an Island Kingdom Title A name given to the resource Okinawa; the Rise of an Island Kingdom: Archaeological and Cultural Perspectives. 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Title A name given to the resource On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard Salomon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Richard Salomon Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Issue 2 Pages 271-79 Publication Title Journal of the American Oriental Society Title A name given to the resource On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article Volume 115 India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f4e3f25c3756016979b4a999d699662c.pdf c047547b745b81fb9c7241aad748b69c PDF Text Text The Archaeology of Manila Galleons Roberto Junco Abstract Manila Galleons are the stuff of legend. Active for 250 years they were the vehicle for people, products and ideas between Asia and the Spanish World. Among the biggest ships of their time, they were built to endure one of the most difficult navigations, the crossing of the Pacific Ocean which sometimes lasted half a year on the way to New Spain. As a topic of archaeological research, little has been done regarding these important ships. This paper deals with the known Manila Galleons found to date. Unfortunately treasure hunters have salvaged most of them and little information if any is accessible to researchers. However, archaeological projects are currently active on sites regarding such ships. The Archaeology of Manila Galleons has the potential to understand diverse aspects of the exchange and interaction that took place between Asia and the Spanish Empire, as well as to shed light on the ships themselves, which were built in the Philippines to Spanish shipwright traditions and remain a mystery in many ways. Introduction This paper presents a brief recount of the Manila Galleon sites investigated to date. It also proposes, some ideas of what the archaeology of Manila Galleons could consider in its research objectives. The Manila Galleons, loaded with their rich cargos of oriental goods are still a great mystery to researchers, especially those belonging to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Furthermore, studies of Asian ceramics and other products of exchange in New Spain and beyond are scarce. While the work of historians and art historians has contributed significantly to the topic, archaeological studies are rare given the few sites located. In this paper, I shall mention the Manila Galleon sites that have come to my attention, and then present some ideas that I deem relevant in the pursuit of what can be termed the archaeology of Manila Galleons. The San Agustín (1595) By the end of the sixteenth century, the route between New Spain and the Philippines had been firmly established. The piratical endeavours of Drake in 1579 and Cavendish in 1587 alerted the Spanish authorities of the need to explore the northern Pacific coast (Gerhard 2003). Thus, Viceroy Luis de Velasco commissioned the skilful Portuguese sailor Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño to explore those latitudes on his return voyage from the Philippines (Bancroft 1886:96). Cermeño´s San Agustín, was a 200 ton ship carrying considerable volumes of porcelain and other goods. It left Manila in July 1595 and on early November, reached California (Junco and Fournier 2008:70). The shipwreck occurred during a storm in what is today known as Drakes Bay (Bancroft 1886:88). The surviving crew built a craft that made the trip south in an almost fictional account (Wagner 1924): the crew starving to death ate the accompanying dog and even the rotting corpse of a beached whale. None the less, they survived the ordeal and finally arrived at the port of La Navidad. Years later, in 1603 Sebastian Vizcaino's expedition entered the Bay with some of these sailors, and found no trace of the ship. It was not until 1940, when archaeologist Robert Heizer (1941) excavated a dozen Indian sites in the vicinity �and found traces of iron and Chinese porcelain. In 1982 the Submerged Cultural Resource Unit (SCRU) of the National Park Service (NPS) carried out a survey with a magnetometer in the bay, possibly identifying the wreck site (Delgado 1998:357). A few years later, Robert Marx got a license to exploit commercially the wreck, but the strong position of NPS officials stopped the treasure hunter who planed to sell some of the artefacts found (Ibid.). Some of the porcelain picked up by beachcombers has been studied and compared to other collections such as the Drake cargo, helping to establish a chronology (Shangraw and Von der Porten 1981; Shangraw and Von der Porten 1997; Von der Porten 1972). Nuestra Señora de la Concepción (1638) In 1990, the popular magazine National Geographic published an article about the salvage operation of the Manila Galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, which sank on route to Acapulco in 1638 (Mathers 1990). Pacific Sea Resources undertook the salvage operation between 1988 and 1999 with the intention to sell the entire collection to a Japanese hotel chain with plans to create a touristic project on the island of Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands (Delgado 1998:277). The wreck site was known since 1674, when a Spanish recovery expedition secured most of the 36 cannons on board (Mathers 1993:33). This type of salvage operation was very common throughout the Spanish empire and not just by the Crown, but also by commercial contracts (Serrano 1991). Thus, thanks to the historic document and the Chinese porcelain washed out in the beach, treasure hunters located the archaeological site (Galvan 1998:88). The ship sank while the crew brewed a mutiny in the midst of a great storm that destroyed the masts, and left the ship at the mercy of wind and currents (Mathers 1993:29). On September 1638, the Concepción broke up on a southern reef of the island of Saipan (Mathers 1990:45). The Chamorro Indians (given this name by Magallanes) attacked the castaways and only 28 survived of which only six finally arrived to the Philippines starved and thirsty to tell the story (Schurtz 1992:236). Several years later, priests visiting the islands found gold chains hanging from the trees and iron tools being used by the natives (Fish 2011:14). Among the many objects recovered by the operation, is a collection of gold objects such as rings, chains, and other objects, some Chinese coins of the Wan Li period (1573-1620), and a sixteenth-century Spanish silver coin. Among the highlights of the collection are the 156 glazed Southeast Asian ceramic containers used to transport supplies, with interesting markings in Spanish, Tagalog and Chinese, as well as fragments of porcelain and glass, and a number of objects related to the construction and operation of the ship (Mathers, et al. 1990). Santa Margarita (1601) In 1995, the Seattle based company IOTA Partners got a permit to salvage the Santa Margarita wrecked off the island of Rota in the Northern Mariana Islands. It is not entirely clear what their work has been - although there is a report that I have not been able to consult (IOTA Partners 1996). What can be said is that they have had legal problems, because of violations of contract with the local �government involving the destruction of part of the reef where the galleon is located (Deposa 2006). Several pieces of ivory, porcelain and gemstones have been recovered (Shen 2007). An anchor from the ship has been located and rests in the ocean (Galvan 1998:93). The ship sank in 1601 with a crew of over 300, however only a few survived the incident (Driver 1983:200). The following year, a galleon that carried the missionary Fray Juan Pobre de Zamora, came into contact with a survivor of the Santa Margarita, that shared information with him about the Chamorro Indians (Ibid.). Nuestra Señora del Pilar (1690) The Manila Galleon, Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zaragoza, sank off the island of Guam in 1690 on route to the Philippines. It has a history that resembles the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción in that it was also salvaged at the time and has been pursued by several treasure hunters such as the Australian company Maritime Archaeological Investments, Pilar Proyect Ltd. (related to the former) (Surry 2001). In 1989, they located in the Archivo General de Indias in Seville the record of 5000 silver coins recuperated from the wreck. According to this document (Cruzat 1700), the three hundred ton galleon lost the majority of the crew in the event. Supposedly, Tresure hunters have only found 36 silver coins minted in Mexico City, Lima and Potosi, several sheets of lead belonging to the hull, timber, iron nails, cannon balls and musket shot, and five tons of stone ballast (Surry 2001). Further more, iron fasteners, hundreds of fragments of olive jars and three claws from Mexican black bears have been recovered in continuos operations (Showronek 2009:497). According to The New York Times (Richardson 2001), in 2001 they went on the hunt for investors in Australia to raise half a million dollars to finance their operations The San Diego (1600) The San Diego, built on the island of Cebu, sank in battle against the Dutch near Manila in 1600 and is often cited as a Manila Galleon (Brown 2009:178). The wreck was located by Franck Goddio of the Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology in partnership with archaeologists of the National Museum of the Philippines (1994; see Orillaneda and Ronquillo this volume), who recovered more than a thousand pieces of blue and white Wan Li porcelain, Japanese sword guards, 570 storage jars (the largest collection found to date), a gold and ivory crucifix, a brass astrolabe (only six known prior to 1600), a glass and bronze compass (one of the few in those days), gold rings, cannons, anchors and other artefacts (Harper 2010). It is true that the San Diego shares common features with the ships that are the subject of this work, however it should not be considered as such, because the ship was on a combat mission and in that sense, at the time of sinking it was not fulfilling the functions of a Manila Galleon if ever it was intended to. The Manila Galleon in Oregon Archaeological evidence of a Manila Galleon has been located on the west coast of the United States in Nehalem, Oregon. Preliminary investigations point to a �ship of the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century, and two candidates are already proposed, the Santo Cristo de Burgos (lost in 1693), or the San Francisco Xavier (lost in 1705), whose contemporary testimony is as follows, Nothing has been heard from it, nor a plank, or object of any kind, big or small, has served as clue to speculation that it crashed into an unknown rock or that it was swallowed up by the waves with all that was on board [….] The Ocean kept the secret of this horrific tragedy (Fernandez 1898). The on going project, called "Beeswax Wreck" is currently headed by Scott Williams, a specialist in the area of Cultural Resources at the Service of Natural Resources in Washington State, and has the support of volunteers and researchers who have analyzed the archaeological material collected to date (Williams 2006). Since the nineteenth century, wax blocks have been documented in the area, some with interesting markings engraved on them. The marks have been compared with those recorded in ceramics from the shipwrecks of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción and the San Diego already mentioned, finding some similarities (Rogers 2008). In addition, work has been done on the porcelain recovered from the site, concluding that it dates to the early Kangshi period (1662-1722) (Lally 2009). Also, studies have been done on wooden nautical items recovered in the coastal dunes confirming an oriental origin, teak (Williams 2009). Interestingly, oral histories have been recorded that testimony Indians in the area who claim to be descendants of shipwrecked sailors, some with European features (Williams 2010). The Manila Galleon in Baja California For 12 years now, there have been several field seasons by American researchers and the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Histoira (INAH) in the Pacific coast of Baja California, where thousands of pieces of Chinese porcelain dating to the sixteenth century, as well as coins, blocks of wax, and other objects, whose origin no doubt, is a Manila Galleon shipwreck have been documented (INAH 2005; INAH 2007; INAH 2009; INAH 2010). The porcelain collection is one of the most important in Mexico and opens a window into the early trade of the New Spain and Asia. In July 1751, the tireless Jesuit missionary Father Consag, in his explorations of Baja California records the site: By mid morning those who went to survey the spit of sand brought a bowl, a cup, a big cup, a plate of Chinaware and a good portion of white wax paste. They informed that the area is full of vases, large plates and the like, nails and pieces of iron that disintegrate into powder with contact, even the nails that are still tucked into the broken timbers; lead pieces can be found, several medium and small pieces of bronze, but what is more abundant and easily found is the wax. For lack of water they cannot stop for much time, because the nearest is very salty, and if it does not give thirst, it does not quench it. All these things, clearly indicate that in this sandy beach or contours, a vessel sank, which can even happen without a big storm, or because the coast is unknown (Ortega 1887:524). �Although there are historical records of the site, as the one above, it was ultimately the archaeological material found by beachcombers that led to the investigations by Maritime Historian Edward Von der Porter -who had analyzed the porcelain of the San Agustín- and organized the first site visit with Jack Hunter in the year 1999. So far, it has been concluded that the porcelain collection of 1500 sherds corresponds to a period between 1574 and 1576, placing it in the early part of the route (Von der Porten 2008). This led to the possibility that it could be one of the galleons lost in that period: Espiritu Santo, San Juanillo, San Felipe or San Antonio, making it very likely that it is the San Felipe of 1576 (Von der Porten 2010). Beside the rich porcelain and stoneware collection, other materials such as sheets of lead used to cover the hull have been documented - some with the remains of iron nails that testify to the spanish construction of galleons of the period (Von der Porten 2008:4). Also, wax blocks of up to nine kilograms, some analyzed in the laboratory to confirm that it is beeswax. These blocks contain important information in the form of three centimeter diameter holes made by worms. They give a clue as to the formation of the archaeological context as they would have needed to be submerged in the sea at least a year for the worms to eat the wax (Von der Porten 2010). Thus, the galleon in Baja with all the crew dead ran aground and remained stranded at least one year in the water until it broke and dispersed the materials on the beach (Von der Porten 2010). Furthermore, other interesting objects have been collected such as a plate of Chinese cloisonné, a compass gimbal, a sounding lead and a bronze figure of a Fu dog. Some thoughts to go forward The future study of Manila Galleons is promising in several aspects. First, the plausible chance of locating the physical remains of a galleon would open an interesting line of research in the investigation of shipbuilding of these famous ships, especially those of the sixteenth or seventeenth century of which there are few references. Let us remember, that these ships were built mostly in the Philippines, and although their design adhered to the canon of Iberian naval architecture, their large size and local solutions may show substantial differences with Atlantic ships of the time. Secondly, although there are currently two projects investigating Manila Galleon sites today – Baja California and Oregon, other sites might be discovered in the future, especially in the Philippines, giving more information to compare between sites. As new technology to explore deep waters becomes widely available and surveys carried out, sites will be located. All Manila Galleons found to date are by the coast. An important research objective should deal with the impact that these shipwrecks might have had on the indigenous populations (see Nayati this volume). Already the historical references provide clues, such as the gold chains hung in trees by the Chamorro Indians already mentioned, but archaeological materials, like reused porcelains to make arrowheads for example, at the San Agustín and Baja California wreck sites, will shed more light on this topic. Furthermore, the possibility that some of the wreck survivors might have mixed with the local population makes an �interesting case for the archaeology of contact, as these shipwrecks happened in many cases before the “official” contact period (Mathes 2010:63). Interesting questions could center upon aspects of life on board - given that most of the studies center on the cargo; what was it like to spend up to six months on board a galleon amidst the uncertainty of arriving to safe port in between the storms of the north Pacific? Historical references can help in this matter, but often leave out the mundane daily activities, material culture might be in a position to shed light on this topic, as well as to the ethnic nature of the crew. Furthermore, what navigational equipment did these ships carry? And did it change at the same pace as it did in Atlantic navigation? Although ceramic studies might have been more abundant than those of other materials – such as typology and interpretation of motifs, what other ways can be devised to study the materials (see Craig this volume)? As is the case of other products; what was the perception of these objects for the people that produce them in China, the people that exchange them in the Philippines, and the people that consumed them in New Spain and beyond? This kind of studies could unveil a richer understanding of the societies involved. Furthermore, what changes in the choice of transported products can we infer in our research (Showronek 2009:498)? Silk and porcelain were always transported in galleons but do percentages shift through time? How were products transported? The questions are endless, but they should be posed before going out to the field. Another line of enquiry, resides in those archaeological sites and materials that are related to the trade and route of the galleon and which serve as comparative evidence to the materials found in shipwrecks. For example, a recorded site in the coast - north of Acapulco, where Chinese porcelain of the sixteenth century suggests a smuggling point on the trade of the Manila Galleon (Junco 2006). Likewise, documentation of Chinese porcelain within the territory of New Spain has yielded significant insight into the distribution of oriental products that arrived in the galleon (Junco and Fournier 2008) which can be used for comparative purposes as well as to show, for example, the impact of oriental products on local ceramic traditions (Kuwayama 1997). To conclude, there are few archaeological studies of Manila Galleon to date, as can be seen from those presented in this paper, in which I have also stated some of the research questions that can help us move forward in the study of Manila Galleons. Bibliography Bancroft, H. H., 1886 The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft. Volume XVIII. History of California, Vol. I. 1542-1800, The History Company, San Francisco. The Ming Gap and Shipwreck Ceramics in South East Asia, Brown, R. M., 2009 The Siam Society, Bangkok. Cruzat, F., “Carta de Fausto Cruzat sobre excesos en Filipinas”, Archivo General de Indias (AGI), Filipinas, 123, N.2. 1700 Delgado, J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, 1998 Yale University Press, New Haven. “Shipwreck salvage company destroys coral reef off Rota”. Deposa, M., �2006 Driver, M. C., 1983 Fernández Duro, C., 1898 Fish, S., 2011 Fournier, P., 1990 Galvan, J., 1998 Gerhard P., 2003 Goddio, F., 1994 Harper, B., 2010 Heizer, R. F., 1941 INHA 2005 INAH 2007 INAH 2009 INAH 2010 IOTA partners 1996 Junco, R., 2006 Junco, R. and P. Fournier, 2008 http://www.cdnn.info/news/eco/e061111.html (Sep. 2010) “Fray Juan Pobre de Zamora and his account of the Mariana Islands”, The Journal of Pacific History, 18:3, pp. 198-216. Armada Española T. VI, Sucesores de Ribadeneira, Madrid. The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure ships of the Pacific, Author House, UK. Evidencias arqeuológicas de la importación de ceramica en Mexico, con base en los materiales del ex-convento de San Jerónimo, INAH, México. Islas del Pacífico: El legado Español, Ministerio de Educación Cultura y Deporte, Madrid. Pirates of New Spain 1575-1742, Dover Publications, New York. Le Mystére du San Diego, Éditions Robert Laffon, Paris. “The romance of the galleons”, Gaceta de Intramuros, Rivera C. (Ed.) Vol.2, Num. 4, Manila. “Archaeological Evidence of Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño’s California Visit in 1595”, California Historical Society Quarterly, Vol 20, No. 4, pp. 315-328. Informe del Proyecto Galeón de Manila México Reconocimiento Fase III, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. Informe del Proyecto Galeón de Manila México Reconocimiento Fase IV, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. Informe del Proyecto Galeón de Manila México Reconocimiento Fase V, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. Informe del Proyecto Galeón de Manila México Reconocimiento Fase VI, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. 1996 Annual report regarding the recovery of the Manila Galleon Santa Magarita, Bellevue, Washington & Rota, CNMI. Periplo de la Porcelana China en Nueva España. Arqueometría y Arqueología Histórica en la Costa Grande de Guerrero, MA thesis, Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. “Del celeste imperio a la Nueva España. Importación, distribución y consumo de la loza de la china en el period Ming tardío en el México virreinal”, La Nueva Nao: De Formosa a América Latina, Chen et al. (Ed.) Kaun Tang Int. �Kuwayama, G., 1997 Lally, J., 2009 Mathers, W., 1990 Mathers, W., H. Parker and K. Copus (Eds.) 1990 Mathers, W. and N. Shaw, 1993 Ortega, J. de, 1887 Phillips, C. R., 2006 Richardson, M., 2001 Serrano Mangas, F., 1991 Shangraw, C. and E. Von der Porten, 1981 Shangraw, C. and E. Von der Porten 1997 Shen, M., 2007 Surry, M., 2001 Showronek R.K., 2009 Schurtz, W. L., 1992 Von der Porten, E., Publication, Taipei. Chinese Ceramics in Colonial Mexico, University of Hawaii Press, Los Angeles. Analysis of Chinese Porcelain associated with the Beeswax Wreck, Nahalem, Oregon, Naga Research Group, Honolulu. “Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion”, National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 178. No. 3. “Archaeological Report: The recovery of the Manila Galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion” For the Government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Pacific Sea Resources. Treasure of the Concepcion. The archaeological recovery of a Spanish Galleon, Apa Publications, Hong Kong. Historia del Nayarit, Sonora, Sinaloa y ambas Californias, Tipografía de E. Abadiano, México. “Spain and the Pacific. Voyaging into Vastness”, Spain’s Legacy in the Pacific, Mains’l Haul, Vol. 41:4 & 42:1. “Can the Pilar be found?”, The New York Times, June 14th. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/14/style/14ihtspang_ed3_.html?pagewanted=all (Sep. 2010) Naufragios y Rescates en el tráfico indiano durante el siglo XVII, Siruela, Madrid. The Drake and Cermeño Expeditions’ Chinese Porcelains at Drakes Bay, California, 1579 and 1595, Santa Rosa Junior College and Drake Navigators Guild, Santa Rosa and Palo Alto, California. Kraak Plate Design Sequence, 1550-1665, Drake Navigators Guild, San Francisco. “It’s hard for me to believe”, In Katu News, Oct 18th 2007. http://www.katu.com/news/local/10577646.html (Aug. 2011) “Titanic fortune remains shipwrecked”, In Cargonewsasia, Feb 1st 2001. http://www.cargonewsasia.com/timesnet/data/ab/docs/ab27 35.html “On the fringes of New Spain: The Borderlands and the Pacific”, International Handbook of Historical Archaeology, Majewski and Gaimster (Eds.), Springer, New York, pp. 471-505. El galeón de Manila, Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica, Madrid. “Drake and Cermeno in California: Sixteenth century Chinese Ceramics”, Historical archaeology, Vol. 6, pp.1-22. �1972 Von der Porten, E., 2008 Von der Porten, E., 2010 Wagner, H. R., 1924 Williams, S., 2006 Williams, S., 2009 Williams, S., 2010 Identifying the Sixteenth-Century Ship on a Beach in Baja California, Manuscript. “Treasures from the lost galleon San Felipe, 1573-1576”, Mains’ L Haul, Vol. 46: 1 & 2, Maritime Museum of San Diego, San Diego. “The Voyage to California of Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño in 1595”, California Historical Society Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 1. A Research Design to Conduct Archaeological Investigations at the site of the “Bees Wax Wreck” of Nehalem Bay, Tillamook County, Oregon. http://www.nagagroup.org/BeesWax/proposal/proposal.htm (Sep.2010) Team Beeswax News Letter 2009. http://www.nagagroup.org/BeesWax/about/about.htm (Sep.2010) History of the Beeswax Wreck site. http://www.nagagroup.org/BeesWax/about/about.htm (Sep.2010) � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeology of Manila Galleons Subject The topic of the resource Session 9 Spain and the Asia-Pacific region Description An account of the resource Manila Galleons are the stuff of legend. Active for 250 years they were the vehicle for people, products and ideas between Asia and the Spanish World. Among the biggest ships of their time, they were built to endure one of the most difficult navigations, the crossing of the Pacific Ocean -which sometimes lasted half a year on the way to New Spain. As a topic of archaeological research, little has been done regarding these important ships. This paper deals with the known Manila Galleons found to date. Unfortunately treasure hunters have salvaged most of them and little information if any is accessible to researchers. However, archaeological projects are currently active on sites regarding such ships. The Archaeology of Manila Galleons has the potential to understand diverse aspects of the exchange and interaction that took place between Asia and the Spanish Empire, as well as to shed light on the ships themselves, which were built in the Philippines to Spanish shipwright traditions and remain a mystery in many ways. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roberto Junco Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 9 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4cf2b58603bf86f427b21b59e20ba4eb.JPG 7ac83af9f210b21a7f4f6e634adc365c Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 3072 Height 2170 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeology of Manila Galleons - Poster Description An account of the resource This poster deals with the known Manila Galleons found to date. Unfortunately treasure hunters have salvaged most of them and little information if any is accessible to researchers. However, archaeological projects are currently active on sites regarding such ships. The Archaeology of Manila Galleons has the potential to understand diverse aspects of the exchange and interaction that took place between Asia and the Spanish Empire, as well as to shed light on the ships themselves, which were built in the Philippines to Spanish shipwright traditions and remain a mystery in many ways. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roberto Junco Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Poster https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/914cc6338642585d5b75ca6155cbc631.pdf c48a9ee57bfdd64486addea0890318d9 PDF Text Text All our vessels are rowed from within, these are paddled from without, Spanish and European Colonial Reception of Philippine Indigenous Craft Roderick Stead Centre for Maritime Archaeology Southampton University Southampton SO17 1BJ UK Email: mrs1e08@soton.ac.uk Abstract When the European visitors arrived in the Philippines from the Sixteenth century, they encountered a range of indigenous craft ranging from logboats to plank-built vessels. These boats, especially the plank-built vessels, were built in a very different style to their own. They were particularly interested in the single and double outriggers employed on these craft. The plank-built craft used hand carved strakes rather than sawn timber and were held together by dowels and treenails. The hull strakes were fastened together by the lashed-lug technique or sewn. No metal fastenings were used in the construction. Similar techniques were used throughout Island Southeast Asia. They recognised the maritime skills of the Filipinos and soon used them as crew on their own vessels and as craftsmen to build European-style vessels using local materials. The Spanish noted the suitability of the local vessels in the Philippine environment, due to their speed and ability to cross shallow coral reefs, even though they were largely ineffective in fighting against European vessels. They continued to employ boats built in the local tradition for communications and to suppress maritime raiders from the areas not under colonial control. These vessels continued in this role until replaced by steam vessels in the nineteenth century. This paper will explore the European views on these traditional craft and the way they were utilised and adapted by the Spanish and other Europeans powers. Keywords: Plank-built vessels, Colonialism, Sail, Paddle, Philippines Introduction The first recorded European visit to the Philippines was by Magellan in 1521, whilst in the service of the Spanish crown. This visit was well documented by his chronicler, Pigafetta (1874) (translated by Stanley, 2010). He was immediately impressed with the local plank-built boats he saw, the balangay, which he transcribed as ballanghai. Pigafetta records “we came upon two long boats, which 1 �they called ballanghai, full of men. In the largest of them was the king sitting under an awning of mats” (Stanley, 2010: 76). He also records a conference near Samar “the king… led us under a place covered with canes, where there was a ballanghai, that is to say, a boat, eighty feet long or thereabouts, resembling a fusta. We sat with the king upon its poop” (Stanley, 2010: 78). The fusta was a kind of light galley from this period, used mainly in the Mediterranean, with a single mast, a lateen sail and usually up to 18 oars. The picture below (Fig. 1) is of a Portuguese fusta, with 22 oars, from a book by Jan Huygen van Linschoten, a Dutch traveller. Despite this comparison, most commentators of this period were struck differences Philippine by the between the indigenous craft and the European tradition. They were Fig. 1 Portugese fusta from Jan Huygen van Linschoten, particularly 1595 interested in the shallow draft, which was necessary to sail over the numerous coral reefs and the use of the double outrigger in order to give lateral stability. The practice of sitting o n the outriggers in order to paddle was remarkable and was feasible only in the warm tropical waters of the islands. The Asian lug sail was also a novel approach compared to the square sails or lateen sails to which they were accustomed. The Philippine vessels were part of a larger tradition that was found through much of Indonesia. Therefore many of the comments referred to vessels in the Moluccas or Sulawesi as much as in the Philippines. 2 �The European Colonial Settlement in the Philippines The main Spanish interest was initially in the Moluccas and in the trade with China and so the colonial regime developed slowly in the Philippines. After a number of exploratory voyages, Miguel López de Legaspi founded the initial settlement at Cebu, which was an established emporium for Chinese and Southeast Asian traders. Fort San Pedro was built there in 1565. A further settlement was built on the island of Panay. In 1571 Legaspi moved the capital to Manila, another established trade emporium. The young colony was threatened by Chinese and Japanese pirates and Moslem raiders from the south, but the main danger was the rivalry with other European colonial powers, particularly the Portuguese and later the Dutch. Few Spanish settlers came to the Philippines, but it proved a fertile opportunity to convert the animist inhabitants to Christianity and the Church maintained a strong grip on the colonial administration (Phelan, 1959). Indigenous Philippine Craft Our knowledge for the Philippine craft in the pre-colonial world is limited. The evidence we have is drawn essentially from the accounts of early travellers or colonisers, referred to below. There is little archaeological information available, although this is expanding steadily as new discoveries are made. There is a single archaeological site with preserved vessel hulls, at Butuan in Northern Mindanao (Scott, 1981: 1). There is also some, very limited, iconographic evidence such as the Manunggul Jar, which appears to illustrate a logboat conveying a dead soul to the afterlife. This is one of the most famous prehistoric artefacts from the Philippines, currently in the National Museum in Manila, which was discovered in a cave of the same name in Palawan and has been dated to 800 BC (Dizon and Ronquillo, 2010: 22). The jar is for a secondary burial and the figures on this ceramic show a log boat used to transport the soul. The dead soul is the first figure with crossed arms conveyed by a boatman who is paddling the logboat. The front of the boat is carved with anthromorphic details of eyes, nose and mouth. The boat appears to have had a pole mast, which is now missing. There is considerable evidence from ethnographic sources that many of the traditional skills and design features have been retained until the present day. The banca remains the standard 3 �small fishing boat and means of local communication throughout the islands (Fig. 2). This is a plank built vessel with double outriggers with many similarities to traditional craft. However there is now a very rapid rate of change as engines have largely replaced sails and paddles to power these vessels. The vessels observed by the initial visitors fall into two categories; logboats and plankbuilt boats. category An was intermediate the log boat expanded by the addition of washboards or strakes of wood or rattan to increase freeboard and make the boats more seaworthy. The logboats were more familiar to the visitors as Fig. 2 Modern banca. (M. R. Stead) they follow closely examples from other parts of the world including the Americas, Africa and Europe. The plankbuilt boats were more exotic in that they were constructed of hand carved planks rather than sawn timber. The hulls were fastened together using dowels recessed in the planks and lashings to the ribs. There were no nails in these vessels at all. It was these plank-built vessels that generated most comment. They were perceived to be very insubstantial for maritime voyages. There are extensive European textual descriptions from the sixteenth century and later years. The Spanish sources are most extensive, but are supplemented by a range of accounts from other European visitors in English, Portuguese and Dutch. The Tagalog/Spanish dictionary of Pedro de Buenaventura, Vocabulario de La Lengua Tagala, elromance castellaño presto primero (Vocabulary of the Tagalog language with Castillian Romance given first) published in 1613 is particularly valuable. It lists sixteen types of boats from the log boats, bilog and bawoto, to the plank-built boats, the balangay, kopit, birok and biroko. Many words for nautical activities and boat equipment are included. These are, of course, just the Tagalog names and the dictionary does not include the 4 �names in Visayan or other Philippine dialects. However there are other dictionaries for those areas, such as the later Diccionario Español-Bisayaparalasprovincias de Samar y Leyte (De la Rosa-Alcázar, 1914). Accounts by Europeans who had sailed vessels built in the local tradition, or had even constructed such craft, are particularly valuable. The most complete guide to the indigenous ships and the shipbuilding techniques used to construct them are contained in Ignacio Francisco Alcina’s unpublished text, Historia de las Islas e Indios de Bisayas (Alcina 1668: 159-215). He recorded that he had actually built and sailed more than twenty such plank-built boats. He discussed the balangay, the biruk and the caracoa, after stressing that these plank-built boats were all constructed in a similar way. The biruk was mostly for carrying cargo and the balangay was a general-purpose vessel. The caracoa was used for raiding and warfare and built in a style to accommodate a large crew. Logboats The logboats are simple dugout vessels cut from large tree trunks. As the Philippine forests were well supplied with large trees suitable to construct such boats then these were the most likely vessels utilised since prehistory for local fishing and communications. A recently discovered example is the logboat found at Rosales in Pangasinan province, northwest Luzon. This is a 7.10 m logboat found in a tributary of the Agno River, one of the largest rivers in Luzon, which drains into the Lingayen Gulf. This has been radiocarbon dated to between 1480 and 1650 AD with a 95% probability (Stead, 2014: 12). Alcina (1668: 197-199) describes the construction process for a logboat in detail and all his technical terms are in Visayan with some use of Iberian terminology. He refers to a logboat as a balato. A fresh trunk was felled and stripped to a depth of two fingers. This reflects the experience that the soft outer wood would tend to rot. A centre line (called a kutur) was provided to give a guide to the carpenter. The upper part of the trunk was removed by axe or adze, often leaving an upstanding bow and stern. They would carve out the inside leaving protrusions in the wood to support the thwarts (agar). The ends would be trimmed into a boat shape. 5 �The most difficult technical issue was to achieve a suitable thickness of wood, so that the boat was robust, but not too heavy, which was achieved by using a gauge or auger called a lokob. This would leave trial holes in the timber that would need to be patched carefully. The tools used to excavate were a square adze (daldag) and a skewed adze (called a binkong).The thwarts had a key role to provide beam strength to the hull, as well as seating for the paddlers and as a basis for lashing on washboards or extension planks. According to Alcina (1668: 167), a typical baloto would be up to nine (9) m in length with a beam up to one metre. This represented eight to ten man-day’s construction time. These log boats would often be furnished with a single or double outrigger to improve stability. Lateral stability has often been a problem for log boats in any environment and the Philippine solution was very effective. Due to the difficulties of working nets over the side of a log boat, outriggers may be absent or they might be removed for convenience whilst fishing. Planked Boats The hulls were constructed with hardwood planks attached to a central keel or a simple centre plank. Sawing technology was not used before the colonial period and the planks were carved by hand, using axes and adzes. Lugs were left carved as protrusions on the inner side of the planks to form transverse rows. The usual method of fixing the planks together was by the use of circular dowels, inserted in the edges of the individual strakes. The size of these dowels was about 3 cm in diameter. The boat was then lashed together using the carved lugs on the inside of the planks and series of ribs. Transverse thwarts were also lashed to the lugs and ribs to create a firm inverted bell-shaped structure. Balangay The planked boat, the balangay, referred to above in the account of Pigafetta, were very numerous in the pre-colonial period. Antonio de Morga, a senior civil servant in the Spanish service, referred to them in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (De Morga, 1609: 190). He describes the barangays as “certain quick and light vessels that lie low in the water, put together with little wooden nails. These are as slender at the stern as at the bow and they can hold a number of rowers on both sides”. These early accounts indicate that they were general-purpose, cargo-carrying 6 �vessels widely used in inter-island trade. They were propelled by rowers or paddlers and by sail. De Morga also noted the palm leaf awnings or cayanes, which gave protection to the boat and the crew from the fierce tropical sun. He noted that the ships would not capsize due to the outriggers and, even if flooded, the bamboo outriggers would prevent the boat from sinking. Alcina (1668: 201-202) described the barangays “the lightest that were used and are still being used by these natives here. They are built upon a square keel, adding boards for the side. They are completed with low sides suitable for rowing…” We are in the fortunate position of having a number of balangay boats that have been discovered at the Butuan site in Northern Mindanao (Stead and Dizon, 2011: 3). These were buried in silt deposits in the estuary of the Agusan River. A total of twelve hulks or wreck fragments have been reported in total. Three balangay vessels have been fully excavated and a further hull is currently being excavated. These correspond closely to the descriptions of these vessels and are between 14 and 20 m long (Stead and Dizon, 2011). Three underwater wrecks in Philippine waters appear to be the remains of such Southeast Asian vessels, although the hull remains are fragmentary. These are the Pandanan wreck and the Wreck and Lena from the Shoal Palawan, Santa Cruz wreck from Zambales (Dizon and Ronquillo, 2010: 201-213) (see Fig. 3 for a photo of a modern replica). Fig. 3 Replica balangay boat, National Museum, Manila. (P. L. Stead) The Caracoa The caracoa was a military version of the balangay. It was considered larger and faster, and was most suitable for raiding and slave trading. As Retana (cited by Martínez de Zúñiga, 1803: ii, 513)has pointed out, this word does not appear in early Tagalog or Visayan dictionaries, but as the word exists in both Spanish and Portuguese dictionaries, he suggests that this may be a Portuguese rendering of the 7 �Malay root of corocoro. The Spanish documents from the colonial period in the Philippines consistently refer to these vessels as the caracoa, but in the Moluccas corocoro was the more normal name. Blair and Robertson (1904) list 117 references to the caracoa in their compendium of sources from the Spanish archives. Alcina (1668: 207) refers to this class of vessel and commented that they were traditional in the Philippines and were widely used in his time. He said “It closely resembles the brigantines of Spain, although (the caracoa) is larger in size”. He notes that this is due to the outriggers, paddling seats on the outrigger booms and the fighting platforms, which were features of the caracoa (Alcina, 1668: 207). He also gave the opinion that “For these islands they are the best ships or vessels and the most suitable for war fleets. These people used them in ancient times when, as infidels, they went out to plunder other enemy islands ….”Alcina (1668: 207). He specifically mentions that Spanish authorities continued to construct caracoa in the seventeenth century for military use. The rowers and sailors would be Filipinos, but the soldiers would normally be Spanish. The same arrangement can be noted on the Manila galleons that carried many Filipino sailors. He comments that the caracoa was a more comfortable means of travel in the Philippines than the Spanish ships due to many being fitted with a thatched palm roof. However, he notes that the Spanish made these vessels heavier and their boats often could not catch the raiding vessels built in the traditional style. These vessels were used for carrying dispatches, defence against pirate attacks from the Sulu Sea and for major assaults on pirate bases. A manuscript, thought to be by Pedro Gutierrez S.J., describes a typical example of the use of the caracoa to repulse pirate attacks from the Moslem south (Gutierrez, 1637). This raid was by four Muslim ships and their repulse by Spanish-led caracoas is also recorded in Montero y Vidal (1888: 162). William Dampier, the English buccaneer, describes this type of vessel as used by the Sultan in Mindanao as seen in his voyage in the seventeenth century. He describes how the boats were rounded like a half-moon, but with outriggers designed for paddling. He recounts how “there run a-cross the Out layers two tire of Beams for the Padlers to sit on, on each side of the Vessel. The lower tire of these Beams is not 8 �above a Foot from the Water; so that upon any the least reeling of the Vessel, the Beams are dipt in the Water, and the Men that sit are wet up to their Waste; their Feet seldom escaping the Water. And thus as all our Vessels are rowed from within, these are paddled from without (sic)” (Dampier, 1797: 230). Current knowledge of the caracoa is based mainly upon iconography, such as the representation (Fig. 4) from Thomas Forrest (1779). None of these vessels survive until today and, as yet, there are no identified examples in the archaeological record. Forrest was well acquainted with the caracoa as he acquired two small ones, the ‘Banguey’ and the ‘Borneo’ to assist his proa galley in his eighteenth century voyage in Southeast Asia. The ‘Banguey’ measured just 18ft (5.5 m) keel length with a beam of 8ft (2.4 m, and carried a crew of 14 men. Forrest (1779: 23) gave a particularly clear description in a footnote to his account of his voyage “a corocoro (caracoa) is a vessel generally fitted with outriggers, having a high arched stem and stern, like the points of a half moon. They are used by the inhabitants of the Molucca Islands chiefly, and the Dutch have fleets of them at Amboyna, which they employ as guarda costas. They have them from a small size, to above ten tons burthen; and on the cross pieces which support the outriggers are often put fore and aft planks, on which the people sit and paddle, beside those who sit in the vessel on each gunnel. In smooth water they can be paddled very fast, as many hands may be employed in different ranks or rows. They are steered with two commoodies (broad paddles), and not with a rudder. When they are high out of the water, they use oars, but on the outriggers they always use paddles.”The caracoa were not really a match for a European vessel in a fleet action. When Legaspi took Manila in 1571, there was a sea battle in Manila Bay with twenty or thirty local vessels, mainly caracoas. These mounted one or two culverins each. The Spanish defeated this fleet without difficulty (Anon, 1572, Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon). De Morga took two caracoas in his fleet when he sailed out against the Dutch under Van Noort in 1600. They could not keep up with the European style ships d ue to the choppy sea and adverse winds (de Morga, 1609: 177). It was reported that caracoas were used by the Spanish against the Maranao tribes around Lake Lanao 9 �in Mindanao in 1639, by transporting them overland as components and reassembling them at the lake (Scott, 1981: 10). The joanga was a larger size version of the caracoa and typical of the Moluccas, Mindanao and the Sulu Sea. A description of the joanga, or juanga, is contained in a paper by de Bobadilla which describes an action in 1638, “they were all embarked in a Fig. 4 Illustration of a caracoa (corocoro). (Reproduced fleet of caracoas, which from Forrest, 1779: plate 12) are oared vessels much used in Filippinas, carrying from fifty to a hundred rowers apiece. There are larger ones called juangas, and carry from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and thirty rowers (sic)” (de Bobadilla, 1639). Paris (1841: 91, 92) describes one of these vessels as observed in the Moluccas, drawing on information from the voyages of Pagès (1782). He refers to this vessel in French as a buanga. His drawing shows a total 74 rowers on each side in three banks, rather similar to a classical Roman trireme, but with a further 18 paddlers on the outrigger platform. Taking the two sides together this would give a total of 184 crew, engaged primarily in powering the vessel. The joanga and caracoa remained in service into the nineteenth century for raiding and piracy in the whole of Southeast Asia from bases in the Sulu Sea area. However, the outriggers were eventually discarded and the vessels came to have heavier lines and a broader beam. This may reflect the need to carry heavier guns. Eventually, they were defeated when the Spanish and British and Dutch navies 10 �brought in steam powered naval units (Warren, 1981: 256-258). One of the last voyages recorded in a caracoa was by the famous naturalist, Wallace, in 1859, when he rode on a Dutch government-owned vessel from Bacan to Ternate in the Moluccas. This boat was of four (4) tons burthen, with twenty rowers (rather than paddlers), a thatched canopy, a low freeboard, and double outriggers at five (5) feet either side of the hull. There was a tripod mast and a mat sail. He complained about the constant drumming, used to keep the rowers in time (Wallace, 1869: 358). Conclusion We are indebted to the early Spanish explorers and colonialists, and travelers from many nationalities for most of the information we have on the indigenous Philippine boats. Hopefully the progress of maritime archaeology in the area will contin ue to supplement these early sources. Acknowledgements My thanks to my supervisors for this research work, for their guidance, Dr Lucy Blue and Dr Jesse Ransley, both of the University of Southampton, as well as Dr Eusebio Dizon of the National Museum in Manila. References Alcina, I. F., 1668. Historia de las Islas e Indios de Bisayas…, Part One, Book 3, Vol. 3: 197-213, re-published in 2005 by UST with a translation by C. J. Kobak and L. Gutiérrez, Manila. Anon., 1572. Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon, mss. translated by Blair and Robertson in their compendium of documents, Vol. 3: 156-7. Blair, E. H., and Robertson, J.A., 1903-7.The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, 55 Vols, Clark, Cleveland. de Bobadilla, D., 1639. Glorious victories against the Moros of Mindanao, paper printedin Mexico and translated by A.B. Myrick, reprinted in Blair and Robertson, Vol. 29: 86-03. Dampier, W., 1797. A New Voyage around the World, 1927 edition, Argonaut Press, London. Dizon, E. Z., and Ronquillo, W. P., 2010. Maritime and Underwater Archaeology in the Philippines, from A Passage to Asia. Bozar, Brussels. 11 �Forrest, T., 1779. A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas from Balambangan. G. Scott, London. Gutierrez, P., 1637. Defeat of Moro Pirates MSS in Academia Real de la Historia, Madrid, trans by A. B. Myrick and E. H. Blair. Huygen van Linschoten, J., 1595. Reys-gheschrift vande navigatien der Portugaloysers in Orienten, Cornelis Claesz, Amsterdam. Martínez de Zúñiga, J., 1803. Estadismo de las islas Filipinas. In W. E. Retana (ed and annotated) in 1893, Madrid. Montero y Vidal, D. J., 1888. Historia de la Pirateria Malayo-Mahometana en Mindanao, Jolo y Borneo, Madrid. de Morga, A., 1609. Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, trans by J. S. Cummins for the Hakluyt Society, 1971, London. Pagès, P. M. F., de 1782 Voyages Autour Du Monde, Et Vers Les Deux Poles, Par Terre Et Mer, Pendant Les Annes 1767, 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1773, 1774, & 1776, Chez Moutard, Paris. Paris, F. E., 1841. Essaisur la constructionnavale des peuples extra-Europeens : oucollection desnavires et piroguesconstruits par les habitants de l'Asie, de la Malaisie, du Grand Ocean et del'Amerique ... pendant les voyagesautour du monde de l'Astrolabe, la Favorite et l'Artemise, Arthus Bertrand, Paris. Pedro de San Buenaventura, 1613. Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala, republished by Domingo de los Santos in 1835. Phelan, J.L., 1959. The Hispanization of the Philippines, Spanish Aims and Filipino Responses 1565-1700. University Press of Wisconsin, Madison. Pigafetta, A. trans. by J. E. H. Stanley, 2010. First Voyage Round the World by Magellan: Translated from the Accounts of Pigafetta and Other Contemporary Writers. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. De la Rosa-Alcázar, S., 1914. Diccionario Español-Bisaya para las provincias de Samar y Leyte, Santos y Bermal Manila. Scott, W.H., 1981. Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society. Anthropological Papers No. 9, National Museum, Manila: 1-38. 12 �Stead, M. R.,and Dizon, E., 2011. A National Cultural Treasure Revisited – Reassessing the ‘Balangay’ Boat Discoveries. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila: 425 436. Stead, M. R., 2014. Dating a Philippine Logboat. Nautical Archaeology, Nautical Archaeology Society, Spring 2014: 12. Wallace, A. R., 1869.The Malay Archipelago, The Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise, London, MacMillan, reprinted 1989, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Warren, J. F., 1981.The Sulu Zone 1768-1898. Singapore University Press, Singapore. Biography Roderick Stead was originally trained as an economist and accountant. Since 2004 he has re-trained as an archaeologist with a specific interest in maritime archaeology. His current research interest is the development of Philippine indigenous craft. He has a BA in Archaeology from Birkbeck College, University of London and completed an MA in Maritime Archaeology at the University of Southampton in 2010. Currently he is a PhD student at the Centre for Maritime Archaeology at the University Southampton 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource All our vessels are rowed from within, these are paddled from without, Spanish and European Colonial Reception of Philippine Indigenous Craft Description An account of the resource When the European visitors arrived in the Philippines from the Sixteenth century, they encountered a range of indigenous craft ranging from logboats to plank-built vessels. These boats, especially the plank-built vessels, were built in a very different style to their own. They were particularly interested in the single and double outriggers employed on these craft. The plank-built craft used hand carved strakes rather than sawn timber and were held together by dowels and treenails. The hull strakes were fastened together by the lashed-lug technique or sewn. No metal fastenings were used in the construction. Similar techniques were used throughout Island Southeast Asia. They recognised the maritime skills of the Filipinos and soon used them as crew on their own vessels and as craftsmen to build European-style vessels using local materials. The Spanish noted the suitability of the local vessels in the Philippine environment, due to their speed and ability to cross shallow coral reefs, even though they were largely ineffective in fighting against European vessels. They continued to employ boats built in the local tradition for communications and to suppress maritime raiders from the areas not under colonial control. These vessels continued in this role until replaced by steam vessels in the nineteenth century. This paper will explore the European views on these traditional craft and the way they were utilised and adapted by the Spanish and other Europeans powers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roderick Stead, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a82d0b29abb7d64fc85ecf6a3fb8e2c8.pdf 32c9ec6246f49812ff437c54cc53ca51 PDF Text Text Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh Rokonuzzaman S (Dept. of Conservation Laboratory, Bangladesh National Museum) smrokon.chem@gmail.com ABSTRACT A waterlogged wooden schooner was collected from Kuakata, a famous coastal region of Bangladesh, during the excavation period from 23rd December, 2012 to 27th February, 2013 under the Directorate of Archaeology. This schooner was measured 72 feet in length and weighed about 90 tons in wet conditions. A lot of valuable information regarding trade relations with other countries in ancient times, migration of people of certain communities, species of wood etc. can be obtained from this artifact. Unfortunately, the schooner has been kept under a canopy in the open for nearly 10 years after excavation without any consultation from conservation experts. The condition of this artifact was found to be extremely damaged and fragile when visited on 21st September, 2022. Attacks of various types of microorganisms and insects were observed in most of the woods. Different types of physical changes were also found in the wood of the schooner. Even the original shape of the artifact was disfigured by shrinkage, cracking, twisting and splitting of wood. It is known that the conservation treatment of waterlogged wood consists of four steps such as dehydration, substitution, consolidation and controlled drying processes. These are very expensive and lengthy processes. Now it is impossible to apply a conventional conservation treatment method on the wooden schooner, because the artifact has already lost all characteristics of waterlogged wood. There are three objectives of this study: (i) to investigate the causes of deterioration of wood, (ii) to revive the characteristics of waterlogged wood and (iii) to recommend an easy and appropriate conservation treatment strategy for this waterlogged wooden schooner. Recommendation of treatment strategy is the most important part of this study. Considering the capability, time duration and financial cost, the treatment strategy will be introduced. After the successful completion of this study, the countries like Bangladesh will protect their waterlogged wooden heritage using the new method. Keywords Waterlogged wood, Deterioration, Consolidation List of Abbreviations BNM : Bangladesh National Museum DoA : Directorate of Archaeology PEG : Poly Ethylene Glycol RH : Relative Humidity MC : Moisture Content ETP : Effluent Treatment Plant SS : Stainless Steel 1. INTRODUCTION Waterlogged wood refers to wood that has been under soil or water for a long time and whose internal pores, capillaries and micro capillaries are saturated with water. Besides, these places contain different types of harmful substances like mud, sand, microorganisms etc. along with the water. Waterlogged wood has special importance among the archaeological artifacts. Through scientific research, it is possible to uncover many exclusive information regarding ancient cultures and civilizations from the waterlogged wooden artifacts. Such as: (i) (ii) (iii) A clear understanding of the historical trade/other relations of one country with another country can be obtained. Information about the migration of a certain community or group of people in ancient times can be found. Important guidelines can also be derived from these artifacts in protecting ecological balance. Wood is an organic material which is composed of cellulose (40% - 60%), hemicellulose (15% 25%) and lignin (15% - 40%). Cellulose, hemicellulose both are polysaccharide polymer compounds and lignin is a phenolic polymer compound. Polysaccharides are high polymers of monosaccharides. 1 �Each polymer compound plays the different role in wood. Cellulose is responsible for giving the strength to the wooden structure, hemicellulose gives the flexibility of wood and lignin is responsible for stiffness of wood. These three polymers combined together give the remarkable physical and mechanical support to the wood. The molecular formula of cellulose is (C6H10O5) n. Cellulose participates in hydrolysis reaction with water in presence of acid, it gives D-glucose in 95-96 percent. As a result, cellulosic bonds are broken. If this type of reaction continues in waterlogged wood for hundreds of years, extensive decay occurs in the wooden artifacts. In addition, microorganisms and other harmful substances stay for a long time in the pore spaces, capillaries and micro capillaries inside the waterlogged wood and cause considerable damage to the internal structure of the wood. As a result, the wooden structure continues to weaken and eventually it is completely destroyed. Therefore, every step from excavation to conservation treatment period for any waterlogged wooden artifacts needs to be done with intensive care. Also the long-term management of waterlogged wood is a very important issue. On site inspection, the mentioned problems have been found in the different parts of the waterlogged wooden schooner. The water has removed freely from waterlogged wooden parts in uncontrolled drying. But there has not been any conservation measures of the schooner. As a result, the wood fibers have compressed and the whole structure has converted into a distorted shape (Figures 1.1). Figure 1.1: Disfigured structures of the schooner 2. CASE STUDY 2.1 Missing of Original Wood As mentioned earlier, the schooner was left for long periods in different environments such as soil or water, underwent extensive decay and its strength was severely reduced. The various parts of the schooner were closely observed during the onsite inspection. At that time the original wood was missing from some parts of the schooner. Figure 2. Excavation of shipwreck 2 �2.2 Adding New Wood New wood was added to the different parts of the schooner in order to facilitate its safe lifting and transport. Addition of new wood was the right decision during excavation period. Later, the new wood should have been removed and supports were used with the various parts of the schooner in the rehabilitation process to maintain its original shape. It is known that the stiffness of new wood is relatively higher than waterlogged wood. In this case, adding new wood of higher strength to the waterlogged wood of lower strength created additional stress on the waterlogged wood. But not removing new wood from the schooner caused various physical changes in it. The main structure of the schooner was not in its original shape. Many of the wooden parts have bent and distorted the structure. Though, there are many other reasons for distorting the schooner's main structure. Some new wood may be conditionally added to the missing parts when the schooner's conservation treatment is fully completed. According to the principles of restoration, the species, age and strength of the new wood must match the original wood. New wood should also be given a conservation treatment before being added. 2.3 Insects attack and Rotting During the inspection several parts of the waterlogged wooden schooner were observed to be rotting, infested with insects. This attack is quickly spreading to other parts of the wood. 2.4 Microscopic Analysis and Salinity A few places on the schooner, examined under a small microscope, showed extensive white coating on the surface of the wood (Figure 3). Despite several attempts with water, the white spots could not be completely removed. These appear to be salt deposits. It is possible to remove all these white coatings and other impurities by applying water to waterlogged wood for several years. Figure 3: Microscopic observations 2.5 Moisture Content The moisture content is an important part of wood. There are two types of moisture found in wood, one is ‘free water’ in the cell cavities and vessels, and other is ‘absorbed water’ bound in the cell walls. Free water evaporates up to the fiber saturation point, when the wood is air-dried. In this case the wood does not shrink. However, as waterlogged wood is very weak and its fiber loss is high. So, this rule is not applicable for waterlogged wood. At the fiber saturation point, wood contains only the ‘absorbed water’ from 20% to 36% of the total moisture content which varies the species of wood. If ‘absorbed water’ evaporates, then shrinkage starts in wood. Wood is a hygroscopic material whose moisture content fluctuates with the relative humidity of its environment (Table 2.1). Table 2.1: Moisture content fluctuates with the relative humidity SL No. Relative Humidity (%) Moisture Content (%) 1. 90 21-22 2. 70 13-14 3. 50 8-10 4. 30 6-7 5. 10 3-4 6. 0 0 3 �The moisture content is determined by the following equation: Here, U = Moisture Content (%) Gu = Weight of normal / waterlogged wood G0 = Weight of oven dried wood Physical observation confirmed that the schooner had lost the characteristics of waterlogged wood. Now reviving its waterlogged wooden nature is very uncertain. But by keeping the schooner in water long enough, it is possible to revive its few waterlogged wooden characteristics. This can be confirmed by measuring the moisture content. 3. RESOURCES Conservation treatment of waterlogged wood is very expensive and time consuming. Such treatments are usually initiated while the wood is still wet. There are many types of conservation treatment methods of waterlogged wood around the world. Five methods have been selected for this study, which are very much popular in conservation science. These are Poly ethylene glycol-4000 method, Poly ethylene glycol-2 steps method, Sucrose method, Cetyl alcohol method and Dammar method (Table 2.2). Implementation of these conservation treatments requires extensive technical capacity, which is not usually available in developing countries like Bangladesh. After analyzing the five methods, it was confirmed that the Dammar method can be modified and applied as suitable for Bangladesh. The modified dammar method must be applied to each part of the schooner separately. No. 1. 2. Table 2.2: The popular conservation treatment methods over the world Name of Dehydration Substitution Consolidation Step Treatment Step Step Method (alcohol in H2O) PEG-4000 Method Sucrose Method - - - (i) 20% PEG-4000 in H2O (ii) 40% PEG-4000 in H2O (iii) ) 60% PEG-4000 in H2O (iv) 80% PEG-4000 in H2O (v) 100% PEG-4000 in H2O (i) 20% Sucrose in H2O (ii) 40% Sucrose in H2O (iii) 60% Sucrose in H2O (iv) 80% Sucrose in H2O - 4 Controlled Air Drying (RH in Drying Chamber) (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% �3. Cetyl – alcohol Method (i) 20% Methyl - (ii) 40%Methyl (i) 20% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol (i) At 80% (ii) 40% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol1 (ii) At 60% (iii) 60%Methyl (iii) At 40% (iii) 60% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol1 (iv) 80% Methyl (v) 100%Methyl 4. PEG-2 Steps Method (i) 20% Ethyl (iv) 80% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol (i) 50% t-butyl in ethyl (ii) 40% Ethyl (iii) 60% Ethyl (ii) 100% tbutyl in ethyl (i) 20% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (i) At 80% (ii) 40% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (ii) At 60% (iii) 20% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (iii) At 40% (iv) 80% Ethyl (iv) 40% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (v) 100% Ethyl (v) 60% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (vi) 80% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol 5. 4. DammerMethod (i) 20% Ethyl (ii) 40% Ethyl (iii) 60% Ethyl (iv) 80% Ethyl (v) 100% Ethyl (i) 50% Xylene in ethyl alcohol (i) 20% Dammar in xylene (ii) 40% Dammar in xylene (iii) 60% Dammar in xylene (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% (ii) 100% Xylene in ethyl alcohol FRAMEWORK The pore spaces, capillaries and micro capillaries of waterlogged wood are filled with water and various kinds of contaminants when it is buried. All these impurities need to be compulsorily removed through the continuous cleaning process before conservation treatment. Cleanup can take up to several years depending on the thickness of the wooden parts. The wood must not be allowed to dry out in any way during the entire process. When the wood is completely ready for treatment, then the modified dammar method is applied (Table 2.3). After the conservation treatment, the wood is dried by vacuum-freeze-drying or a controlled air-drying process. In a controlled air-drying process, the wood is first dried at room temperature where the relative humidity is very high. Later the relative humidity is gradually reduced. On the other hand uncontrolled drying is fully prohibited for waterlogged wood to avoid any kind of deformation of wood like shrinking, twisting, cracking, splitting, warping etc. Table 2.3: The modified Dammar method Consolidation Step Naturally Drying Time Duration (i) 20% Dammar According to the climate Time duration of dehydration, solution in xylene of Bangladesh, RH substitution, consolidation and gradually decreases drying steps depends on the (ii) 60% Ethyl alcohol (ii) 40% Dammar from November to thickness of wood. solution in H2O (ii) 100% Xylene solution in xylene March. This is the solution in ethyl perfect time to let the (iii) 100% Ethyl alcohol (iii) 60% Dammar wood dry naturally. alcohol solution in solution in xylene However, the wood H2O should be kept under close observation. To ensure minimum use of chemicals, airtight SS containers and jute mats are used. Basically, the artifacts are wrapped with jute mats before being soaked in chemicals. Dehydration Step (i) 20% Ethyl alcohol solution in H2O Substitution Step (i) 50% Xylene solution in ethyl alcohol 5 �5. RESULTS The treatment of waterlogged wood is a very risky, expensive and difficult task. Most of the undeveloped or developing countries are not able to conserve their valuable artifacts of waterlogged wood through the conventional method. This is the main reason to modify the Dammar method so that every country can protect their valuable heritage. Modified Dammar method is comparatively easy and less expensive, but it is not the health and environment friendly method. Therefore, the appropriate precautions should be taken, when the modified Dammar method is applied for the conservation of waterlogged wood. BIBLIOGRAPHY Finar, I. L., Organic Chemistry (Volume Two), 3rd edn., (1964):224-225. Harman, Kuhn, Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art and Antiquities, 3 rd edn. 19, (1987): 176-179. Plenderleith, H.J., The conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, Reprinted 5, (1974): 124-126. Desch, H.E., Timber Its Structure and Properties, Macmillan, London, 3 rd edn., 1956. In Museum 8, no. 3, 1955:139. Museum and Monuments The Conservation of Cultural Property, The UNESCO Press, Reprinted (1975): 173. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh Description An account of the resource A waterlogged wooden schooner was collected from Kuakata, a famous coastal region of Bangladesh, during the excavation period from 23rd December, 2012 to 27th February, 2013 under the Directorate of Archaeology. This schooner was measured 72 feet in length and weighed about 90 tons in wet conditions. A lot of valuable information regarding trade relations with other countries in ancient times, migration of people of certain communities, species of wood etc. can be obtained from this artifact. Unfortunately, the schooner has been kept under a canopy in the open for nearly 10 years after excavation without any consultation from conservation experts. The condition of this artifact was found to be extremely damaged and fragile when visited on 21st September, 2022. Attacks of various types of microorganisms and insects were observed in most of the woods. Different types of physical changes were also found in the wood of the schooner. Even the original shape of the artifact was disfigured by shrinkage, cracking, twisting and splitting of wood. It is known that the conservation treatment of waterlogged wood consists of four steps such as dehydration, substitution, consolidation and controlled drying processes. These are very expensive and lengthy processes. Now it is impossible to apply a conventional conservation treatment method on the wooden schooner, because the artifact has already lost all characteristics of waterlogged wood. There are three objectives of this study: (i) to investigate the causes of deterioration of wood, (ii) to revive the characteristics of waterlogged wood and (iii) to recommend an easy and appropriate conservation treatment strategy for this waterlogged wooden schooner. Recommendation of treatment strategy is the most important part of this study. Considering the capability, time duration and financial cost, the treatment strategy will be introduced. After the successful completion of this study, the countries like Bangladesh will protect their waterlogged wooden heritage using the new method. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rokonuzzaman S Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rokonuzzaman, S.. 2023. “Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2026 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Romila Thapar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Romila Thapar Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Place Berkeley Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Title A name given to the resource Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 India