56 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6a275ffeef37f06e94530ed5134b2791.pdf c2dbaf85d61bbd705bbb1f792d2e8a97 PDF Text Text The Historical Transition of Lakefront Environment and Use in Lake Biwa, Japan Hisashi Nakagawa Toyohashi City Museum Art and History nakagawa_134@yahoo.co.jp Abstract Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan. It has approximately 4,000,000 years of history, and many people have lived on this lake. More than 90 underwater archaeological sites exist here, and we are able to understand the subtleties of history. As an example, the Awazu-bottom site,is dated to the middle of the Jomon period approximately 5,000 years ago, and is the largest freshwater shell mound in Japan. It was formed near the lakefront at first, but now submerged on the bottom of lake. The Shiozu-port site is a late Heian period dated to 800 years ago, and is one of the oldest harbor sites in Japan. It was constructed to reclaim the lake, and prospered as water transport area. Many important remains, not only port facilities but also shrines and more, have been excavated, but it disappeared in the 12th century. The causes of this sites’ submergence is closely related an environmental transition of the lakefront. The water balance is particularly important problem. Approximately 460 rivers flow into this lake, but the discharge is only through the Seta-River. Therefore, the water level is greatly fluctuated by the sedimentation situation of the riverbed. According to the old historical documents, many floods have occurred. Therefore, sometimes dredging is carried out by the government to this day. Not only are water levels problematic, but ground sedimentation is as well. The lakefront is convenient for fishery and water transportation, but on the other hand, the land is soft. In a certain study, the ground water level is slightly 20cm higher than water level of lake. As a result of this, serious damage to the settlements have occurred by earthquakes. The extreme effect of this has settlements bring submerged to the bottom of lake by lateral Flow; landslide by the soil liquefaction. In this paper, I would like to study a historical transition of the lakefront environment and its use. Key words: landscape, Lake, Japan, riverine �Introduction Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan and many people have lived on this lake. There are more than 90 underwater or lakeside archaeological sites that exist here. As it has approximately 4,000,000 years of history, its form has been changed due to a variety of factors such as crustal deformations or sediment depositions. In recent years, the relation between these geographical or geological changes and lives of the local people has gradually been revealed by a lot of archaeological materials acquired through some investigations of the submerged sites (Nakagawa, 2016). In this paper, the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen in Nagahama city is discussed in order to describe the natural and historical environmental changes at Lake Biwa from the ancient times to the middle age. General Description of the Site The underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen site is located at the bottom of Lake Biwa in front of the town of Gion in Nagahama city, which is in northeastern part of Shiga Prefecture. Local oral tradition tells us that ‘the village called Nishihama formerly existed here, but it was submerged into the bottom of lake by a big earthquake during the Kansho year of the Muromachi period (1460-1466)’. Before examining historical facts, first of all, some current aspects of the bottom topography found from survey maps and sedimentation situations have to be shown. The investigation area is shallow off shore; around 100m. It is less than 1.5m deep and more than 82.8 m of altitude. There 3 topographical elevated points are characteristically observed (Fig. 1). These points have been named A, B, and D as each survey ward (Fig. 2). In addition, the survey ward of C has no elevation, and a medieval �graveyard does not have any elevated peaks, either. In more than 80m of offing, the more clay-like topography regarded as former ground is still spread. Its average bottom attitude is less than 82.8m (about more than 1.5m deep). In this very peculiar area, old withered trees have been excavated. Because some botanical analyses prove that its soil contains large amounts of plant opals from bamboo grasses, this area was certainly dry land in earlier times. Fig. 1: Topographical lakebed map around the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. �Fig. 2. Research areas of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. In the survey ward of A, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.7m (about 0.6m deep). This relatively elevated ward is situated on the western part of the investigation area, measuring about 40m from east to west and 60m from south to north. Around the survey ward of A, the gentle collapse-like topography which was caused by the power waves from the offing direction could be seen (survey ward of A’). In the survey ward of B, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.75m (about 0.55m deep). This relatively elevated ward is situated on the east part of the investigation area, measuring about 40m from east to west and 50m from south to north. Around the survey ward of B, as A, the gentle collapse-like topography could be seen (survey ward of B’). In the survey ward of C, the average bottom elevation is approximately 83.3m (about 1m deep). It is on the western part of the investigation area along the lakeshore, measuring about 80m from east to west and 15m from south to north. In the survey ward of D, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.4m (about 0.9m deep). This relatively small and oval elevated ward is situated at the centre of the investigation area, measuring about 35m from �east to west and 15m from south to north. Around the survey ward of D as well, as A and B, the gentle collapse-like topography could be seen (survey ward of D’). The survey ward of a medieval graveyard is situated about from 50m to 70m off the lakeside, and its average bottom altitude is 83.1m (about 1.2m deep). There many stone materials, most of which used to be grave stones, are found; each medieval grave consisted of many stones, which were nearly a size larger than a fist of a grown-up man or smaller than human skull, forming a rectangular section or a cairn. The bottom material at the flat part (less than 83.2 m of altitude) at the investigation area consists of small grains of sands. They seem to have been brought there later by wave action or longshore currents. The survey ward of a medieval graveyard is buried under these sands by half. Contra to this, the bottom material of elevated wards of A, B, and D consists of round-shaped small river stones, each of which is from approximately 5cm to 10cm in diameter. Although one of the survey ward of C consists mainly of such river stones, many bigger stones, each of which is from 20cm to 30cm in diameter, are also observed sporadically on this ward. As for the reason why there are some topographical elevated points there, as this area used to be a river delta. Because of this fact, small river stones are found in the elevated wards of A, B, and D. Each ward still looks like the shape of a river delta. Judging from the survey map, around four tributary branches might have flowed into Lake Biwa, but the direction of water flows may have been altered in later years. So presumably the river was about 250m wide at the mouth. �Historic Environmental Transition Judging from Old Topographies and Relics Development Process of the Sites Figure 3 shows the graphic chart of the number of excavated relics from this site for each century. Obviously its peaks were the 8th and the 12th centuries while only one relic from the 14th century was found. Since the 15th century, this site seems to have restarted as a new site. The tendencies at the 12th and the 13th centuries look similar, but almost all relics from the 12th century consist mainly of unglazed pottery named ‘yama cha wan’, which disappeared before the first quarter of the 13th century. In the survey ward C, the remains of a well was found which seems to be abandoned deliberately during the 13th century. The cultural discontinuation of this underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen could be observed around the 13th century; this place itself was deserted with awareness. Fig. 3: Numbers of excavated relics. Only one relic from the 14th century at the survey ward of C is either air ring of a five-ring stone pagoda. It was originally made in the 14th century, �but later after the 15th century it was reutilized as a tomb stone. In the same elevated zone as the pagoda was found, an elected stone Buddha statue from the 16th century was also found. The end time of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen might be the latter half of the 16th century, because only one relic, i.e. a cup made from celadon porcelain, from the 17th century was found there. The transition period of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen could be divided into three or four phases, viz. Phase I around the 8th century, Phase II in the 12th century which was the most flourishing time of this site, Phase of Rupture from the middle of the 13th century to 14th century, and Phase III from the 15th to 16th centuries when the site had been revived. Distribution Situation of Relics Every Investigation Area Then, is such situation universal at the whole survey wards of the site? Figure 4 shows the graphic chart of the number of excavated relics for each survey ward for each century. Before Phase I, all wards had relics although its number was relatively small. This trend seems to have continued until the 10th century. Because this investigation area used to be a river delta, these small relics were flowed there together with sediment along the river branches. At first, it was the secondary centre to accumulate broken relics. Some relics, in particular, from the 10th century, are not broken at all and not obliterated; the original places of �those relics would not have been so far away. Perhaps, they might be used directly above this site. Fig. 4: Numbers of excavated relics at each research area. �Phase II is completely different from Phase I. Almost all relics from this phase were found only around the survey ward of B, although only one relic was found around the survey ward of A. Relics from the 11th century, as well as ones from the 13th century, have been excavated only at the survey ward of B. This distribution of relics does not seem to be originated from the natural sedimentation but from real human activities. After Phase of Rupture, this site might have been developed as a new zone at Phase III after the 15th century. Relics belonging to this period were mainly distributed over the survey ward of a medieval graveyard and the offshore places of each survey ward. As no relic is found in the survey wards of A and B and the survey ward of a medieval graveyard is situated between the survey wards of A and B, the site of Nishihamasengen had been changed into land or from drying at Phase III. Constitution of Relics and Land Use in Phase II At Phase II around the peak period of the 12th century, what kind of human activities were observed on the site? When did its rivers run dry? The compositions of relics from the survey wards of B are shown in Figure 5. Most of the relics are things for offering only, while ones for boiling or for storing do not exist. Therefore, the survey ward of B at Phase II was not a waste site of general daily necessaries near commoners’ hamlets, but maybe it would have had several mounds of Buddhist scriptures. Because some sutra cases or substitute inkstones are excavated, literate people, which differed from common villagers, might be living there at Phase II. �Fig. 5 (left): Relics at the research area of B from the 12th to 13th Century. In former days, men of weight who wished for peaceful death built mounds of Buddhist scriptures in order to bury the scriptures under the mounds. The height of prosperity of this custom was the 12th century in Japan (Sugiyama, 2007); this historical fact may correspond to the case of the site of Nishihamasengen. As for substitute inkstones, they started to be used in the latter half of the 11th century in Japan. Literate people intentionally built mounds of Buddhist scriptures at the survey ward of B, because at the time of Phase II, which extended over 150 years from the latter half of the 11th century to the first quarter of the 13th century, the survey ward of B was dryland, not half-submerged land. This fact is also proved by the restricted size of ward, measuring about 40m from east to west and 50m from south to north; throwing sutra cases and substitute inkstones away from the lakeshore is the out of question. The concentration of the relics and its conglomeration at the survey ward B suggest that this zone began to become dry before the middle of the 11th century. A study of historical geography (Mizuno, 2011) says that �during the Hoen period (1135-1141) the shrine territory of the Gion Shrine was established around this investigation area and its territorial landsubdivision would have been spread far into under the current Lake Biwa (Fig. 6). It could also be imagined that sutra cases and substitute inkstones from the survey ward B would have been used by some men of weight who managed this shrine territory and conducted its religious activities. Fig. 6: Land division of the Medieval Period. (S. Mizuno) New Development after Phase III It is after 15th century that human beings restarted to live around the site of Nishihamasengen. No relic has been excavated at all at the survey wards of A and B, while at the survey wards of a medieval graveyard, C along the lakeshore, and offshore sinking parts of each ward small amount of relics have been found. These consist of not only stone material cultures but also old china plates, earth pottery plates, pots, grinding bowls, many variations of receptacles. On the grinding bowls some usewear is observed, which proves the existence of real human living there at this time. �The medieval graveyard must not have built on the submerged land but on the riverbed of some flow channels when the survey wards A, B, and C were formed as a river delta at the beginning, which was not suitable for plotting rice fields. This ward seemed to have been looked like the actual banks of hell at the middle age. According to some botanical analyses and natural scientific dissections of lakebed soil, much larger offshore areas of the current underwater site of Nishihamasengen were used for dryland agriculture at Phase III after the 15th century. Some oral traditions and historical materials tell us that there used to have been a village named ‘Nisihama-mura’. The relics discovered in the underwater site of Nishihamasengen prove that the village of Nisihamamura was founded after the 15th century. The oldest and first historical material titled Eikyo Shichinen Kanjin Sarugaku Hogacho which mentioned this village was written in 1435. Since the number of relics near the lakeshore is relatively small, the village centre at that time might have been on more offshore place among agricultural fields. Cause of Its Submergence and Time What was the actual cause of the submergence of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen and when? From the 15th to the 16th centuries, undoubtedly, the water level of Lake Biwa varied from 84.2 m 84.7m approximately above sea level (Nakagawa, 2017). Judging from many aspects of the excavated relics from the site of Nishihamasengen, Phase III was terminated at the latter half of the 16th century. Although some stone materials were sometimes reutilized, no relics from the Edo period was found and the newest one is from the first half of the 17th century. During Phase III, the highest peak attitude of the ward of a medieval graveyard is 83.2m (about 1.2m deep). If its ground �attitude nowadays were the same as one in the middle age, villagers had built their graveyard on the bottom of Lake Biwa. Indeed, the water level fluctuation of Lake Biwa is about 1m throughout the year all through the ages, but its fluctuation could not explain why a medieval graveyard is now under Lake Biwa. Some botanical analyses also tell us that around the graveyard the ground was dry at that time. Therefore, the ground subsidence must have happened between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century. The most probable movement of the earth's crust was the big earthquake occurred on 18th January 1586. According to Luís Fróis, a Jesuit missionary, because of this earthquake many ground cracks ate thousands of houses and villagers, and the remaining ones were destroyed by fires. He also described its ground liquefactions, saying that from ground cracks black and liquid soil was coming out (Ida, 1987). The legendary village of Nisihhama-mura or the contemporary underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen was submerged under Lake Biwa in 1586. Conclusion Lakeshore and seashore has changed due to water fluctuation, soil sedimentation, crustal movement, and so on. Underwater archaeology could investigate some causes of those changes, studying submerged sites. In Japan, however, most think that underwater archaeology is the study of shipwrecks and not many archaeologists are interested in the historical transitions of waterfront environment or underwater settlement sites. In the Japan archipelago, on the other hand, there are still to be many unknown underwater sites, which are similar to the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. Researching upon them will be able to cast a new light on the history of Japan or human beings generally. �References Ida, K., 1987. History of Tensho Big Earthquake. Nagoya University Press, Nagoya. Mizuno, S., 2011. Historical environment of Lake Biwa and human beings. In S. Mizuno (Ed.), Environmental History of Lake Biwa and Human Beings, Iwata, Tokyo: 5-26. Nakagawa, H., 2017. Archaeological study of water level fluctuation at Lake Biwa: some phases from the end of the ancient times to the middle age. Busshitsu Bunka, Vol. 97:113-154. Nakagawa, H., (Ed.), 2016. The Site of NIshihamasengen: Surveys and Studies of Submerged Sites at Lake Biwa, Sunrise, Shiga. Sugiyama, H., 2007. Kyo-zutsu. In M. Ono et al. (Eds.), Great Encyclopaedia of Historical Archaeology, Yoshikawakobunkan, Tokyo: 339-340. Biography Hisashi Nakagawa was born in Aichi Prefecture in 1988. During the undergraduate level, he learned underwater archaeology and supervised by Prof. Hiromichi Hayashi at the University of Shiga Prefecture (20072011). Prof. Hayashi did study underwater archaeology from Prof. Yoshio Oe, who is respected as "Father of Underwater Archeology in Japan". In 2013 he completed the master program (Human Culture) at the University of Shiga Prefecture, and then, he had been a PhD candidate in the same university, and a Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (2013-2016). He works now at the Toyohashi City Museum Art and History. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Historical Transition of Lakefront Environment and Use in Lake Biwa, Japan Description An account of the resource Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan. It has approximately 4,000,000 years of history, and many people have lived on this lake. More than 90 underwater archaeological sites exist here, and we are able to understand the subtleties of history. As an example, the Awazu-bottom site,is dated to the middle of the Jomon period approximately 5,000 years ago, and is the largest freshwater shell mound in Japan. It was formed near the lakefront at first, but now submerged on the bottom of lake. The Shiozu-port site is a late Heian period dated to 800 years ago, and is one of the oldest harbor sites in Japan. It was constructed to reclaim the lake, and prospered as water transport area. Many important remains, not only port facilities but also shrines and more, have been excavated, but it disappeared in the 12th century. The causes of this sites’ submergence is closely related an environmental transition of the lakefront. The water balance is particularly important problem. Approximately 460 rivers flow into this lake, but the discharge is only through the Seta-River. Therefore, the water level is greatly fluctuated by the sedimentation situation of the riverbed. According to the old historical documents, many floods have occurred. Therefore, sometimes dredging is carried out by the government to this day. Not only are water levels problematic, but ground sedimentation is as well. The lakefront is convenient for fishery and water transportation, but on the other hand, the land is soft. In a certain study, the ground water level is slightly 20cm higher than water level of lake. As a result of this, serious damage to the settlements have occurred by earthquakes. The extreme effect of this has settlements bring submerged to the bottom of lake by lateral Flow; landslide by the soil liquefaction. In this paper, I would like to study a historical transition of the lakefront environment and its use. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hisashi Nakagawa Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Hisashi Nakagawa Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The History of India, as Told by its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elliot, H.M John Dowson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available AMS Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Translator Elliot, H.M John Dowson Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Edition 1867-77 Number of Volumes 8 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available AMS Press Title A name given to the resource The History of India, as Told by its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/64921ecbbdf9ca06dfa9e558804ebbcc.pdf 1a6f8cb37fc7d646d4e801b518ecef2c PDF Text Text The History, Status, and Future of Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan Randall J. Sasaki Texas A&M University College Station 77841 USA Email: shipwreckarchaeology@gmail.com Setsuo Imazu, Yuji Dainobu, and Yoshihiko Akashi Kyushu National Museum Fukuoka Japan, 818-0118 Email: imazu@kyuhaku.jp Email: dainobu@kyuhaku.jp Email: akashi@kyuhaku.jp Abstract Underwater archaeology in Japan has a long history, as a report of artifacts from Lake Suwa in 1908, as well as discoveries at Tsuzura Ozaki site in Lake Biwa in 1924 detailed. The attempts to find the ill-fated fleet of Khubilai Khan at Takashima Island in Nagasaki prefecture began in the 1980s, but the Japanese archaeological community was slow in recognizing the importance of underwater archaeology. A number of underwater archaeological projects were conducted, but none had a lasting influence; the Japanese government has no law that specifically protects submerged sites, and there was neither government agency nor university that conducted a large scaled underwater excavation. However, several major developments suddenly took place in the past few years. In 2012, at first, following the discovery of a Chinese ship remain at Takashima Island, the Kozaki Underwater Site was registered as the first submerged national historic site. In 2013, secondly, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology published 6 volumes of “The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Report on Comprehensive Survey of Maritime Cultural Heritage”. In 2013, moreover, the Agency for Cultural Affairs formed a committee to discuss how the government should act in response to the growing importance of protecting submerged sites. These events signify the Japanese archaeological community, as well as the government, finally began to recognize the importance of underwater cultural heritage. This paper illustrates the history, current status, as well as the possible future development plan of underwater archaeological research in Japan. Keywords: The Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs, Law and Policy, Mongol Invasion, UCH Management, Database 1 �Introduction As an island nation, the ocean has always influenced the life of people living in Japan. A part of Japanese culture has been also shaped by “foreign” influences which must come from “outside the ocean.” Despite these facts, Japan is one nation that has not fully embraced the concept of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) management yet. In this brief article, the authors will propose a possible plan for initiating the management of submerged sites in the nation. To better understand this plan, a brief history of the field, recent developments of underwater archaeology, and the status of Japanese archaeological community are discussed. A brief history of Underwater Archaeology in Japan Japan possesses a long history of study of cultural relics found underwater. The discoveries of lithic from Lake Suwa in 1908, and the discovery of nearly complete pottery from Tsuzura Ozaki site at Lake Biwa in 1924 may be noted as the insipient stage of the field of underwater archaeology (Ishihara, 2000). The archaeological community debated how and why these underwater sites formed. It is interesting to note that archaeologists from a century ago had recognized the importance of submerged cultural remains. Since, a number of sites were investigated through a local municipal level but the majority of the projects were limited in scale (Hayashida, 2013). However, two projects that played an important role in the development of underwater archaeology in the country should be mentioned; sites around Lake Biwa and Takashima underwater site. The largest inland lake in Japan, Lake Biwa has been an important waterways as well as a source of water and food for the people of central Japan. Since the lakefront renovation plan was commenced in 1972, Lake Biwa became one of the focal points of UCH management in the country; over one hundred sites were investigated through this development project (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 2010). Cofferdams were built on nearly all of these sites making a dry land excavation possible (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 2010). The sites range from Jomonmidden sites to historic building structures; information gleaned through these excavations was tremendous. One important site, dated to around 4,500 years before present, is the Awazu-midden site (Tsuboi, 1994). The shell midden consisted of a layer 2 �of shells and a layer of plants alternatively bedded (Matsui and Kanehara, 2006). Such layering seen at the Awazu site has not been found on any midden sites on land; this is due to a waterlogged condition favorable for the preservation of the organic remains. Chestnuts, acorns, beans, gourds, edible burdock, and other cultigens were found within the plant layers and these plants were most likely cultivated, making the Awazu site one of the earliest that produced an evidence of extensive plant utilization in the country (Matsui and Kanehara, 2006). Japan with its acidic soil, large fluctuation of temperature, and a high annual rainfall rate, finding organic remains on a land site is rare. Thus, the potential of finding evidence of rich and extensive plant utilization of the early inhabitants of Japan is more likely to be found from underwater sites. The Takashima underwater site is a well-known historical battle site; Khubilai Khan’s fleet was destroyed here by the legendary typhoon during the Mongol invasion of Japan in 1281 (Delgado, 2010). The site has been reported by popular media, but has seen only a few scholarly publications (Takano, 2013). The history of research at Takashima extends for more than 30 years; based on historical records and local fishermen finding artifacts in their nets, the initial survey around the island was planned in the early 1980s. The project was led by a marine engineer, and various artifacts were found using a sonar system. Some of the artifacts were raised by divers; however, no remains of a vessel were found. Although professional archaeologists were not directly involved during this initial stage, the importance of the site was recognized (Matsuura City Board of Education, 2011). The Takashima underwater site was registered as a known archaeological site and thus became a protected archaeological site by the Law of Buried Cultural Property. Under this law, a site must be thoroughly investigated prior to any land development taking place. Following this initial project, a series of surveys and excavations were conducted at the island intermittently throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The board of Education at Takashima entrusted the research projects to various organizations, and the Kyushu Okinawa Society of Underwater Archaeology (now the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology: ARIUA) became the main partner of research. The rescue excavations for the harbor renovation at Kouzaki produced a large number of artifacts related to the Mongol invasion. The excavations continued, and large wooden anchors, 3 �fragments of hull remains, and weapons including ceramic bombs are just a few examples of finds made (Fig. 1). However, the discovery of a hull had to wait for a few more years (Matsuura City Board of Education, 2011). As will be discussed in detail below, the overall majority of archaeological projects in the nation are conducted through local municipalities. While the discoveries were being made, a few underwater excavations had taken place across Japan, but some projects had barely Fig. 1 Photo of the Hull Timbers waiting to be conserved at been reported. The Japanese Takashima. (Courtesy of Matsuura Board of Education and R. Agency for Cultural Affairs Sasaki) (JACA) had realized the importance of underwater archaeology and a national plan to manage such sites. Between 1989 and 1991, JACA sent interviews to all 3,245 municipal offices in the country, and a large number of offices reported the possible presence of submerged sites or artifacts recovered from their waters. Among them, 216 locations were selected for an additional survey. The result showed that only 44 of these sites were investigated (Agency for Cultural Affairs, 2000). Recent Developments A new phase of research at Takashima was initiated by the team led by Ryukyu University and the technical support provided by the Tokai University. Several seasons of remote sensing surveys identified several targets. In 2011 when divers began removing the accumulated silt on one of the targets, the remains of a Chinese vessel, perhaps more than 20 m in length, appeared. This discovery was covered extensively by Japanese media and brought underwater archaeology to the forefront of attention for many people (Ikeda, 2013). In 2012, Takashima became the first nationally registered submerged historical site; it signifies that an underwater site is now protected as one of the most important Japanese national heritage assets (Nakata, 2013). Following the 4 �discovery of intact hull remains at Takashima, JACA formed a committee to discuss how the Japanese government should act to protect submerged sites. The members various were selected specialists from including municipal officials, a vocational archaeologist, and a conservator. At this point, no specific Fig. 2 ARIUA’s Webpage Showing a Part of the Database. (K. management plan for the country Hayashida) has been decided. To provide the committee with up to date and accurate information regarding the status of managing submerged sites, Kyushu National Museum was entrusted to study how other countries in the world are managing their UCH. Another development that took place in recent years is the growth in number of academic, municipal, and vocational maritime archaeologists. Recognizing the growing importance of the field, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology became the first University in Japan to establish a course in maritime archaeology. The University initiated a number of survey projects using advanced remote-sensing technologies (Kondo and Iwabuchi, 2011). Some municipalities, including Okinawa, has developed a strong team of archaeologists that can manage the UCH in their waters. They have also conducted several outreach programs where a public can access the underwater sites (Katagiri, 2013). In the last decade, several underwater archaeology groups were formed and conducted research at submerged sites. Among them, ARIUA emerged as a leading institute. Besides their work at Takashima, the ARIUA’s underwater site database project initiated in 2009 should be equally cited as a breakthrough. They conducted an extensive evaluation of all known underwater sites in Japan. The project was also supported by various organizations, including other vocational underwater archaeological groups. This was the first time that such a comprehensive information of submerged sites was collected. ARIUA published six volumes of reports with a 5 �Table 1. Examples of part of the Database available on-line (translated into English) 6 �database of over five hundred submerged sites (Fig. 2 and Table 1) (Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, 2013). This study will be a valuable source for obtaining information regarding underwater archaeology in Japan and a foundation for future studies on the subject. Problems Concerning Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan There are three main problems concerning the protection of UCH in Japan. First, the underwater sites are not specifically mentioned in the laws. Second, there are no proper rules established when someone discovers a relic underwater, and third, no archaeological survey is required prior to a construction over water. Another concern, perhaps different in nature than the first three mentioned, is the lack of information regarding UCH in general. Before beginning the discussion of these problems, a current status of Japanese archaeological community will be illustrated. The law on the Protection of Buried Cultural Properties is the basis of all archaeological excavations in Japan. JACA sets the rules and guidelines for site management, and in most cases, the local Board of Education is responsible for managing local sites (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). Each municipality is responsible for maintaining a database of known sites. Once the site is listed, any development that takes place within or around the site must be excavated. The local authority decides which sites are to be listed and some municipalities take a step further by surveying. There are many Universities with programs in archaeology, but academic research within Japan is little more than 5 % of the total (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). There are a few public archaeology firms, but they are mainly limited to conducting projects in large cities. Their archaeological projects must also follow the municipal standards. The number of archaeological sites excavated - around 8,000 sites per year - may be surprising to many (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). Although many of the sites are small, the number of artifacts recovered from these sites accumulates quickly. For example, the number of sites (or perhaps it should be called “projects”) at Hakata, the historical port city in Fukuoka Prefecture in western Japan, now counts up to two hundred in number. These Hakata sites produce thousands of artifacts each. Many of the municipalities are struggling to complete the analysis of the astronomical amount of data gathered. Still, excavations 7 �take place each year while the budget and the number of specialists involved with the heritage management has been shrinking (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). In this situation, the focus of the research tends to be detailed artifact analysis (which Japanese archaeologists are one of the best in the world) and starting something new is extremely difficult. Japanese law also has a room for improvements. Although the current law does not specifically mention artifacts found underwater, the absence of the word “underwater” in the legal code should not imply that submerged sites need not be protected. Underwater sites can be protected if they are registered; the problem is how to get the site onto the list. The Takashima underwater site has been on the protected list and thus the past rescue projects were possible. Still, not having the word “underwater” may give an impression - consciously or not - that such sites are not common. The second problem, not having a set of standards when discovering an underwater site, may be a larger issue than the first problem. When a relic is found, a person should report to the local police department first. The police will then decide the fate of the found artifact. There are several ways to dispose of the finds depending on which law is applied. The best way in which to protect objects is to define them as a cultural property. In this case, the object will have the same protection as that found on land. If the police consider the artifact as a lost object, the law of lost property will be applied; the lost object may be given to the finder if no one claims ownership of it. The third problem is not having a regulation that requires archaeological survey before a development takes place over water. The archaeological community is largely unaware that such a survey does not require a large sum of money as it did in the past, and the industry is unaware of the fact that underwater sites are fairly common. One problem is the lack of information on maritime archaeology that can be found written in Japanese. In addition, a somewhat skewed and out-dated image of the field still persists. The blame should not be directed towards Japanese archaeologists, as it is our shared world heritage that we are striving to preserve. Not many people in Japan think that underwater sites are common and finding those sites are extremely difficult and expensive, if not impossible. Many think that to become an underwater archaeologist requires extensive training, and that excavations and conservation still 8 �more expensive. The information we hear about the subject primarily comes from national projects conducted in China and Korea, together with the stories of raising Vasa and Mary Rose. Considering the national budget set for archaeological research, underwater archaeology does not appear to be a practical choice. Furthermore, since it is certain that there is no job that a student can get even with a degree in hand, the study of underwater archaeology cannot be a career of choice for many. Proposed Plan There are several ways in which Japan may develop the program managing UCH. One possible way is for Japan to create a national underwater archaeological research center under JACA. This plan may be similar to the path China and Korea have taken. However, considering that the Japanese archaeological community is structured through cooperation of municipal archaeologists and a nation-wide project is rare, this plan may result in the isolation of underwater archaeologists from the rest of the “land archaeologists.” In addition, the government must first secure funding for such program. The most suitable plan for Japan is to utilize the existing infrastructure, limit any major changes, and create a system that municipal archaeologists could manage. The best management plan is one in which the main task of actual activities will be conducted through the municipal archaeologists and the existing groups of underwater archaeologists assisting the tasks. JACA will provide advice to municipalities and check the overall management of the underwater sites. The municipal archaeologists will manage the underwater sites according to the principles set by JACA. The main task will be to register new sites and perhaps organize surveys and excavations with the help of vocational underwater archaeological groups. As this scheme is only a proposal and not a completed plan, the details regarding how to incorporate the nonarchaeological community and stakeholders into the overall heritage management has not been fully debated. Along with the minor organizational arrangements, changes must be made in some of the laws; the three problems mentioned in the section above must be solved. The current cultural heritage law is an effective way to protect underwater sites, even it does not mention the word “underwater” specifically. JACA may distribute to each municipality an addendum explaining the guidelines for managing UCH. It should be 9 �mentioned in these guidelines that objects found in submerged context should have equal protection to those found on land. In addition, a survey to find and record new archaeological sites should be encouraged. The government should set a standard procedure when someone finds a historical artifact underwater, and a note should be distributed to all authorities. A change in legislation - namely to require a survey before development takes place on water and an agreeable cooperation plan with the fishermen’s association - is needed. When there is construction over water, conducting archaeological surveys by marine engineering companies is not something out of the ordinary. Once the stake-holders realize the importance of protecting underwater sites, as they respect archaeological sites on land, installing a rule for surveys on water should not be difficult to accept. The actual “loss” for a community and the stake-holders caused by adopting the protection of UCH, we believe, is minimal; the benefit, although it may be difficult to represent in economical terms, should outweigh the malefic. The local community may feel pride in having an underwater site, or some of the representative artifacts raised from the sea may bring tourists to the area. At the same time these changes are made, more up to date and accurate information about maritime archaeology should be disseminated. Both academic and non-academic publications should be encouraged. There is a plethora of reasons why distributing a current status of the study need to be promoted. To give one example, the Japanese archaeological community has already realized that raising and conserving a nearly complete vessel is not practical; however, it is a surprise to the Japanese public, as well as archaeologists, that the study of underwater archaeology is no longer about excavating sunken vessels. Once the archaeological community realizes that a project that raises an entire vessel is not a norm, and the coexistence of development with a long-term management of underwater sites is the current trend, a meaningful discussion of how the nation should protect submerged sites can begin. In addition to academic publications, the study of UCH should be introduced to a wider audience through popular publications and media. The stakeholders, including construction companies and the fisheries cooperatives, are the most likely groups that will be directly involved with UCH. Without the proper understanding of the value of artifacts found underwater by these groups, a protection of UCH will be difficult to achieve. 10 �Conclusions In this brief article, the history and current status of UCH in Japan was discussed. Based on the discussion, a possible plan on UCH management was proposed. Despite a long history of people being interested in relics found underwater, the Japanese archaeological community was largely indifferent to the development of UCH management around the globe. To bring about change in the Japanese archaeological community may take some effort, but the benefit of the proposed approach is that it does not require an extensive change in how the archaeological community is organized, nor does it requires a large budget. It also preserves the existing, and growing, underwater archaeological groups in the nation. Although this is one proposed solution, we believe it will bring more in depth and meaningful discussion on how to manage UCH in Japan. Acknowledgment This paper was written by the members of a group led by Kyushu National Museum entrusted to create a report for the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs on a current trend of UCH management in the world. This is only a proposal generated by the authors’ personal views and does not reflect the opinion or the plan of the Japanese government nor any institutions. References Agency for Cultural Affairs., 2000. Considering Methods for the Protection of Archaeological Sites: Underwater Sites. Agency for Cultural Affairs, Tokyo (in Japanese). Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology., 2013. The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology (Vol. 1-6). Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka (in Japanese). Delgado, J., 2010. Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet: In Search of a Legendary Armada. University of California Press, Berkeley. Hayashida, K., 2013. Underwater Archaeological Sites in Japan. Archaeology Quarterly, Vol. 123: 20-23 (in Japanese). Ikeda, Y., 2013. The Excavations of the Shipwreck in the Mongolian Invasions; the Underwater Archaeological Research of the Takashima Kouzaki Seabed Site. The Archaeological Journal, Vol. 641: 24-28 (in Japanese). 11 �Ishihara, W., 2000. The History of Underwater Archaeology in Japan. In Agency for Cultural Affairs (Ed.), Considering Methods for the Protection of Archaeological Site: Underwater Sites, Agency for Cultural Affairs. Tokyo: 5-22 (in Japanese). Japanese Archaeological Association. 2012. Archaeologia Japonica Vol. 64: Annual Report of the Japanese Archaeological Studies and Excavations (Fiscal year 2011). The Japanese Archaeological Association, Tokyo (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., 2013. The Research Agenda and Vision for Future. In The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Islands. Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka: 216-237 (in Japanese). Kondo, H., and Iwabuchi, A., 2011. Deepwater Archaeology off Tobishima Island of Northern Japan. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Proceedings, Manila: 251-259. Matsui, A., and Kanehara, M., 2006. The Question of Prehistoric Plant Husbandry during the Jomon Period in Japan. World Archaeology, Vol. 38 (2): 259-73 (in Japanese). Matsuura City Board of Education., 2011. Matsuura City Takashima Underwater Site: Summary of Research (Matsuura City Cultural Property Investigation Report), No. 4. Matsuura City Board of Education, Matsuura, Nagaski (in Japanese). Nakata, A., 2013. Historical Site Designated by the Site “The Takashima Kouzaki Ruins.” The Archaeological Journal, Vol. 641: 8-13 (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 2010. World of Underwater Archaeology at Lake Biwa. Sunrise Publishing, Hikone, Shiga (in Japanese). Takano, S., 2013. Takashima Island (The Research Results of Japanese Underwater Archaeology). Archaeology Quarterly, Vol. 123: 34-36 (in Japanese). Tsuboi, K., 1994. The Lake of Jomon: Discussions on the Awazu Shell Midden of Lake Biwa. Yuzankaku, Tokyo (in Japanese). 12 �Biography Randall J. Sasaki a PhD candidate at Texas A&M University, Sasaki is also working as a city archaeologist in Fukuoka City. His main interest has been traditional East Asian shipbuilding technology, particularly from the Chinese Yuan (Mongol) dynasty period. He conducted a timber recording project at the Takashima underwater site and also led a survey team at the Bach Dang River Naval Battle Site in Vietnam. He has been working on promoting importance of Underwater Cultural Heritage to the Japanese public; a popular book he published became one of the best seller titles on the subject in Japan. Setsuo Imazu has received his doctorate from Aoyama Gakuin University. He has worked at Fukushima Museum and Archaeological Institute of Kashihara at Nara. In 2005, he was invited to the newly created Kyushu National Museum. Currently he is the Director of Museum Science Division. He specializes in conservation, mainly focusing on treatment of waterlogged wood. He has published in various scholarly articles in Japan and other countries. Yuji Dainobu received his BA in History of Western Art from the International Christian University in 1977, Maitrise in History of Western Art from Universite Catholique de Louvain (Belgium) in 1980, and MA in History of Eastern Art from Kyushu University in 1983. He worked as a research assistant at the Faculty of Letters at Kyushu University in 1983, and later as a curator at Tokyo National Museum until 2004. He has joined Kyushu National Museum in 2004. He has organized many exhibitions including Tibetan Art, Liao Art, HIRAYAMA Ikuo and World Cultural Heritage. He has published many articles on Buddhist art and Silk Roads. Yoshihiko Akashi studied archaeology at Meiji University. His career includes working at Kyushu Historical Museum. His current position is the Director of Exhibition Division at Kyushu National Museum. He has published a number of scholarly articles on Japanese forts, or mountain castle, and also on the study of international commerce and relationship in ancient Asia. He is also interested in ancient Korean ceramics and decorated Kofun (painted tumuli). 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The History, Status, and Future of Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan Description An account of the resource Underwater archaeology in Japan has a long history, as a report of artifacts from Lake Suwa in 1908, as well as discoveries at Tsuzura Ozaki site in Lake Biwa in 1924 detailed. The attempts to find the ill-fated fleet of Khubilai Khan at Takashima Island in Nagasaki prefecture began in the 1980s, but the Japanese archaeological community was slow in recognizing the importance of underwater archaeology. A number of underwater archaeological projects were conducted, but none had a lasting influence; the Japanese government has no law that specifically protects submerged sites, and there was neither government agency nor university that conducted a large scaled underwater excavation. However, several major developments suddenly took place in the past few years. In 2012, at first, following the discovery of a Chinese ship remain at Takashima Island, the Kozaki Underwater Site was registered as the first submerged national historic site. In 2013, secondly, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology published 6 volumes of “The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Report on Comprehensive Survey of Maritime Cultural Heritage”. In 2013, moreover, the Agency for Cultural Affairs formed a committee to discuss how the government should act in response to the growing importance of protecting submerged sites. These events signify the Japanese archaeological community, as well as the government, finally began to recognize the importance of underwater cultural heritage. This paper illustrates the history, current status, as well as the possible future development plan of underwater archaeological research in Japan. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randall J. Sasaki Setsuo Imazu Yuji Dainobu Yoshihiko Akashi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/eacc82a8f31640a08f16eb644e3b1ac6.mp4 cbf568ef4cb2eacf37cdce1dc802b5c6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c4a4ca877eaa12bcfd267e560bf198e0.pdf 3654ceb404cebadcc9efd82abb725326 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource From Recovering Shipwrecks to Recovering Our Past Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Robert A. Underwood Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 29 November 2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology PDF Text Text FROM RECOVERING SHIPWRECKS TO RECOVERING OUR PAST Nov. 29, 2017 Address to the 3rd Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Heritage:The Maritime Cultural Landscapes and Seascapes of Asia-Pacific: Voyaging, Migration, Colonisation, Trade, and Cross-Cultural Contacts By Robert A. Underwood, President University of Guam Hafa Adai and Good Morning I have been asked to give a keynote address this morning. This is a special responsibility because I am supposed to do with words what others do with pictures of even power points. I will make the best effort I can to address the importance of this conference for universities, for Pacific Islands and for academics. If this were just an ordinary speech or presentation, I would excuse my lack of slides or a power point – by saying I don’t have a power point, but I hope to make some powerful points. This is a conference of experts and cursory observers. I am clearly one of the latter. It is an honor and special privilege to be with you here this morning to present some ideas about Maritime Archeology and the enormous growth of interest in Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH). As a result of this invitation and the continuing efforts of Bill Jeffery at the University of Guam, I have become immersed in the important work and conceptual frameworks which are used to advance the growth of your collective field and abiding interest in the traces of our human impact as found below the waterline. If this were just ordinary, terrestrial based archeology, I suppose that we would say buried in your work as opposed to immersed. Coming from the relatively small island of Guam, I am particularly interested in the field’s deep and important connection to research about the history of the �Pacific Islands, the prehistory of the Pacific Islanders and a greater understanding about Pacific Islanders themselves. I take this route to understanding all human endeavors as we all should, whether we are seeking profit from an economic enterprise such as treasure hunting, a passion for certain areas of academic research or just pursuing avocations. There must always be an overarching central purpose which enhances our understanding of our past, our resources and our future existence. It is in this vein that I think we have made the journey from Maritime Archeology and the attention to shipwrecks to international agreements about our common UCH, from the adventurism of diving for treasure to the methodical research facilitated by the latest technology. This is of particular importance to the Pacific Islands in a number of ways. Pacific Islands were settled at various times over the past 4,000 years ago and in the process of inhabiting the Pacific Islands, they left evidence of their endeavors, their journeys and their human imprint. Most of the time, we think of their prehistoric presence as existing in terrestrial evidence and their history is determined by this evidence in combination with the oral history of the islanders (in myths and legends) as well as the notes of early voyagers. In the interplay of these sources of information, we develop coherent and evidence-based narratives about their march across vast areas of ocean. In recent decades, we have added to this corpus of evidence, an examination of remains and remnants below the water line. The growth of interest in Austronesian migrations, the revival of navigation amongst Pacific island communities combined with the burgeoning interest in more recent historical phenomenon related to ships and vessels which now lie at the bottom of the ocean have propelled your field of study into new heights (or should I say depths). In combination with examining geographical formations and changing natural physical attributes and phenomena, underwater research may have a lot to say about issues like climate change. The connections between science and social science, past and present, natural and human phenomena are enriched and enlivened by marine archeology and its focus on uncovering evidence from below the waterline. �Most of us live in coastal areas. Over the years when I attend meetings in the U.S. on historic preservation (and I started as a young member of the Guam Review Board for Historic Preservation in 1977) attention to coastal areas and management of their resources is highlighted by pointing out that 39% of the population live in coastal counties, normally within 10-20 miles of the ocean. I always point out that 100% of the people I know live within 2-3 miles of the ocean. Yet, even in spite of the proximity of the ocean and the use of its resources on a daily basis, even those of us in the Pacific under estimate the value of remains and remnants below the water line in providing evidence about who we were and how we got here. We are more concerned with evidence that we can readily see on land than what remains underwater. It is in my concern about Pacific Island peoples and their history which brings me here and which compel those of us who manage knowledge bearing and generating institutions like Universities to pay attention to marine archeology, especially in island-based institutions like the University of Guam. In combination with the renewed attention given to UCH, we are recreating balances between historical preservation programs on land and in the water; we are revisiting our laws and procedures as well as changing our attitudes about the management of historical artifacts and remnants of vessels. We now create Maritime Historical Trails to preserve and appreciate our history. As I take a closer look at programs designed to protect our UCH, I am struck by the diversity of interest and the renewal of academic study and support in some of the larger countries of Asia. There is a healthy dose of interest in sunken cities as well as sunken vessels. I also admire the curiosity and patience involved which keeps you engaged in your research even when the evidence is meager and not easily discoverable (as in looking for the San Francisco off the coast of Chiba). Living and working in Micronesia, I have always had an interest in structures like Nan Madol in Pohnpei and the islets and canals which were created at great physical cost combined with great mental abilities to bring honor to ancient kingdoms and societies. Lesser known but equally significant and obviously connected is the Insaru settlement in Kosrae. I didn’t think of them originally as �part of a UCH, but they obviously are now. These are sometimes luridly described as mysterious monuments to ancient, superior cultures. They are connected to other “mysterious” structures and technologies like the latte stones of the Marianas Islands (which were likely originally quarried out of the water during low tide), the quarrying of stone money in Yap which required voyages to the rock islands of Palau. These are described as remnants of mysterious lost cities, sometimes by modern day writers who see themselves as modern day Indiana Jones’. I am more interested in the nameless Pacific Islanders who made these structures under extreme conditions and with an appreciation of the water around them. This brings to mind submerged settlements which dot the region and are remarkably intact like the ancient city of Junzhoul in the Danjiangkou Reservoir in Hubei Province. As described by Professor Sun Jian (of the Wuhan Underwater Cultural Heritage Base), the submerged city from the Ming and Qin dynasties lies preserved in remarkably good condition in the deep dark waters of the reservoir. There are also the remarkable submerged ruins off the coast of Yonaguni situated 68 miles east of Taiwan. The ruins consists of solid rock slabs which stand erect at right angles and are estimated to be around 8,000 years old or perhaps leading back to the last ice age. The existence of land bridges between the mainland and the surrounding islands frustrate the popular view that these underwater structures like Yonaguni (and even Nan Madol) were constructed by extraterrestrial beings and forces. They were just ordinary human beings like us. But we are still wedded in popular culture to ancient, submerged continents like Atlantis and Mu. In the 21st century, we think of fanciful theories about lost cities and extraterrestrial action in our distant past or even divine intervention as subject to evidentiary proof. Collectively, your efforts as resource managers, academics, informed hobbyists or just intelligent people are supposed to guard against these ideas which seem so 19th century or part of some lunatic fringe. Evidentiary proof is part of the rigor of analysis and the basis for separating truth from fiction. �With the onset of fake news and the explosion of social media and sources of information, I am not so sure that these fanciful explanations are buried in our past. They are given new life all the time. I am not talking about faith-based as opposed to evidence-based discoveries like the Shroud of Turin (in which Jesus’ likeness is reflected) or the Tablets discovered by Joseph Smith which gave birth to the Latter Day Saints or Mormons. I am talking about fake archeological evidence as in treasure makers or fakers who are the next step down from treasure hunters. Today, we have a public that knows more about pirates from Johnny Depp and the Pirates of the Caribbean than shipwrecks, documents and logs. Some 25% of the American public believes that the moon landing was faked. On a more positive note, in polling done for the Society of American Archaeology, 96% of the people believe that archeological sites deserve legal protection, but only 67% think that should apply to their own private property when it comes to removing artifacts. A smaller number (61%) think that laws should prevent the general public from taking away artifacts found on shipwrecks. Private property is apparently proprietary even in history and “finders keepers” is an ethic that continues to catch our attention. Of course, this is a dated poll (early 2000s) and includes only Americans. In the poll, 56% of the respondents received their knowledge about archeology through television and only 10% from k-12 education There must be fake archeological websites or at least ones that hold questionable views. In the new world, we respond to sources of information that agree with our points of view. I am concerned that political leadership will take a more direct hand in the portrayal of sites and findings especially when they conflict with national self-imagery or celebration. We have seen much of that in recent years and in some countries, an overt nationalist agenda trumps evidence. Come to think of it, I wonder what kind of UCH evidence President Trump would take as credible. Perhaps a few planted Trump tower signs in order to spark imagination would be acceptable. �The lost continent imagery continues to capture the imagination through popular programming and even amusement parks. Our childhood introductions to such topics in children’s stories and in portrayals in amusement parks (Jungle Boat Cruise in Disneyland and across the water at Hong Kong Disneyland) are never refined unless we go to postsecondary education or have the opportunity to visit World Heritage sites. A good, but not so dramatic example is the cluster of atolls named Papahānaumokuākea. As described in the World Heritage Listing, “This is a linear low lying islands located 250 kilometers northwest of the main Hawaiian islands, but extending some 1900 kilometer. The area has traditional significance for living Native Hawaiian culture, as an ancestral environment, as an embodiment of the Hawaiian concept of kinship between people and the natural world, and as the place where it is believed that life originates and to where the spirits return after death. On two of the islands, Nihoa and Makumanamana, there are archaeological remains relating to pre-European settlement and use. Much of the monument is made up of pelagic and deep water habitats, with notable features such as seamounts and submerged banks, extensive coral reefs and lagoons. It is one of the largest Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the world. This World Heritage Site brings a distinctive Pacific Islander perspective to UCH. It simultaneously gives a Pacific Islander cosmological interpretation to a series of practical applications and uses of resources needed for everyday life. Pacific Islanders understood that systems of land tenure included coastlines and extensions into the water. Pacific Islander reliance on ocean resources meant the study of fish, currents, and geographical landmarks to form ponds and mark areas where access to the open ocean was facilitated. Some of this is lost as islanders themselves turned to land-based resources, imports and other ways of interpreting existence, but the perspective of this world view can still be discovered in the UCH of Pacific Islands. In the listing of World Heritage Sites, 13 are discoverable through diving. Of these dive-able sites, three are in the Pacific Islands. They are Palau (southern Rock �Islands), Rapa Nui (Easter Island) and Bikini Atoll. The first two are heritage sites primarily for their natural assets which are unique and provide insight into naturally occurring phenomena. Only the Bikini Atoll World Heritage site brings us into the human affected underwater world. Bikini certainly does so in a dramatic way. Bikini became a World Heritage Site in 2010. Mary Jane Naone tells us that this site exists primarily to inform us about the effects of the nuclear age and the beginning of the Cold War. The extensive testing which occurred in the Marshall Islands harkens back to the effects of colonialism and disregard for Pacific Islanders which is within the recent life span of many of us. It is not ancient history or something that happened in the 19th century. It happened as an indicator of human progress and ingenuity in the 20th century. The testing itself helped motivate a global anti-nuclear movement after radiated tuna found its way into Japanese markets courtesy of a Japanese fishing vessel. Naone reminds us that there are also important natural as well as cultural/historical elements to this particular World Heritage site. We must be mindful of both and allow each to inform each other rather than be in conflict. UCH based on shipwrecks from nuclear testing or World War II remains of compelling interest to divers and the Pacific Islands themselves. There are perhaps as many as 4000 vessels resting on the bottom of the ocean throughout the Pacific. Many are just below the waterline and near coastlines and are accessible to divers. They offer a glimpse of history but also a hint of danger with unexploded ordnance and environmental challenges with some 300 oil tankers amongst the sunken ships. None are more stunning than the ships and airplanes in the Chuuk Lagoon. There are 50 Japanese vessels, 300 airplanes and 5000 sailors that are accessible to visitors from around the world. It is a world famous site that is not on the list of World Heritage Sites. As reviewed by our colleague Bill Jeffery in the publication being unveiled in this Conference (Safeguarding Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific), the Chuuk case presents many important lessons for us. There are challenges to the �environment from oil leaking from the vessels and the ever present threat of unexploded ordnance. This is exacerbated by the lack of adequate monitoring processes, regulation of visitors and uncertain government structure. Add to this the seeming indifference of islanders who continue to practice dynamite fishing, there is lots of room for misunderstandings and conflict. This keeps the site off the World Heritage list. Conflict archaeology clearly has a role in examining the case of Chuuk Lagoon. More significant than inadequate or irregular processes is the varying perspectives on the site itself. There are the American, Japanese and Chuukese points of view of the value and importance of the site. For decades, Americans have flocked to the site and are encouraged by a point of view that is concerned with the war time experience. There is an almost “celebratory” dimension to witnessing the destruction of the Japanese fleet. At the time of the air raids in World War II, it was seen as payback for Pearl Harbor. Diving and examining the Japanese wrecks as curiosities and trophies have been encouraged in ways that would be unthinkable in Pearl Harbor. The ships there are seen as entombing heroic Americans and are deserving of protection and solemnity. To some extent, the American attitude towards Pearl Harbor is more like the Japanese attitude towards the Chuuk Lagoon. Theirs is a decidedly more subdued point of view. This is a graveyard for the remains of thousands of Japanese sailors and a site that deserves more respect and reverence. As explained by Akifumi Iwabuchi, the soldiers and sailors of the Japanese military were promised that their remains would be returned to Japan if they fell in battle. Lastly, the Chuukese are ambivalent about it. They recognize that they have an historic site worth of worldwide attention to it, but their connection to the war experience was a tragic one. It reminds them of hardship, not national sacrifice or military victory. They want to profit from the site, but they are unsure about how to portray it in light of their own experiences. This is a continuing theme and unresolved issue which deserves serious thought and consideration if any attention to UCH is to be worthy of local and global support. It is important to �remember that worldwide acknowledgement matters very little if local communities neither support nor understand the establishment of historical sites. This has a terrestrial counterpart in the War in the Pacific National Park in Guam. After several decades of consideration, dialogue, examination and Congressional direction, a three prong approach to explaining the war has emerged. Basically, when you visit the Park or any of its sites, there is an American, Japanese and Chamoru point of view. It is important to note that this did not occur spontaneously. It required an open mind, lots of dialogue, advocacy and literally an Act of Congress. The sobering part of this is to understand that in Guam, World War II probably cost the lives of 5% of the entire population. For Saipan, it was closer to 10%. To ask them to commemorate the battles that occurred there in the same way that the combatant nations did is to simultaneously dishonor the islander experience and miss out an important part of the story. As we look to the future to ironically protect our past, we must not just cooperate and follow suggested steps as outlined in the annex of the publication Safeguarding Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific: Report on Good Practice in the protection and Management of World War II-Related Underwater Cultural Heritage, we have to work locally in individual jurisdictions to monitor regulatory processes and change laws. Local laws regarding salvaging were likely formed at a time when salvaging shipwrecks rather than history was the main concern. Treasure hunting has always captured the public imagination and impeded the growth of regulatory regimes and dispassionate academic research. We must also put teeth into the protection of these tangible remnants as looters and salvaging for metal intensifies. The desire for metal by islanders upon their first contact with Western voyagers is matched today by those eager to sell off salvaged metal. The interest in the Manila Galleons which went through the Marianas on the way to Manila, but only shipwrecked on the way back provides some interesting lessons and insights into the history of the Chamoru people. The passage between Guam and the nearest island to the north became known as the route, La Ruta in �Spanish and now gives that island the name of Rota or Luta in Chamoru. Some estimate that there are as many as 10 Galleons shipwrecked in the area, but the waters around Guam in particular are pretty deep. The Galleon Trade introduced missionaries, Catholicism and other major forms of Hispanicized reality to the Marianas Islands. Islander appreciation of these historical changes will be severely tested and analyzed when 2021 comes around, the 500th anniversary of Magellan’s visit to the Pacific. For Guam and the Marianas, this will be a watershed moment as we will get a waterfall of opinions. I am sure that there will be a voyage in store for the Pacific. I assume that the same welcome will be extended to would be Magellans as the original one. We do have some institutional support from resource agencies and for those of us in that part of the Pacific which is commonly referred to the US affiliated islands, this provides us a good basis to proceed with. The U.S. National Park Service has its Submerged Resources Center. It does excellent work even though it remains focused on historical sites. The work in Bikini Atoll on the archeology of the atomic bomb is an example of extraordinary effort on their part on the work that the NPS itself feels passionate about. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the US Department of Commerce also supports underwater archeology and helps bridge the gap between the study of human activity in areas impacted by shipwrecks, the construction of facilities and naturally occurring phenomenon which occurs over thousands of years and increases our understanding of climate change, sea level rise and connections to human migration and coastal activity. The role of academic institutions as the lead research agencies and honest brokers is vitally important. Marine archeology in universities is clearly not as robust as archeology on land, but it has been growing in networks which reach out to other disciplines. Nautical Archeology Program (NAP) founded in the 1970s at Texas A and M is the grandfather for American programs and set the standard. As its name implies, it �was originally focused on shipwrecks. It has grown into the Center for Maritime Archeology and Conservation belying the trajectory of interest as academic and research interests grew and matured. East Carolina University has also been a tremendous leader. Academic programs are also connected internationally through UNESCO and the University Twinning and Networking Program better known as UNITWIN. The UNITWIN just celebrated its 25th anniversary. There are 69 networks, covering 850 institutions in 134 countries. There is a UNITWIN Network for Marine Archeology established in 2012, The University of Guam (UOG) is an associate member and 11 full members (US members are East Carolina and Texas A and M), 17 associate members from an international array of universities. The Network complements the work of the UNESCO Secretariat of the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The convention is one of the seven core Conventions in the field of culture. Adopted in 2001, it intends to enable States to better protect submerged heritage. Through universities and these networks, marine archeology is growing as a discipline at the graduate level and is establishing its own presence through Field Schools which bridge practice with knowledge and hopefully within an environment of understanding. CONCLUSION As we look towards the future, the past looks brighter. And it will be so if we broaden our collective outlook to examine the relationship of the Pacific Island peoples back to Asia, Southeast Asia and the renewed interest in the origins of the Austronesian people in Taiwan. The Austronesian languages make up the fifth largest language family in the world (in numbers of speakers) but they are the second largest group in terms of numbers of languages. They are clearly the most geographically dispersed. They �can be thought of as the Maritime group of languages since they are dispersed throughout most of the island Pacific, through Southeast Asia and all the way to Madagascar. Their migration over large expanses of ocean left a trail of evidence which we should search for. They left fishing weirs, coastal settlements (some submerged) and a history of migration through navigation which is being re-discovered and re-enacted. Their ability to be scientists, meteorologists, naturalists, dreamers, planners and adventurers over large expanses of ocean remain one of the untold stories of human existence. Its discovery could even rival World War II in importance and significance. The interc onnectedness of natural and c ult ural res ourc es s hould i nfo It behooves all of us from large countries and small islands to not just promise collaboration but to work on specific networks of relationships with clear goals and objectives in mind. Those of us from small islands have big hearts, but regrettably resources and scale that are equal in size and scope to our diminutive size. Micronesia means more than small islands, it usually also means small resources. We need to rely on the expertise and extensive resources on places like Korea’s National Research Institute on Maritime Cultural Heritage and Taiwan’s renewed efforts to understand their UCH in terms of being the fountainhead of Austronesian migration. In partnering with larger land masses and expertise, Pacific Islands will discover their own past. More importantly, the search will provide important clues about the diffusion and spread of Austronesian peoples and languages. They spread out over the greatest part of the globe. Their story is important not only to themselves, but to understanding the genius of all of us terrestrial beings who moved over large parts of the ocean. � Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Honorable Robert Underwood Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Speaker speech and interview Description An account of the resource The Honorable Robert Underwood is a former Member of the U.S. Congress and is currently the 10th President of the University of Guam. As an educator, he has served as a teacher, school administrator, curriculum writer and administrator at the University of Guam. He is a distinguished scholar with many publications to his credit. He served as the Congressional Delegate from Guam in the 103-107th Congresses (1993-2003) during which he sponsored major legislation for Guam, played an active role in Department of Defense authorization bills and was a forceful advocate for political development for insular areas, the protection of oceans and coral reefs and the extension of educational and social opportunities for Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders. As a senior member of the House Armed Services and Resources Committees, he was the ranking member for several subcommittees and panels. He emphasized the importance of Guam and the Asian Pacific Region in national strategic policy and secured the initial funding for the Guam National Guard Readiness Center. He ensured Guam’s inclusion in major legislation such as the Telecommunications Act of 1996 that brought domestic telephone rates to Pacific territories, the State Children Health Insurance Program and legislation which created the Department of Homeland Security. He passed major legislation for Guam that resolved long standing land disputes with the federal government, brought recognition to Guam’s World War II generation and their case for war claims and enhanced local autonomy (elected attorney general, magistrate bill). Robert was born in Guam (1948) and educated in Guam and California. He graduated from John F. Kennedy High School in Guam (1965) and received a Bachelors (1969) and Masters Degree (1971) from Cal State University, Los Angeles. He holds a Doctor of Education degree from the University of Southern California. He has five children, two grandchildren and is married to former Guam Senator Nerissa Bretania Underwood, a prominent educator and former Superintendent of the Guam Department of Education. As a teacher and Professor of Education at the University of Guam, he led the effort to include the Chamorro language and culture in the curriculum of Guam’s schools and enhance multicultural understanding. He was appointed to the National Advisory Council on Bilingual Education during President Carter’s administration. He also served as Chairman of the Chamorro Language Commission for over a decade and is widely acknowledged as a leading authority on cultural, educational and linguistic issues in Guam and Micronesia. Since becoming President of the University, in 2008, he has helped reposition the University as the “natural choice” for thousands of young people in Guam and the Micronesian Region. He has significantly increased federal funding to the University and led a Good to Great (G2G) Initiative to build a great university for the region. He eagerly embraces the challenge of helping island communities take on issues related to change and building a sustainable future that continues our essence as islanders, protects our islands and oceans and builds strong societies and economies. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Asia-Pac Keynote 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7b453b38358fb25902d0e63a35005141.pdf 8cb91a98f954d706d4bb06ed6ebc70ce PDF Text Text The impact of mass media in the discrimination of Hispanic sunken heritage and the implementation of the UNESCO 2001 Convention Jesus García Calero Cultural section, ABC Newspaper, Spain Email: caleroje@gmail.com Abstract Sunken Hispanic heritage has been perceived sometimes just as an amount of gold and treasures. Unfortunately this widespread approach has prevented archaeologists to succeed in connecting the Hispanic-related cultural remains and shipwrecks with America’s naval archaeological record. The treasure hunting industry took advantage on this and now we regret the destruction of dozens of sites. UNESCO’s 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (CUPCH) (henceforth the Convention) is still the only legal and cooperative framework available to avoid Hispanic sunken ships from looting and dissolving into the marketplace. This is why treasure hunters, from 2010, undertook coordinated attacks against the Convention, often displaying dishonest behaviors, as was demonstrated in Courts, and requesting to be considered fair archaeological contractors. They gathered unfavorable opinions against the Convention even from archaeologists who agree with the UNESCO criteria but want an enforcement of research and projects suggested in the Convention but are concerned about misreading "in situ" conservation as if it were "in situ" oblivion. Now a new Heritage Act in Colombia allows treasure hunting companies to dig colonial shipwrecks legally. This is a beachhead and a challenge for the Convention's signatory countries as well as for archaeologists. The more scientific standards we set, the more actively committed with research and sharing knowledge we must be. Key words: Hispanic, Underwater cultural heritage, Treasure hunters, Mass media, Discrimination Introduction America’s history can no longer be told confronting Hispanic and Anglo-Saxon visions. Revealing works such as John H. Elliott’s Empires of the Atlantic World (2006) have focussed on the intertwined tale of both cultures, surpassing some 20th century prejudices that lost all sense in the current multi-ethnic society. Elliott shows just how the fates of both empires in the New World were closely linked, with surprising contemporary nuances. It’s time to fight the wrong view on sunken Hispanic heritage as a collection of treasures just to be rescued. Perhaps the law of the sea (“finders, keepers”), conceived to justify fortuitous finds, has been shown to be harmful enough as well as inaccurate to define the premeditated and technologically-sophisticated search 1 �of shipwrecks laden with treasure. In the name of old postulates, the new treasurehunting businesses have committed - and are committing - one of the greatest cultural disasters to affect mankind in the 20th and 21st centuries. We are referring to what Tony Horwitz, the shrewd American columnist, expressed in his The New York Times article “Immigration – The Curse of the Black Legend” (2006). In that article, he quotes Carlos Fuentes, who said “The Hispanic world did not come to the United States; the United States came to the Hispanic world. It is perhaps an act of poetic justice that now the Hispanic world should return”. Thus the vision we now invoke is vindicated. And this year we’ve had the opportunity to think deeper on this matter, after the publication of “Our America” the new book by Felipe Fernandez-Armesto (2014), who describes clearly the struggle even inside the American historiography for taking into account the Spanish branch of the past we all share. The idea that the remains of colonial Hispanic sunken vessels correspond to stolen goods, and that the people who perished in those shipwrecks were morally deficient legitimizes the virtual sacking of those very remains, and is commonplace in the pages where bounty hunters announce themselves to their would-be investors. They show no interest in the study of the people from different backgrounds and cultures that were aboard those ships, nor in the scientific consequences of such a revealing study. Such ideology has nothing to do with archaeology. Is the adventurer, surging from the deep sites, a paradigm to anyone who has seen their wildest dreams come true or to whom Providence has rewarded the greatest of efforts by being covered with shipwrecked jewels ripped out of what once was a tomb? There is nothing exemplary about those practices. No single archaeologist worthy of his title can deny the character of the real American history in each and every one of those objects. And the same goes for the moral or legal ties with the societies and people they originate from. An entire historical record has been mistreated by a destructive industry, and a whole culture discriminated. The low or practically inexistent scientific level and methodology that have guided “traditional” treasure - hunting businesses that flaunt administrative permits is also a byproduct of an “ideology” with which they argue in favor of the fruit of their labor. Back in April 2006 when Wilf Bloom, in charge of Deep Blue Marine, announced (Hollenhorst, 2006) the likely finding of the ship “El Salvador”, he told the Associated Press: “There’s 2 �a lot of blood on that gold”. Bloom also made a commitment to invest 10% of the bounty on hospitals and schools in “the regions of South America plundered by early Spanish explorers”. Such good intentions did not go beyond paying lip service to the message, but did provide a handy justification designed to align public opinion with something similar to the idea of the redemption of a black legend… in order to turn a handsome profit. Similar harsh arguments, that painfully caricaturize the history of Spain and America have been bandied before official forums in the United States, a practice that fortunately has not affected the impeccable American archaeological and scientific policies, but has nevertheless influenced its people. Proof of this are the large mass media corporations, who act as sounding boards for those who talk about treasures and value archaeological finds in terms of how many million dollars they are worth. We can see it in most press releases, even in the best exceptions (such as how The New York Times treated the story of the finding of the so-called “Black Swan” on May 19th, 2007) (Aguayo, 2007). The weight of the treasure-hunter industry is usually overwhelming - 13 out of 17 paragraphs in that article - against the few voices of marine archaeologists. In our example, the article started thus: “Explorers for a shipwreck exploration company based in Tampa said Friday that they had located a treasure estimated to be worth hundreds of millions of dollars in what may be the richest undersea treasure recovery to date”. A good example of news media coverage of an important case is the litigation between Odyssey Marine Exploration (OME) and Spain over the cargo found in the remains of Spanish frigate “Mercedes”, where we can readily see that in the United States - where American courts have sided with Spain and where both the U.S. government and its Navy supported Spain’s position– there has been no other voice heard except for that of the Tampa Company and its media connections. Curiously enough, as a contrast and example of the problem that we pose here, two years after the “Black Swan” story, the same company announced the finding of the English ship “HMS Victory” in the English Channel, and we were told the story of the shipwreck and its victims from the newspaper article’s very first paragraph: “Sea explorers probing the depths of the English Channel have discovered what they say is a legendary British warship that sank in a fierce storm in 1744, losing more than 900 men 3 �and possibly four tons of gold coins that could be worth $1 billion” (The New York Times, February 2nd 2009). The difference in how the story is told from a heritage perspective shows how the story plays depending on its origin. While it may be a small subtlety, it has had a devastating effect on the Hispanic archaeological record. Without cultivating a mere curiosity for history, the average person only reads about tons of coins, hundreds of millions of dollars and, eventually, the tough litigation against a power that stars in this new version of the black legend. That poses a great challenge for the scientific community and the historian, who today has to bring about a change in that perception. The 2001 Convention After all has been said and done, it is true that the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (CPUCH, 2001) remains at the center of the present debate as the only international legal and cooperative referent for the scientific community to approach a solution to the multiple, complex and polemical problems related to the historical underwater record. That is why we consider the implementation of its criteria as the most accessible safeguard of the endangered Hispanic heritage. Nevertheless, we shall see that in that regard, there has been a well-coordinated offensive in the last few years. In an article published in the Spanish daily ABC on November 22nd 2012, Filipe Castro and José Luis Casabán discussed the new forms adopted by the bounty-hunting industry: 1) The companies associated with large marine industries act in a shrouded veil of secrecy, on shipwrecks for which they already have buyers; 2) The traditional, ruinous companies, who are responsible for the destruction of a good part of the Spanish wrecks found off the American and African coasts in shallow waters; and 3) The other intermediaries, such as Odyssey Marine Exploration, who boast of being “a great company financed by its shareholders in the stock market, and are always quick to act and always reinventing themselves, with endless smokescreens to create illusions and situations, one step ahead of the mass media and of the regulating bodies, supported by important political entities in the USA” (Castro and Casabán, 2012). 4 �It is true, as is often heard, that most of the treasure hunters are involved in a ruinous business. Ever since the industry’s expansion, the ever-intelligent Peter Throckmorton (1990) understood that conservation of the heritage is a public concern. This debate, which I already touched on in a previous article entitled "Looting is not listed in the stock exchange" (García Calero, 2009), couldn’t be more applicable today. The reason is that we must assume the responsibility for the collective failure that supposes that the stock exchange and markets have not been able to choose a company that engages in the best practices. A company as protean as OME has seen a good share of its “creative force” impugned by its handling of the “Mercedes” case, not only due to the decisions it took in 2007, but also due to its attitude in the litigation against Spain. This is how the Honorable Judge Steven D. Merryday saw it when he condemned the company to pay the trial-related costs, and with harsh words said: They were searching for “a vessel and a location and a cargo all well documented and well known to Odyssey from the start and from long before the first day of this litigation”. The Judge also said: “To come to court and deny the truth of these facts is, as stated earlier, an unacceptable enormity propounded and maintained in bad faith and for an improper purpose”. Judge Merryday went on to say: "This bad faith conduct by Odyssey, dismissive of the applicable standards, dismissive of the court, and dismissive of the opposing party, cannot stand unaddressed by sanctions” (2007). So we would have to ask why this company who as Castro and Casabán have said (2012), pretends to be close to an archaeological dealer and hire archaeologists to supervise the work and even to publish its results, would print the "Odyssey Papers 13" in 2010. Back in 2009 the Tampa court had already shown signs that it would side with Spain against OME, and less than a year later, OME sponsored a symposium in New Orleans and published said “Papers 13”, whose main objective was to cast a reasonable doubt over the validity and the adequacy of the CPUCH. In that publication, Sean Kingsley (2010), a fine archaeologist who works for the Tampa company, makes an effort to distance the Odyssey practices from the old industry (he seems indignant when he cites Robert Grenier for referring (2006) to the old industry as one of “precious metal miners”). Kingsley goes on to justify the work done by Odyssey on the “HMS Victory”: “This careful and concerned approach to underwater cultural heritage is a world apart 5 �from the hit and run image depicted above by Robert Grenier, although it must be acknowledged that standards are far from uniform across the entire commercial marine archaeology field” [the underlining is ours]. Such final confession is striking when it refers to those who are directing continuous attacks against the CPUCH as an international referent due to the “irrelevance” of the in situ conservation criterion. Article 2.5 of the 2001 Convention states: “The preservation in situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage”. The ransacking of the “Mercedes” took place merely a year after Grenier’s comments, but for Odyssey the problem is the Convention, as is defended in “Papers 13”, made up of a combination of various authors united by a critical view. Evidently, nothing can prevent anyone from holding a contrary opinion or nuance to in situ conservation, above all in countries like Spain, where such criteria end up covering up for certain lack of action by civil servants regarding public initiatives to promote archaeological research of our rich underwater heritage. However, such posture is best understood in men like Kingsley when it is precisely the spirit of the Convention that the Joint Nautical Archaeological Policy Committee applied in the “HMS Victory” case, when it barred the Tampa Company from digging. We must remember that the British Ministry of Defense contracts have raised considerable and bitter polemic between archaeologists and Her Majesty’s Government, and that in Parliament, Lord Renfrew has shown this criticism at its highest level, as reflected in an interview (Bergareche, 2012) published by Spanish daily ABC. The Convention and its Annex, which regulates the necessary conditions before research can be deemed scientifically acceptable, worry the very same people whose conscience makes them say that “standards are far from uniform across the entire commercial marine archaeology”. Even then, there is also criticism from the archaeological world which, without impugning the Convention’s criteria, demands that it be applied in its totality, including the bases for the active research and training of a new generation of archaeologists who, out of the absence of projects and passive bureaucracy, will not have a more promising future. In Odyssey’s already cited «Papers 13», Filipe Castro writes on that subject (Castro, 2010). We agree: It is the same people who subscribed and regulated the Convention who should be most active and exemplary, and not hide 6 �behind a facade of passivity, because the heritage that we have to protect calls for knowledge as the first contribution to society. That is truly the real “treasure”. That is the permanent risk of the Hispanic heritage. It must not be touched without proper scientific method and the due respect to the sites. This makes the Convention pertinent and timely. The technology that allows us to reach the wrecks found in the depths is not enough to open a Pandora’s Box of contracting sui generis archaeological companies. The publications by Odyssey and other companies that warn against the danger of trawler fishing and other harmful activities are not enough to open the hunting season on the heritage. One must ask why, as in the two faces of Janus, the archaeologist and the treasure hunter live in such a narrow dialectic and increasingly confusing limits. And to understand why, we must go back to the origins. In those mythical days, when George Bass and a handful of pioneers were setting the basis for this scientific discipline, others were also laying the foundations of the treasure-hunting industry. In fact, in the case of the United States, organizations like the Council for Underwater Archeology, created in 1959, or the Sea Research Society in 1972, counted on diving experts among its founding members, like Robert Marx, who would quickly become one of the treasure hunters who has been most active on the Hispanic cultural heritage. The dichotomy between “trade goods” and “cultural artifacts” is then at the origins. Let us turn to the present. What will be the next battlefield, then? Without a doubt the problems are not over. To begin with, a recently passed law in Colombia will allow companies from 2014 on, to dig wrecks in return for 50% of the salvaged objects. Thus Colombia has launched the most aggressive attack on the Convention, something that is not entirely casual, because that law has turned the Caribbean country into a “beachhead” for the landing of treasure-hunting industry, who will take advantage of a historical opportunity to ensure their future as contractors. Colombian Constitution protects the underwater heritage as a result of its triple consideration of inalienable, embargo-proof and non-prescriptive. That of course means that in order to make a payment the cultural goods will have to be alienated. And that is exactly the treatment of the heritage that we denounce here as a traditional practice of treasure hunters, who in fact disconnect found objects from its cultural value, turning them into mere marketable goods. How is it 7 �possible that some coins or ingots themselves be worthy of being kept in a museum and yet not others? The magic is called “repetition criteria”. Colombia actively participated in the creation of the CPUCH, but changed its role just right before the vote and withdrew its backing to the project, in part due to the debates raised in a country where treasure hunters have always found loyal allies. What few people remember is that Robert Max is one of the inspiring forces behind the criteria of the new Colombian law, and has participated in the Colombian legislative debate from the very beginning. In fact, in 2003, in a hearing before that country’s Constitutional Court (2003), he stated for the first of the projects aimed at achieving the penetration of contractors to dig up treasure-bearing colonial-age shipwrecks. It is not a coincidence that in three different occasions during the last decade a legislative bill with the same purpose has gone before the Colombian parliament. As reported in El Espectador (“Treasure hunters eye Colombia”, June 6th, 2009) (Padilla, 2009), Marx’s presence in that Court in 2003 surprised more than a few. Curiously enough, that text was published in June 2009, right after Spain’s first-round victory over Odyssey in the Tampa court. It is as if, confronted with the likelihood of a possible defeat in the trial for the “Mercedes” cargo, where the industry risked future digs of Spanish wrecks in international waters, the powerful lobby became actively involved not only at the New Orleans congress, but also with its Colombian connections. And they achieved their objectives; the Colombian law takes effect this year. The 50% split between the State and the contractor has been popularized by Robert Marx over his more than 50 years of activity on Hispanic wrecks. And the repetition criteria is a trick that will be specifically applied on coins, jewels and ingots dug from future sites, but not on the nails, wooden planks nor ballast stones, that are also repeated but have no market value. What should worry those who are entrusted with protecting the heritage and also defending the CPUCH is the complete enforcement of what UNESCO dictates. Research, excavation and publication cannot be left for tomorrow, because with the available technology, we simply do not know how much longer the Hispanic underwater record will survive. Moreover, publishing becomes an urgent social responsibility for all archaeologists. We must call for action and results, while at the same time demanding 8 �scientific standards. Not taking an active part in in situ conservation is to abandon the excavation to the treasure hunters. An entire generation of archaeologists will be tempted to take the non-scientific road if they want to work, a dilemma that should never be imposed on any young lover of archaeology. Worst of all, in that case the discrimination against the Hispanic heritage will never be overcome because due to the mere fact of having arrived first to America, as John H. Elliot said. In the process of mining silver and gold, the Spaniards gathered both benefits and curses. From the beginning, the Spanish ships loaded with “treasures” (Treasury) were the favorite prey of the pirates of old. When the galleons sailed, their crews risked their lives over uncertain seas whose roads still lead to us. When they came under attack, they sold their lives and their flags dearly. Today, shipwrecked, they are helpless in light of the greed of these new, technologically super-refined pirates. The only defense we can offer them is to tell their story well and not to let a whole world of objects and artifacts that was sunk with them be dissolved, neither in the ocean nor in the market place. Acknowledgements I am very grateful to APCONF for the opportunity to make visible the Hispanic point of view of a problem we all share and let me speak to you from this far location. To the UNESCO for his role and commitment to the protection of the UCH. To María Cruz Berrocal and Veronica Walker Vadillo for their advice and ideas. And to all those who struggle to prevent our heritage to be destroyed by a profit motive. References Aguayo, T., May 19th, 2007. A Bountiful Undersea Find, Sure to Invite Debate. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2007/05/19/us/19treasure.html Bergareche, B., October 24th 2012. Colin Renfrew: ‘Los Estados recurren a empresas como Odyssey por ignorancia’. Diario ABC. www.abc.es/20121024/cultura/abci- renfrew-arqueologo-lord-odyssey-201210231911.html Broad, W. J., February 2nd 2009. Treasure Hunters Say They’ve Found a 1744 Shipwreck. The New York Times, www.nytimes.com/2009/02/03/science/03shipwreck.html?adxnnl=1&adxnnlx=13883333 21-JEyXu6mX7CDdeVBRW4eXWA 9 �Castro, F., and Casabán, J. L., November 22nd 2012. Así operan los tres tipos de cazatesoros que benefician el hobby de los cleptócratas. Diario ABC. www.abc.es/cultura/20121122/abci-filipe-castro-cazatesoros-hobby-201211211941.html Castro, F., 2010. Archaeologists, Treasure Hunters, and the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage: a Personal Viewpoint. Odyssey Papers 13. www.shipwreck.net/pdf/OMEPapers13-UNESCO.pdf Corte Constitucional de Colombia: SENTENCIA C-474/03 PATRIMONIO CULTURAL Y ARQUEOLOGICO DE LA NACION. 2003. Corte Constitucional de Colombia. Elliott, J. H., 2006. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 14921830. Yale University Press, New Haven and London // Taurus, Madrid. Fernández-Armesto, F., 2014. Our America. A Hispanic History of the United States W. W. Norton and Company, pp. 402. García Calero, J., 2009. El expolio no cotiza en bolsa. Economía Exterior. July issue, 2009 www.academia.edu/5550882/El_expolio_no_cotiza_en_bolsa. Grenier, R., 2006. Introduction: Mankind, and at Times Nature, are the True Risks to Underwater Cultural Heritage. In R. Grenier, D. Nutley, and I. Cochran (Eds.), Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk: Managing Natural and Human Impacts ICOMOS. pp X and XI. ICOMOS, 2006. Paris www.international.icomos.org/risk/2006/fulldocan.pdf Hollenhorst, J., April 4 2006 Utahns to dive for treasure. Desert News www.deseretnews.com/article/635196749/Utahns-to-dive-for-treasure.html?pg=all Horwitz, T., July 9 2006. Immigration - and the Curse of the Black Legend. The New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2006/07/09/opinion/09horwitz.html Kingsley, S., 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage and UNESCO in New Orleans: an Introduction. Odyssey Papers 13: 1-6 www.shipwreck.net/pdf/OMEPapers13- UNESCO.pdf Ocean Navigator, january 2001. "Astrolabe found off Cape Verde Islands" www.oceannavigator.com/January-February-2003/Astrolabe-found-off-Cape-VerdeIslands/ 10 �Padilla, N. F., June 6th, 2009. Cazatesoros miran a Colombia. Diario “El Espectador”. www.elespectador.com/impreso/hallazgo-arqueologico/articuloimpreso144368cazatesoros-miran-colombia. Throckmorton, P., 1990. The World’s Worst Investment: Economics of Treasure Hunting with Real Life Comparisons. In Underwater Archaeology Proceedings, from the Society of Historical Archaeology Conference. Edited by Toni Carrel. Tucson, Arizona: 6-10. -UNESCO., 2001. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (CPUCH). Jesús García Calero (Segovia, 1965) is a Spanish journalist, graduate from the Complutense University of Madrid. Since 1994 he has specialized in cultural information and he is chief editor for Culture and Entertainment sections in nationwide newspaper ABC, Madrid, from 1998. Most of his journalistic work addresses issues about Heritage, Art and History, from the theft of valuable maps and manuscripts in the Spanish National Library, to the case “Mercedes” and Odyssey Marine Exploration, or the polemic authoring of some Goya’s paintings -like “Colossus”- at the Prado Museum. He is also founder of the blog “Espejo de Navegantes”. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Introduction interview with session chair María Cruz Berrocal and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Research on early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region makes a fundamental contribution to the study of Global History. In the last decades, historians are highlighting the region's relevance in the transformation of global economy through its role in far-reaching trade networks. The early beginnings of colonialism in the region, as well as the role of non-Angloamerican colonial agents in the shaping of modern world have been also highlighted. Although these debates have been driven largely from history, archaeology must become more prominent for the study of early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region through the study of consumption patterns, environmental effects, demographic impacts, transformation of gender systems brought about by contact, the role of material culture in these first colonial endeavours, and specifically, the important evidence that maritime archaeology can bring to the fore. It is argued in this session that new lines of evidence and argumentation will be found through a history- archaeology joint collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. María Cruz Berrocal Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The impact of mass media in the discrimination of Hispanic sunken heritage and the implementation of the UNESCO 2001 Convention Description An account of the resource Sunken Hispanic heritage has been perceived sometimes just as an amount of gold and treasures. Unfortunately this widespread approach has prevented archaeologists to succeed in connecting the Hispanic-related cultural remains and shipwrecks with America’s naval archaeological record. The treasure hunting industry took advantage on this and now we regret the destruction of dozens of sites. UNESCO’s 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (CUPCH) (henceforth the Convention) is still the only legal and cooperative framework available to avoid Hispanic sunken ships from looting and dissolving into the marketplace. This is why treasure hunters, from 2010, undertook coordinated attacks against the Convention, often displaying dishonest behaviors, as was demonstrated in Courts, and requesting to be considered fair archaeological contractors. They gathered unfavorable opinions against the Convention even from archaeologists who agree with the UNESCO criteria but want an enforcement of research and projects suggested in the Convention but are concerned about misreading "in situ" conservation as if it were "in situ" oblivion. Now a new Heritage Act in Colombia allows treasure hunting companies to dig colonial shipwrecks legally. This is a beachhead and a challenge for the Convention's signatory countries as well as for archaeologists. The more scientific standards we set, the more actively committed with research and sharing knowledge we must be. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jesus García Calero, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 5 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/529bc670c824352dee22b69f904b2a1a.pdf 66d48b269ad704a9048c360608fb44c0 PDF Text Text The Impact on the Development of Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka through the UNESCO Regional Maritime Archaeology Field Schools. Wijamunige Chandraratne (wijamunigechandraratne@gmail.com) ABSTRACT Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka began in 1992 with focus on the historic port of Galle, but most of those programs were supported by foreign funds and involved foreign consultations. The Avondster (1659) Marine Archaeology Project carried out from 2001 to 2004 contributed to an extent in the creation of a group of local archaeologists and conservators. This was useful when the Sri Lankan team took over the research and conservation independently in 2005, after the tsunami disaster. In 2006, UNESCO initially provided funding to Sri Lanka so that an Asia-Pacific Regional Field School Program for Maritime Archaeology could be set up in Galle. The first and second sessions for Training the Trainers Program took place in 2006 and 2008. However, the lack of support from the Sri Lankan government as well as the ongoing war in the country, prompted the transfer of the field school project to Chanthaburi, Thailand. Three Foundation Courses and two Advanced Courses for GIS and In-situ Conservation were conducted. From 2009 to 2012, 76 participants from 17 different countries joined the training courses, with 11 representatives from Sri Lanka. This paper deals with measuring the development of maritime archaeology in Sri Lanka, especially after the field school program. This will focus on developing infrastructure, field research, conservation, and human resources of the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU). This will also discuss the steps taken to start collaboration projects in the Asia-Pacific region and among the participants of the previous field schools. Further, the progress of the ratification process of the UNESCO 2001 Convention in Sri Lanka will be examined. Key words: UNESCO, Maritime Archaeology, Field Schools List of Figures Figure 1: The UNESCO field School 2006 Figure 2: The UNESCO Second Field School (2010) Figure 3: UNESCO Second Field school 2010 (Thailand) Figure 4: Godawaya First international Collaboration research Project Figure 5: Cover page of national Shipwreck database INTRODUCTION In 1992, maritime archaeology fieldwork in Sri Lanka started on the historic port of Galle in cooperation with foreign maritime archaeologists and supported by foreign funds. As a milestone for the field activities, the Avondster Research and Conservation Project (2001-2004) focused on the shipwreck Avondster (1659) that sank in Galle harbour. The project involved maritime archaeologists from Australia, the Netherlands, England, and the United States of America among others (Parthesius 2007). The Dutch government provided the funding while conservationists comprised the human resource. The project helped produce a group of Sri Lankan maritime archaeologists as well as conservators for underwater artifacts. The project laid the foundation to complete the building construction and other infrastructure, the purchase of equipment and chemicals needed to run field operations. The unfortunate tsunami disaster that took place at the end of the project hampered all the improvements gained and caused confusion. Although the tsunami disaster did not cause harm to the maritime archaeology staff, other physical resources were greatly damaged (Bonke, 2007). The necessary financial and labor investment to restart the fieldwork was done with the intervention of countries like Australia through the Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology (AIMA), and the Netherlands through the Cultural Emergency Response (CER). Furthermore, the process of establishing the maritime archaeology training center in the Asia-Pacific region in Galle also commenced with funds coming from the Royal Norwegian Grant and UNESCO. Under this program, two field schools for Training the Trainers were conducted in 2006 and 2008 held in 1 �Galle (Figure 1 & 2) participated by local maritime archaeologists, conservationists, and foreign trainees. However, UNESCO decided to transfer the Asia-Pacific Regional Center to the Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD) in Chanthaburi, Thailand. The new training program hosted three Foundation Courses, one Advance Course for Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and one Advance Training Course for In-situ Conservation (Figure 3). These were attended by 11 representatives from Sri Lanka (Menders, 2002). An expectation is to conduct a follow-up on the development of maritime archaeology in Sri Lanka concurrently with the above courses and thereafter. Figure 1: The UNESCO field School 2006 Figure 2: The UNESCO Second Field School (2010) Figure 3: UNESCO Second Field school 2010 (Thailand) The Inter-cooperative Research Project at the Archaeological Wooden Shipwreck Site in Godavaya in 2010. The main topic of discussion at the experts meeting held in conjunction with the Second Foundation Course in Chanthaburi, Thailand, was to implement a preliminary research project based on international cooperation regarding the recent discovery of the Godavaya wooden shipwreck in the southern coast of Sri Lanka. The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) in Galle proposed to organize the expedition and shoulder the initial expenses of the experts to participate through the UNESCO Bangkok Office and the Netherlands Cultural Fund. Maritime archaeologists representing India, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia participated in the first two weeks of December 2010 and conducted an initial maritime archaeological exploration in the aforementioned site (Chandraratne, 2017) (Figure 4). 2 �Figure 4: Godawaya First international Collaboration research Project In parallel with the implementation of this research process, several research papers were published in international journals that helped make relative and scientific chronologies concerning this archaeological site. The archaeological assemblage included pots, grindstones, glaze ingot, and copper ingot established the date of the shipwreck to the 1st century CE (Common Era). The glazed and copper ingots had been among the major trade components in the ships during that period. Further, the management and conservation of Sri Lanka’s coastal belt and internal waters as part of its maritime cultural heritage was assigned to a team of four (4) maritime archeologists and two (2) conservationists who were working at that time at MAU. The severe lack of human resources meant the team was unable to deal with the existing heritage issues and concerns, and therefore it was emphasized that the development of human resources in the field had to be improved. Human Resource Development in the Maritime Archaeology Unit Most of the heritage managers who joined the archaeology field schools in Sri Lanka and Thailand, as well as in the Avondster project were affiliated with the Department of Archaeology, Department of Museum, and the Sri Lanka Navy. Thus, they did not always have direct access in taking part of the MAU fieldwork. Due to this, applications were called for the recruitment of archaeology graduates to the MAU. Ten archaeology graduates with a special interest in the field of maritime archaeology and who participated in the short-term residential maritime archaeology field schools were selected for further training from the initial 39 applications received by the unit. In 2011, field training activities and diving training activities were started for the newly recruited graduates. With the addition of the new recruits, the number of the Diving Research Section members of the MAU increased to 14. Also in 2011, the Northwest Coast Archaeological Research Project started work on the coastal areas from Chillaw to Mannar to expand the maritime archaeology research activities to other parts of the islands. These areas were previously limited to the southern coast of Sri Lanka for more than two decades. The civil war situation that had started in the 1980s in Sri Lanka completely ended in 2009. By the beginning of 2012, the work of removing the landmines and death traps in the northern and eastern coastal areas had also been completed. In the same year, archaeological explorations were extended to the 3 �Eastern coastal belt, and, in the following year, in the Northern coastal belt. It is a special achievement of the MAU to be able to start maritime archaeological activities in the Western coastal area in 2013. Due to the monsoon weather conditions, diving research activities in Sri Lankan coasts can only be done from November to March in the Southern and Western seaboards, whereas from April to October, in the North Eastern and North Western seaboards. Thus, the annual work plan of the MAU’s Research Section was limited to two months or less per coastal area each year. Opportunities for training in international maritime archaeology field schools were very rare for the second generation of maritime archaeologists. The main factor that affected it was the field school training activities in Chanthaburi, Thailand by the UAD (Underwater Archaeology Division). Also, as a low-income country, Sri Lanka’s institutional economy was in a weak state and political inadequacies created a disadvantageous situation for MAU members to attend international training and postgraduate opportunities. However, some members were able to take advantage of opportunities based on their initiative. For example, the participation of two trainees and one trainer representing MAU in the International Maritime Archaeology Field School held from 15 June to 12 July 2015 in Vietnam. This training program was hosted by the Institute of Archaeology in Vietnam in coordination with UNESCO and the Southeast Asian Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts (SEAMEO SPAFA) with the financial support of the Netherlands RCE (RIJKSDIENST V00R Net Cultureel Erfgoed). The newly recruited MAU archaeology graduates will undergo theoretical and practical training programs designed to develop their knowledge in maritime archaeology, document and maintain underwater databases, and study possible damages and solutions. Studying the weaknesses in the existing legal framework and making proposals for amendments was also included. Due to the increase in the number of new coastal archaeological sites discovered annually by the maritime archaeology regional exploration projects that started in 2011, the existing human resource capacity of the MAU was not sufficient at all to protect and manage those sites. As a result, the MAU joined hands with the Sri Lanka Police, Sri Lanka Navy, Sri Lanka Coastal Guard, Sri Lanka Fisheries Department, and the National Aquatic Resources Agency (NARA) to manage the situation through an inter-ministerial committee to control the damage caused to the maritime heritage sites by the fishing industry, old iron collectors, and the ones who are using prohibited fishing strategies such as dynamiting. After the establishment of this committee, a great effort was made to protect heritage sites from the very damaging and deterministic influence that had been in place until then. That is, the authority given to the Divisional Secretaries to issue licenses to the private sector to cut and remove metal ships or other vessels sunk in the Sri Lankan coast is subject to the recommendations of the above-mentioned inter-ministerial committee. It is a victory to be able to control the destruction of metal vessels of historical value that have been pilfered through false licenses of the Divisional Secretaries and pretending these vessels to be recent. Further, although it is legal to conduct an Archaeological Impact Assessment (AIA) of the land on which medium and large-scale development projects are started, the implementation of that legal situation around the coastal belt of Sri Lanka is very slow. However, legal amendments in the year 2000 provided some relief to overcome this situation. Further, awareness programs organized for the guides of the tourism diving centers that had taken the diving tourists to the maritime cultural heritage sites were arranged to give an understanding of what their responsibility should be in maritime heritage management. Also, despite long discussions for Sri Lanka’s inclination to adhere to the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Preservation of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, the negotiations have not been effective enough to reach a final agreement. This can be attributed to the disorganized communication and lack of focus in the organizational structure. This can be due to political instabilities that arise from time 4 �to time as well as unstable policies and plans have had a strong impact on the study of the process of updating national legal systems and adapting to international conventions related to the sustainable existence of maritime cultural heritage. Also, regarding the existing legal status of Sri Lanka's Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) and taking necessary actions to increase its capacity, MAU and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) works very closely with its subsidiary the International Committee on the Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH) in the formulation of necessary policies. National and International Activities of the MAU After the year 2010, MAU embarked on many initiatives of national importance such as the establishment of the Museum of Maritime Archaeology (MMA) in 2010. Even though MAU was established in Galle in the same year, the necessity of creating a museum to exhibit the artifacts recovered from it was strongly emphasized. The old Dutch warehouse building in the historic Galle Fort was converted into the MMA after it was removed from its state institutional use and was thereby conserved. Currently, this museum attracts thousands of tourists daily. Consisting of four galleries, the museum is dedicated to the knowledge and entertainment of the public by constantly updating science with discoveries. Conducting short-term maritime archaeology residential field schools for archaeology undergraduates in the Department of Archaeology of the National University System. The MAU has been conducting in-house field schools for archaeology undergraduates in universities since 2008 but was done only for a limited number of selected candidates. After 2010, the course structure of those field schools is patterned after the course structure of the UNESCO maritime archaeology field school. Consequently, the archaeology study departments of the respective universities involved all the final year undergraduate students and recommended that the program be sustained. Because of this, all archaeology graduates are equipped with a wide range of knowledge about maritime archaeology. In relation to the collaborative maritime archaeology projects between the MAU and the Underwater Archaeology Unit (UAU), the Department of Archaeology of Sri Lanka possesses the legal authority to impose policies. However, since 2001, all aspects of marine cultural heritage exploration, reporting, publishing, and exhibition are being implemented by the MAU, which is controlled under the Central Cultural Fund (CCF). Nevertheless, the UAU, with limited human and physical resources, also functions under the Archaeology Department. Accordingly, a limited number of maritime archaeologists who have acquired knowledge from the UNESCO field schools are working with both MAU and UAU. Post 2010 emphasis was placed on maintaining maritime archaeology projects in collaboration with both these units. The UAU members were regularly involved in all the maritime archaeology projects carried out in connection with all aspects of the Godavaya excavation. The MAU also collaborated with UNESCO-supported projects in 2010. From 2011 to 2014, the UAU also cooperated with MAU. The MAU was involved with collaborative projects with the American Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) organization, centered around the historic wooden shipwreck Godavaya. This cooperation between MAU and UAU was the main reason for the development achieved so far in the field of maritime archaeology. 5 �CREATION OF NATIONAL SHIPWRECK DATABASE The MAU planned from the beginning to include all the data into the system that identified underwater archaeological sites discovered since the beginning of maritime archaeology research in Sri Lanka. Since this is not a task that can be done alone, the volunteer services of the Institute of Archaeology and Heritage Studies (IAHS), a private-sector heritage research institute, have been obtained. Thus, the Sri Lankan National Shipwreck database was published in the year 2022 and it contains data on 109 marine archaeological sites discovered by the MAU (Figure 5). This is not a database prepared with complete data entry and is created based on data updates. 6 �Figure 5: Cover page of national Shipwreck database CONCLUSION The maritime archaeology research that started three decades ago in Sri Lanka was done gradually and was unorganized in the first two decades. However, beginning in 2010, developing research activities were on a more organized and sustainable basis. The civil war situation in the country had ended and a peaceful atmosphere was created. The socio-economic situation that had been unstable previously had improved to a significant level, which enabled maritime archeological activities to be gradually directed to an organized approach. In the third decade, the MAU was able to create the necessary background for developing human resources in maritime archaeology to produce a group of professional maritime archaeologists and experts in the conservation of underwater artifacts. The programs implemented for the participation of professionals in related fields and the general public in managing marine cultural heritage were attainable. The projects implemented so far for the publication of maritime archaeological heritage discoveries together with the Maritime Archaeology Museum and MAU have been extremely successful. The awareness programs about maritime archaeology to university undergraduates, the confirmation by local people's participation for the protection of maritime archaeological sites discovered regionally, and the awareness programs such as educating the school student community regarding underwater cultural heritage has been effective. An important achievement is the discovery of underwater archaeological heritage sites hidden in the regional coastal belt around the island by the regional maritime archeological explorations. Also of equal significance is the publication of a national shipwreck database carried out in parallel with the recording of the identified heritage sites. Finally, the UNESCO Maritime Archaeology Field Schools was a great help for all these developments achieved by Sri Lanka in the field of maritime archaeology. 7 �Bibliography Bonke.H., Parthesius .R., Ketel.C.V.D.P., Avondster Project Artifact Catalogue, 2007,Center for International Heritage Activities , special Publication No.1,The Netherlands. Clark, A.C., 1964. Ceylon and the underwater archaeologist.Expedition,Vol,6(3):18-21. Chandearathne, W., 2017, Past Present and future of Asean maritime heritage (Eds.)., Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka, Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine arts Department, ministry of Culture. Excavation Report on Ambalangoda Fisheries’Harbour.2012, (Unpublished in Sinhala), The Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Galle. Devendra,S., 1996. Under the waters of Galle. The Galle Harbour Maritime Archaeology Project. The D.T. Devendra Memorial Lecture, 1999. Colombo. Daily News: 21st and 22nd April 1999. Devendra.s.,Muthucumarana.P.R.,Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka. Twenty Five Years Old and New Beginning, 2013. (Unpublished) The Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Galle. Godfrey.I.M.,1998.Report on Wood Identification – Sri Lanka1997.Western Australian Maritime Museum,Perth. Green.J.,and Parthesius .R.,(Eds.),1997,Galle –A Port in History. Seminar Papers,Australian National Centre for Excellence in Maritime Archaeology, Special Publication No.2. Gaur, A.S., and etal. "Preliminary Assesment of an Early Historic (2000-Yeras-old) Shipwreck at Godawaya, Sri Lanka." Bulletin of the Austrolassion lnstitute for Maritime Archoeology,2OTl,:9-L7. Green.J., Devendra.S., and Parthesius.R., (Eds.),1998, Report for the Sri Lanka Department of Archaeology: Galle Harbour Project1996-97. Special Publication No.4 of the Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology, Fremantle,1998,ISBN1-876465-6-9:. Green.J., Devendra.S.,( Eds.),1993, Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka:The Galle Harbour Project1992,Archaeological Department of Sri Lanka, Central Cultural fund, Western Australian Maritime Museum, and Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology, Colombo. Green.J., Devendra.S.,1993,Interim report on the joint Sri Lanka-Australian maritime archaeology training and research programme1992-3.International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol.22(4):331-43. Jayathilaka.G., De silva.N.,1998,Ambalangoda Shipwreck: Report on a Preliminary Investigation, Unpublished Report to the Director General, Dept. of Archaeology, Sri Lanka. Maritime Archaeological Exploration Report on The Eastern Coastal Area,2012-2013, (Unpublished in Sinhala), The Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Galle. Maritime Archaeological Exploration Report on The Northern Coastal Area,2013-2014, (Unpublished in Sinhala), The Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Galle. Parthesius .R.,(Eds.), Avondster Project Excavation Report 2007.,Center for International Heritage Activities, special Publication No.1,The Netherlands. Martijn R. Manders and Christopher J. Underwood., (Eds.), 2012, Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific , Published by UNESCO Bangkok Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education Mom Luang Pin Malakul Centenary Building 920 Sukhumvit Road, Prakanong, Klongtoey Bangkok 10110, Thailand. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Impact on the Development of Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka through the UNESCO Regional Maritime Archaeology Field Schools. Description An account of the resource Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka began in 1992 with focus on the historic port of Galle, but most of those programs were supported by foreign funds and involved foreign consultations. The Avondster (1659) Marine Archaeology Project carried out from 2001 to 2004 contributed to an extent in the creation of a group of local archaeologists and conservators. This was useful when the Sri Lankan team took over the research and conservation independently in 2005, after the tsunami disaster. In 2006, UNESCO initially provided funding to Sri Lanka so that an Asia-Pacific Regional Field School Program for Maritime Archaeology could be set up in Galle. The first and second sessions for Training the Trainers Program took place in 2006 and 2008. However, the lack of support from the Sri Lankan government as well as the ongoing war in the country, prompted the transfer of the field school project to Chanthaburi, Thailand. Three Foundation Courses and two Advanced Courses for GIS and In-situ Conservation were conducted. From 2009 to 2012, 76 participants from 17 different countries joined the training courses, with 11 representatives from Sri Lanka. This paper deals with measuring the development of maritime archaeology in Sri Lanka, especially after the field school program. This will focus on developing infrastructure, field research, conservation, and human resources of the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU). This will also discuss the steps taken to start collaboration projects in the Asia-Pacific region and among the participants of the previous field schools. Further, the progress of the ratification process of the UNESCO 2001 Convention in Sri Lanka will be examined. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wijamunige Chandraratne Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chandraratne, Wijamunige. 2023. “The Impact on the Development of Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka through the UNESCO Regional Maritime Archaeology Field Schools.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Bobby Orillaneda, and Brian Fahy. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1996 Asia-Pac Session 18 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Imperial Japanese Navy and the Constructed Consciousness of a South Seas Destiny, 1872-1921 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource J. Charles Schencking Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Oct., 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author J. Charles Schencking Item Type Journal Article ISSN 0026749X Access Date 2008-05-12 22:52:40 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Oct., 1999 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: Oct., 1999 / Copyright © 1999 Cambridge University Press Issue 4 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 769-796 Publication Title Modern Asian Studies Title A name given to the resource The Imperial Japanese Navy and the Constructed Consciousness of a South Seas Destiny, 1872-1921 URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/313099 Volume 33 Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2110a46884a982a70df582926237b63b.pdf 258ca1b5c9b77e00b0c6897d215bf590 PDF Text Text The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, SelayarSouth Sulawesi1 Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan2 ABSTRACT Indonesia has a great potential for underwater cultural heritage (UCH) but the challenge to its preservation management is also very high. Coordination among stakeholders is very important. The effort to use UCH must be aligned with the effort to preserve so that it can be sustainable for the next generations. Some problems that we are facing, namely: no optimal management; lack of awareness of people; lack of science and technology application; and no proper law enforcement. With the rapid advancement of marine technology, UCH has become increasingly easy to reach by treasures hunters such as salvage companies and local community. Many UCH in Indonesia became the victim of massive looting such as that undertaken by the local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Regency South Sulawesi Province. Marine archaeological researches in 2008 and 2009 showed the shipwreck was in a badly damaged condition due to the looting activity that has lasted almost two years. The people did not realize that the use of UCH if well-managed will improve living standards for people in the vicinity of the site. Unlike theft cases in Selayar, in Bali the local community gives high appreciation to the existence of a shipwreck site in their area. They realized that shipwrecks are one of the potential marine resources which can be exploited for marine tourism. Liberty wreck in Tulamben, Bali has become a world-class tourist destination for divers. The local people have been protecting it with the customary law they made and obeyed, i.e. with a restriction on fishing activity around the shipwreck site. So then this site is very well maintained and became a central area for growth of marine life. Liberty wreck location is an example of a very beautiful blend and harmony among the remains of ancient human objects, very rich marine life, and a very high local community appreciation. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Preservation Management, Looting Activity, Local Community, Awareness, Marine Archaeological Research INTRODUCTION Geographically Indonesia is a maritime country which two-thirds of its territory is sea areas. Indonesian archipelagic water width is 2.3 million square kilometers (km2), the territorial sea is 0.8 million km2 and the Exclusive Economic Zone is 2.7 million km2. Indonesia has 17,480 islands which stretch across 5,100 km along the equator between Pacific and Indian Ocean with 95,181 km coastline. In addition, 60% of Indonesian people live in the coastal areas (Nontji 2002; Soesilo 2006:1-2). The Indonesian archipelago has a strategic position as a very busy shipping and international sea trading line between the West and East since ancient times because it is located in “The 1 Paper presented in Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 November 2011, Manila, The Philippines. 2 Maritime Archaeologist in Research Institute of Marine and Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia, Jl. Padang – Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245, Telp/Fax. +62-751751458, e-mail: nia_arkeo@kkp.go.id, nia_hasanah@yahoo.com 1 �Silk and Spices Routes” (Reid 1993; Ricklefs 1999). Indonesia was a major producer of trading commodities in the past such as pepper, nutmeg, cloves, sandalwood, incense, and so on, and since long ago, there were many important ports such as Aceh, Palembang, Sunda Kelapa (Batavia), Banten, Cirebon, Makassar, Ternate, Tidore, which later became the great maritime empires. Besides the trade conducted by the Chinese, Indians, Persians, many foreigners came to Indonesia for the purpose of colonization, such as Portuguese, Spanish, English, Dutch, and Japanese (Poesponegoro and Notosusanto 1984). Wide waters, a busy maritime activity, sea conditions, weather conditions, war, and piracy caused the territorial waters of Indonesia to be its current rich deposition in UCH. The number of UCH in Indonesian waters until World War II is expected to reach thousands3. Those known are based on historical sources, i.e. Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) Shipwrecks List (Dutch VOC Shipwreck n.d.) English East India Company (EIC) data (East India Company Ship 1999), Chinese sources, the literature about the Pacific War, the research results of some agencies such as Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries and Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and also based on data from the National Committee for Salvage and Utilization of the Valuable Object of the Sunken Ship4. Many shipwrecks contain valuable cargo so they are targeted by treasure hunters. UCH vandalism and looting cases by individuals or companies, local and foreign have been rife in Indonesia since the 1980's until today, for example, undertaken by local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Islands Regency South Sulawesi Province.5 The lack awareness of the people about the importance and strategic value of UCH for national identity and national economic development is a big problem in Indonesia. However in Tulamben Bali, there is a local community who are aware of the presence of UCH. For that reason, there should be an effort to reduce UCH vandalism and looting cases and also to expand on the interests of the preservation and management of UCH sites. They are an opportunity and a potential new alternative to support Indonesian national development. Draft of Indonesian Ocean Policy states that management of marine resources including UCH in a sustainable manner based on Agenda 21 of the United Nations must be carried out by considering the ecological aspects, economic aspects, and public welfare/prosperity aspects. Some basic principles in the 3 One of the books that discussed about the presence of many shipwrecks in Indonesian waters is the writings of Tony Wells. See Tony Wells, Shipwrecks & Sunken Treasure in Southeast Asia, (Singapore: Time Publisher, 1995). 4 Since the number of UCH theft cases, the government established National Committee for Salvage and Utilization of the Valuable Object of the Sunken Ship, or popularly known as PANNAS BMKT in 1989. This committee consists of a number of ministries in Indonesia based on Presidential Decree year 1989 regarding PANNAS BMKT. This regulation allows private companies to conduct survey, exploration, and artifacts removal from shipwrecks. It is a likely target by non-supporters because at the time it was put in place the government was unable to handle and manage the UCH 5 See details in Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, (Jakarta: Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2008); Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, (Jakarta: Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2009); Executive Summary of Inventory and Identification the Potency of Shipwrecks for Supporting Marine Tourism Development, (Jakarta: Directorate General of Marine, Coastal, and Small Islands, 2008). 2 �management of the Indonesian sea are the principle of Integrated Management, Scientific Principles, Principles of Local Responsibility, Principles of Sustainable Development, and Principles of Community Based Development (Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources 2006; Wirasantosa, et al. 2006). SELAYAR ISLANDS REGENCY A. Location Selayar Islands Regency is part of South Sulawesi Province that consists of 123 islands, which stretches from north to south. 94.68% area of this regency is ocean. It is located at coordinates 5º42'-7º35' S and 120º15'-122º30' E bordering Bulukumba and Bone Bay on the north, Flores Sea on the east and south, and Flores Sea and Makassar Strait on the west (Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar n.d.). For some time now Selayar Islands have become an important area in national and international trading and shipping routes (Said, et al. 2007; Heersink 1999). It is predicted that there are many shipwrecks in Selayar waters. Figure 1. Map of Selayar Island Regency and “Taka Kappala” Wreck Location (Modified from many sources) 3 �B. ‘Taka Kappala’ Wreck Marine Archaeological Survey conducted in west Selayar waters in 2008 and 2009 found the UCH site located at Taka Kappala, Flores Sea at coordinates 6º39'27,7" S and 120º21'16,9" E. Administratively it is located in Tambolongan- Appatanah Village, ± 2 miles from Pulassi Island, ± 2 miles from Nambolaki Island, and ± 5 miles from Bahuluang Island. The team obtained information about this spot from the local people and then followed up with two diving activities. A shipwreck was located at 8-12 m depth. Condition of the shipwreck is that it has been severely damaged and is difficult to identify due to illegal activity that has lasted for ± 2 years by local people. It is made of iron and wood. Based on local fishermen information, they found fragments of metal from the hull section that reads "London Srinity” (or “London Trinity"?). Artifacts found in this site are namely, ceramic fragments (white, blue, red and white), bottle glass fragments, irons, coal, and wooden parts of the ship. When the survey team came to the site looters were active in four other unknown ships.6 Figure 2. Site Condition of „Taka Kappala‟ Wreck, Showing Severe Damage due to Massive Looting by Local Community (Photographed in June 2008, courtesy Ministry of Marine Affairs) 6 Some of the looters are the local people who live in the nearest island. Recorded images of that looting activity have been delivered in the local government and the police made efforts to investigate and arrest the looters. 4 �TULAMBEN BALI A. USAT Liberty Wreck USAT Liberty wreck is located in Pekraman Village, Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali. It was a United States (US) Army transport ship launched in June 1918. In November 1940 it was one of ten ships taken up by the US Army for defense service. In December 1941, it was in the Pacific and in January 1942, it was in route from Australia to the Philippines with railway parts and rubber cargo. Liberty was torpedoed by Japanese submarine I-166 on January 1942 about 10 nautical miles (NM) (~19 km) southwest of the Lombok Strait, near position 08°54′S 115°28′E / 8.9°S 115.467°E. US destroyer Paul Jones and Dutch destroyer Van Ghent took the damaged ship in tow in an attempt to reach Singaraja, the Dutch port and administrative centre for the Lesser Sunda Islands on the north coast of Bali. However it took on too much water and so was beached on the eastern shore of Bali at Tulamben so that the cargo and fittings could be salvaged. In 1963, the tremors associated with the eruption of Mount Agung caused the ship to slip off the beach, and it now lies about 200 m from shoreline at coordinates position 8°17′3″ S, 115°5′21″ E. Liberty lies on a sandy slope in 30 to 100 feet (9.1 to 30 m) of water and providing one of the most popular dive locations in Bali (Wikipedia n.d). Liberty wreck site also contains educational aspects for visitors and has always been a training ground for underwater archaeologists. Figure 3. Liberty Wreck, Marine Life, and the Diver in Tulamben Site (Photographed in 2008 by Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan) 5 �B. Tulamben Community Involvement in Preserving UCH Site The sinking of the USAT Liberty has provided enormous benefits to Tulamben community. Since the late 1980s, underwater tourism in Bali developed. Liberty wreck has become the main diving object in East Bali and the principal livelihood for the local community. The community could provide lodging services, dive resorts, restaurants, parking, dive guide, souvenir shops, dive shops, car rental, grocery store, helper and porter services, and others. Thus it can also reduce the rate of unemployment in the village. The local community is fully aware that it can generate foreign exchange and be favorable for economic development in that region. The Tulamben community therefore felt the need to help preserve this area. With the awareness of the UCH, the people themselves feel a positive impact in the fields of social, economic, and cultural. They realized that special interest tourism, in particularly wreck diving, increased rapidly in Indonesia. The number of divers on the Liberty wreck is an average of 100–200 people per day and there are about 25 dive resorts and 8 dive shops in Tulamben (AS, Jimbaran). It is estimated that the potential and economic value of marine tourism in Tulamben is about US $3,265,777 per year (Kamaluddin 2002: 146-147). The participation of local community in protecting and preserving the UCH in Tulamben is enormous. One of the ways to preserve Liberty wreck and the surrounding water areas by local community is to make regulations or customary laws called Awigawig which is fully obeyed by villagers. Awig-awig is a set of rules that manages its citizens in the customary village. It is a part of local wisdom to conserve resources in their territory (Kusumajaya 2005; Supriyatun 2007). Awig-awig contains prohibitions evident of UCH public awareness. I Nyoman Karyasa7 said that having an awig-awig in order to live peacefully is compulsory for the Tulamben society. They consider it as a rule in human interaction. In Tulamben, moral sanctions carry greater weight than physical punishments (INK, Tulamben). The rules in Awig-awig in Tulamben are: 1. No fishing allowed within 100 meters of the shipwreck (nowadays it is 1 km) 2. Not allowed taking the remains of the shipwreck 3. Not allowed damaging the coral reefs attached to the shipwreck 4. Not allowed taking the stones around the shipwreck 5. Not allowed cutting plants around the beach 6. People in violation of the above prohibitions will receive moral sanction, be ostracized from society and not allowed to follow religious rituals. In Bali it is still relevant, especially associated with the realization of the Law No. 22/1999 regarding Regional Autonomy. One of the essences of this law is to empower the regional potential, which has existed for hundreds of years in Bali. For Bali society, Awig-awig is more revered and feared than the official Indonesian law, since it has a strong root in tradition. Each village in Bali has its own awig-awig and can be totally different from the neighboring villlages‟. This customary law manifests the uniqueness of each village and serves as a village identity. Violation of the awig-awig can be punished dependent on the degree of violation. Punishments for major offences range from the dreaded boycott from all village activity to permanent exile, total banishment. A man 7 I Nyoman Karyasa is a Kelian Adat (community leader) in Pekraman Village Tulamben, he is 52 years old. 6 �expelled from his village cannot be admitted in another community, so he becomes a total out-caste, a punishment greater than physical death (Akhmad 2002; Wirawan 2002). Raising Awareness Effort for Empowering Local Community As a huge archipelago, Indonesia does have great and invaluable potential of UCH. The challenge to management it is also very high. In Indonesia, knowledge and public awareness about UCH is still very limited. Growing public awareness efforts are needed to change people's behavior that previously tended to destroy and steal UCH towards a society that cares and commits to the preservation of UCH. In this connection, coordination and support cross-sector stakeholders are very important. UCH can only be beneficial if we can develop its potential as an asset that provides enhanced community awareness and knowledge of the history, technology, social and cultural rights through approaches such as education, tourism and preservation; provide economic impact; and can improve the welfare of the community. Preservation efforts are very important to save UCH and it can be developed and utilized for sustainable development that takes into account alignments in the community. Publication and socialization on the importance of UCH and its value for local community as a part of preservation efforts must be done to raise awareness of our national cultural heritage, to give more understanding of our national history, and to create the motherland integrity that can be passed to the next generations. We should look for alternatives to the use of UCH in accordance with conservation principles and based on scientific research results, and not only based on economic interests. The examples of alternative use are for enjoyment: i.e., marine tourism (wreck diving) and pilgrimage tours. It can also be used as a center of education i.e. underwater museum and as objects of research to explore the knowledge contained therein. These options are closely associated with the development of regional character and in strengthening national identity. Development of marine tourism will become an important part of Indonesia in the future. Immediately we need to increase human resources; improve legislation, commitment and cooperation of stakeholders; and raise public awareness. UCH is expected to improve and provide positive impacts for local people and positive effects will encourage public awareness of the importance of UCH so that people will maintain the existing infrastructure and even support efforts of protection and utilization with their own capabilities (Ardiwidjaja 2007; Green 2004). We need to involve local community in the planning and carrying out of activities that are directly of interest to them. Approaches to community archaeology including community interpretation, long term commitment, participatory action research, and identify the stakeholder who shares these concerns and interests can lead to an integrated preservation (Kettle and Saul 2006:126; Yvonne 2002). The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (the Ministry) has been carrying out awareness-raising programs and capacity-building programs such as workshops; focus group discussion (FGD); training programs in wreck diving, underwater photography, handling and managing underwater artifacts, and marine tourism for local community, government and agencies related to the protection and management of UCH (i.e. Navy, Police 7 �Waters, Ministry of Transportation, Office of Tourism Arts and Culture, Office of Maritime and Fisheries, and office of Preservation of Cultural Heritage). The Ministry has also held exhibitions relating to the protection and management of UCH and has made relevant regulations regarding the establishment of maritime conservation area8. Our institutions carry out socialization activities towards local communities when we go to the field to conduct research and survey activities in hopes that these efforts create public awareness towards the importance of culture and nature preservation. One example we carried out is an FGD in Selayar in June 2008. We provided the local people (local government, representative of local community, Non Governmental Organization, and youth) with knowledge and principles to support government of Indonesia in preserving and managing UCH in their area. We also raised understanding that the presence of sustainable UCH can increase local society welfare. The FGD purpose is to investigate the public problems/issues, causes, effects, and possible solution. We gathered the feedback of the Selayar community concerning the importance of safeguarding the natural and cultural resources. We also joined forces with the local government to support the mechanism to manage local resources and involved the community in our project, with the objective that these projects will encourage them to participate in research and preservation. Public interest in UCH is vitally important. Through a public appreciation of maritime archaeology and an understanding of its potential, the perceived value and importance of the resources will grow. This will have a positive long-term impact on the discipline of archaeology, promoting respect for the finite and non renewable resource and ensuring its inclusion in future policy and planning frameworks. Public interest in UCH should therefore be positively encouraged. The awareness of the importance of preservation and coordination between inter-institution or stakeholder and the community is the key to success for implementation of the development program which can accomodate any interest without conflict. The community needs to feel part of the UCH site, so that they have a stake in the well-being of the UCH site and the government must be firm to uphold the regulation in prohibiting redundant resources exploration and illegal activities by looters. The government has to develop and utilize UCH for community interest purposes and protect it from damage, lost, and extinction (Kettle and Saul 2006; Bowen 2009; Sedyawati 2006; Helmi 2008). 8 Law No. 27/2007 regarding Coastal Zone and Small Island Management; Regulation of the Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia No. 17/2008 regarding Conservation Areas in Coastal and Small Islands. 8 �Figure 4. FGD on UCH and the Development of Marine Tourism in Selayar Regency (Photographed in June 2008 by Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan). CONCLUSION UCH is important to preserve and manage for various purposes. Efforts can include the utilization of UCH as a research object and for tourism. The implication is for the development of sustainable tourism that gives opportunities and management of sustainable prosperity for society. It is time for the Government of Indonesia to pay more attention and integrate efforts in empowering people and institutions that have authority in dealing with UCH. This will no doubt lower UCH vandalism and theft. In addition the government should continue its efforts to raise public awareness programs and improve the quality of human resources through education, training, and dissemination. The government also needs to devise a joint program and integrated management of UCH which includes: the provision of infrastructure and facilities, provision of the budget, the implementation of surveys, research, develop an institutional/committee management team of UCH, prepare a variety of laws and regulations, guidelines, and implementation guidelines of UCH management, and coordinate with various agencies. There should be a well-designed human resources development plan to deal with UCH and to solve the problems in a proper and responsible way. Raising awareness efforts to local community could assist the efforts of government in preserving and managing UCH wisely and sustainably. The goal being 9 �to achieve sustainable national development programs in the marine affairs sector and the field of culture and tourism. UCH management should be able to improve people's lives and prosperity by engaging them in activities towards the protection, conservation, and utilization of UCH; and wherever possible to minimize negative impacts. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks to Dr. Sugiarta Wirasantosa (The Former Head of Research Center for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources), Drs. Andi Muhammad Said, M. Hum (Head of Office for Preservation of Archaeological Heritage of Makassar), Drs. Gatot Ghautama, MA (The Former Head of Exploration Division Directorate of Underwater Heritage), and Drs. Robby Ardiwidjaya, M.BIT (Senior Researcher in Tourism Research and Development Center) as the expert resource persons. Thanks are also conveyed to Research Center for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources and Directorate of Coastal and Marine Affairs, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries which have funded the field survey activities; Directorate of Underwater Heritage and Tourism Research and Development Center, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, The Office for Tourism, Arts, and Cultural, and The Office for Fisheries and Marine Affairs of Selayar Regency. Oral Sources I Nyoman Karyasa, Pekraman Village, Tulamben, Karang Asem Bali, 15 August 2011, cited as INK, Tulamben. Abilawa Setyadi, Jimbaran, Bali, 26 July 2011, cited as AS, Jimbaran. BIBLIOGRAPHY Analisis Awig-awig dalam Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Perikanan di Kecamatan Gangga, Kabupaten Lombok Barat, Nusa Tenggara Barat. viewed August 2011, <http://repository.ipb.ac.id> “Pemanfaatan Benda Arkeologi Bawah Air (Shipwreck): Satu Ardiwidjaja, R., 2007 Peluang Peningkatan Daya Tarik Wisata Selam”. Dipresentasikan dalam Forum Diskusi Sumberdaya Arkeologi Laut, Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan, Jakarta. Underwater Archaeology: The NAS Guide to Principles and Bowen, A., (ed.), Practise, Second Edition, The Nautical Archaeology Society, 2009 Fort Cumberland. Directorate General of Executive Summary of Inventory and Identification the Marine, Coastal, and Potency of Shipwrecks for Supporting Marine Tourism Development, Jakarta. Small Islands, 2008 VOC Shipwreck, viewed 12 July 2010, Dutch VOC Shipwreck, Dutch n.d. <http://www.vocshipwrecks.com/>. East India Company Ship, Voyage, viewed 08 Agustus 2008, East East India Company Akhmad, S., 2002 10 �Ship, 1999, 1999 Green, J., 2004 Heersink, C., 1999 <http://www.eicships.info/voyages/lost-t.htm/>. Maritime Archaeology: A Technical Handbook, Second Edition, Elsevier Academy Press, London. Dependence on Green Gold: a Socio-Economic History of the Indonesian Coconut Island Selayar, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, Leiden. Helmi, S., “Kebijakan Pengelolaan Peninggalan Bawah Air di Indonesia”, Seminar Arkeologi Maritim, Universitas 2008 Indonesia, Jakarta,1-9. IPTEK: Menguak Laut Indonesia, Sarana Komunikasi Utama, Indroyono Soesilo, 2006 Bogor. Kamaluddin, L. M., “Pariwisata Bahari dan Konservasi”, dalam Pembangunan Ekonomi Maritim di Indonesia, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2002 Jakarta. Kettle, K. C., and Saul, 2nd Edition Guidelines for Managing the Integration of Culture into Development Programmes, SEAMEO-SPAFA, Bangkok. L., 2006 Konsep Pelestarian dan Pemanfaatan Peninggalan Bawah Kusumajaya, I Made, Air oleh Masyarakat Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem, 2005 Propinsi Bali, Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Propinsi Bali-NTB-NTT, Denpasar. Law No. 22/1999 regarding Regional Autonomy Marshal, Y., 2002 Nontji, A., 2002 Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar, n.d. Poesponegoro, M.D., and Notosusanto, N., (ed.), 1984 Reid, S., 1993 Research Centre for Maritime Territories Law No. 27/2007 regarding Coastal Zone and Small Island Management. “What is Community Archaeology”, World Archaeology Journal Vol. 34 (2), Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISSN 0043-8243, 211-219. Laut Nusantara, Penerbit Djambatan, Jakarta. Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar, viewed 27 June <http://www.selayar.go.id/>. 2011, Sejarah Nasional Indonesia II, Balai Pustaka, Jakarta. The Silk and Spice Routes Exploration by Sea, UNESCO, London. Regulation of the Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia No. 17/2008 regarding Conservation Areas in Coastal and Small Islands. Draft of Indonesian Ocean Policy, Jakarta. 11 �and Non Living Resources, 2006 Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2008 Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2009 Ricklefs, M.C., 1999 Said, A. M., Ramli, M., and Sumantri, I., (ed.), 2007 Sedyawati, E., 2006 Supriyatun, M.M. Rini, 2007 Wells, T., 1995 Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia, n.d. Wirasantosa, S., Ridwan, N.N., and Dilenia, I., 2006 Wirawan, K., 2002 Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, Jakarta. Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, Jakarta. Sejarah Indonesia Modern, UGM press, Yogyakarta. Directory of Cultural Tourism Potency of Selayar Island South Sulawesi Indonesia, Office for Preservation of Archaeological Heritage of Makassar, Makassar. Tinggalan Kapal Karam: Harta Karun atau Tinggalan Sejarah ?, Artikel untuk Rubrik OPINI, Jakarta. “Potensi Objek Wisata Warisan Budaya Bawah Air di Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem, Propinsi Bali, Varuna, Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air Vol. I/2007, ISSN 1979-0666X. 94-108. Shipwrecks & Sunken Treasure in Southeast Asia, Times Edition, Singapore. Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia, USAT Liberty, viewed 20 August 2011, <http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAT_Liberty>. “Kebijakan dan Peran Departemen Kelautan & Perikanan dalam Eksplorasi Peninggalan Bawah Air”, dipresentasikan pada Rapat Koordinasi Penyusunan Kebijakan Pelestarian, Pengembangan, dan Pemanfaatan Peninggalan Budaya Bawah Air, Bogor. Awig-awig Diciptakan untuk Jaga Keharmonisan, 2 January 2002, viewed August 2011, <http://www.network54.com/Forum> 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource Indonesia has a great potential for underwater cultural heritage (UCH) but the challenge to its preservation management is also very high. Coordination among stakeholders is very important. The effort to use UCH must be aligned with the effort to preserve so that it can be sustainable for the next generations. Some problems that we are facing, namely: no optimal management; lack of awareness of people; lack of science and technology application; and no proper law enforcement. With the rapid advancement of marine technology, UCH has become increasingly easy to reach by treasures hunters such as salvage companies and local community. Many UCH in Indonesia became the victim of massive looting such as that undertaken by the local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Regency South Sulawesi Province. Marine archaeological researches in 2008 and 2009 showed the shipwreck was in a badly damaged condition due to the looting activity that has lasted almost two years. The people did not realize that the use of UCH if well-managed will improve living standards for people in the vicinity of the site. Unlike theft cases in Selayar, in Bali the local community gives high appreciation to the existence of a shipwreck site in their area. They realized that shipwrecks are one of the potential marine resources which can be exploited for marine tourism. Liberty wreck in Tulamben, Bali has become a world-class tourist destination for divers. The local people have been protecting it with the customary law they made and obeyed, i.e. with a restriction on fishing activity around the shipwreck site. So then this site is very well maintained and became a central area for growth of marine life. Liberty wreck location is an example of a very beautiful blend and harmony among the remains of ancient human objects, very rich marine life, and a very high local community appreciation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5ddf3918d21b995d645f09da50fb9564.pdf 884ee44ef23f7f8c11247dcc4e2c1116 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Importance of Underwater Archaeology in the Development of a Taiwanese Identity - A case study on the Green Island 1 Description An account of the resource In 2014 the Green Island 1 became one of the first wrecks to be excavated by the Bureau of Cultural Heritage in Taiwan, two years after the establishment of the Underwater Heritage Department, and one year before the implementation of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act. The wreck is likely a British brig from the second half of the 19th century (preliminary conclusion, may be subject to change), yet the research into this wreck should be viewed in relation to the development of both the field of underwater archaeology and the grander Taiwanese identity in general. Taiwan did not truly form a unified state until after a 400 year long history of colonization, and at the moment it still has a tense political position in relation to the People’s Republic of China. The Taiwanese government is eager to use archaeological material to establish a substantial base to construct a Taiwanese history independent of that of mainland China, which can be seen in the attempts to expand the underwater heritage field. The various historical stages produce the image of Taiwanese people as a melting pot of different ethnicities, including the aboriginal people of Taiwan, the early settlers from the mainland, and different colonial powers who had taken possession of the island since the 17th century, as opposed to mainland China that had been under a much more isolated regime. Maritime activity was an essential, and unavoidable, element in this international exchange, and historical documents show a high potential for archaeological sites throughout Taiwanese waters. The Green Island 1 is one of the example of such exchange, but as the field will continue to develop we are sure to form a picture of Taiwan as a unique meeting point of cultures in the Pacific. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sterre Klaver Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Klaver, Sterre. 2021. “The Importance of Underwater Archaeology in the Development of a Taiwanese Identity - A case study on the Green Island 1.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/672 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/144da149fd45a993c87426b87fb61fa9.pdf 27ba06cc34c03d27f18e7bd37f7a65ee PDF Text Text The Intangible Underwater: Integrating Intangible Cultural Heritage into the Study of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites Suzanne S. Finney Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands (MAHHI) Foundation Honolulu, Hawaii 96830, USA suzanne.finney@gmail.com Abstract Intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH) is an integral component to the understanding of many cultural heritage sites worldwide. While the collection of stories, oral histories and other intangible information to interpret terrestrial sites is increasingly practiced, less so is the collection of this information to identify underwater cultural heritage sites, in particular those sites without material remains. The focus for intangible cultural heritage often seems to end at the shore, and not extend into the waters, for many nations. This presentation discusses the application of ICH for underwater cultural heritage, using examples from the Pacific to illustrate the importance of recording all information for underwater areas in order to ensure adequate protection and interpretation of the significant cultural heritage of many coastal, islands, and other submerged sites. Key words: Intangible, Oral history, Chants, Pacific, ICH Introduction UNESCO describes intangible cultural heritage as, “traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts” (UNESCO n/d). Rather than documenting materials or sites, the ICH list records ‘elements’ of cultures and social practices. Of the 30 elements listed for 2013, only one appears to have any type of marine or maritime focus (Shrimp fishing on horseback in Oostduinkerke, Belgium), and on the total list of 282 elements listed since 2008, only a handful are marine, maritime or underwater oriented 1. The documentation and protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites can, and often does, include the recording of oral histories related to the sites, but this information is usually peripheral to the recording of the material, or tangible, remains, focusing on the collection of 1 �information related to the material remains under study rather than toward an allencompassing cultural understanding of the area. Research in UCH may be expanding beyond the investigation of individual shipwrecks, bridges and ports to larger concepts of regional navigation, seafaring and the like, but a truly holistic examination of the tangible remains associated with most UCH sites, should always include a systematic collection of information about the intangible significance of the sites and the areas where sites are located. This is particularly timely in the face of budget and staff reductions with which many offices charged with the collection and protection of both UCH and ICH must currently contend. This paper offers a brief consideration of how a synthesis between UCH and ICH data collection might be approached, beginning with two examples of research that incorporates both tangible and intangible data. It also explores the idea of collecting information on other research projects, focusing on topics of relevance to the Pacific Islands and those which could possibly lead to additional World Heritage and/or Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity nominations for the region in the future. Example: Sea Turtle Consumption in the Marshall Islands A good example of how a project incorporates the tangible and intangible aspects of underwater cultural heritage is the development of a proposed project involving sea turtle use and consumption in the Pacific. Regina WoodromRudrud, an environmental anthropologist and sea turtle biologist, has drafted a project that would incorporate ethnographic field techniques, sea turtle biology and maritime archaeology to determine the risk to human populations of sea turtle consumption in the Marshall Islands (WoodromRudrud et al., 2007). She and her colleagues contend that the understanding of the potential negative impacts of turtle consumption in the Marshall Islands cannot be complete without understanding the physical environment in which turtles live, feed and breed, including hazards brought on by shipwrecks from World War II and the post World War II nuclear testing in the region. In this case, knowing where and when turtles are hunted and how they are consumed by the Marshallese is combined with learning where turtles hunt for their food, and how the impact of shipwrecks in the water might affect the food chain between turtles and humans. If turtles are being exposed to harmful contaminants, which are stored in their 2 �bodies, then the people eating those turtles are exposed to the contaminants. Maritime archaeology assists with this research by locating shipwrecks in the areas where the turtles forage to determine what types of contaminants may be present. In the conclusion the authors state: We argue that research into this situation is essential as we have found a high probability that there are toxicants remaining in the RMI environment and that due to the long life (50+ years receiving low dose radiation and other contaminants) and normal habits of sea turtles, such as site fidelity to certain resting areas and resting in submerged resources such as irradiated shipwrecks (among others), site fidelity to certain foraging areas and several species eating organisms that may be growing directly on toxic surfaces (such as algae and sponges), and embryo development and metamorphosis taking place a few feet down in contaminated sand, their contamination from those products is highly probable (WoodromRudrud et al., 2007: 17). Example: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument The Papahānaumokuākea2 Marine National Monument is located in the northwest section of the Hawaiian Islands. For years there has been systematic research and investigation into the maritime cultural heritage of the area, and a number of significant historic ship and aircraft wrecks have been identified and recorded. There have also been tremendous advances in the collection and understanding of Hawaiian sites and traditional uses of the area. Much of this information comes from the study of the intangible heritage of the Hawaiians, the chants and histories passed down for generations. There have also been a number of projects involving archaeological fieldwork on Hawaiian sites on the islands, including the collection of intangible information on place names within the Monument. There is not been much evidence to date that this has led to documenting underwater Hawaiian sites, but the importance of collecting intangible information about the area, and incorporating this information into the ongoing research, interpretation and protection of the Monument is also a good example of the holistic approach to understanding underwater cultural heritage by compiling tangible and 3 �intangible information. As described in the maritime heritage management plan for the Monument: Aspects of Native Hawaiian heritage, including fishing, religion, and politics, are links to the kind of broad, interdisciplinary understanding of the heritage of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands that can help management pursue a sustainable direction for this World Heritage Site (Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011: 28). Shipwrecks Raupp, Finney and Gleason (2011) discuss the use of 19th century whaling wrecks for multidisciplinary research in the Pacific, incorporating fields such as history, archaeology and biology. The collection of ICH should also be considered a component of this research. The location of shipwrecks is often learned through oral histories and stories from local inhabitants. Once a location is determined and these wrecks are mapped, the collection of intangible data often ends. Yet the impact of these wrecks can continue on, in genealogies from descendents of the survivors or changes in habits around the location of wrecks. For example, in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, four whaling ships were captured and burned in April 1865 as part of the activities of the CSS Shenandoah during the U.S. Civil War. The whaling crews were all left on Pohnpei while the Shenandoah continued into the Arctic Ocean to look for more whaleships to capture3. By the time a vessel arrived in Pohnpei to rescue the whaling crews, one of the whaleship masters, Captain John Eldridge, had decided to stay on Pohnpei. He raised a family whose descendants still live on Pohnpei. Collecting information from the family during an archaeological investigation of the wreck sites led to more information about the whaling wrecks and the history of the harbor where the wrecks are located. The shipwrecks are not the end of the story; it continues to develop through the history of the family on Pohnpei. This is also true for more recent wrecks. Ship and aircraft wrecks from World War II are often found through written records from the period, but as many maritime archaeologists know, local knowledge is likely to be more accurate in locating wrecks. Stories from eye witnesses and information from fishermen about where nets are snagged, lead to the discovery of new wrecks. A recent survey of one the atolls in the Republic of the Marshall Islands documented several 19th and 20th 4 �century shipwrecks based on information gathered from local informants, including stories passed down about how the ships were sunk (Finney, 2007). The ability to collect this type of information is as important for UCH managers to learn as how to photograph, measure and map these wrecks. Marine Exploitation Marine exploitation, such as fishing, collecting shellfish, or harvesting seaweed, is an ongoing activity throughout the Pacific. Traditional fishing methods are often not easy to detect in the archaeological record, but that is not a reason for UCH managers to discount this essential component of life on the islands. Knowing the importance of primary, seasonal, sacred or taboo fishing grounds, and current fishing practices offer the potential for discovering significant tangible cultural sites in these areas. In a recent article for the Hawaiian Airlines magazine, Michael Shapiro describes efforts to preserve traditional fishing knowledge in a small village on the Big Island of Hawaii (2013). This information could be the starting point for an investigation of the coastline and underwater environment for evidence of underwater historic or archaeological sites related to fishing. In 1996 the University of Hawaii sponsored a maritime archaeology field school that looked at ancient fishing sites off Waikiki on Oahu, where they documented some artifacts that supported the Hawaiian stories of fishing in the area (NOAA n/d). It would be useful for those involved with UCH to develop working relationships with those involved in the promotion of traditional skills such as fishing in order to acquire information on where likely underwater sites might be located. The transmission of knowledge across generations on a variety of marine and maritime contexts can provide excellent information that leads to developments in underwater cultural heritage. Conclusion There is a very clear distinction between UCH and ICH within UNESCO, and this paper does not recommend that this division be altered. However, practical considerations such as budget, staff and time constraints argue for the development of projects that can serve more than one purpose, to collect information on underwater sites, and preserve the knowledge and skills of local populations, or to collect oral histories to 5 �prepare for the survey of underwater sites, integrating tangible and intangible aspects of underwater heritage. UCH has traditionally focused on tangible or material remains, but there is nothing inherent in the concept that should cause us to limit our inquiry to only the tangible aspects of UCH. Within the broader context of UCH, documentation and research should include all evidence, including the intangible. The management of underwater cultural heritage calls for a holistic approach to collecting information, and those who are engaged in UCH should be willing to “think outside the box” or the shipwreck, or the fish trap, and explore ways in which ICH can increase our knowledge of the underwater environment. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the organizers of this conference for the opportunity to present the paper. I would also thank Professor Noelani Arista of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, who provided suggestions and I am grateful for her input. Endnote 1 For example the Watertight-bulkhead technology of Chinese junks (China), or Sanké mon, collective fishing rite of the Sanké (Mali). See www.unesco.org/culture/ich for the full list. 2 See http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/about/name.html for information about this name and how it was chosen for the monument. 3 See Chaffin 2006, Finney and Graves 2002 for more information about this incident. References Chaffin, T., 2006. Sea of Gray: The Around-the-World Odyssey of the Confederate Raider Shenandoah. Hill and Wang, New York. Finney, S. S., 2007. Phase Two Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in Portions of Maloelap Lagoon, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Report submitted to the Historic Preservation Office, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Finney, S. S., and Graves, M. W., 2002. Site investigation and documentation of a Civil War shipwreck thought to be sunk by the C.S.S. Shenandoah, April 1865. Report for the American Battlefield Protection Program, U.S. National Park Service, Washington, D.C. NOAA, http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/maritime/maritime_history.html, accessed on 29 December 2013. 6 �Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011. Maritime Heritage Research, Education, and Management Plan: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Honolulu. Raupp, J., Finney, S. S., and Gleason, K., 2011. Multidisciplinary Research Potential of Whaling Heritage in the Pacific Region. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the AsiaPacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila: 1029-1040. Shapiro, M., 2013. Go Fish!HanaHou. The Magazine of Hawaiian Airlines, Vol. 16 (6), December 2013 - January 2014, accessed at the website http://www.hanahou.com/pages/magazine.asp?Action=DrawArticle&ArticleID=1270&Ma gazineID=78&Page=1 (29 December 2013). UNESCO, 2003. Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Media Kit, www.unesco.org/culture/ich/doc/src/18440-EN.pdf, accessed on 27 December 2013, p. 3. Woodrom-Rudrud, R., Kroeker, J. W., Leslie, H. Y., and Finney, S. S., 2007. The Sea Turtle Wars: Culture, War, and Sea Turtles in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. SPC Traditional Marine Resource Management and Knowledge Information Bulletin, Vol. 21: 3-29. Biography Suzanne Finney is an archaeologist specializing in maritime archaeology. She received her Ph.D. in Anthropology from the University of Hawaii at Manoa and has been involved in fieldwork and projects throughout the Pacific, including Hawaii, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Republic of Palau. Suzanne is President of the Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands Foundation (MAHHI), a non-profit organization chiefly concerned with research, training, and education in maritime elements of submerged cultural resources in Hawaii and the Pacific. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Intangible Underwater: Integrating Intangible Cultural Heritage into the Study of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites Description An account of the resource Intangible cultural heritage (henceforth ICH) is an integral component to the understanding of many cultural heritage sites worldwide. While the collection of stories, oral histories and other intangible information to interpret terrestrial sites is increasingly practiced, less so is the collection of this information to identify underwater cultural heritage sites, in particular those sites without material remains. The focus for intangible cultural heritage often seems to end at the shore, and not extend into the waters, for many nations. This presentation discusses the application of ICH for underwater cultural heritage, using examples from the Pacific to illustrate the importance of recording all information for underwater areas in order to ensure adequate protection and interpretation of the significant cultural heritage of many coastal, islands, and other submerged sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Suzanne S. Finney, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014