56 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Usury in Early Medieval Times Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource R. S. Sharma Ranabir Chakravarti Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author R. S. Sharma Editor Ranabir Chakravarti Item Type Book Section Book Title Trade in Early India Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Pages 370-95 Place New Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Title A name given to the resource Usury in Early Medieval Times India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Changing Patterns of Navigation in the Indian Ocean and their Impact on Pre-colonial Sri Lanka Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource R.A.L.H. Gunawardana Satish Chandra Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Sage Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1987 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author R.A.L.H. Gunawardana Editor Satish Chandra Item Type Book Section Book Title The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1987 Pages 54-89 Place New Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Sage Title A name given to the resource Changing Patterns of Navigation in the Indian Ocean and their Impact on Pre-colonial Sri Lanka India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Changing Patterns of Navigation in the Indian Ocean and their Impact on Pre-colonial Sri Lanka Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource R.A.L.H. Gunawardana Satish Chandra Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Sage Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1987 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author R.A.L.H. Gunawardana Editor Satish Chandra Item Type Book Section Book Title The Indian Ocean: Explorations in History, Commerce and Politics Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1987 Pages 54-89 Place New Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Sage Title A name given to the resource Changing Patterns of Navigation in the Indian Ocean and their Impact on Pre-colonial Sri Lanka India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Kautilya “Arthasastra,” Part II Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource R.P. Kangle Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Bombay Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Editor R.P. Kangle Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972 Edition 2nd Place Bombay Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of Bombay Title A name given to the resource The Kautilya “Arthasastra,” Part II Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Berenike Crossroads: The Integration of Information Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource W.Z. Wendrich R.S. Tomber S.E. Sidebotham Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2003 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author W.Z. Wendrich R.S. Tomber S.E. Sidebotham Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2003 Issue 1 Pages 46-88 Publication Title Journal of the Economic & Social History of the Orient Title A name given to the resource Berenike Crossroads: The Integration of Information Volume 46 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/64921ecbbdf9ca06dfa9e558804ebbcc.pdf 1a6f8cb37fc7d646d4e801b518ecef2c PDF Text Text The History, Status, and Future of Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan Randall J. Sasaki Texas A&M University College Station 77841 USA Email: shipwreckarchaeology@gmail.com Setsuo Imazu, Yuji Dainobu, and Yoshihiko Akashi Kyushu National Museum Fukuoka Japan, 818-0118 Email: imazu@kyuhaku.jp Email: dainobu@kyuhaku.jp Email: akashi@kyuhaku.jp Abstract Underwater archaeology in Japan has a long history, as a report of artifacts from Lake Suwa in 1908, as well as discoveries at Tsuzura Ozaki site in Lake Biwa in 1924 detailed. The attempts to find the ill-fated fleet of Khubilai Khan at Takashima Island in Nagasaki prefecture began in the 1980s, but the Japanese archaeological community was slow in recognizing the importance of underwater archaeology. A number of underwater archaeological projects were conducted, but none had a lasting influence; the Japanese government has no law that specifically protects submerged sites, and there was neither government agency nor university that conducted a large scaled underwater excavation. However, several major developments suddenly took place in the past few years. In 2012, at first, following the discovery of a Chinese ship remain at Takashima Island, the Kozaki Underwater Site was registered as the first submerged national historic site. In 2013, secondly, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology published 6 volumes of “The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Report on Comprehensive Survey of Maritime Cultural Heritage”. In 2013, moreover, the Agency for Cultural Affairs formed a committee to discuss how the government should act in response to the growing importance of protecting submerged sites. These events signify the Japanese archaeological community, as well as the government, finally began to recognize the importance of underwater cultural heritage. This paper illustrates the history, current status, as well as the possible future development plan of underwater archaeological research in Japan. Keywords: The Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs, Law and Policy, Mongol Invasion, UCH Management, Database 1 �Introduction As an island nation, the ocean has always influenced the life of people living in Japan. A part of Japanese culture has been also shaped by “foreign” influences which must come from “outside the ocean.” Despite these facts, Japan is one nation that has not fully embraced the concept of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) management yet. In this brief article, the authors will propose a possible plan for initiating the management of submerged sites in the nation. To better understand this plan, a brief history of the field, recent developments of underwater archaeology, and the status of Japanese archaeological community are discussed. A brief history of Underwater Archaeology in Japan Japan possesses a long history of study of cultural relics found underwater. The discoveries of lithic from Lake Suwa in 1908, and the discovery of nearly complete pottery from Tsuzura Ozaki site at Lake Biwa in 1924 may be noted as the insipient stage of the field of underwater archaeology (Ishihara, 2000). The archaeological community debated how and why these underwater sites formed. It is interesting to note that archaeologists from a century ago had recognized the importance of submerged cultural remains. Since, a number of sites were investigated through a local municipal level but the majority of the projects were limited in scale (Hayashida, 2013). However, two projects that played an important role in the development of underwater archaeology in the country should be mentioned; sites around Lake Biwa and Takashima underwater site. The largest inland lake in Japan, Lake Biwa has been an important waterways as well as a source of water and food for the people of central Japan. Since the lakefront renovation plan was commenced in 1972, Lake Biwa became one of the focal points of UCH management in the country; over one hundred sites were investigated through this development project (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 2010). Cofferdams were built on nearly all of these sites making a dry land excavation possible (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 2010). The sites range from Jomonmidden sites to historic building structures; information gleaned through these excavations was tremendous. One important site, dated to around 4,500 years before present, is the Awazu-midden site (Tsuboi, 1994). The shell midden consisted of a layer 2 �of shells and a layer of plants alternatively bedded (Matsui and Kanehara, 2006). Such layering seen at the Awazu site has not been found on any midden sites on land; this is due to a waterlogged condition favorable for the preservation of the organic remains. Chestnuts, acorns, beans, gourds, edible burdock, and other cultigens were found within the plant layers and these plants were most likely cultivated, making the Awazu site one of the earliest that produced an evidence of extensive plant utilization in the country (Matsui and Kanehara, 2006). Japan with its acidic soil, large fluctuation of temperature, and a high annual rainfall rate, finding organic remains on a land site is rare. Thus, the potential of finding evidence of rich and extensive plant utilization of the early inhabitants of Japan is more likely to be found from underwater sites. The Takashima underwater site is a well-known historical battle site; Khubilai Khan’s fleet was destroyed here by the legendary typhoon during the Mongol invasion of Japan in 1281 (Delgado, 2010). The site has been reported by popular media, but has seen only a few scholarly publications (Takano, 2013). The history of research at Takashima extends for more than 30 years; based on historical records and local fishermen finding artifacts in their nets, the initial survey around the island was planned in the early 1980s. The project was led by a marine engineer, and various artifacts were found using a sonar system. Some of the artifacts were raised by divers; however, no remains of a vessel were found. Although professional archaeologists were not directly involved during this initial stage, the importance of the site was recognized (Matsuura City Board of Education, 2011). The Takashima underwater site was registered as a known archaeological site and thus became a protected archaeological site by the Law of Buried Cultural Property. Under this law, a site must be thoroughly investigated prior to any land development taking place. Following this initial project, a series of surveys and excavations were conducted at the island intermittently throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The board of Education at Takashima entrusted the research projects to various organizations, and the Kyushu Okinawa Society of Underwater Archaeology (now the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology: ARIUA) became the main partner of research. The rescue excavations for the harbor renovation at Kouzaki produced a large number of artifacts related to the Mongol invasion. The excavations continued, and large wooden anchors, 3 �fragments of hull remains, and weapons including ceramic bombs are just a few examples of finds made (Fig. 1). However, the discovery of a hull had to wait for a few more years (Matsuura City Board of Education, 2011). As will be discussed in detail below, the overall majority of archaeological projects in the nation are conducted through local municipalities. While the discoveries were being made, a few underwater excavations had taken place across Japan, but some projects had barely Fig. 1 Photo of the Hull Timbers waiting to be conserved at been reported. The Japanese Takashima. (Courtesy of Matsuura Board of Education and R. Agency for Cultural Affairs Sasaki) (JACA) had realized the importance of underwater archaeology and a national plan to manage such sites. Between 1989 and 1991, JACA sent interviews to all 3,245 municipal offices in the country, and a large number of offices reported the possible presence of submerged sites or artifacts recovered from their waters. Among them, 216 locations were selected for an additional survey. The result showed that only 44 of these sites were investigated (Agency for Cultural Affairs, 2000). Recent Developments A new phase of research at Takashima was initiated by the team led by Ryukyu University and the technical support provided by the Tokai University. Several seasons of remote sensing surveys identified several targets. In 2011 when divers began removing the accumulated silt on one of the targets, the remains of a Chinese vessel, perhaps more than 20 m in length, appeared. This discovery was covered extensively by Japanese media and brought underwater archaeology to the forefront of attention for many people (Ikeda, 2013). In 2012, Takashima became the first nationally registered submerged historical site; it signifies that an underwater site is now protected as one of the most important Japanese national heritage assets (Nakata, 2013). Following the 4 �discovery of intact hull remains at Takashima, JACA formed a committee to discuss how the Japanese government should act to protect submerged sites. The members various were selected specialists from including municipal officials, a vocational archaeologist, and a conservator. At this point, no specific Fig. 2 ARIUA’s Webpage Showing a Part of the Database. (K. management plan for the country Hayashida) has been decided. To provide the committee with up to date and accurate information regarding the status of managing submerged sites, Kyushu National Museum was entrusted to study how other countries in the world are managing their UCH. Another development that took place in recent years is the growth in number of academic, municipal, and vocational maritime archaeologists. Recognizing the growing importance of the field, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology became the first University in Japan to establish a course in maritime archaeology. The University initiated a number of survey projects using advanced remote-sensing technologies (Kondo and Iwabuchi, 2011). Some municipalities, including Okinawa, has developed a strong team of archaeologists that can manage the UCH in their waters. They have also conducted several outreach programs where a public can access the underwater sites (Katagiri, 2013). In the last decade, several underwater archaeology groups were formed and conducted research at submerged sites. Among them, ARIUA emerged as a leading institute. Besides their work at Takashima, the ARIUA’s underwater site database project initiated in 2009 should be equally cited as a breakthrough. They conducted an extensive evaluation of all known underwater sites in Japan. The project was also supported by various organizations, including other vocational underwater archaeological groups. This was the first time that such a comprehensive information of submerged sites was collected. ARIUA published six volumes of reports with a 5 �Table 1. Examples of part of the Database available on-line (translated into English) 6 �database of over five hundred submerged sites (Fig. 2 and Table 1) (Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, 2013). This study will be a valuable source for obtaining information regarding underwater archaeology in Japan and a foundation for future studies on the subject. Problems Concerning Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan There are three main problems concerning the protection of UCH in Japan. First, the underwater sites are not specifically mentioned in the laws. Second, there are no proper rules established when someone discovers a relic underwater, and third, no archaeological survey is required prior to a construction over water. Another concern, perhaps different in nature than the first three mentioned, is the lack of information regarding UCH in general. Before beginning the discussion of these problems, a current status of Japanese archaeological community will be illustrated. The law on the Protection of Buried Cultural Properties is the basis of all archaeological excavations in Japan. JACA sets the rules and guidelines for site management, and in most cases, the local Board of Education is responsible for managing local sites (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). Each municipality is responsible for maintaining a database of known sites. Once the site is listed, any development that takes place within or around the site must be excavated. The local authority decides which sites are to be listed and some municipalities take a step further by surveying. There are many Universities with programs in archaeology, but academic research within Japan is little more than 5 % of the total (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). There are a few public archaeology firms, but they are mainly limited to conducting projects in large cities. Their archaeological projects must also follow the municipal standards. The number of archaeological sites excavated - around 8,000 sites per year - may be surprising to many (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). Although many of the sites are small, the number of artifacts recovered from these sites accumulates quickly. For example, the number of sites (or perhaps it should be called “projects”) at Hakata, the historical port city in Fukuoka Prefecture in western Japan, now counts up to two hundred in number. These Hakata sites produce thousands of artifacts each. Many of the municipalities are struggling to complete the analysis of the astronomical amount of data gathered. Still, excavations 7 �take place each year while the budget and the number of specialists involved with the heritage management has been shrinking (The Japanese Archaeological Association, 2012). In this situation, the focus of the research tends to be detailed artifact analysis (which Japanese archaeologists are one of the best in the world) and starting something new is extremely difficult. Japanese law also has a room for improvements. Although the current law does not specifically mention artifacts found underwater, the absence of the word “underwater” in the legal code should not imply that submerged sites need not be protected. Underwater sites can be protected if they are registered; the problem is how to get the site onto the list. The Takashima underwater site has been on the protected list and thus the past rescue projects were possible. Still, not having the word “underwater” may give an impression - consciously or not - that such sites are not common. The second problem, not having a set of standards when discovering an underwater site, may be a larger issue than the first problem. When a relic is found, a person should report to the local police department first. The police will then decide the fate of the found artifact. There are several ways to dispose of the finds depending on which law is applied. The best way in which to protect objects is to define them as a cultural property. In this case, the object will have the same protection as that found on land. If the police consider the artifact as a lost object, the law of lost property will be applied; the lost object may be given to the finder if no one claims ownership of it. The third problem is not having a regulation that requires archaeological survey before a development takes place over water. The archaeological community is largely unaware that such a survey does not require a large sum of money as it did in the past, and the industry is unaware of the fact that underwater sites are fairly common. One problem is the lack of information on maritime archaeology that can be found written in Japanese. In addition, a somewhat skewed and out-dated image of the field still persists. The blame should not be directed towards Japanese archaeologists, as it is our shared world heritage that we are striving to preserve. Not many people in Japan think that underwater sites are common and finding those sites are extremely difficult and expensive, if not impossible. Many think that to become an underwater archaeologist requires extensive training, and that excavations and conservation still 8 �more expensive. The information we hear about the subject primarily comes from national projects conducted in China and Korea, together with the stories of raising Vasa and Mary Rose. Considering the national budget set for archaeological research, underwater archaeology does not appear to be a practical choice. Furthermore, since it is certain that there is no job that a student can get even with a degree in hand, the study of underwater archaeology cannot be a career of choice for many. Proposed Plan There are several ways in which Japan may develop the program managing UCH. One possible way is for Japan to create a national underwater archaeological research center under JACA. This plan may be similar to the path China and Korea have taken. However, considering that the Japanese archaeological community is structured through cooperation of municipal archaeologists and a nation-wide project is rare, this plan may result in the isolation of underwater archaeologists from the rest of the “land archaeologists.” In addition, the government must first secure funding for such program. The most suitable plan for Japan is to utilize the existing infrastructure, limit any major changes, and create a system that municipal archaeologists could manage. The best management plan is one in which the main task of actual activities will be conducted through the municipal archaeologists and the existing groups of underwater archaeologists assisting the tasks. JACA will provide advice to municipalities and check the overall management of the underwater sites. The municipal archaeologists will manage the underwater sites according to the principles set by JACA. The main task will be to register new sites and perhaps organize surveys and excavations with the help of vocational underwater archaeological groups. As this scheme is only a proposal and not a completed plan, the details regarding how to incorporate the nonarchaeological community and stakeholders into the overall heritage management has not been fully debated. Along with the minor organizational arrangements, changes must be made in some of the laws; the three problems mentioned in the section above must be solved. The current cultural heritage law is an effective way to protect underwater sites, even it does not mention the word “underwater” specifically. JACA may distribute to each municipality an addendum explaining the guidelines for managing UCH. It should be 9 �mentioned in these guidelines that objects found in submerged context should have equal protection to those found on land. In addition, a survey to find and record new archaeological sites should be encouraged. The government should set a standard procedure when someone finds a historical artifact underwater, and a note should be distributed to all authorities. A change in legislation - namely to require a survey before development takes place on water and an agreeable cooperation plan with the fishermen’s association - is needed. When there is construction over water, conducting archaeological surveys by marine engineering companies is not something out of the ordinary. Once the stake-holders realize the importance of protecting underwater sites, as they respect archaeological sites on land, installing a rule for surveys on water should not be difficult to accept. The actual “loss” for a community and the stake-holders caused by adopting the protection of UCH, we believe, is minimal; the benefit, although it may be difficult to represent in economical terms, should outweigh the malefic. The local community may feel pride in having an underwater site, or some of the representative artifacts raised from the sea may bring tourists to the area. At the same time these changes are made, more up to date and accurate information about maritime archaeology should be disseminated. Both academic and non-academic publications should be encouraged. There is a plethora of reasons why distributing a current status of the study need to be promoted. To give one example, the Japanese archaeological community has already realized that raising and conserving a nearly complete vessel is not practical; however, it is a surprise to the Japanese public, as well as archaeologists, that the study of underwater archaeology is no longer about excavating sunken vessels. Once the archaeological community realizes that a project that raises an entire vessel is not a norm, and the coexistence of development with a long-term management of underwater sites is the current trend, a meaningful discussion of how the nation should protect submerged sites can begin. In addition to academic publications, the study of UCH should be introduced to a wider audience through popular publications and media. The stakeholders, including construction companies and the fisheries cooperatives, are the most likely groups that will be directly involved with UCH. Without the proper understanding of the value of artifacts found underwater by these groups, a protection of UCH will be difficult to achieve. 10 �Conclusions In this brief article, the history and current status of UCH in Japan was discussed. Based on the discussion, a possible plan on UCH management was proposed. Despite a long history of people being interested in relics found underwater, the Japanese archaeological community was largely indifferent to the development of UCH management around the globe. To bring about change in the Japanese archaeological community may take some effort, but the benefit of the proposed approach is that it does not require an extensive change in how the archaeological community is organized, nor does it requires a large budget. It also preserves the existing, and growing, underwater archaeological groups in the nation. Although this is one proposed solution, we believe it will bring more in depth and meaningful discussion on how to manage UCH in Japan. Acknowledgment This paper was written by the members of a group led by Kyushu National Museum entrusted to create a report for the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs on a current trend of UCH management in the world. This is only a proposal generated by the authors’ personal views and does not reflect the opinion or the plan of the Japanese government nor any institutions. References Agency for Cultural Affairs., 2000. Considering Methods for the Protection of Archaeological Sites: Underwater Sites. Agency for Cultural Affairs, Tokyo (in Japanese). Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology., 2013. The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology (Vol. 1-6). Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka (in Japanese). Delgado, J., 2010. Khubilai Khan’s Lost Fleet: In Search of a Legendary Armada. University of California Press, Berkeley. Hayashida, K., 2013. Underwater Archaeological Sites in Japan. Archaeology Quarterly, Vol. 123: 20-23 (in Japanese). Ikeda, Y., 2013. The Excavations of the Shipwreck in the Mongolian Invasions; the Underwater Archaeological Research of the Takashima Kouzaki Seabed Site. The Archaeological Journal, Vol. 641: 24-28 (in Japanese). 11 �Ishihara, W., 2000. The History of Underwater Archaeology in Japan. In Agency for Cultural Affairs (Ed.), Considering Methods for the Protection of Archaeological Site: Underwater Sites, Agency for Cultural Affairs. Tokyo: 5-22 (in Japanese). Japanese Archaeological Association. 2012. Archaeologia Japonica Vol. 64: Annual Report of the Japanese Archaeological Studies and Excavations (Fiscal year 2011). The Japanese Archaeological Association, Tokyo (in Japanese). Katagiri, C., 2013. The Research Agenda and Vision for Future. In The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Nansei Islands. Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka: 216-237 (in Japanese). Kondo, H., and Iwabuchi, A., 2011. Deepwater Archaeology off Tobishima Island of Northern Japan. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Proceedings, Manila: 251-259. Matsui, A., and Kanehara, M., 2006. The Question of Prehistoric Plant Husbandry during the Jomon Period in Japan. World Archaeology, Vol. 38 (2): 259-73 (in Japanese). Matsuura City Board of Education., 2011. Matsuura City Takashima Underwater Site: Summary of Research (Matsuura City Cultural Property Investigation Report), No. 4. Matsuura City Board of Education, Matsuura, Nagaski (in Japanese). Nakata, A., 2013. Historical Site Designated by the Site “The Takashima Kouzaki Ruins.” The Archaeological Journal, Vol. 641: 8-13 (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 2010. World of Underwater Archaeology at Lake Biwa. Sunrise Publishing, Hikone, Shiga (in Japanese). Takano, S., 2013. Takashima Island (The Research Results of Japanese Underwater Archaeology). Archaeology Quarterly, Vol. 123: 34-36 (in Japanese). Tsuboi, K., 1994. The Lake of Jomon: Discussions on the Awazu Shell Midden of Lake Biwa. Yuzankaku, Tokyo (in Japanese). 12 �Biography Randall J. Sasaki a PhD candidate at Texas A&M University, Sasaki is also working as a city archaeologist in Fukuoka City. His main interest has been traditional East Asian shipbuilding technology, particularly from the Chinese Yuan (Mongol) dynasty period. He conducted a timber recording project at the Takashima underwater site and also led a survey team at the Bach Dang River Naval Battle Site in Vietnam. He has been working on promoting importance of Underwater Cultural Heritage to the Japanese public; a popular book he published became one of the best seller titles on the subject in Japan. Setsuo Imazu has received his doctorate from Aoyama Gakuin University. He has worked at Fukushima Museum and Archaeological Institute of Kashihara at Nara. In 2005, he was invited to the newly created Kyushu National Museum. Currently he is the Director of Museum Science Division. He specializes in conservation, mainly focusing on treatment of waterlogged wood. He has published in various scholarly articles in Japan and other countries. Yuji Dainobu received his BA in History of Western Art from the International Christian University in 1977, Maitrise in History of Western Art from Universite Catholique de Louvain (Belgium) in 1980, and MA in History of Eastern Art from Kyushu University in 1983. He worked as a research assistant at the Faculty of Letters at Kyushu University in 1983, and later as a curator at Tokyo National Museum until 2004. He has joined Kyushu National Museum in 2004. He has organized many exhibitions including Tibetan Art, Liao Art, HIRAYAMA Ikuo and World Cultural Heritage. He has published many articles on Buddhist art and Silk Roads. Yoshihiko Akashi studied archaeology at Meiji University. His career includes working at Kyushu Historical Museum. His current position is the Director of Exhibition Division at Kyushu National Museum. He has published a number of scholarly articles on Japanese forts, or mountain castle, and also on the study of international commerce and relationship in ancient Asia. He is also interested in ancient Korean ceramics and decorated Kofun (painted tumuli). 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The History, Status, and Future of Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Japan Description An account of the resource Underwater archaeology in Japan has a long history, as a report of artifacts from Lake Suwa in 1908, as well as discoveries at Tsuzura Ozaki site in Lake Biwa in 1924 detailed. The attempts to find the ill-fated fleet of Khubilai Khan at Takashima Island in Nagasaki prefecture began in the 1980s, but the Japanese archaeological community was slow in recognizing the importance of underwater archaeology. A number of underwater archaeological projects were conducted, but none had a lasting influence; the Japanese government has no law that specifically protects submerged sites, and there was neither government agency nor university that conducted a large scaled underwater excavation. However, several major developments suddenly took place in the past few years. In 2012, at first, following the discovery of a Chinese ship remain at Takashima Island, the Kozaki Underwater Site was registered as the first submerged national historic site. In 2013, secondly, the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology published 6 volumes of “The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: Report on Comprehensive Survey of Maritime Cultural Heritage”. In 2013, moreover, the Agency for Cultural Affairs formed a committee to discuss how the government should act in response to the growing importance of protecting submerged sites. These events signify the Japanese archaeological community, as well as the government, finally began to recognize the importance of underwater cultural heritage. This paper illustrates the history, current status, as well as the possible future development plan of underwater archaeological research in Japan. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randall J. Sasaki Setsuo Imazu Yuji Dainobu Yoshihiko Akashi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c5ada19fc0e04fa4bd18c3a9c29c2d3d.pdf 97e9e325fc493d2ce6ebaaf45b222552 PDF Text Text The Archaeological Investigation of “Kamikaze” The Mongol Invasion of Japan Randall J. Sasaki Abstract The historical event that produced the term “Kamikaze,” the Mongol Invasion of Japan led by Kubilai Khan in 1281 Common Era (C.E.), was shrouded in mystery until a chance discovery off Takashima Island in Japan revealed the remains of his fleet. It is said that more than three thousand Chinese and Korean ships met catastrophic ends as a result of the powerful storm. Scholars have asked why such a large number of ships perished; their answers range from the effects of a typhoon to ill-prepared ships to the skills of Japan’s Samurai defenders. Despite detailed research efforts, no conclusion has been reached due to the lack of substantial evidence. The archaeological remains discovered at the Takashima underwater site may change how we view this significant battle that changed Japan’s history. Based on his own research, the author discusses various reasons why the invasion may have failed and whether the analysis of archaeological remains can add new evidence for understanding the fate of Kahn’s fleet. In particular, the author focuses on the construction and outfitting of the vessels used for the invasion. Ships are arguably the most complex “artifacts” that humans have created and thus reflect the environment, society, and people that were involved in building the vessel. Furthermore, ships were the essential component for the invasion of Japan. Anchors, degraded timbers, possible repairs, artifacts such as personal effects and weaponry, as well as timber species analysis and the study of fleet organization all tell a story about what took place in the past. Close examination of information from Takashima sheds new light on the cause of the largest naval disaster in the pre-modern era. Introduction Legends tell us that a catastrophic storm obliterated Kublai Khan’s fleet of more than 4,000 ships off Takashima Island in Southwestern Japan during his second invasion in 1281 C.E. (Figure 1). However, many have doubted the storm was the only cause and proposed several reasons for the failure of the invasion (Conlan 2001; Saeki 2003; Turnbull 2010). This paper tries to answer whether it was human or environmental factors that caused the invasion to fail. A Japanese archaeological team has successfully located fragments of hull timbers from this ill-fated fleet along the southern shores of the island of Takashima (Matsuura Board of Education 2008). This is not a typical archaeological excavation because the entire bay may be considered an archaeological site; perhaps only 1 % of the “site” has been properly excavated. Several excavation projects were conducted intermittently for the past 20 years at Takashima (Matsuura Board of Education 2008). In 2004, the author initiated a project funded by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University and RPM Nautical Foundation to analyze over 500 pieces of timber excavated at Takashima underwater site. The data gathered from subsequent analysis provide hints of the organization of the fleet, as well as signs of poorly constructed ships and evidence of possible Japanese defense (Sasaki 2008). This research has provided evidence for various factors that played a significant role in an event that changed the course of Japanese history. �Figure 1. A Map of Southwestern Japan and Takashima Island Takashima Underwater Site A unique characteristic of the Takashima underwater site is that there is no discernable distribution pattern of artifacts and the large majority of the artifacts appear to be small broken fragments. A brief analysis showed that 90% of the timbers were less than 1 meter (m) in length. In addition, close to 70% of the timbers were simply too degraded to provide any useful information. The author believes their degraded state to be attributable to a series of post depositional events. All excavations conducted at Takashima were rescue projects and mainly areas close to the shoreline were excavated. The near shore zones are usually directly affected by current and have been heavily churned up. The visual inspection of the timber fragments exhibited shipworm damage typical of such conditions. Although the majority of areas excavated were heavily disturbed zones, clear signs of an undisturbed layer were found when a small but slightly deeper location was excavated; the discovery of well preserved anchors described below �evidenced such condition. Four wooden anchors were found in situ as if these were cast overboard during the legendary storm (Figure 2). These anchors, all aligned in the same direction, were set to prevent the ships from striking against the shore and their directions indicate that the wind was blowing from south - a typical typhoon wind direction in the area (Takashima Board of Education 1996: 31-33). The estimated original length of the largest anchor’s shank may be 5 m or more. Based on his study of a military treatise, Kinya Yamagata (1996:128130) estimates that the vessel may have been about 40 m in length. There appears to be no need for further proof that there was a storm other than the four anchors in the same direction trying to prevent the ships from being blown against the shore. The Takashima underwater site has the potential for retaining a number of intact and well-preserved vessels. Until this breakthrough discovery takes place we must rely on broken isolated fragments to tell us the story of this historic event. Figure 2. The Four Anchors Found at Takashima in situ. (After Takashima Board of Education 1996: fig.13) Organization of the Fleet The first invasion of Japan in 1274 C.E. provides excellent insights into how the second invasion may have been organized. Historical accounts mention three types of vessels being prepared; one-thousand-Liao ships, Baator fast-boats, and water transport boats). The Liao ship can be considered a large vessel that �is 300 tons or more, the Baator ship is most likely a slender landing craft, and the water transports can be considered as miscellaneous small boats (Yamagata 2004: 48-49). Any invasion across the sea requires a large amount of grain, thus large cargo vessels were a necessary asset of the Kublai Khan fleet. Such vessels, however, must be accompanied by smaller craft to carry supplies between ships and shore. A large vessel, although excellent at keeping a straight course in deep water, cannot navigate in shallow water because of its deep draft. In addition to V-shaped deep draft cargo vessels, it was necessary to bring shallow draft watercraft capable of beaching to quickly disembark troops. The composition of the first invasion fleet makes perfect sense. The author assumes that the second invasion was organized with a similar strategy in mind. Written sources note two separate fleets organized for the second invasion; one set out from Korea and another from the Yangtze River mouth. Historian Kōki Ōta (1997) suggests that the fleet from Korea carried the main fighting force, while the ships from China were to support the operation and to carry supplies to the front. He based this hypothesis on differences in circumstances and physical environment. The number of ships and troops, and the amount of grain that each fleet carried appears to support this claim. It also appears that Kublai may have organized the two fleets using different ships knowing the types of vessels built in the area and the types of vessels best suited for a specific task. Ōta (1997:46) notes a remark in Koryo Sah made by Kublai stating “ships from the Song are big but not strong; Korean ships are small but strong.”This implies that he was aware of different ships available for his use and the characteristics of those ships. Besides the 900 ships built in Korea, Kublai ordered the provinces and towns of Yangzhou, Hunan, Kanzhou, and Quanzhou to build 600 vessels. Korean flat-bottom vessels were constructed to navigate in shallow waters and withstand the harsh sea environment (Sasaki 2010; Kim 1994). Vessels built in Yangzhou were suited for both estuaries and coastal waterways while Hunan and Kanzhou are known for excellent river-craft that they built (Worcester 1971). These vessels were made with flat, to rounded-bottom, structure hull shape best for miscellaneous functions including reconnaissance and transporting supplies and soldiers between ships and near shore. Quanzhou is a famous shipbuilding town in Fujian province where large ocean going ships with V-shaped hulls were built (Kimura 2010). Based on the evidence discussed above, it can be suggested that the fleet from Korea was composed of shallow draft vessels capable of landing troops, while the fleet from China was composed of large deep draft vessels that could carry large cargo as well as miscellaneous ships suited for various tasks including reconnaissance and transporting goods for short distances. Based on the discussion above, the ship timbers from Takashima should include fragments from large vessels built in Fujian province and smaller watercraft built along the Yangtze River. First, the size of timbers from Takashima is a good indication of the general composition of the fleet. Only a handful of planks from Takashima were thicker than 8 cm, suggesting that many of the timbers belonged to small vessels, most likely from the Yangtze River. �Most of these timbers were beams, railings, supporting timbers, and broken planks. A possible hull frame was found and this artifact may suggest a gentle curving hull typical of the Yangtze estuary ships. Many of the complete timbers were also from smaller ships. While not representing a significant portion of the remains, at least one large vessel with a V-shaped hull built in Fujian province was present (). The 6 m wide bulkhead plank is from a large ship, based on its size and construction features similar to those observed in other excavated vessels, including the Shinan and Quanzhou shipwrecks (Green, et al. 1998; National Maritime Museum of Korea 2006) (Figure 3). The estimated length of the vessel may be beyond 30 m and its capacity may have been 300 tons or more. In my research, I realized that what seems to be a minor construction feature, such as differences in joinery methods, can be used to identify the original port of a vessel. Korean shipwrights built ships without using a single iron nail, while the Chinese built their vessels with the liberal use of iron nails (Kimura 2010). One area of possible hull remains was isolated from other timbers at the Takashima site, and close to two thirds of its timbers contained at least one nail. Furthermore, none of the timbers from this site could be confirmed with certainty as having originated from Korea. It must be noted that other types of artifacts, such as ceramics, suggest a similar scenario; almost all artifacts were from China, and only a small percentage were Korean made. This evidence seems to correspond to the historical records. According to historical accounts it is known that most of the Korean ships were saved (Ōta 1997:71-76). Overall, the archaeological evidence gleaned from Takashima seems to correspond well with the organization of the fleets derived from historical documents. Figure 3. The 6 m wide V-shaped Bulkhead Planks of a Cargo Vessel Discovered at Takashima Sign of Poorly Constructed Ships It is difficult to imagine how Kublai amassed more than 4,000 ships and thus it is often argued that it was not the storm but rather poorly constructed ships that ultimately caused the invasion to fail. Analysis of historical documents tells us that the use of merchant and pirate ships for naval use was a common practice �at the time (Lo 1969). One important artifact, a wooden tag with lacquer inscription, was uncovered at Takashima. This tag reads, “in the first year of …., [name of an official] inspected, repaired, and approved [this item]” (Yokkaichi 2002). It is logical to assume that the item repaired was something important, perhaps a ship. If this was indeed the case, it implies that not all ships were newly constructed. From Takashima, no less than twenty timbers exhibit evidence of possible repair and recycling. More than a dozen timbers had multiple nails of different sizes from various angles placed in close proximity--often less than 2 cm--which can be taken as a sign of recycled wood. It is not logical to place so many nails in such a close proximity and I believe these are signs of repairs. The presence of such signs indicates some repairs took place, but does not shed light on how many vessels were repaired or how extensive these repairs were. Considering the nature of the site, it is difficult to know exactly what percentage of the ships were repaired. Many timbers, including a possible mast step and 6 m long bulkhead planks, exhibit what seems to be a sign of poor craftsmanship. However, a deeper understanding of East Asian shipbuilding tradition may alter such ideas. For instance, a mast step from Takashima has been noted as an example of poor craftsmanship (Man 2006; Turnball 2010) However, mast steps in East Asian ships played a minor role in the hull’s overall integrity, compared to Western ships and should not be used as a clear evidence for the ship being built in a poor manner. A mast step played an important role in supporting a mast in Western built ships (Steffy 1994). On the other hand, in Chinese shipbuilding tradition, the stress from the mast is distributed to the hull through tabernacles, carlings, and bulkheads. A mast step is only a small component in supporting the weight of the mast. Thus, a poorly constructed mast step alone may not indicate that the ship itself was constructed in a hasty manner. At the same time, some timbers exhibit evidence of excellent craftsmanship and attention to detail. A representation of one or two example(s) of poorly constructed or well-crafted components does not tell us about the relative strength of a vessel. Nonetheless, it is clear that not all ships in the invasion fleet were new. The species identification of wooden artifacts from Takashima may hold the key to the riddle, and these analytical results may be essential to understanding the strategy for preparing the invasion. Historical accounts as well as archaeological evidence from some shipwrecks reveal that traditional shipwrights had a preference in choosing the types of wood they used to build vessels. In general, Chinese shipwrights used camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) or China fir (Cunninhamia lanceolata) to construct ship hulls (Xi 1999). It can be assumed that if the shipwrights were constructing vessels in a hasty manner and were subject to environmental pressures, the species that shipwrights used to build vessels would vary. The species identification of 475 samples of wood from Takashima was conducted and the results published (Matsuura Board of Education 2008: 193230). The author isolated 174 samples of hull components from the rest of the timbers, and 32.8% are camphor wood, while pine accounted for 22.4% and China fir accounted for 14.9% of the sample group. Fifteen timbers were �identified as possible bulkheads and twelve of these were manufactured from camphor wood. Also, fifteen timbers thought to be hull planks included nine samples of camphor. Smaller components and thin planks showed more variety in wood species while larger and thicker components showed less variety of wood types. The analysis of firewood, perhaps the most overlooked item in the archaeological record, was also important in determining the potential environmental pressure that China experienced at the time of the invasion. A total of 80 timbers from Takashima were identified as firewood (Figure 4). One important use for firewood was for communication between ships. The use of signal fires to keep the fleet intact and guide its vessels (many of which had few navigators), was a well known practice in East Asia (Batten 2006:83; Ōba 2001:1). The result of the species identification revealed that 80% of these logs were softwood, with 63% of them pine. Softwood, such as pine, does not require much time to season and can be used when slightly damp, which makes an excellent choice for use on board a vessel. Softwood also produces more smoke than hardwood. The analysis of the wood species indicates that preparation for the invasion was not based on the strategy of, “using whatever wood they could get their hands on”, but was based on, “using the wood types that best fit the purposes”. It appears that when constructing these vessels shipwrights were not forced to use alternative less desirable timber. Figure 4. A Large Number of These Firewood were Found at Takashima. �Evidence of Possible Japanese Defense Thomas Conlan (2001) claims that the Japanese did not need a great typhoon to win the war; the Samurai’s bravery and fighting skills combined with the defensive walls that the Japanese built, were effective in keeping the Mongols from landing. The timbers found at Takashima contain clues to the actions of the Japanese defenders. Charred ship timbers may be one such clue. Close to forty timbers appear to have been scorched and many more timbers showed traces of fire damage. These charred timbers may be parts of vessels consumed by Japanese fire attacks. Furthermore, remnants of heavily burnt upper hull structures add credence to the argument that the samurai set fire to the enemy’s ships (Man 2006; Turnball 2010). Another clue is an elongated plank the surface of which was covered with numerous nails. Various sizes of nail holes were found and no order was found in the placement of nails. It might have been part of a spiked gunwale that prevented the enemy from boarding the vessel; when enemies tried to board the vessel, their hands would be caught on these nails. Yamagata (2004:88) mentions a Chinese treatise stating the use of such a defensive device. The presence of the spiked gunwale, if indeed that is what this artifact represents, implies that the Mongols were prepared for the possibility of Japanese attacks on their vessels. Conclusions The archaeological evidence from Takashima contributes new data to the ongoing discussion of what really took place during the second Mongol invasion of Japan. Although the site’s environment would appear to prevent its meaningful interpretation, careful analysis has revealed a variety of potential research directions. Although it is clear that there was indeed a powerful storm at the time of the invasion, there was no single cause that led to the invading fleet’s destruction. When discussing whether human or environmental factors caused the failure of a particular event in history, we forget that the environment often shapes human decisions. First, Kublai Khan decided upon an invasion across an open sea, which can be considered an “environmental barrier”. A large number of troops had to be gathered with enough provisions to sustain them during and after the battle, and the invasion ships had to be built to withstand open sea conditions. The presence of shallow water along the Japanese coastline made it necessary to bring smaller, shallow-draft vessels. These would necessarily include vessels not suited for open ocean sailing or the ability to withstand a storm, but the plan to bring such vessels was part of Khan’s larger military strategy. The wood species analysis and interpretation implies the vessels were constructed using preferred timbers. From historical documents, it is known that the Mongols could not take control of the land and were kept at bay by Japanese fighters for a prolonged period of time. The Japanese defending forces that prevented the Mongols from landing contributed significantly to the outcome of the invasion event. Considering that the invasion took place during the typhoon season, the chances of the Mongol forces being struck by a storm increased day by day as long as they remained in their ships. �Discovery of a complete vessel in the near future may or may not confirm this interpretation of the Mongol invasion event. The research presented here is based on actual remains of participating vessels and their associated artifacts, but is still far from complete. Historians and archaeologists must actively debate these analyses in order to clarify what really took place, and it is hoped such discussion persists for the foreseeable future. Bibliography Conlan, T., 2001 Green, J., N. Burningham., and Museum of Overseas Communication History 1998 Kimura, J., 2010 Kim, Z.G., 1994 Lo, J. P., 1969 Man, J., 2006 Matsuura Board of Education., 2008 Nahm, A., 1988 Ōba O., 2001 Ōta K., 1997 National Maritime Museum of Korea 2006 Saeki, K., 2003 Sasaki, R., 2010 In Little Need of Divine Intervention, East Asia Program, Ithaca. "The Ship from Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27,4, pp. 277-301. “Historical Development of Shipbuilding Technologies in East Asia”, in (ed.) Jun Kimura, Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 1-25. Hangug eu Bae. Seoul: Seoul University Press. “Maritime Commerce and its Relation to the Sung Navy”, in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 12, 1, pp. 57-101. Kublai Khan: From Xanadu to Superpower, Bantam Pess, London. Matsuura-shi Takashima Kaitei Iseki: Matsuura-shi Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Matsuura Board of Education, Nagasaki. Korea:Tradition and Transformation, Hollym, New Jersey. Hyōchakusen Monogatari, Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo. Mōko Shūrai: Sono Gunjishiteki Kenkyū, Kinseisha, Tokyo. The Shinan Wreck I. Mokpo, National Maritime Museum of Korea. Mongol Shūrai no Shyōgeki: Nihon no Chūsei 9, Chūō kōron shinsha, Tokyo. “Goryeo Dynasty Shipwrecks in Korea”, in (ed.) Jun Kimura, Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime �Sasaki, R., 2008 Sasaki, R., 2005 Steffy, R., 1994 Takashima Board of Education., 1996 Turnbull, S., 2010 Worcester, G.R.G., 1971 Xi, L. F., 1999 Yamagata K., 2004 Yamagata K., 1996 Yokkaichi Y., 2002 Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 56-73. The Origin of the Lost Fleet of the Mongol Empire, M.A. Thesis, Texas A&M University. “The Legend of Kamikaze: Nautical Archaeology in Japan”, in The INA Quarterly, 32,1, pp. 3-8. Wooden Shipbuilding and Interpretation of Shipwrecks, College Station, Texas A&M University Press. Takashima Kaitei Isek III – Takashima-chō Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Takashima Board of Education, Nagasaki. The Mongol Invasion of Japan: 1274 and 1281, Osprey, Oxford. The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis. Zhong Guo Zao Chuan Shi, Jiayu Shanxi Chuban She, Hubei. Rekishi No Umi Wo Hashiru, Nōbunkyō, Tokyo. “Bunken kara Mita Gendai Senpaku to Sōbi ni Tsuite”, in Takashima Kaitei Isek III – Takashima-chō Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Takashima Board of Education, Nagasaki, pp. 128-130. “Takashima Kaitei Iseki Ni Miru Genkō Kenkyū No KanōSei”, in Shiteki, 24, pp. 111-124. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/93d6fa932d54f9ca6a51dc6dfe8e44fb.jpg 9e53fe84cdc1d80a5af0c281a98bfe05 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeological Investigation of "Kamikaze" The Mongol Invasion of Japan Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource The historical event that produced the term “Kamikaze,” the Mongol Invasion of Japan led by Kubilai Khan in 1281 Common Era (C.E.), was shrouded in mystery until a chance discovery off Takashima Island in Japan revealed the remains of his fleet. It is said that more than three thousand Chinese and Korean ships met catastrophic ends as a result of the powerful storm. Scholars have asked why such a large number of ships perished; their answers range from the effects of a typhoon to ill-prepared ships to the skills of Japan’s Samurai defenders. Despite detailed research efforts, no conclusion has been reached due to the lack of substantial evidence. The archaeological remains discovered at the Takashima underwater site may change how we view this significant battle that changed Japan’s history. Based on his own research, the author discusses various reasons why the invasion may have failed and whether the analysis of archaeological remains can add new evidence for understanding the fate of Kahn’s fleet. In particular, the author focuses on the construction and outfitting of the vessels used for the invasion. Ships are arguably the most complex “artifacts” that humans have created and thus reflect the environment, society, and people that were involved in building the vessel. Furthermore, ships were the essential component for the invasion of Japan. Anchors, degraded timbers, possible repairs, artifacts such as personal effects and weaponry, as well as timber species analysis and the study of fleet organization all tell a story about what took place in the past. Close examination of information from Takashima sheds new light on the cause of the largest naval disaster in the pre-modern era. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randall J. Sasaki Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nautical Japan 水中考古学／船舶・海事史研究 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randall Sasaki Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:24:52 Type The nature or genre of the resource Web Page Zotero Author Randall Sasaki Item Type Web Page Access Date 2011-10-07 10:24:52 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:24:52 Title A name given to the resource Nautical Japan 水中考古学／船舶・海事史研究 URL http://www.nauticalarchaeologyjp.com/ Attachment Title 水中考古学／船舶・海事史研究 Attachment URL http://www.nauticalarchaeologyjp.com/ Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3d37a3ecaa1ac7e7d8e56027104c17b1.pdf d1b41cbd2b8ff8ea3c3d8ef748115f48 PDF Text Text Sri Lankan Maritime Trade Relations Towards the East Rasika Muthucumarana1, T.D.C. Pushpakumara2, Thilina Pallethanna3 1 Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund of Sri Lanka Central Cultural Fund of Sri Lanka 3 Central Cultural Fund of Sri Lanka 2 Corresponding Author: muthurasika@gmail.com ABSTRACT One of the main indicators of the strong cultural, political, and trade relationship between China and Sri Lanka is the significant amount of Chinese pottery found in archaeological sites in Sri Lanka. Mantai, the main port city of the Anuradhapura kingdom, which spanned from the fourth century BCE to the eleventh century CE, served as the hub for ships from the Indian subcontinent, East Asia, and Rome. Blue, white, and green earthenware, as well as storage jars belonging to the Tang Dynasty, are among the earliest archaeological evidence discovered in Sri Lanka. However, historical evidence dates back even further, to the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). Excavation projects at old port sites such as Jaffna, Trincomalee, Kirinda, and Godawaya have revealed new evidence of international trade. Although more interactions with Southeast Asia were evident after the twelfth century, newly discovered regions along the east coast suggest further findings. The paper discusses the research conducted by marine archaeologists over the past decade, primarily along the east coast of Sri Lanka. Newly discovered port sites and potential port sites reveal more evidence of stabilised maritime trade and cultural connections to the eastern Indian region. Port and settlement sites such as Nilaweli, Lanka Patuna, Kayankerny, and Sasthrawella contain evidence of international trade. The Kayankerny port site and settlement mound, for instance, dates to the third century BCE. An ancient trade route connected Polonnaruwa, the capital city, to a seaport at Kayankerny via the longest stone bridge found in Sri Lanka. Keywords: East coast of Sri Lanka, Historical port sites, Sea routes, Kayankerny LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS MAU Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka CCF Central Cultural Fund PGIAR Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Historical port sites along the east coast of Sri Lanka Figure 2: Stone pillars of an ancient bridge at Kayankerny, Sri Lanka Figure 3: Building remains near the stone bridge at Kayankerny, Sri Lanka Figure 4: Building remains with stone pillars found underwater in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka 1. INTRODUCTION Sri Lanka's cultural and trade relations with South India, the Bay of Bengal, and Southeast Asia have spanned over two millennia. Recent explorations along the eastern coast of Sri Lanka, particularly in the field of maritime archaeology, have unveiled new evidence regarding trade connections with East Asia. These findings have shed light on the existence of two previously unknown port sites and identified two additional potential port sites that may have facilitated land trade routes. This paper reveals the outcomes of these investigations. The information and research data presented in this article, focusing on the Kayankerny area and selected sites in Trincomalee, are based on research undertaken in collaboration with the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) and the Batticaloa project of 1 �the Central Cultural Fund (CCF). A significant amount of research data remains unpublished and exists in the form of internal reports. The island of Sri Lanka's historical connections with the outside world were predominantly established through maritime routes, emphasising the critical role of maritime trade in its history. The exchange of cultures brought forth by sailors, merchants, and monks from diverse regions profoundly influenced the development of Sri Lanka's distinctive cultural heritage. With its natural harbours and monsoon winds, the island served as a significant hub for maritime trade. Extensive historical and archaeological findings indicate that early port sites in Sri Lanka were frequented by seafarers and traders from Rome, the Middle East, China, Southeast Asia, and the South Indian Ocean region. Notably, the writings of Pliny the Elder, Cosmas, and Ptolemy's Map (Gunawardana 2003) provide compelling evidence of Sri Lanka's recognition in the western world during the first century CE. The ports such as Mahatittha, Jambukolapatthana, Uratotta, Gokanna, Lankapatthana, Kirinda, Godawaya, and Galle actively participated in these events throughout history (Map 1). Archaeological research has been conducted on ancient ports that were instrumental in Sri Lanka's relations with foreign countries. However, studies on early port sites in Sri Lanka remain limited (Carswell, Deraniyagala and Graham 2013; Bohingamuwa 2017; Bopearachchi 2013; Thanthilage et al. 2013). Comparatively, studies on ports along the east coast have been less extensive than in other parts of the country (Bopearachchi 2013; Thanthilage et al 2013). However, some researchers have discussed the significance of several ports on the east coast based on historical documents (e.g., Siriweera 2003, 117-126). With new archaeological evidence emerging from recent studies in the region, this paper examines the importance of these ports in maintaining relationships with countries in East and Southeast Asia since the first millennium CE. 2 �Map 1: Historical port sites along the east coast of Sri Lanka 3 �2. RESOURCES 2.1 Recent discoveries along the east coast Following the end of the 30-year separatist war in 2009, access to Sri Lanka's archaeological heritage in the North and East Provinces gradually improved, allowing a significant amount of research projects. The country's growing economy and tourism industry provided more funding for archaeology, leading to more research efforts. The CCF invested in maritime archaeology after 2010, collaborating with local divers and fishing communities to explore previously untouched heritage sites along the coast. The MAU of the CCF initiated collaborations in 2011, gradually extending their research to the north and east coasts. They discovered shipwrecks dating back to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, including those from World War II. Apart from shipwrecks, ancient harbours, settlements, and temples beneath the cliff of Fort Fredrick in Trincomalee have been discovered. Recent archaeological investigations in Trincomalee, Kayankerny, and Godawaya have focused on uncovering evidence of trade connections with East Asia and exploring ancient port sites and shipwrecks. 3. CASE STUDIES 3.1 Kayankerny Kayankerny is a quaint fishing village on the east coast. It is situated to the north of Pasikudha beach, a renowned tourist destination with beautiful shallow and calm waters as well as a long stretch of sandy shorelines. Kayankerny is also a small, protected bay with calm water and long sandy beach. As there are few historical shipwrecks around that area, the MAU conducted an exploration in 2012, taking Kayankerny as their camp site. During the survey, the team conducted underwater explorations and gathered information from the local community. They discovered stone pillars across the lagoon, which were previously unknown to officials. The pillars spanned a 200-metre (m) straight line, suggesting a bridge connecting both sides of the lagoon. It is crossing over the lagoon from its narrowest part of water (Figure 1). Further investigations revealed Buddhist temple complexes, an ancient settlement, and a reservoir along this route. This road was part of an ancient trade route parallel to the east coast, linking the north, south, and the capital of Polonnaruwa. The discovery of these sites led to the establishment of a provincial project office for terrestrial archaeology. The Kayankerny Bridge, extending up to 265m, became the longest historical stone bridge in Sri Lanka. Near each end of the bridge, remnants of two small buildings were also found. 4 �Figure 2: Stone pillars of an ancient bridge at Kayankerny, Sri Lanka In 2018, the excavation of the east end building revealed a small two-story structure measuring 12x12 meters. Constructed with stone pillars, bricks, and clay tiles, the first floor showed more preservation compared to the wooden second floor. In 2022, the west side building, similar in structure at 11x11 meters, was excavated (Figure 2). Figure 2: Building remains near the stone bridge at Kayankerny, Sri Lanka Around 800 m west of the bridge, a large settlement site spanning over 20 acres was discovered. The ongoing investigations unveiled a deep stratigraphic layer of around three metres, containing numerous potsherds and remnants of large storage jars. On the east side of the bridge, extending to the beach, a monastic site and a small settlement, and a reservoir were found. Excavations in 2022 uncovered a cultural layer of approximately two metres. Rather than evidence of the Polonnaruwa Kingdom period, earlier cultural relationships were identified, with pottery dating back to the second century BCE, including local, Indian, Middle Eastern, and East Asian origins. Notably, a piece of Chinese Stoneware pottery was found nearby in 2017. 5 �The neglected small reservoir between the bridge and monastic complex was strategically placed, likely serving the needs of the nearby port and monastic complex. The name ‘Kayankerny’ is derived from the presence of Kayan trees surrounding a pond, possibly referring to the reservoir. Nearby, the village of ‘Mangkerny’ suggests a pond inhabited by spotted deer (Axis axis ceylonensis). Shedding light on this mystery, an inscription on a stone pillar was discovered at the Buddhist monastic site. This type of inscription, ‘AttaniParihara Kanu’ refers to a document granting special privileges and exemptions from state laws to specific individuals or institutions carved onto a stone pillar. The inscription mentions an offering to the monastery (Sangasena Pirivena) and tax collection (Pallethanna 2018) though the exact location remains uncertain. Potential tax collection areas include a market near the bridge and a nearby port connected to trade routes. Further research and investigation are needed to confirm these theories. Kayankerny Bay provides a safe anchorage for maritime activities, offering protection from adverse weather conditions. The bay's connection to the Maduru Oya River and Kayankerny Lagoon enhances its significance. The lagoon, influenced by the river, supports local livelihoods, and serves as a fishing harbour. The MAU has conducted seabed explorations but found no evidence of shipwrecks or a port site. A systematic survey and remote sensing are required. A nearby stone quarry may have provided the stone pillars for the bridge, which could have been transported via the river and lagoon. Research since 2012 suggests the existence of an ancient port site at Kayankerny, with settlements, a stone bridge, inscriptions, buildings, and the bay area. The bridge's end buildings may have served various purposes, while the nearby settlements and the large site at the west end could have been marketplaces. Potsherds indicate foreign connections to the port. Ongoing excavations and expanded maritime archaeological explorations are required to validate these hypotheses. The purpose of the bridge and the source of the tax mentioned in the inscription remain unclear. 3.2 Trincomalee Trincomalee, a historically significant port on Sri Lanka's east coast, offers valuable insights into early trade patterns and the importance of port cities. The Port of Trincomalee, also known as Gokanna Port, was active from the fourth century BCE to the colonial period. Like other ancient port sites, Trincomalee was associated with temples that served the spiritual needs of sailors and fishermen. Swami Rock, located at Fort Fredrick, was the site of an ancient Buddhist temple that later became a Hindu temple. Although the temples were demolished during the colonial era, a new Shiva temple was constructed in the 1960s, preserving the religious significance of Trincomalee. The presence of these temples reflects the enduring cultural and religious heritage of the region. After the civil war ended in 2009, both marine and terrestrial archaeological explorations were facilitated, uncovering shipwreck sites and ancient settlements. The preservation and study of Dutch buildings within Fort Fredrick were also undertaken by CCF and the Department of Archaeology shedding light on the formation and distribution of early settlements and fortifications (Pushpakumara 2017). 3.2.1 The ancient watering point and the remains found from underwater surveys Within Fort Fredrick, a significant watering point used by the Dutch to supply ships with clean drinking water was found. Strategically positioned with direct access to the sea, a small jetty-like structure was built on the beach to facilitate this water source. The well, ingeniously constructed using a natural spring source, provided salt-free water for consumption. Nearby wells also contributed to the 6 �availability of drinking water. The layers of deposited soil surrounding these wells contain archaeological remains from the ancient to mediaeval periods. The jetty-like structure was created using large stones from the beach and remnants of old stone or granite buildings. Stone pillars, basement parts with railings, and repurposed stairs were used to construct and level the platform. Sir Arthur C. Clarke's leisure diving activities in 1960 led to the discovery of intriguing remains near the Thirukonashwaram cliff, including stone pillars, basement stones, and a Shivalinga. In 2017, the MAU uncovered additional stone pillars, stone sculptures, slabs with symbols, and remnants (Figure 3). Figure 3: Building remains with stone pillars found underwater in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka Among the findings was a stone baluster known as Koravakgala, stone balustrades, reused to level the jetty-like structure. Another portion of a baluster was found underwater. The archaeological remains suggest the presence of a stairway leading to the cliff, providing access from the seaside to the watering point, the cliff's summit, and the temple located at the north end. This stairway served as a convenient route for mariners and pilgrims visiting the temple or the cliff's summit, highlighting the strategic location of the site. 3.2.2 The ports of Trincomalee Extensive excavations, explorations, and marine archaeology projects in Trincomalee have unearthed significant historical artefacts and structures, including brick buildings, stone constructions, inscriptions, statues, pottery, glass beads, and coins from the Anuradhapura period. Excavations at the playground outside the fort suggest it was a Buddhist monastic complex rather than a residential settlement mound. The discovery of pottery and objects of Indian origin indicates trade and cultural connections between Trincomalee and India, supported by the coins found at the site. Trincomalee harbour’s natural bay area provided anchorage points for boats throughout history, contributing to its role as a centre of religious activity and its connections to extensive trade networks. The pottery predominantly consists of Longquan celadon and glazed earthenware, similar to the findings in Singapore and the Middle East. Inscriptions at the site highlight Gokanna's importance as a port for the Polonnaruwa Kingdom. 7 �Research and exploration continue to identify actual port sites and ancient settlements along the Trincomalee beaches, yielding valuable archaeological material and shedding light on early trading activities. Ongoing research aims to understand the history of Trincomalee, its significance as a hub for religious and commercial activities, and its maritime history and connections with other regions. 3.3 Revisiting the port sites discovered thirty years ago 3.3.1 Kumburupiddi The discovery of Arab tombstones in the naval dock area of Trincomalee provides evidence of Arab traders being present in the vicinity during the fourteenth century. Additionally, Chinese potshards from the same era were found near Nilaweli, specifically in a rural coastal area known as ‘Kumburupiddi’ located north of Trincomalee. Previous explorations conducted three decades ago reported the abundance of Chinese ceramics along the beach in this area. John Carswell, in his publication ‘Chinese ceramics from Allapiddy in Sri Lanka’ suggested that these ceramics may have been deposited on land from a sunken ship near the site (Carswell 1985). A similar paper by the same author was published in The Oriental Ceramic Society of France in 2000. Recent explorations in the past few years have revisited the area known as ‘Kumburupiddi,’ and researchers have observed scattered ceramic fragments in various locations. This suggests that Kumburupiddi may have functioned as an old port site. Furthermore, numerous local potshards from the Anuradhapura period can still be found in this area, alongside the remains of a Buddhist monastery and an ancient stupa mound. The presence of a significant amount of Chinese pottery strewn across the beach at Kumburupiddi, primarily dating to the fourteenth century, indicates its connection to international trade during that era. Similar evidence has been found at fourteenth century port sites in Egypt, the Middle East, India, Vietnam, Singapore, and Korea. Therefore, if a shipwreck were to be discovered in this vicinity, it is highly likely that it would have a connection to the nearby harbour and the thriving maritime trade of the time. Another similar place assumed to have a shipwreck is ‘Allapiddy’ in North Province. 3.3.2 Lanka Patuna Lanka Patuna has been considered an ancient port since Chinese pottery was first discovered by Deraniyagala in 1972 (Solheim and Deraniyagala 1972). Recently, the Post Graduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), University of Kelaniya reported finding Chinese pottery during their excavations at the site (Thanthilage et al. 2013). Most of the pottery were identified as the Polonnaruwa Kingdom period and later. 4. CONCLUSION Although significant progress has been made in exploring and preserving Sri Lanka's maritime heritage, much work remains to be done. The fieldwork and research conducted have revealed a substantial presence of potential port sites and associated settlements along the eastern coast of Sri Lanka. These sites are intertwined with maritime trade networks as well as inland road networks, reflecting their multifaceted roles in historical interactions. The Kayankerny site presents a complex 8 �combination of sea and land trade routes, a monastic complex, and a settlement site. Studying, excavating, and conserving these remains will be a long-term undertaking, requiring extensive time and resources. Ongoing excavation and research at the shipwreck site in Godawaya, South Sri Lanka, dating back to the second century BCE, are uncovering valuable evidence of maritime trade relations. The shipwreck, identified as a cargo ship, provides insights into trade routes heading east or returning from the east. The newly discovered port sites also require archaeological investigations both at sea and on land, which will take several years to bring forth new evidence for scholarly discussions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge Director General of the Central Cultural Fund, Staff members of the Maritime Archaeology Unit, Trincomalee project and Batticaloa Project. Local communities of Kayankerny, Trincomalee, Lanka Patuna and Nillaveli areas for their assistance in discovering the remains. The assistance of Chat GPT, an AI language model developed by OpenAI, for valuable assistance in correcting English language and editing content for this article. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bohingamuwa, W. Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean: External Connections and Internal Networks (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 2017). University of Oxford. The United Kingdom. Bopearachchi, Osmund. “Maritime Trade and Cultural Exchanges in the Indian Ocean: India and Sri Lanka”. Paris: le Centre national de la recherche scientifique, Paris, 2013. Carswell, J., Deraniyagala, S. and Graham, A. Mantai-City by the Sea. Aichwarld: Linden Soft Verlag, 2013. Carswell J. “Chinese ceramics from Allapiddy in Sri Lanka”. In A Legacy of Asia’s maritime trade. 3-49. Kuala Lumpur: Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, West Malaysian Chapter, 1985. Gunawardana, R. A. L. H. 2003. “Seaways to Seilediba: Changing Patterns of Navigation in the Indian Ocean and Their Impact on Precolonial Sri Lanka” In Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea, edited by Bandaranayake, S. Dewaraja, L., Silva, R. and Wimalaratne, K. D.G., 17–36. Colombo: Central Cultural Fund, 2003. Pallethanna, T. B. “Excavation Report of Batticaloa Project” (Unpublished Annual Project Reports), Colombo: Central Cultural Fund. 2018. Prematilleke, P.L. “Chinese Ceramics Discovered in Sri Lanka - An Overview.” In Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea. edited by Senake Bandaranayake, Lorna Dewaraja, Roland Silva, Wimalarante, K.D.G., 233-244. Colombo: Sri Lanka National Commission for UNESCO and the Central Cultural Fund, 1990. Prickett-Fernando, Martha. “Durable Goods: The Archaeological Evidence of Sri Lanka’s Role in the Indian Ocean Trade.”In Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea. edited by Senaka Bandaranayake, Lona Dewaraja, Raja Silva, Wimalarante, K., 233-244. Colombo: Sri Lanka National Commission for UNESCO and the Central Cultural Fund, 1990. Pushpakumara T. D. C. “Project Report of Trincomalee” (Unpublished Annual Project Report), Colombo: Central Cultural Fund, 2017. Siriweera W. I. “Pre-colonial Sri Lanka’s Maritime Commerce with Special Reference to its Ports.” In Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea. edited by Senaka Bandaranayake, Lorna Dewaraja, Roland Silva and Wimalaratne K. D. G., Colombo: Sri Lanka National Commission for UNESCO and the Central Cultural Fund, 1990. 9 �Solheim, W. G., and S. U. Deraniyagala. Archaeological Survey to Investigate South Asian Prehistoric Presence in Ceylon, Ancient Ceylon Occasional Papers no.1. Colombo: Department of Archaeology Sri Lanka, 1972. Thantilage Arjuna, Vithanage Indika, Pushpakumara T. D. C., Senanayaka Jayampath, and Jayasingha Pathmakumara. Ilankaturai International Port Site. Memoirs of Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology 2013/2. Colombo: PGIAR, 2013. Werake, Mahinda. “A New Date for the Beginning of Sino-Sri Lankan Relations.” The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities 4, no. 1 &2 (1978): 64-72. Zang, Ran. "An Exploratory Quantitative Archaeological Analysis and the Classification of Chinese Ceramics Trade in the Western Indian Ocean, AD c. 800-1500”. PhD diss., University of Durham, 2006. 10 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sri Lankan Maritime Trade Relations Towards the East Description An account of the resource One of the main indicators of the strong cultural, political, and trade relationship between China and Sri Lanka is the significant amount of Chinese pottery found in archaeological sites in Sri Lanka. Mantai, the main port city of the Anuradhapura kingdom, which spanned from the fourth century BCE to the eleventh century CE, served as the hub for ships from the Indian subcontinent, East Asia, and Rome. Blue, white, and green earthenware, as well as storage jars belonging to the Tang Dynasty, are among the earliest archaeological evidence discovered in Sri Lanka. However, historical evidence dates back even further, to the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). Excavation projects at old port sites such as Jaffna, Trincomalee, Kirinda, and Godawaya have revealed new evidence of international trade. Although more interactions with Southeast Asia were evident after the twelfth century, newly discovered regions along the east coast suggest further findings. The paper discusses the research conducted by marine archaeologists over the past decade, primarily along the east coast of Sri Lanka. Newly discovered port sites and potential port sites reveal more evidence of stabilised maritime trade and cultural connections to the eastern Indian region. Port and settlement sites such as Nilaweli, Lanka Patuna, Kayankerny, and Sasthrawella contain evidence of international trade. The Kayankerny port site and settlement mound, for instance, dates to the third century BCE. An ancient trade route connected Polonnaruwa, the capital city, to a seaport at Kayankerny via the longest stone bridge found in Sri Lanka. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rasika Muthucumarana T.D.C. Pushpakumara Thilina Pallethanna Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Muthucumarana, Rasika , T.D.C. Pushpakumara, Thilina Pallethanna. 2023. “Sri Lankan Maritime Trade Relations Towards the East.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Wijerathne Bohingamuwa. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1951 Asia-Pac Session 8 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cb23f50c409a27e78223555e5ce148b9.pdf 11aed85f3ef42e8e2f8d40cb905d417e PDF Text Text UNESCO Regional Capacity Building Programme on Safeguarding the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Asia and the Pacific Ricardo L. Favis1 Abstract In response to the recommendation of delegates and experts during the Asia-Pacific Regional Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Hong Kong, Special Autonomous Region of China, November 2003), The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is implementing a regional capacity building programme on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Asia and the Pacific through the establishment of a Regional Field Training Centre. Supported by the Norwegian Government, the programme aims to facilitate and enable the training of maritime archaeologists and conservation experts from Asia and the Pacific region in the proper safeguarding and management of UCH, in line with the principles of the 2001 Convention and the Rules of its Annex. Operated by the Government of Thailand, the Regional Field Training Centre is attached within the precinct of the Underwater Archaeology Division of the Fine Arts Department in Chanthaburi, Thailand. With the support of implementing partners including International Council of Monuments and of Sites - International Council of Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICOMOS-ICUCH), the Centre has successfully organized since 2009 three Foundation Courses and an Advanced Course on the application of Geographical Information systems (GIS) in underwater archaeology and cultural heritage management. The six-week Foundation Courses aim to bring regional experts of different academic backgrounds to a common level of understanding on the multi-disciplinary nature of UCH management. So far, the regional capacity building programme has benefitted seventy national experts from seventeen countries in the Asia-Pacific Region, including Kenya. This paper will discuss the development of the regional capacity building programme, the training activities and projects in which the Centre is involved, future plans and efforts to sustain the Centre over the long term. Background The threats of treasure hunting and illicit trafficking of artefacts found underwater, as well as commercial exploitation of marine resources were the reasons why UNESCO engaged to take legal and practical action to ensure better protection for the underwater archaeological sites. After four years of intense negotiations, four experts meetings and the participation of more than 100 Member States2, the UNESCO General Assembly finally adopted the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2001 (2001 Convention). More importantly, every Member State agreed that the Annex to the Convention, which sets out very specific rules concerning activities directed at UCH, should be accepted and applied as the reference document for interventions directed at UCH. To introduce and discuss the 2001 Convention among concerned stakeholders in our region, UNESCO organized the Asia‐Pacific Regional Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Hong Kong, Special Autonomous Region of China in November 2003. Eighty six delegates and experts from twenty-three Member States participated in the workshop. Realizing that the 2001 1 2 Project Officer, UNESCO Bangkok Culture Unit Sovereign States that are members of UNESCO. There are currently 193 Member States of UNESCO. �Convention can only be effectively implemented through capacity building in underwater archaeology, a relatively new discipline in the Asia-Pacific region, the participants unanimously recommended the establishment of a regional field training centre. In response, the delegates from Sri Lanka offered to host the centre within the infrastructure of their Maritime Archaeology Unit located in the World Heritage Site of Galle, Sri Lanka. In 2005, a project document entitled Safeguarding the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Asia and the Pacific: Building Regional Capacities to Protect and Manage Underwater Archaeological Sites through the Establishment of a Regional Centre of Excellence Field Training Facility and Programme of Instruction was formulated and submitted to the Government of Norway for their consideration under UNESCO-Norway Funds-in-Trust Cooperation. Approved for funding by the Government of Norway in 2007, project implementation started in March 2009 with a training programme for Sri Lankan archaeologists and conservators to prepare them for their eventual role as trainers of trainees coming from the region. Due to civil unrest in Sri Lanka and lack of facilities and necessary equipment to support regional training activities, UNESCO decided to transfer the venue of the regional field training centre to Thailand in early 2009. The UNESCO regional capacity building programme The regional training platform aims to facilitate and enable the training of underwater archaeological site managers and conservation professions from Asia and the Pacific. It aims to provide a system of embedding this training into the national development planning of participating Member States, particularly the national strategy for capacity‐building and human resource development through the participation of national experts nominated by the relevant national agencies of participating Member States. It focuses on integrated approaches towards the conservation and management of underwater archaeological sites that are participatory and inclusive, and foster social cohesion and peace by promoting intercultural dialogue through the animation of shared heritage. Professional capacity‐building has been identified as the key to successfully safeguard the UCH. Without a concerted and sustained effort to build the region’s capacity to manage it, it is not possible for UCH to be protected in the long term. The development goals towards which the regional project contributes are: (a) the protection of UCH; and (b) fostering peace and social cohesion among participating Member States. The protection of UCH also has an important economic aspect, considering that tourism may develop around underwater sites if properly managed and interpreted in on‐site museums which may be established. Through the establishment of a Regional Field Training Centre in Underwater Cultural Heritage (hereinafter referred to as the Centre), the project aims to achieve the following objectives: 1. To build regional capacity in the protection and management of UCH through professional training in field techniques on underwater archaeological site inventory and mapping, non‐invasive techniques of site identification, inventory �and investigation, museology techniques, and site monitoring and protection according to international professional standards. The application of the provisions of the Annex to the Convention is particularly stressed. 2. To provide a platform for an effective networking among partner Member States by encouraging close collaboration and dissemination of best practices, thereby promoting regional cooperation through exchange of information on the conservation and management of a shared heritage. 3. To prepare Member States in the ratification and implementation of the 2001 Convention and its Annex. Thailand as venue of the Centre The Government of Thailand hosts the Centre within the infrastructure of the Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD) of the Fine Arts Department in Chanthaburi, Thailand. The UAD has a long experience in underwater archaeology since 1974 and has closely collaborated with the Royal Thai Navy, the Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts of the Southeast Asian Minister of Education Organization (SEAMEOSPAFA) and Silpakorn University over the years. UAD has more than adequate human and technical resources to support the training activities of the Centre. It has a professional staff of two maritime archaeologists and a technical diving team of ex-navy personnel. The staff operates under high safety standards, collaborates closely with the Royal Thai Navy and links up with a nearby naval hospital during their diving missions. Just before the first training course was organized, the UAD procured a new fully- �equipped diving boat with a decompression chamber. UAD has also adequate diving equipment including technical diving equipment, re-breathers and trimix. Implementation strategy In April 2008, a Project Steering Committee meeting was convened in Galle, Sri Lanka to discuss and decide how to best implement the regional capacity building programme. Considering that maritime archaeology is relatively a new discipline in Asia and the Pacific, and that expertise in most countries in the region is mainly focused on terrestrial archaeology, the Committee decided to build national capacities through Foundation Courses aimed at bringing national experts of different academic backgrounds from participating Member States to a common level of understanding on the multi‐disciplinary nature of maritime archaeology. The Committee also decided to organize Advanced Courses aimed at training heads of maritime archaeology units and senior UCH managers on specialized topics using state‐of‐the‐art technologies and latest developments. To embed the training programmes into the national development planning of participating Member States, particularly their national strategy for capacity‐building and human resource development, the committee decided that only those who are nominated by national agencies responsible for the protection of their territorial waters are eligible to take part in the training activities of the Centre under the project. Foundation Courses ICOMOS-ICUCH assisted in devising the course curriculum for the Foundation Course. Considering that prospective regional trainees working for relevant government agencies cannot leave their work for an extended period of time, a six-week Foundation Course was decided upon in consultation with the UAD of Thailand and other project implementing partners. Four weeks of the Foundation Course are devoted to lectures, country reports and practical exercises on the following topics: • Introduction to the 2001 Convention and its Annex • Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) Introductory and Part 1 training modules (under license) • Diving safety and project logistics • Iron and steel ship construction and site formation • Desk based assessment • Significance assessment • Material cultural analysis • Archaeological publication • Finds handling and conservation • Public archaeology • Museology • Asian ship technology • Asian ceramics �Trainees also undergo two weeks of training in underwater field survey exercises at the ship wreck site of Ruea Mail. At a depth of 20 meters, the site is located near Mannok Island in Kleng District, Rayong Province, Thailand. The ship is possibly a mail steamboat plying the French colonial coastline from Thailand to Cambodia and Viet Nam about 90 to 100 years ago. Coins dating back to 1917 during the reign of King Rama VI of Thailand were found in the shipwreck. During the underwater field exercises, trainees are taught the following topics and how they are applied. After two weeks of site survey, the trainees are required to prepare a management plan and storyboard on the shipwreck, which they present during the closing ceremonies of the Foundation Course. • Baseline and offsets • Ties to baseline for levelled profile bars • Site datum for vertical depth gauge measurements • Geographical Positioning System (GPS) location using site recorder • Use of photo scales for underwater photographs • Seabed elevation/ profiles survey using depth gauge and site datum • Centreline/baseline elevation survey using depth gauge survey and site datum • Port and starboard hull elevations using depth gauge survey and site datum • Taking sections/ profiles across wreck using levelled profile bars • Drawing using planning frame • Measuring and recording iron ship construction details (frames and spacing, rivets, plating, stem and sternpost dimensions) • Circular searches �To ensure high standards of the Foundation Course, trainees nominated by participating Member States are selected based on the following criteria: • Must have a college degree from a reputable university; • Must be an archaeologist in a scientific institution/agency, a site manager or a conservator in UCH; • Must have interest in the conservation and management of UCH, and must agree to the principles of the 2001 Convention and its Annex; • Must have logged a minimum of 50 dives, of which 20 dives have been conducted under supervision by recognized research/academic/scientific institution, and 5 dives undertaken deeper than 25 meters (applicants are required to submit their dive logs before they can be considered for the Foundation Course); • Must be medically certified to be fit for diving (applicants are required to submit their medical certification before they can be considered); • Must have good comprehension, writing and communication skills in English (applicants are required to submit proof of their English skills before they can be considered). To ensure the safety of the trainees, UNESCO has provided trainees with dive injury insurance coverage and membership with the Diving Alert Network (DAN AsiaPacific) before the start of their training course. Three Foundation Courses of six-week duration were successfully organized in October 2009, March 2010 and February 2011. The three Foundation Courses have benefitted fifty five (55) national experts from 15 countries (Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Fiji Islands, Indonesia, Kenya, Kyrgyztan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam). �Adapted to the Asia-Pacific regional context, the curriculum of the Foundation Course has been developed for the Regional Field Training Centre in Chanthaburi, Thailand. The curriculum will be made available for use by other UNESCO-sponsored training programmes elsewhere in the world. Advanced Courses The Centre also delivers Advanced Courses aimed at training heads of maritime archaeology units and senior UCH managers on specialized topics using state‐of‐the‐art technologies and latest developments identified during the Foundation Courses and recommended by ICOMOS‐ICUCH. Advanced Courses of short duration (one to two weeks) provide the opportunity for national authorities in maritime archaeology to develop strategies for collaborative endeavours. An Advanced Course on the Application of GIS in the Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage was organized during the period from 20-29 September 2010. Nineteen national experts from 13 countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Fiji Islands, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Palau, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam) took part in the training. An Advanced Course on In Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage was organized from 19-26 October 2011. Fifteen graduates of earlier Foundation Courses were chosen by a selection committee. They came from nine participating countries: Cambodia, Indonesia, Kenya, Kyrgyztan, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand. The Advanced Course enabled the selected participants to apply knowledge and skills they learnt during the Foundation Course in in situ preservation, which is the first option in the preservation of UCH under the 2001 Convention. �Expert trainers and resource persons from Australia, Netherlands, Philippines, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States and Switzerland have shared their expertise with the regional trainees during the training courses. They were carefully selected, in consultation with the ICUCH of ICOMOS3 (Footnote: List of Expert Trainers). 3 Karina Acton, Senior Objects Conservator, International Conservation Services, 1st Foundation Course : Finds Handling and Conservation Ross Anderson, President of the Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology, Maritime Archaeologist of nd the Western Australian Museum, 1st and 2 Foundation Courses: Co-Trainer: Underwater Survey Field Exercises Will Brouwers, Development educational programmes Museum het Valkhof, Netherlands, GIS Advanced Course st Somlak Charoenpot, Former Deputy Director General, Fine Arts Department, Thailand, 1 , 2 Courses: Museology nd rd and 3 Foundation Wim Dijkman, Project Leader, Hydrography, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Region Ijssel Lake at Lelystad, Netherlands, GIS Advanced Course �Other project activities “Saving the Underwater Cultural Heritage” Exhibit To bring UNESCO’s message on the need to safeguard UCH to a wider audience, UNESCO Bangkok Office organized the first ever UNESCO exhibition on global UCH in the Asia-Pacific region at the Siam Ocean World Bangkok from 16 August to 31 October 2010. The interactive exhibit featured underwater heritage scenes from around the world, life-sized replica of a Thai shipwreck, showcases of artefacts recovered from the seabed, special demonstrations of maritime archaeologists in action, and various interactive play zones for children. The exhibit was viewed by an estimated 150,000 local and foreign visitors. Exhibit items are now part of the permanent exhibition of the National Maritime Museum in Chanthaburi, Thailand. Project Experience Exchange Asia: 8-16 December 2010 To encourage active networking and experience sharing among graduates of the Centre, UNESCO and the Dutch Government supported the Project Experience Exchange Asia initiated by the Central Cultural Fund of Sri Lanka. The project was a joint survey and research activity to conduct non-intrusive survey on an ancient David Gregory, Conservation Scientist, National Museum of Denmark, Co-Trainer: Advanced Course on In Situ Preservation Martijn Manders, Member of ICOMOS-ICUCH, Senior Maritime Archaeologist, Dutch Cultural Heritage, Lecturer, st nd rd Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands, Lecturer, Saxxion University, Deventer , Netherlands, 1 , 2 and 3 Foundation Courses: Archaeological Resources, Managing UCH, In-Situ Preservation, GIS for UCH; Co-Trainer: Underwater Field Exercises; Co-Trainer: Advanced Course on In Situ Preservation; Coordinator, Curriculum preparation for the Foundation Course Bobby Orillaneda, Museum Researcher II, Underwater Archaeology Section, Archaeology Division, National Museum nd rd rd of the Philippines, 2 and 3 Foundation Courses: Asian Ceramics, 3 Foundation Course: Support Trainer during the Underwater, Field Exercises Charlotte Pham, Bursary of the Ecole Française d’Extrême Orient – Vietnam; Brussels, BELGIUM, 3rd Foundation Course : Asian Ship Technology and Practicum st Sayan Prainchanjit, Dean of the Faculty of Archaeology , Silpakorn University, Thailand, 1 Foundation Course: nd Asian Ceramics, 2 Foundation Course: Public Archaeology and Awareness Raising Mark Staniforth, Director, Maritime Archaeology Programme, Faculty of Archaeology, Flinders University, South st Australia, 1 Foundation Course: Significance Assessment, Desk-based Assessment, Material Cutlure Analysis, Archaeological Publication st nd rd Christopher Underwood, International Development Officer, NAS, 1 , 2 and 3 Foundation Courses: NAS Introduction and Part I; Supervising trainer, Underwater Field Exercises Hans Van Tilburg, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries Regional Maritime Heritage Coordinator for Pacific nd Islands Region, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, United States of America, 2 and 3rd Foundation Courses: Desk-based Assessment, Significance Assessment, Archaeological Publication st nd Erbprem Vatcharangkul, Director, Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department of Thailand, 1 , 2 rd 3 Foundation Courses: Asian Ship Technology and Practicum and Andrew John Viduka, Assistant Director Maritime Heritage, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the nd Arts, Historic Heritage Division, Maritime Heritage Section, Australia, 2 and 3rd Foundation Courses: Material Culture Analysis, Introduction to Intrusive Archaeology, Finds Handling and Conservation �shipwreck, located at 31 meters depth in Godawaya, southern Sri Lanka. The ship wreck dates back to the 1st-4th century Anno Domini (AD)4, making it one of the oldest shipwrecks found in Asia. UNESCO sponsored the participation of one Malaysian and one Filipino, while the Dutch Government sponsored the participation of three Indonesians and one Indian. They joined the maritime archaeologists of the Maritime Archaeology Unit of Sri Lanka. All participants including the team from the Maritime Archaeology Unit are graduates of the Foundation Courses. Their joint report will be published in a scientific journal. Implementing partners The Thai Government through its relevant national agency, the Fine Arts Department, has supported the project by hosting the Regional Field Training Centre within the precinct of the UAD of Thailand. It has provided a permanent venue and building to house the facilities of the Centre in Chanthaburi. The Fine Arts Department has designated the Director of UAD to administer and implement the training activities of the Centre, until such time that a Director of Centre can be assigned. UAD has provided its human and physical resources, and logistic support for the implementation of training courses. It has also enlisted the support of relevant Thai government agencies and academic institutions, and arranged for national experts to complement international expertise provided by UNESCO. ICOMOS-ICUCH has assisted in coordinating the preparation of training curricula, and in identifying and providing technical advice to expert trainers and resource persons. The following institutions in the region have supported the regional capacity building programme by providing their experts to share their knowledge during the training courses: • Flinders University (Australia) • International Conservation Services (Australia) • Western Australian Museum (Australia) • Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (Australia) • Bursary of the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient (France) • Dutch Cultural Heritage (Netherlands) • Museum het Walkhof (Netherlands) • Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (Netherlands) • National Museum (Philippines) • Bursary of the Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient (Viet Nam) • Silpakorn University (Thailand) • Nautical Archaeology Society (United Kingdom) • NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (United States) 4 Georgian Calendar designation that begins at the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth in year one, with additional years added one by one. �Project sustainability After the Norwegian-funded project expires at the end of 2011, the Fine Arts Department of Thailand has expressed its commitment to sustain the Centre over the long term and to nominate the Centre to be placed under the auspices of UNESCO as a Category II Centre in the near future. To realize these objectives, the Department shall explore long-term collaboration with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts (SPAFA) of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO), Silpakorn University (Thailand) and other institutions in the region to assist in future activities of the Centre. The Department plans to organize one Advanced Course on specialized topics and new technologies on maritime archaeology once every year and one Foundation Course every two years. To take advantage of the relatively low cost of organizing training programmes in Thailand, national and sub-regional training initiatives are welcome to arrange with UAD of Thailand for the use of the Centre’s facilities and to avail of the technical support of the experienced team of UAD. Conclusions Being the first training courses on UCH that are regional in scope, the project has achieved high visibility not only within the Asia-Pacific Region but beyond. As a result of the regional capacity building programme, participating Member States have started to strengthen their existing underwater archaeology units or establish their units. Four graduates of the Foundation Courses have established the Underwater Archaeology Unit in Cambodia. Five beneficiaries at the National Museum of the Philippines have initiated collaborative projects with other government and academic institutions for a shipwreck management program in the Philippines. Amjad Ali of Pakistan (2nd Foundation Course) has submitted project documents on underwater archaeology to funding agencies. Using knowledge and skills learnt during the 3rd Foundation Course, Caesar Bita of Kenya supervised an UCH impact assessment on an underwater fibre optic cable laying project and dredging of a harbor. Eko Triarso of Indonesia (3rd Foundation Course) has mobilized a team to prepare a management and conservation plan for underwater archaeological resources in the Natuwa Waters in northern Indonesia. Chandraratne Wijamunige (2nd Foundation Course) initiated the Project Experience Exchange Asia in Sri Lanka in December 2010, participated by graduates of earlier Foundation Courses from four countries. Beneficiaries working for the Malaysian Department of Heritage have launched an awareness campaign among divers and coastal communities. Nia Ridwan of Indonesia (2nd Foundation Course) has conducted a survey of potential underwater archaeological resources to support the establishment of a Maritime Conservation Area in Bangka Belitung Waters, and a survey of a ship wrecked by tsunami in Mentawai Waters. Other beneficiaries of the regional programme have sent their feedbacks on how they have improved their strategies in the protection and management of their UCH. Considering the multi-disciplinary nature of maritime archaeology and given the limited knowledge and skills acquired by trainees during a six-week Foundation Course, participating Member States are encouraged to support their continuing education and training in established universities offering maritime archaeology courses, and to enable �them to participate in joint underwater research and survey activities in other countries. Relevant national agencies are therefore encouraged to seek bilateral cooperation with countries with expertise in maritime archaeology and financial resources to sponsor the training of their experts. For further information Capacity Building Programme of UNESCO Bangkok Office http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/uch/capacity-building/ Tutorial on the Annex to the 2001 Convention: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/underwaterheritage-tutorial/tutorial/ Code of Ethics for Diving on Submerged Archaeological Sites: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/scubadiving/ 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/ Bibliography Prott, L.V.(Ed), 2006 Grenier, R., Nutley, D., Cochran, I. (Eds), 2006 Finishing the Interrupted Voyage: Papers of the UNESCO AsiaPacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, Leicester, UNESCO/Institute of Art and Law. Heritage at Risk, Special Edition, ICOMOS. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource UNESCO Regional Capacity Building Programme on Safeguarding the Underwater Cultural Heritage of Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource In response to the recommendation of delegates and experts during the Asia-Pacific Regional Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Hong Kong, Special Autonomous Region of China, November 2003), The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is implementing a regional capacity building programme on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Asia and the Pacific through the establishment of a Regional Field Training Centre. Supported by the Norwegian Government, the programme aims to facilitate and enable the training of maritime archaeologists and conservation experts from Asia and the Pacific region in the proper safeguarding and management of UCH, in line with the principles of the 2001 Convention and the Rules of its Annex. Operated by the Government of Thailand, the Regional Field Training Centre is attached within the precinct of the Underwater Archaeology Division of the Fine Arts Department in Chanthaburi, Thailand. With the support of implementing partners including International Council of Monuments and of Sites - International Council of Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICOMOS-ICUCH), the Centre has successfully organized since 2009 three Foundation Courses and an Advanced Course on the application of Geographical Information systems (GIS) in underwater archaeology and cultural heritage management. The six-week Foundation Courses aim to bring regional experts of different academic backgrounds to a common level of understanding on the multi-disciplinary nature of UCH management. So far, the regional capacity building programme has benefitted seventy national experts from seventeen countries in the Asia-Pacific Region, including Kenya. This paper will discuss the development of the regional capacity building programme, the training activities and projects in which the Centre is involved, future plans and efforts to sustain the Centre over the long term. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ricardo L. Favis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6