55 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3a67a2822e1acc9e0d3c395f6bf90098.pdf 48eaaaf4477d1ce744ca0757ca144287 PDF Text Text A Non-State Party’s Experience Implementing the UCH Convention: Taiwan’s Perspective Pei-Fu Wu1 (Adjunct Assistant Professor, Graduate Institute of Marine Affairs, National Sun Yat-sen University (NSYSU), Taiwan (R.O.C.), and Post-doctoral Research Fellow, The Center for Marine Policy Studies, NSYSU) ABSTRACT This paper pertains to Session 26 and aims to provide an account of regime complex concerning underwater cultural heritage protection beyond the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The study involves some case studies, including Taiwan’s incorporation of the Convention, surveys of shipwrecks in Taiwan’s waters, and the author’s research findings. Given that Taiwan is not a State Party to the Convention, this investigation seeks to determine whether non-States Parties can engage in pragmatic collaborations with adjacent or other States to enhance UCH protection. The author proposes that a regime complex comprising different international regimes with overlapping objectives, anchored by the Convention as the core instrument and complemented by various international, regional, and bilateral instruments, mechanisms, and arrangements, could be employed to strengthen UCH protection in conjunction with the Convention. Moreover, diverse stakeholders, including States, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations, institutions, and individuals, may have a significant role to play in facilitating international cooperation to safeguard UCH. Keywords: Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, international regime, regime complex, underwater cultural heritage, Taiwan List of figures Figure 1. The international regime complex for UCH protection 1. INTRODUCTION This paper is most appropriately categorized within Session 26 (General session), as it aims to introduce the intellectual developments on international cooperation for the protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Taiwan from the perspective of regime complex. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH Convention) is widely recognized as the core legally binding international convention for UCH governance. Its expressed norms on international cooperation, encompassing diverse areas, including the Coordinating State mechanism, sanctions, protection of State vessels and aircraft, training, and bilateral, regional, or multilateral agreements (UNESCO, accessed 25 Dec. 2022). Its Preamble explicitly emphasizes the crucial role of cooperation among States, international organizations, scientific institutions, professional organizations, archaeologists, divers, other stakeholders, and the general public (UNESCO, accessed 25 Dec. 2022). Despite the significant contribution of the UCH Convention, certain intrinsic and extrinsic factors limit its efficacy. Notably, the precondition of UCH being under water for 100 years, a limited number of States Parties, and persistent challenges in ocean governance may compromise the Convention’s influence. While efforts should be made to reinforce the UCH Convention, exploring alternative regimes that are widely recognized and endorsed beyond it may offer a more flexible approach to safeguarding UCH. In scenarios where sunken ships originating from States Parties sink in non-States Parties’ waters, or 1 Since 2005, Dr. Wu has participated in the incorporation of the 2001 UCH Convention into Taiwan’s Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act (UCHPA) as well as its nine subordinate regulations. He had served as a legal consultant to the Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture. This paper is founded on research commissioned by the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) entitled “A National Ocean Governance Geared towards International Regimes.” 1 �sunken ships originating from non-States Parties sink in States Parties’ waters, the application of the UCH Convention may not be straightforward. Thus, the identification of supplementary policy or legal instruments beyond could serve to bridge these gaps and complement the UCH Convention. Non-States Parties to the UCH Convention are not bound by its provisions. Nevertheless, they may serve as resource States, transit States, or market States in the trade of looted UCH. Hence, it is significant to identify alternative policy or legal tools to complement the UCH Convention in combating transboundary crimes. In recent decades, some States of origin have claimed sovereign immunity over their military vessels that sank in coastal States’ waters by entering into bilateral agreements, even if some of them are not States Parties to the UCH Convention. The engagement of a wide range of stakeholders is paramount to safeguarding UCH against both natural and anthropogenic disturbances. While UCH is often vulnerable to these threats, it can also provide valuable information on marine scientific research (MSR), such as climate change. UCH may pose a threat to the marine environment and navigational safety. Thus, the identification of stakeholders and tools beyond the UCH Convention is necessary to address these protection gaps. Despite not being a State Party to the UCH Convention, Taiwan’s role in UCH protection in East Asia should not be overlooked. Numerous shipwrecks of foreign origin, including those of the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, have been discovered or suggested in Taiwan’s waters or located on land (BOCH, accessed 10 Nov. 2022). This shared heritage presents opportunities for mutual interests to be pursued. Nevertheless, with the exception of Cambodia and Micronesia, no other East Asian countries have ratified, accepted, approved or acceded to the UCH Convention (UNESCO, accessed 20 Apr. 2023), leaving the rich legacy of UCH in the region vulnerable to clandestine excavation, looting, or trafficking. The objective of this paper is to discern alternative policy and legal mechanisms, as well as stakeholders beyond the purview of the UCH Convention, to complement the existing legal framework and enhance the protection of UCH. 2. CASE STUDIES In the context of underwater archaeological surveys, the Taiwanese government has commissioned Professor Cheng-hwa Tsang to conduct UCH surveys in the surrounding waters for an extended period. A considerable number of sites or shipwrecks have been discovered or are yet to be discovered. Notable among these are the S.S. Bokhara and Sobraon from the UK, SS President Hoover from the US, Warship Guang Bing, Yamafuji Maru, Nanshin Maru 23, Gotsugetsu Maru, Asaka Maru, and Mansei Maru from Japan (BOCH, accessed 10 Nov. 2022). Of particular significance is the fact that some of the States of origin, such as Japan and the United States, are not States Parties to the UCH Convention, which underscores the need for international cooperation beyond the framework of that Convention. With regards to domestic legislation, UCH was initially subject to the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act (CHPA). Due to its limitations, Taiwan incorporated the UCH Convention into domestic law through the enactment of the 2015 Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act (UCHPA). The author of this article has been extensively involved in the research, drafting, and consultation pertaining to the UCHPA over the last decade. The incorporation was motivated by Taiwan’s commitment to fulfill its international responsibility in safeguarding UCH, particularly in light of the rich legacy of UCH in the surrounding waters of Taiwan. As such, Taiwan is the first non-State Party to incorporate the UCH Convention into domestic legislation in the region. 2 �3. RESOURCES The resources utilized in this study were mainly obtained from a four-year research project commissioned by the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) of Taiwan. The author conducted a preliminary examination of international regimes concerning UCH protection beyond the UCH Convention. This study represents part of the intellectual efforts in Taiwan. 4. FRAMEWORK The research question addressed is whether there exist international regimes concerning UCH protection beyond the UCH Convention that can be implemented alongside it. Raustiala and Victor (2004, 279) introduced the concept of regime complex as “an array of partially overlapping and nonhierarchical institutions governing a particular issue-area.” Generally, the primary features of a regime complex are as follows: first, the overlapping aspects of regimes can be diverse, covering various aspects such as scope, subjects, and targets. Second, there is no clear hierarchical relationship among the regimes involved. Third, the regimes may include formal and informal, as well as legally and non-legally binding mechanisms. Fourth, functional overlapping is addressed in addition to the names of these regimes. Finally, diverse public or private entities should also be considered (Gehring & Faude 2013, 471-498; Orsini 2013, 35-42; Green & Auld 2017, 259-284). In brief, the regime complex concerning UCH beyond the UCH Convention can be characterized including but not limited to cultural heritage, ocean governance, and human rights. Figure 1. The international regime complex for UCH protection (1) Soft laws concerning UCH protection Prior to the adoption of the UCH Convention, the 1956 Recommendation on International Principles Applicable to Archaeological Excavations and the 1978 Recommendation for the Protection of Movable Cultural Property adopted by the UNESCO encompass cultural heritage under water. Thus, the pertinent components of the two Recommendations could be employed as complementary tools for UCH protection. 3 �(2) The World Heritage Convention (WHC) Although the definition of sites in the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (WHC) does not explicitly refer to UCH, UCH is implied in the WHC because the Preamble of the UCH Convention refers to the WHC. Furthermore, four of the fifty Marine World Heritage Sites on the World Heritage List on UNESCO's website are mixed cultural and natural World Heritage sites. The General Assembly of the UCH Convention adopted a resolution to encourage States to apply the Rules of the Annex of the UCH Convention as best practice for any activities directed at submerged parts of World Heritage. A joint mission group consisting of experts of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (STAB) of the UCH Convention and the ICOMOS visited Bulgaria to examine the conservation of Nessebar and its underwater remains. The World Heritage Committee also recommends the inclusion of UCH in many of its reviews of proposals or projects pertaining to UCH (UNESCO, accessed 30 Dec. 2022). Overall, the WHC encompasses UCH both normatively and practically. (3) Cultural heritage crimes and protection in peacetime and in the event of armed conflict The UCH Convention does not provide explicit provisions for protecting UCH in the context of armed conflicts. The 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1970 Convention) does not regulate UCH explicitly. Nonetheless, these norms do not preclude UCH protection. Mr. Alejandro Palma Cerna (UNESCO, 2016), President of the Conference of the States Parties to the UCH Convention, has addressed that “conflict, political turmoil, adverse geopolitical and economic situations, and rapid and unsustainable urban development in coastal areas, damage underwater cultural heritage...[e]choing the call to encourage the exchange of information and synergies among the Culture Conventions,...called for greater cooperation and monitoring to prevent the pillaging and illicit trafficking of underwater cultural heritage.” The STAB of the UCH Convention (UNESCO, 2018) has recommended that the States Parties monitor the involvement of their nationals or vessels in plundering shipwrecks that originated from non-States Parties and has called for cooperation with the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL). The INTERPOL (INTERPOL, accessed 3 Jan. 2023) has expressed concerns about such crimes and cooperates with UNESCO to discuss best practices in response to such issues. Therefore, the instruments referred to by the aforementioned developments can be interpreted to implied to UCH protection, including the 1995 International Institute for the Unification of Private Law Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects, the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, the United Nations Convention against Corruption, and the Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage. Furthermore, the Sixth General Assembly of the States Parties to the UCH Convention (UNESCO 2017) lists UCH in emergency situations as one of its themes and found that such emergency situations include conflicts and natural or human-made disasters. The Assembly determined that the Strategy for Reinforcing UNESCO’s Action for the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Diversity in Armed Conflict should be incorporated into the implementation of the UCH Convention. UNESCO (UNESCO 2015) suggested that the large-scale, systematic destruction and plundering of cultural heritage is an indicator of the strong links between the cultural, humanitarian, and security dimensions of conflict and terrorism and that an attack on cultural heritage constitutes an attack on people’s race, rights, and security. The destruction of cultural heritage is considered a war crime. The Policy on Cultural Heritage issued by the International Criminal Court states that the policy area of the instrument includes UCH such as shipwrecks and underwater archaeological sites (ICC 2021). Therefore, any unlawful destruction of cultural heritage, including UCH, may constitute a war crime in accordance with Article 8 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Meanwhile, the UNESCO (UNESCO 2015) suggested that new and more effective measures be developed, in particular under the framework of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954 Hague Convention) and the 1970 Convention. 4 �The 1954 Hague Convention provides a definition of cultural property that applies to both terrestrial and underwater environments. If a warship is conducting a mission in water, any UCH must be identified. If anti-submarine warfare is conducted close to UCH and torpedoes are used, precautions must be taken, such as managing the torpedo depth. In the event of armed conflict, the occupying party must prohibit, avoid, or take measures to prevent the theft, depredation, or destruction of any UCH in the occupied area (O’Keefe et al. 2016, 35, 40, 55-56). These instruments all complement the UCH Convention. (4) Ocean governance: UNCLOS-centered international cooperation Articles 149 and 303 of the UNCLOS explicitly mention UCH. This suggests that UCH protection is no longer a matter of cultural heritage but also a concern of marine affairs. This differs from the protection of terrestrial cultural heritage, which is typically undertaken within national jurisdiction. International regimes for ocean governance may be partially or fully applicable to UCH protection. Distinct approaches can be considered in this regard. Natural disturbance on UCH Marine environment protection regimes may be applied to UCH protection. Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas (PSSAs) designated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO, accessed 30 December 2022) include some cultural and natural heritage sites in marine environments. Article 4(d) of the 1995 Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean reads that “[t]he objective of specially protected areas is: ...(d) to safeguard sites of particular importance because of their scientific, aesthetic, cultural or educational interest.” Human disturbance on UCH: activities directed at UCH Such activities may warrant the application of marine environment regimes, as they could disturb UCH and its surrounding environment. The UNESCO (UNESCO, accessed 23 Oct. 2022) is currently working with the Ocean Decade Heritage Network under the framework of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) initiative to promote the integration and coordination of archaeology, cultural heritage management, and marine science and to strengthen communication among diverse stakeholders. Human disturbance on UCH: activities incidentally affecting UCH To address such impacts, international regimes governing these activities may be invoked for the protection of UCH. A prospector or contractor shall immediately notify the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) regarding any archaeological or historical artifacts and their locations, and the Secretary-General in turn shall transmit such information to the Director-General of the UNESCO in accordance with ISA regulations (ISA, 2002). Such requirements indicate that international instruments that do not pertain to UCH may still be applicable to UCH protection under certain circumstances. Human disturbance on UCH: looting or commercial exploitation of UCH The activities are deemed as having a detrimental impact on UCH, endanger navigational safety, and constitute marine crimes that infringe upon the maritime jurisdiction of coastal States. Diverse legal claims can be employed. For instance, the right of hot pursuit stipulated in the UNCLOS can be invoked. International information exchange regarding maritime domain awareness (MDA) can be utilized to protect UCH. 5 �UCH disturbance on the marine environment and/or human beings In the context of sunken military crafts from World War II, unexploded ordnances or leaking oil can pose a significant threat to the environment and human safety. Certain regimes, such as the Nairobi International Convention on the Removal of Wrecks, may be applicable to UCH protection. In conclusion, UCH protection can be achieved through various ocean governance regimes beyond the UCH Convention, such as marine environmental protection, marine spatial planning (MSP), marine scientific research, blue economy, navigation safety, and the exploration, exploitation, conservation, and management of living and non-living natural resources. Multiple stakeholders can be involved in this effort, such as the IMO, the ISA, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the UN Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (ICOMOS, accessed 1 Jan. 2023), the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) (UNESCO 2019), the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (UNESCO 2019). (5) Human rights Right to work and property right The principles of archaeology are not explicitly addressed in international human rights instruments. Nevertheless, those principles influence archaeological work, especially with respect to property rights and cultural rights. Take the Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples for example, O’Keefe (1999, 190) suggested that archaeology affects the property rights of indigenous peoples, such as the rights over sacred sites, native land, and native artifacts and the restitution of cultural, intellectual, religious, and spiritual property. Activities directed at UCH are usually subject to the discretion of cultural authorities. The decisions may impact the work of underwater archaeologists, divers, and those involved in tourism. Governments must also weigh the protection of UCH against the rights of those who inadvertently impact it, including their right to work and property. In such instances, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) can aid in the interpretation and implementation of the UCH Convention. Cultural right The resolution of the United Nations Human Rights Council (OHCHR, 2016) states that “...damage to cultural heritage, ...of any people constitutes damage to the cultural heritage of humanity as a whole...the destruction of or damage to cultural heritage may have a detrimental and irreversible impact on the enjoyment of cultural rights, in particular the right of everyone to take part in cultural life, including the ability to access and enjoy cultural heritage.” It is suggested that Article 27(1) of the UDHR is the basis for the cultural right and “States should recognize the right of everyone to...[t]he right to participate in cultural life” in accordance with Article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and that cultural life is “to benefit from the cultural heritage.” (O’Keefe 1999, 187-188) Hence, it is imperative to include UCH within the norm of cultural heritage. Cultural rights regimes can provide guidance in the interpretation and application of the UCH Convention. 5. RESULTS UNESCO is actively promoting global ratification and engagement of the UCH Convention. Despite the significant contribution of the Convention, certain intrinsic and extrinsic factors limit its efficacy. It is pragmatic to identify diverse regimes indirectly contributing to UCH protection beyond the UCH Convention, as well as the roles diverse stakeholders can play. 6 �This article advocates for the adoption of a regime complex perspective to examine Taiwan’s recent observations. The approach posits that multiple regimes with overlapping objectives exist simultaneously, forming a complex network of policy/legal frameworks that complement and reinforce one another. The UCH Convention serves as the core instrument, while other regimes addressing issues can contribute to UCH protection indirectly. Meanwhile, diverse stakeholders, such as States, international organizations, NGOs, multinational corporations, institutions, and individuals within and beyond the UCH Convention can be identified and play significant roles respectively in the international cooperation of UCH protection. Bibliography Bureau of Cultural Heritage. “Underwater Cultural Heritage Network”. Underwater Cultural Heritage Network. https://uch.boch.gov.tw/Eng/Sitemap (accessed Nov. 10, 2022). Gehring, Thomas, & Faude, Benjamin. “A theory of emerging order within institutional complexes: How competition among regulatory international institutions leads to institutional adaptation and division of labor.” The Review of International Organizations, 9 (2014), 471-498. Green, Jessica F., & Auld, Graeme. “Unbundling the Regime Complex: The Effects of Private Authority.” Transnational Environmental Law, 6:2 (2017), 259-284. International Criminal Court. “Policy on Cultural Heritage.” https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/itemsDocuments/20210614-otp-policy-cultural-heritage-eng.pdf (accessed Dec. 20, 2022). International Criminal Police Organization. “The issues-cultural property.” https://www.interpol.int/Crimes/Cultural-heritage-crime/The-issues-cultural-property (accessed Jan. 3, 2023). --. “How we fight cultural heritage crime.” https://www.interpol.int/Crimes/Cultural-heritage-crime/How-we-fight-cultural-heritage-crime (accessed Jan. 3, 2023). International Seabed Authority. Report of the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority under article 166, paragraph 4, of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, ISBA/8/A/5 (5-16 August 2002). --. Regulation 8 and 34 of the ISA Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area. Orsini, Amandine. “Multi-Forum Non-State Actors: Navigating the Regime Complexes for Forestry and Genetic Resources.” Global Environmental Politics, 13:3 (August 2013), 35-42. O’Keefe, Patrick. “Archaeology and human rights.” Public Archaeology, 1, (1999): 181-194. Raustiala, Kal, & Victor, David G. “The Regime Complex for Plant Genetic Resources.” International Organization 58 (2): 277–310. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. “UNESCO’s Culture Conventions are more important than ever.” https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1562 (accessed Dec. 15, 2022). --. “Summary of the Second Meeting of the Chairpersons of the Committees of UNESCO Culture Convention (Paris, UNESCO Headquarters, 26 September 2016, 10:30-12:30).” https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1562 (accessed Dec. 30, 2022). --. Res. 8/STAB 9, in UCH/18/9.STAB/10 adopted on 24 April 2018 in the Ninth Meeting of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. --. Res. 8/MSP6 in UCH/17/6.MSP/12REV, adopted in the Sixth Session of the Meeting of States Parties of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 30-31 May 2017. --. “Strategy for Reinforcing UNESCO’s Action for the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Pluralism in the Event of Armed Conflict.” https://en.unesco.org/heritage-at-risk/strategy-culture-armed-conflict (accessed Jan. 1, 2023). --. Res. 4/MSP7, in UCH/19/7.MSP/14, Seventh Session of the Meeting of States Parties to the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 20-21 June 2019. United Nations General Assembly. A/RES/55/25, adopted on 15 November 2000. United Nations Human Rights Council. A/HRC/RES/33/20, adopted on 30 September 2016. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 26: General session Subject The topic of the resource Session 26 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 26 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Non-State Party’s Experience Implementing the UCH Convention: Taiwan’s Perspective Description An account of the resource This paper pertains to Session 26 and aims to provide an account of regime complex concerning underwater cultural heritage protection beyond the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The study involves some case studies, including Taiwan’s incorporation of the Convention, surveys of shipwrecks in Taiwan’s waters, and the author’s research findings. Given that Taiwan is not a State Party to the Convention, this investigation seeks to determine whether non-States Parties can engage in pragmatic collaborations with adjacent or other States to enhance UCH protection. The author proposes that a regime complex comprising different international regimes with overlapping objectives, anchored by the Convention as the core instrument and complemented by various international, regional, and bilateral instruments, mechanisms, and arrangements, could be employed to strengthen UCH protection in conjunction with the Convention. Moreover, diverse stakeholders, including States, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, multinational corporations, institutions, and individuals, may have a significant role to play in facilitating international cooperation to safeguard UCH. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pei-Fu Wu Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wu, Pei-Fu. 2023. “Non-Party State’s Experience Implementing the UCH Convention: Taiwan’s Perspective.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Pérez Álvaro. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2004 Asia-Pac Session 26 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lords of the Sea: Pirates, Violence, and Exchange in Medieval Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Peter D Shapinsky Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Thesis PhD Dissertation Zotero Author Peter D Shapinsky Item Type Thesis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Library Catalog 128.125.253.52 Library Catalog Num Pages 497 Place Michigan Short Title Lords of the Sea Thesis Type PhD Dissertation Title A name given to the resource Lords of the Sea: Pirates, Violence, and Exchange in Medieval Japan University University of Michigan Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2cd943ef082f1229877b88e19f9cf110.pdf 9957b9d23ee07bc872d7a0550423084b PDF Text Text Ceramic collection in Vietnamese museums of the Cu Lao Cham shipwreck Phạm Ngọc Uyên Fine Arts Museum, Ho Chi Minh City [Bảo tàng Mỹ thuật], Deputy Director ABSTRACT The fifteenth and sixteenth century Cù Lao Chàm / Hoi An shipwreck’s cargo consists of several different types of ceramics. This essay introduces three types of blue and white ware, based on their external appearance of glaze, decorations, and designs. In my doctoral research and for the purpose of this paper, the initial phase is a Collection-based Research to identify Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck’s ceramic cargo in Vietnamese museums. In a parallel study, my literature review explores across Asia Pacific Region shipwrecks and kilns with similar ceramics contemporary to the Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck. My hypothesis is that the evolution of Vietnamese ceramics during the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries CE are based on indigenous belief aesthetics that set criteria for pottery artistry and kiln production. This work adds data in the current gaps of knowledge about Vietnam’s ancestors’ role in ceramic production and exchange across the Asia Pacific Region during the initial stages of European colonialism. Keywords: ceramics, shipwrecks, kilns, indigenous design criteria INTRODUCTION My working hypothesis is that the evolution of Vietnamese ceramics during the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries CE are based on indigenous market criteria across the Asia-Pacific Region. To explore this hypothesis I first review three types of ceramic Vietnamese museum collections from the Cù Lao Chàm (also referred to as Hoi An) shipwreck, hence why this paper fits best within this Session on Collections-based Research. Specifically, my work is looking across the whole ceramic cargo from one shipwreck, although they are now housed in several collections across multiple museums and personal collections. From this preliminary survey of the glaze, decorations, and designs of three different types of blue and white wares, I have confirmed similar ceramic types exist in other collections from kilns and shipwrecks in Vietnam, as well as others in the region. The paper briefly introduces the Vietnamese ceramic collection of the Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck dating to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in the collections of five Vietnamese museums: National Museum of Vietnamese History (VNMH), Museum of Vietnamese Fine Arts (VNFAM), History Museum in Ho Chi Minh City (HM), and provincial museums in Hải Dương (HD) and Quảng Nam (QN). The shipwreck provenience is Chàm Island, off the city of Hội An, in Quảng Nam province, Vietnam. The site was excavated over three years between 1997-2000 CE. The remaining part of the ship’s hull was 29.4 metres long and 7.2 metres wide. A total of 240,000 artefacts were excavated (Pham Quốc Quân, Tống Trung Tín 2000, 94). Excavated artefacts are diverse, including ceramics, fine bronzes, metal kitchen utensils, bowls, Chinese copper coins, mortars, spices, seeds, etc. Chinese copper coins identified were Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寶) of the Tang dynasty (618-907) and Hongwu Tongbao (洪武通寶)of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). It is worth noting that scientists have discovered eleven sets of human remains of merchants and crew members on the ship. Among them is a set of human remains identified as that of a woman about twenty years old with Thai ethnic characteristics. Based on the characteristics of hull timber, human remains, some utensils on the ship, ancient documents and Thai commercial history, it can be estimated that it is likely that the Cù Lao Chàm ship was built in Thailand and Chinese workers may have been involved (Guy 2005, 108), dating to the fifteenth century. The ship is also said to have sailed from Ayutthaya (Thailand) to Tokin (Vietnam) after spending the spring and summer months in the Gulf of Tokin (Phạm Quốc Quân, Tống Trung Tín 2000, 94; Guy 2005, 111). The cargo’s ceramic artefacts include Vietnamese, Chinese and Thai, of which the majority is Vietnamese 1 �Figure 1. Images from underwater excavation of the Cù Lao Chàm / Hoi An shipwreck (Butterfields 2000). (Top) Francis Pope, Mensun Bound (Excavation Director, University of Oxford) and Jak in the control room; (bottom) Underwater excavation of a ceramic. In 2000, after verification by the Government of Vietnam (Nguyễn Đình Chiến, Phạm Quốc Quân 2008: 19), 10 percent of the artefacts (including total of 4362 ceramic pieces) from the shipwreck were selected and distributed to the two national Vietnamese museums VNMH and VNFAM, as well as the Ho Chi Minh City HM, while 5,562 pieces went to the two provincial museums HD and QN. These provincial museums were selected due to the likelihood of the original ceramic production in the areas of Hải Dương and Quảng Nam. The remaining 90 per cent of the cargo’s ceramics were consigned to Butterfields for worldwide dispersal (Butterfields 2000). This is important to know because I bring up examples in my discussion from the Vietnamese collections and private collections abroad. Table 1 summarises the number of ceramics in the five museum collections. 2 �Table 1. Summary of ceramics numbers from Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck in Vietnamese museum collections, including preliminary research on known sites with similar ceramics. References Museum Number of Number of Number of Number of Known sites with similar name blue and Double miniatures barbed rim ceramics white phoenix dish pouring vessel QN On-going* 1 2754 2 HD No statistics yet 2 2743 23 VNMH No statistics yet 304 0 2237 25 1** 206 15 4187 1 2205 03 VNFAM Ho Chi Minh City HM Ko Khram Shipwreck, Thailand (1975,1979): Jarlet Ko Si Chang III Shipwreck, Thailand (1986): Jarlet Orillaneda 2012 Orillaneda 2012 Padanan Shipwreck, Philippines (1995): Dish, jar Santa Cruz Shipwreck, Philippines (2001): Covered box, jarlet Thăng Long Citadel site (Hà Nội) (2008-2009): Barbed rim dish Orillaneda 2012 Orillaneda 2012 Bùi Minh Trí 2017 *Currently under review from excavation years 1997-1999 ** Data from artefact in gallery CERAMIC GROUPS Ceramics from the Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck make up more than 50-70 percent of the Vietnamese ceramics in the five museums’ inventory and include blue and white ceramics of three types: double phoenix pouring vessel, miniatures, and barbed-rim dishes; all were made in Chu Đậu, Mỹ Xá, Hải Dương province (Phạm Quốc Quân, Tống Trung Tín 2000, 96). We know the production location because traces of the Chu Đậu ceramics kiln production of five-prong spurs (introduced under the Trần dynasty 1226-1400 CE) were recorded on some of these ceramics (Bùi Minh Trí and Kerry Nguyễn Long 2001, 19). Blue-and-white ceramics Double phoenix pouring vessel – Vietnamese version of popular contemporary double mandarin ducks The ‘double mandarin ducks’ were a popular motif in Chinese and Japanese art, symbolising endurance and faithfulness (Snowdon 2016, 15). This suggests such pottery was exported to the markets of north and northeast Asia. But the double mandarin duck motif was not favoured in the Persian market (Du 2020, 3). Philippe Truong (2007, 241) believed that Vietnamese potters may have produced their versions for export (the ‘double phoenix’) without ever seeing prototypes, which is why they were decorated with the phoenix shape instead of the duck design. This also inadvertently created unique and rich variations compared to the originals from China. The great volume of pottery in the provincial museum QN collection indicates that Đại Việt was engaged in the international trade across Asia, in which the glazed ceramics played a significant role during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries (Guy 2015, 107). Truong (2007, 241) proposes that the jar’s shape imitated the brush washer used in oriental calligraphy under the Xuande reign (1425-1435 CE) of the Ming dynasty. However, Sumarah Adhyatman (1989, 6) proposes this jar-type was used for ceremonial wine on special 3 �occasions like weddings. Another regional shipwreck that includes this ceramic type is the fifteenth-sixteenth century Lena Shoal shipwreck in the Philippines (Truong 2007, 241). Pointedly, Figure 1 (left) shows an example of the ‘double mandarin ducks’ from the collection of the Ho Chi Minh City HM. A similar item can also be found in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, gifted from a private collection (Truong 2007, 241: pl.193). It has a compressed spherical shape with an upright neck, and the shoulder is mounted with facing duck heads and tails. It is coloured with an underglaze blue outline forming the feathered bodies and feet separated by water grasses. The slightly concave base is left unglazed. The duck heads and tails were applied to the walls after the compressed body was formed. The Hội An hoard jar had a hole in the beak of one duck head, so that it could function as ewer or water dropper, following Chinese prototypes from the Ming dynasty (Bonhams 2017, 38). The Vietnamese ‘double phoenix’ is rare in the Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck ceramic collections of the museums in Vietnam, as each museum has recorded only one or two specimens and sometimes not intact condition. Although the pouring vessel is damaged, it is the only artefact in the HM representing the Vietnamese “double phoenix pouring vessel” type of the Cù Lao Chàm group (Figure 1 left). The VNFAM houses an exquisite example of the ‘double phoenix’ (Figure 1 right). Figure 1. Double phoenix pouring vessel – Vietnamese version of popular contemporary double mandarin ducks. (Left) A pouring vessel with motif ‘double mandarin duck’ shape, an object from the Cù Lao Chàm collection, 15th-16th century. H: 11 cm; D: 15 cm, Ho Chi Minh City HM (BTLS.16894). (Middle) A pouring vessel decorated with the same motif, an object from the Cù Lao Chàm collection, 15th-16th century. H: 13 cm; D: 17.5 cm, HD (BTHD.4988/Gm 3886). (Right) A pouring vessel decorated with the same motif, an object from the Cù Lao Chàm collection, 15th-16th century. H: 10.5 cm; D: 16 cm, VNFAM (5489 G2 1994) . Vietnamese miniatures There are many shapes and patterns of Vietnamese miniatures varying in size from 1.4 to 8.0 centimetres. They are further categorised with an under-glaze cobalt pattern and overglaze enamel colour. Such ceramics account for more than 50 per cent of the total collection from the Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck stored at the five museums in Vietnam (Figure 2). 4 �Figure 2. A variety of Chu Đậu miniatures, HM (BTLS.17622, 18075, 18101, 18905, 18954, 19198, 28560) The Ming court banned the export of ceramics to foreign countries in the fifteenth century, encouraging the kilns in Vietnam and Thailand to ramp up exports to Indonesia, South Sulawesi and the Moluccas (Adhyatman 1989, 7). Vietnamese potters thus sought and found new markets. The presence of Vietnamese ceramics with an underglaze cobalt pattern in Southeast Asian collections (i.e. Jakarta National Museum, Pusat Museum in Jakarta; Singapore National Museum; Asian Civilisations Museum in Singapore; The National Museum of the Philippines, etc.) shows this expansion in cultural exchange. The Vietnamese miniatures have not only been found in settlement sites, but also in religious monuments or burial areas on the coast in both mainland and island Southeast Asia; for example in south Sulawesi, east Java, Kalimanta, the Moluccas and other islands (Adhyatman 1989, 6-7; Dupoizat 2013, 106). Near the town of Lobo in the Philippines (Adhyatman 1989: 6; Kerry Nguyen Long 2001, 186), examples of these small wares were found in tombs and temple grounds, where a village or clan treasure was buried, or in burials as grave goods (Beck 1989, 10-12). The correlation of these sacred places with miniatures assemblages indicate they were used in religious rituals, or possibly precious heirlooms, that contained cultural values such as myths or magic (Adhyatman 1989, 6; Guy 1997, 47). Beck (1989, 12) suggests the alternative that miniatures were used for medicine, cosmetics, or water-droppers for calligraphy. In Indonesia some are known as ‘onroang pabora’, meaning medicine container. A specific example is that of the guri guri, with a 17.0 centimetres high lid made of intricately carved wood that is of the Batak culture in northern Sumatra. In their medium of art, Batak wood carving and textile prints are as notorious in fashion as blue and white pottery is in ceramics. I agree with Beck and further suggest the Vietnamese miniatures were a ceramic version of the wood-Batak medicine containers that met the needs of the consumer market in insular Southeast Asia. Miniatures have been recovered from the Philippines mid-fifteenth century Pandanan shipwreck and various Malay land sites such as Baten Girang in west Java, Bukin hasang near Barus (Sumatra) or Kota Batu, capital of the Sultanate of Brunei (Dupoizat 2013, 108). 5 �Barbed rim dishes The large deep dish with the barbed rim is rare, and this style represents only 2.0-3.5 per cent of the Cù Lao Chàm ceramic collection in Vietnamese museums. These dishes have mouth diameters from 30.6 to 43.8 centimetres and are decorated with the most sophisticated and fine patterns. The technique evolved out of an artistic interest in using more colour enamels (emerald green, red) for the overglaze painted decoration and gold enamel, sometimes substituted for yellow, thus enhancing the luxurious feel of the vessels (Phạm Quốc Quân 2011, 222). While the underglazed cobalt blue is still clear, the overglazed decorations are now only visible as ghost lines. Generally, barbed-rim dish features include the interior well finely painted with two styles, an interior well bordered by lotus or peony, and the base is washed chocolate brown (Butterfields 2000, 3-18). The interior well styles are either mythical animals which can either be the kylin, phoenix or dragon fish or nature scenes of birds and landscape. The interior well is bordered by either scalloped double band of lotus or peony petals. The moulded cavetto is defined by a large lappet band with central panels of flowering lotus. These lie beneath a shaped band of cloud scrolls on the wide everted rim with a raised foliate lip. The exterior is painted with jeweled lappets above the high ring foot. Figure 3 includes examples from Vietnam museums and a private collection. Figure 3. Barbed rim dishes. (Upper Left) Dish with crane and cloud 15th-16th century, Hoi An shipwreck, NMVN (24384) (Nguyễn Đình Chiến, Phạm Quốc Quân 2008: 160). (Upper Right) Dish with landscape 15th-16th century, Hoi An shipwreck, QN (BTQN.1982/S.1883) (Phạm Ngọc Uyên 2022). (Bottom) Stem cup with landscape, Hoi An shipwreck, Nguyen Van Dong’s collection (Bùi Minh Trí, 2017, 197: pl. 20) In Figure 3 the plates were painted in underglaze blue, overglaze iron-red and green, with a lavish use of gold. The decoration can only be seen in high-class export products, satisfying the desires of the wealthy in Indonesia and the Philippines (Kerry Nguyen Long 2001, Bùi Minh Trí 2015). It is a fifteenth-sixteenth century Vietnamese decorative technique (Phạm Quốc Quân 2011, 222). A band of scalloped lotus or peony petals surrounding the main motif is a general decorative pattern, the hallmark of Vietnamese potters (Truong 2007, 208). According to William Willetts (1971, 11), this frieze was so popular it was copied at Swatow (Shantou, Guangdong province, China) during the sixteenth century. An example of this is the large Chinese dish in the collection of the National University of Singapore (Bùi Minh Trí and Kerry Nguyen Long 2001, 146). 6 �John Guy (1997, 54-56) indicated that one of the most popular types of trade ceramics in Southeast Asia was the large serving dish. Many of these were intended for the Islamic market, however, while polychrome enamels were intended for Southeast Asia markets. These serving dishes suited communal eating customs. Such 600-year-old stoneware plates tell of a tragic story on the high seas. CONCLUSION This paper has introduced examples of three types of blue-and-white ceramics from the Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck now stored in collections of five museums in Vietnam. In a parallel study I have identified multiple ceramics with similar motifs in museums of insular Southeast Asia, and the literature that explains their use. Their use is considered that of indigenous beliefs and burial practices. The next steps of my research are to explore ethnographic data collected in the indigenous communities of insular Southeast Asia. I seek to parallel politico-economic hypotheses narrowed to criteria for analysing consumer shipping segments and the consumption markets, by expanding this research to explore through ethnographic records the question of what indigenous belief aesthetics set criteria for pottery artistry and kiln production. Bibliography “An important and rare large wucai fish jar, Jiajing six-character mark and of the period (1522-1566)”. Christie's Important Chinese Ceramics and Works of Art, 30 May 2012, Hong Kong, HKCEC Grand Hall. LINK: http://www.alaintruong.com/archives/2017/11/19/35879190.html Adhyatman, Sumarah. “Preface”, Vietnamese ceramics miniatures, 5-8. The Collection of Ulrich J. Beck. Switzerland, 1989. Bartholomew, Terese Tse. Hidden Meanings in Chinese Art. San Francisco: Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 2006. Phạm Quốc Quân and Tống Trung Tín. (Báo cáo khai quật khảo cổ học dưới nước tàu đắm cổ Cù Lao Chàm, Quảng Nam, 1997-1999) [Report on underwater archaeology of the ancient shipwreck of Cu Lao Cham, Quang Nam in 1997-1999]. Hà Nội: Ban khai quật tàu đắm cổ Cù Lao Chàm [Board of the ancient shipwreck of Cu Lao Cham], 2000. Beck, Ulrich J. “Introduction” [the Collection of Ulrich J. Beck], Vietnamese ceramics miniatures, 9-15. Switzerland: 1989. Bonhams. Fine Asian Works of Art. Principal auctioneer: Patrick Meade. Bonhams & Butterfields Auctioneers Corp, 2017. Available at: <https://images2.bonhams.com/original?src=Images/live/2017-12/07/S-24265-0-4.pdf>. Accessed 15/0/2021. Bùi Minh Trí and Kerry Nguyễn Long. Gốm hoa lam Việt Nam [(Vietnamese Blue & White Ceramics]). Hà Nội: KHXH Publications, 2001. Bùi Minh Trí. “Gốm vẽ nhiều màu Việt Nam” [Vietnamese ceramics painted multicolor], Bulletin of Science, 181-221. Hà Nội: KHXH Publications, 2017. Brown, Roxanna M. The Ming gap and shipwreck ceramics in Southeast Asia: towards a chronology of Thai Trade ware. Bangkok, Thailand: Siam Society, 2009. Dupoizat, Marie-France. “Vietnamese Ceramics in the Malay World”. Archipel, Vol. 85: 105-115, 2013. Gotuaco Larry, Tan C. Rita, Diem I. Allison. Chinese and Vietnamese blue and white wares found in the Philippines. The Philippines: Bookmark, Inc., 1997. Guy, J. “Vietnamese Trade Ceramics”. In Vietnamese ceramics, 28-35. Singapore: Southeast Asian Ceramic Society/Oxford University Press, 1982. 7 �Guy, J. “The Hoi An (Cu Lao Cham) Shipwreck Cargo and Asian Ceramic Trade”. Proceedings of the International Conference: Chinese Export Ceramics and Maritime trade 12th-15th centuries (eds. Guo Li and Chui Ki Wan/Peikai Cheng, Editor-in-Chief): 105-125. Xianggang: Zhonghua shu ju, 2005. Harrison, B. “Correlations and types of Vietnamese Trade Wares 13th-19th”. In Vietnamese ceramics, 38-48. Singapore: Southeast Asian Ceramic Society/Oxford University Press, 1982. Laing, Ellen Johnston. “Carp and Goldfish as Auspicious Symbols and their Representation in Chinese Popular Prints” In. Arts Asiatiques, Tome 72: 97-109, 2017. Nguyễn Đình Chiến, Phạm Quốc Quân. Gốm sứ trong năm con tàu cổ ở vùng biển Việt Nam [Ceramics on five shipwrecks off the coast of Viet Nam]. Hà Nội: Bảo tàng Lịch sử Việt Nam [The National Museum of Vietnamese History], 2008. Nguyễn Du Chi. Hoa văn Việt Nam từ thời tiền sử đến nửa đầu thời kỳ phong kiến [Vietnamese patterns from prehistory to the first half of the feudal period]. Hà Nội: Mỹ thuật [Fine Arts Publisher], 2003. Orillaneda, Bobby C. . Unit 13 Asian Ceramics. Bangkok, Thailand: UNESCO Bangkok, 2012. Phạm Quốc Quân. Ngã ba di sản [Crossroad of the Heritages]. Hà Nội: Dân Trí [Dân Trí Publishing House], 2011. Stevenson, John and Guy John. Vietnamese Ceramics: A Separate Tradition. Chicago: Art Media Resources with Avery Press, 1997. Treasures from the Hoi An hoard important Vietnamese Ceramics from a late 15th/early 16th century cargo. San Francisco and Los Angeles: Butterfields, 2000. Truong, Phillippe. The Elephant and the Lotus: Vietnamese ceramics in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Boston: MFA Publication, 2007. Williams C. A. S. Outlines of Chinese Symbolism and Art Motives. New York: Dover Publications, 1960. Williams, Willetts. Ceramic Art of Southeast Asia, Singapore: The Southeast Asian Ceramic Society, 1971. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ceramic collection in Vietnamese museums of the Cu Lao Cham shipwreck Description An account of the resource The fifteenth and sixteenth century Cù Lao Chàm / Hoi An shipwreck’s cargo consists of several different types of ceramics. This essay introduces three types of blue and white ware, based on their external appearance of glaze, decorations, and designs. In my doctoral research and for the purpose of this paper, the initial phase is a Collection-based Research to identify Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck’s ceramic cargo in Vietnamese museums. In a parallel study, my literature review explores across Asia Pacific Region shipwrecks and kilns with similar ceramics contemporary to the Cù Lao Chàm shipwreck. My hypothesis is that the evolution of Vietnamese ceramics during the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries CE are based on indigenous belief aesthetics that set criteria for pottery artistry and kiln production. This work adds data in the current gaps of knowledge about Vietnam’s ancestors’ role in ceramic production and exchange across the Asia Pacific Region during the initial stages of European colonialism. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Phạm Ngọc Uyên Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Uyên, Phạm Ngọc. 2023. “Ceramic collection in Vietnamese museums of the Cu Lao Cham shipwreck.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Michelle Damian. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1963 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Southeast Asian Ship, An Historical Approach Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pierre-Yves Manguin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Pierre-Yves Manguin Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1980 Issue 2 Pages 266-76 Publication Title Journal of Southeast Asian Studies Title A name given to the resource The Southeast Asian Ship, An Historical Approach Volume 11 Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pierre-Yves Manguin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Pierre-Yves Manguin Item Type Journal Article ISSN 00224995 Access Date 2009-10-26 07:28:37 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: 1993 / Copyright © 1993 BRILL Issue 3 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 253-280 Publication Title Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Title A name given to the resource Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/3632633 Volume 36 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c01b5a5b578214036c7f1565e002f2fe.pdf 827bea5e6819d8acc079c1313324a457 PDF Text Text “Winged” stem and stern in Southeast Asian lashed-lug vessels: from ethnography to archaeology Pierre-Yves Manguin (EFEO/French School of Asian Studies, Emeritus Professor) ABSTRACT So-called “winged” bows were among the first boat characteristics that were used to identify the expansion of shipping technologies of the Austronesian speaking people across both the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Pioneers Haddon and Hornell were the first to recognize that small outrigger dugouts observed in East Africa shared a “winged” stem (and stern) construction with comparable boats from Insular Southeast Asia. Starting with the Butuan archaeological excavations in the 1980s, a number of much larger plank-built vessels of the first and second millennia CE have been brought to light in Southeast Asian waters that clearly belong to this “winged” technical tradition. They all belong to the lashed-lug shipbuilding tradition which is specific to Southeast Asia. This presentation will bring together the presently available evidence on such matters, with detailed observations, and a first attempt at building up a typology of such vessels. Keywords: lashed-lug, Southeast Asian archaeology, Southeast Asian ethnography, winged stem List of figures Figure 1. Butuan 2 “winged” stem (from Clark et al. 1993). Figure 2. The Punjulharjo ship Figure 3. Rope fastenings of stem and/or stern. Lamalera; biduk of the Upper Batang Hari, Jambi Figure 4. “Winged” Paya Pasir; Stepped keel piece, to which “winged” stem or stern blocks fastened INTRODUCTION Pioneers Alfred C. Haddon and James Hornell were the first to recognize that small outrigger dugouts observed in East Africa and Madagascar shared structural characteristics with comparable boats from Insular Southeast Asia. They thus brought material evidence of early maritime contacts between the two shores of the Indian Ocean (linguistic and anthropological affinities with Madagascar had by then be recognised). They first examined the design of outriggers (Haddon 1918; 1920; Hornell 1919). Hornell, however, soon shifted his attention to what he termed the “winged” stem and stern pieces of these small boats, a possibly more stable common characteristic of crafts, built thousands of miles apart (Hornell 1920; 1928; 1934; 1944). On such small dugouts with only one or two raised side-planks, both dugout extremities are raised by attaching to them one or more blocks of wood carved out in the shape of a “winged“ stem or stern pieces. In such boats, there is no need for a stem post, the extremities of the planks being fastened to these “winged” blocks of wood —at some distance from the acute-angled ends Figure 1. Butuan 2 “winged” stem (from Clark et al. 1993). 1 �of the hull, and therefore without the need to impose a strong curvature, difficult to achieve, on the planks. We know by now that such a design is not limited to small dugout craft but may also be found in larger plank-built boats in which the dugout has evolved into a true keel piece. Solid ethnographic work by Nick Burningham (1990) recognised and discussed such features in what he calls the “stemless craft” of Ende or the “seven- part craft” of the Bajau of Tawi-Tawi (Burningham 1990; 1992; on the Bajau lepa, see also Nimmo 1990). A close observation of the boats built by the Moken sea nomads living along the upper northwest coast of the Thai-Malay Peninsula, on the other side of Southeast Asia, show distinct similarities with those of the Sama Bajau of the Philippines (Ivanoff 1999). It is clear from these superficial remarks that, on ethnographic evidence alone, a considerable amount of comparative work remains to be done on such matters. WINGED STEMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Starting with the Butuan archaeological excavations in the 1980s, several large plank-built vessels of the first and second millennia CE were brought to light in Southeast Asian waters, which also clearly belong to this “winged stem and stern” technical tradition. This point was raised in one of the first systematic descriptions of one of the Butuan boats (Clark, Green, Santiago et al. 1993; see Figure 1), and discussed in much detail, after additional data was brought to light during further excavations of the Butuan boats by Ligaya Lacsina (2016). This raises the possibility of connecting this particular boatbuilding technology with one other design that has now been firmly associated by nautical archaeologists to Southeast Asian shipbuilding, i.e. the “lashed-lug” technology. One essential task that nautical archaeologists working in Southeast Asia had assigned themselves was to identify technical characteristics that defined a local shipbuilding tradition different from those of neighbouring areas. In the early phases of nautical archaeology in the region, this was essential as most recoveries of ship timbers were brought to light as broken and dissociated fragments, after looting or during rescue operations of damaged sites (and this still happens too often). The “lashed-lug” technique is not exclusive to Southeast Asia, as already noted by Hornell (1935), but it is unique within Asia, and it has been one key identifier of the Southeast Asian origin of archaeological finds. If it is proved to be usually associated with winged stem and stern pieces, such identifications of archaeological finds (or of ambiguous textual sources) of Southeast Asian craft will be more secure, and a more reliable typology will be built up. This brief presentation only purports to bring together new evidence presently available on such matters, mostly from Indonesia, as one assembled and many fragmented ship remains have been found in the past years, many of which could be studied at leisure. They all clearly belong to the lashed-lug tradition, and all can be associated with winged designs for stem and/or stern. One major discovery by Indonesian archaeologists was that in Rembang (north coast of Central Java), on the beach ridge site of Punjulharjo, of a 16 m long, remarkably well preserved lashed-lug and stitchedplank boat dated to the 7th to 8th century CE (Abbas 2010; Mochtar 2018; Manguin 2019) (Figure 2). The fastenings with ijok ropes of the planks together and that of lugs to frames, stringers and vertical stanchions are particularly well preserved, as are the stem and the stern pieces, up to the third strake, as depicted in the following drawings. The stern and the less well- preserved stem are not symmetrical, but are clearly built following the same design. The “winged” blocks of wood are fastened not only by treenails inserted into theirs seams, but also by two kinds of ijok lashings: one passes outside of the hull, and fastens the extremity of the keel piece and the first block; the other is inside the hull, and must have been made taught by hammering in a rounded, bevelled wedge. 2 �Figure 2. The Punjulharjo ship: 3D image (by Ipso Facto and P.-Y. Manguin) Stern (left) and stem of the Punjulharjo ship (drawing by P.-Y. Manguin). Such rope fastenings of stemless stem and stern pieces have survived to this day under different guises in a few small boats (in Lamalera, Lembata, or in Jambi, Sumatra (Figure 3) (Barnes 1985; Dwyer and Ackerman 1998). Daniel G. Dwyer recently remarked that some boat depictions of Dong Son drums and of archaeological remains in Vietnam may have also used a comparable fastening (Dwyer 2015a, 2015b). Such lashings are no longer used in the Butuan boats, in line with the fact that, being younger by a few centuries, their planks are no longer stitched together with ijok as are those of Punjulharjo. Only treenails and tenons and mortises have by then remained in use to assemble the hull (Manguin 2022). One rescue operation carried out in 1989-1990 by Indonesian archaeologists and the present author at Paya Pasir, which turned up to be the heavily disturbed harbour site of the 11th to 14th century CE neighbouring site of Kota Cina (North Sumatra). Only broken timbers belonging to a variety of small to large boats and ships were recovered, all of them of the lashed-lug tradition, and all dated to the period of activity of the Kota Cina site (Manguin 1989; in press). One major find belonging to a middle-sized vessel (some 15 to 25 m) was that of a well-preserved stepped stem or stern (Figure 4, left). Contrary to what we have seen so far, it was elaborately carved out from one single block of wood that was fastened, as usual, to the extremity of a keel (now broken off). The end parts of the planks would have been fastened to the stepped wing sides by way of dowels (one or two dowel holes are still preserved on each step). Other damaged pieces from different craft may be identified as the tapering extremities of now broken off keels, to which separate “winged” stem or stern pieces would have been attached. The twin bevelled surfaces starting after the stem or stern end are bored with dowel holes that would have maintained the garboard strakes in place (Figure 4, right). It appears that, as in the Butuan boats, no rope lashings were used to fasten the stem/stern piece to the keel (here again, in line with the late dating of these boats, none of which were of the earlier “stitched-plank” type). 3 �Figure 3. Rope fastenings of stem and/or stern. (top): model of a whaling boat of Lamalera (ph. Nick Burningham) / (bottom): a biduk of the Upper Batang Hari, Jambi (as drawn by van Hasselt 1882, pl. XCIV). Other sites of Sumatra have in the past years delivered comparable remains of broken off keel pieces, all unfortunately from disturbed sites, along the shore of the Kota Kapur site (Bangka-Belitung), or at Margomulyo (Air Sugihan site complex, South Sumatra). All appear to have been fastened to similar stem/stern pieces. They have not been dated by C14, but both sites were in activity during the 1st millenium CE. DISCUSSION Scholars of the early 20th century, with the limited evidence they had at hand regarding the ancient shipbuilding traditions of Southeast Asian people, only considered the small boats they could then observe (dugouts with only a few raised planks). We know by now that large ocean sailing ships were built by Southeast Asians as early as the first few centuries CE, and that the boat builders of the Maldives —roughly half way on one possible route between Indonesia and Madagascar— kept building their midsized plank-built fishing craft in ways that clearly derive from former Southeast Asian lashed-lug technologies (Manguin 2011). It is therefore logical to conclude that those Austronesian speaking people who settled in Madagascar during the 1st millennium CE has sailed there in large plank- built vessels (Manguin 2012; 2016). This will have to remain in the realm of informed speculation, pending a systematic study of textual sources that would tell us if some of the Malagasy larger ships would show Figure 4. “Winged” stem or stern of a medium sized boat from Paya Pasir (photograph and drawing by P.- Y. Manguin; from Manguin, in press) / (right) Stepped design of the extremity of a keel piece, to which “winged” stem or stern blocks would have been fastened. 4 �traces of Southeast Asian shipbuilding traditions, or the discovery of a relevant shipwreck in the Indian Ocean. On more secure, if limited grounds, it now appears that the shape and the mode of assemblage stem and stern pieces following the ubiquitous “winged” design can vary considerably from craft to craft, and in different periods. It may well also have differed from region to region within Southeast Asian waters, but boats and ships being essentially mobile, it is rarely possible to ascertain from archaeological finds if the craft are locally produced of came from overseas). BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbas, Novida. "Perahu Kuna Punjulharjo: Sebuah Hasil Penelitian." Jurnal Penelitian Arkeologi, 6 (2010): 42–56. Akerman, Kim and Dan Dwyer. "The Senabi: External stern-lashings on Austronesian water-craft", Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 24 (2000): 85–88. Barnes, Robert H. “Whaling vessels of Indonesia.” In Sewn Plank Boats, edited by Sean McGrail and Eric Kentley, 345–366. Greenwich: British Archaeological Reports International Series 276, National Maritime Museum, 1985. Burningham, Nick. "Stemless boats of Ende Bay." The Beagle, records of the Northern Territory Museum of Arts and Sciences 7, no. 1 (1990): 105–119. Burningham, Nick. "Bajau lepa and sope: A 'seven-part canoe' building tradition in Indonesia", The Beagle (Records of the Northern Territory Museum of Arts and Sciences), 10, no. 1 (1992): 193–222. Clark, Paul, Jeremy Green, Rey Santiago, et al. 1993, "The Butuan Two boat known as balangay in the National Museum, Manila, Philippines", International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 22, no. 2 (1993): 143–159. Dwyer, Daniel. "Value Adding to Maritime Archaeology with Two Case Studies from Vietnam: Possible External Stern-Lashing on 9th Century Hoi an Watercraft and a Re-Examination of Some Maritime Technologies Recorded on Dong Son Drums", in Mark Staniforth and Lê Thi Liên (Eds.), Underwater Archaeology in Vietnam and Southeast Asia: Co-operation for development, Quang Ngai 2014. Quang Ngai: Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, pp. 117–124, 2015a Dwyer, Daniel. "External stern-lashings on Southeast Asian Watercraft: New evidence for Early Technological Regionality in Boat Construction.", in Aldemar Ossowski (ed.), Book of Abstracts, ISBSA 14. International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology: Baltic and beyond Change and continuity in shipbuilding National Maritime Museum in Gdańsk, 43. Gdansk: The National Maritime Museum, 2015b. Dwyer, Daniel and Kim Akerman. 1998, "The pelédang. The lashed-lug whaling craft of Lamalera, Lomblen (Lembata), Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia ", The Beagle, Records of the Museums and Art Galleries of the Northern Territory, 14 (1998): 123– 147. Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander. “Further notes on the old boat from Pontian”, Journal of the Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 25, no. 1 (1952): 111–133. Haddon, Alfred Court. "The Outrigger Canoe of East Africa", Man, 18, no. 29 (1918): 49–54. Haddon, Alfred Court. 1920, "The Outriggers of Indonesian Canoes", Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 50 (1920): 63-134. van Hasselt, A. L. Ethnographische atlas van Midden-Sumatra, met verklarenden tekst, in Pieter J. Veth (ed.), Midden-Sumatra 1877-1879: Reizen en onderzoekingen der Sumatra-expeditie. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 3, no. 1 (1882): 2. Hornell, James. "The Affinities of East African Canoes", Man 55 (1919): 97–100. Hornell, James. "The Common Origin of the Outrigger Canoes of Madagascar and East Africa", Man 20, no. 67 (1920), pp. 134– 139. Hornell, James. "Indonesian Cultures in East Africa", Man 28 (1928): 1–4. Hornell, James. "Indonesian Influence on East African Culture", Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 54 (1934): 305– 332. 5 �Hornell, James. "Constructional Parallels in Scandinavian and Oceanic Boat Construction", Mariner's Mirror, 21 (1935): 411– 427. Hornell, James. "The Outrigger Canoes of Madagascar, East Africa and the Comoro Islands", Mariner's Mirror 30 (1944): 3–18, 170–185. Ivanoff, Jacques. The Moken Boat. Symbolic Technology. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1999. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques.” PhD thesis, Flinders University, 2016. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Sewn-plank craft of South-East Asia.” In Sewn Plank Boats, edited by Sean McGrail and Eric Kentley, 319-343. BAR International Series 276, Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1985. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. "The trading ships of Insular Southeast Asia : New evidence from Indonesian archaeological sites", in Proceedings, Pertemuan Ilmiah Arkeologi V, Yogyakarta 1989. [Jakarta]: Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia 1 (1989): 200–220. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. "Les techniques de construction navale aux Maldives originaires d’Asie du Sud-Est", Techniques & Culture 35-36 (2001): 21–47. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. "The Maldives connection: pre-modern Malay World shipping across the Indian Ocean", in Chantal Radimilahy and Narivelo Rajaonarimanana (eds.), Civilisations des mondes insulaires. Mélanges en l'honneur du Professeur Claude Allibert, 261–284. Paris: Éditions Karthala, 2011. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Late Mediaeval Asian Shipbuilding in the Indian Ocean: A Reappraisal”, in Om Prakash (ed.), The Trading World of the Indian Ocean, 1500-1800, 597–629. Calcutta: Centre for Studies in Civilisations, 2012. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships”, in Gwyn Campbell (ed.), Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World, 51–76. Basingstoke, Hampshire: PalgraveMacmillan, 2016. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. "Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: the stitched-plank and lashed-lug tradition", International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 48, no. 2 (2019): 400–415. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. 2021, “The assembly of hulls in Southeast Asian shipbuilding traditions: from lashings to treenails”, in Giulia Boetto, Patrice Pomey & Pierre Poveda (Eds), Open Sea / Closed Sea: Local and Inter-Regional Traditions in Shipbuilding (Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, Marseille 2018, ISBSA 15), Archaeonautica, 21 (2021): 135–138. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Ship timbers at Paya Pasir: the 1988-89 rescue excavation”, in Daniel Perret and Henny Surachman (eds.), The archaeology of Kota Cina, Paris- Jakarta: EFEO, BRIN. In press. Mochtar, Agni Sesaria, “The Seventh-Century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashed-lug boatbuilding tradition.” Master’s thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide, (2018). Nimmo, H. Arlo. "The boats of the Tawi-Tawi Bajau, Sulu Archipelago, Philippines", Asian Perspectives, 29, no. 1 (1990): pp. 51–88. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource “Winged” stem and stern in Southeast Asian lashed-lug vessels: from ethnography to archaeology Description An account of the resource So-called “winged” bows were among the first boat characteristics that were used to identify the expansion of shipping technologies of the Austronesian speaking people across both the Pacific and the Indian Ocean. Pioneers Haddon and Hornell were the first to recognize that small outrigger dugouts observed in East Africa shared a “winged” stem (and stern) construction with comparable boats from Insular Southeast Asia. Starting with the Butuan archaeological excavations in the 1980s, a number of much larger plank-built vessels of the first and second millennia CE have been brought to light in Southeast Asian waters that clearly belong to this “winged” technical tradition. They all belong to the lashed-lug shipbuilding tradition which is specific to Southeast Asia. This presentation will bring together the presently available evidence on such matters, with detailed observations, and a first attempt at building up a typology of such vessels. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pierre-Yves Manguin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Mangiun, Pierre-Yves. 2023. “‘Winged’ stem and stern in Southeast Asian lashed-lug vessels: from ethnography to archaeology.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1940 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/67ccaefb8cbdbe664c12284fdea22254.pdf ab92a936444d082a36c4ed8cd4d80d3c PDF Text Text Underwater Archaeology in México: From the Bottom of the Sea to the Crater of a Volcano Pilar Luna Erreguerena Abstract Over thirty years, underwater archaeology division at Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) has gone through diverse stages and fulfilled assorted projects in marine waters, in cenotes (sinkholes) and inundates caves, at the lagoons in the crater of a volcano, and in a beach in Baja California searching for the remains of a Manila Galleon cargo. Amazing discoveries include bones of extinct animals, skeletons and ashes dating from more than ten thousand years ago, hundreds of pre-Hispanic Maya skulls, and shipwrecks ranging from the 16th to the 21st centuries. Since the beginning national and international collaboration has been the key. Being part of the group of experts who worked for the elaboration of the text of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage paved the way for Mexico being one of the first State Parties in ratifying this Convention; this also led to become one of the initial group that integrated the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (STAB). Instruments like the Convention and the ICOMOS International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage are crucial in helping to win the battle against the permanent pressure of treasure hunter groups in countries like Mexico, which has a leading role as pioneer in the protection of the underwater cultural heritage and the development of underwater archaeology in Latin America. Together with UNESCO, INAH Mexico organized in 2010 the course “Research and Management in Underwater and Maritime Archaeology”, in which 27 specialists from 14 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean participated. The future looks promising for this region. Introduction Over the span of thirty one years, Mexico’s underwater archaeological division at the InstitutoNacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH, National Institute of Anthropology and History),has gone through several stages and fulfilled a myriad of projects in diverse sites such as marine waters,cenotesor sinkholes, lagoons insidethe crater of a volcano at 4,200 meters above sea leveland in a beach of Baja California,searching for the remains of a Manila Galleon. Mexico is a country with a rich past andabundant cultural heritage along its seas, rivers, lakes, springs, and also in the thousands of water bodies spread in the Yucatan Peninsula. All this, a valuable testimony of what human beings are capable of achieving in order to live, to communicate with other lands, worship their deities and express themselves through art. In February 2011, Mexican underwater archaeology celebrated 31 years ofresearch, preservation, conservation and sharing through diverse means what the waters have kept for over more than 10,000 years. Since its creation in February 1980, INAH’s underwater archaeology division decided to undertake projects with a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional, and international cooperation approach. With the support of Dr. George F. Bass, considered the “father of underwater archaeology in the world” and Dr. Donald H. Keith, both from the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at that time, Mexican archaeologists began to learn how to do archaeology in a new way. Since then, national and international collaboration has been the key. �Obviously, at first in Mexico we were land archaeologists. Going from surface to underwater archaeology is not an easy thing. Research topics can be unique and quite different from those investigated on land. Underwater projects happen in a completely different environment to ours, which entails certain challenges. Besides the fact that archaeologists cannot go to the site as often as in land, or remain there as much time to fulfill tasks, there are challenging circumstanceslike treacherous currents, dangerous animals, and diving accidents among others.It is worth pointing out, that underwater archaeology in Mexico hasfocusedprimarily on the location and recording of sites, as well as the analysis of objects in context. In some cases, sample pits and trenches have been excavated, but no thoroughexcavation project has been undertaken yet. First Projects The first underwater projects in Mexico took place between 1980 and 1990 in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean and in a spring located in the state of San Luis Potosí, central Mexico.The story began in 1979, in the Cayo Nuevo Reef, Gulf of Mexico,where two sites dating from the 16th and 18th centuries, were discoveredthanks to a report from two American sport divers. A cannon engraved with the year 1552 was identified as the oldest bronze cannon ever recovered in the Western Hemisphere (Luna Erreguerena1982), and nowadaysexhibited in the Museo de San José el Alto, in Campeche City.This was a fortunate event,as it helped to push INAH’s authorities to finally take the decision to create an underwater archaeology department within the Institute.From then on, we have had the invaluable support of Mexican institutions and individuals, as well as many colleagues from the United States, Canada, the Cayman Islands, and more recently, from Argentina, England and Spain. All of them have become part of a wonderful and supportive team who has played, and continues to do so, a significant role in the development of Mexican underwater archaeology. After the project in the Gulf of Mexico, in 1981 and 1982 we carried out a combined underwater and land archaeology project at the Media Luna Spring, where abundant pre-historic and pre-Hispanic materials were recorded, in spite of the fact that it has been continuously looted since the 1950’s.In 1984, the Caribbean gave us the opportunity to do experimental archaeology.After being contacted by Michael Creamer, an American captain living in Isla Mujeres, we decided to attemptto confirm his hypothesisthat El Castillo (The Castle), the main structure in the archaeological site of Tulum, Quintana Roo, was used as a“lighthouse” in pre-Columbian times, but also as a warning system. In his report, Creamer refers that Sabloff and Rathje “based their conclusion on Spanish accounts of the Maya lighting fires atop the towers as beacons to warn the island’s inhabitant of invasion” (Creamer 1984). In order to demonstrate this, two archaeologists climbed to the upper part of El Castillo with two gas lamps, while the rest of the team was in a boat navigating towards the beach. In the exact moment that the light of the first gas lamp was visible through one of the two small windows in the structure, the boat prepared to turn, and immediately after the second light appeared through the other window, �the boat was able to enter safely through a natural cut in the reef (Luna Erreguerena1982). The experiment was a success, and it has been repeated twice since then: in 1998 for Discovery Channel and in 2009 for History Channel.It helped to demonstrate that Maya structures along the coast of Quintana Roo were used as navigational aids,a fact that is corroborated by the modern lighthouses built quite near some of these ancient structures (Luna Erreguerena 1982). During the 2009 recreation, it was also proved that El Castillo served as a navigational aid not only when the artificial lights are seen from a boat at sea through the two small windows in the upper part, but also when the sun light can be seen from the two windows located in the lower part of this Maya structure, which does not have a roof. Today, thanks to this discoveryfishermen and navigators in the area use this system to go in and out of the reef in total confidence. This is a modest example of how archaeology, a social science, can bring social benefits. The last project, in what we call the first stage of Mexican underwater archaeology, took place in 1990 at the Chitales Reef, off Cancún, in the southeast part of Mexico, with the support of Dr. Donald H. Keith and the team fromShips of Exploration and Discovery Research, based in Texas. This was a multidisciplinary project aimed at documenting a 16th century shipwreck, in which biologists from the Universidad NacionalAutónoma de México (UNAM, National Autonomous University of Mexico) worked shoulder-to-shoulder with archaeologists. Once the excavation area had been determined, biologists collected all living corals and replanted them when the archaeological work was finished. They monitored the site over a year, until the area recovered. One of our goals is to respect and protect the natural heritage in which cultural heritage is immersed. Renewed or Die As mentioned before, the transition from land to underwater archaeology is not an easy task.By 1992, most of our few archaeologists had decided to go back to their terrestrial projects.This was a turning point for Mexican underwater archaeology suddenly threatened to disappear. However, if one is able to see that whenever a door closes another one opens up, things keep on flowing.In 1994, the first master level course on underwater archaeology was taught in Mexico with a field school in the Caribbean.Thirty professors from Mexico, the United States and Canada participated in the six-month course, and twenty archaeology and conservation students, graduated rekindling the fire of the discipline in Mexico. The 1630-1631 New Spain Fleet Then, in 1995, the big door opened for us: INAH’s Department of Underwater Archaeology was promoted to a vice directorate and the most ambitious project ever fulfilled began to take shape: the investigation of the New Spain Fleet that lost several of its ships in the Gulf of Mexico during a storm in 1631, while on route to Havana bound for Spain as final destination. Fleets, created in the 16th century, �were in some way an extension of the Spanish empire that traveled to a different continent but were ruled by the same laws (Trejo Rivera 2003: 22). Intense research on archives took place in Mexico, Spain and Cuba. Documents and maps from the 17th century were consulted, analyzed, and transcribed. After months of dedication to this endeavor, an area was selected in the Sound of Campeche, Gulf of Mexico, to start looking for the fleet’s vessels lost during the storm, mainly one of the two flagships,NuestraSeñora del Juncal (Luna Erreguerena2008: 57).The first field season took place in 1997.In sixteen days of survey, 24 sites were located and recorded. The discovery of these sites led us to create a parallel project: the Inventory and Diagnosis of Submerged Cultural Resources in the Gulf of Mexico, where 179 sites have been integrated to this day, with shipwrecks and isolated elements ranging from the 16th to the 20th centuries. An increase in the number of sites located in the Gulf of Mexico has been occurringmainly due to two reasons: 1)the work done with fishermen, divers and natives who have led us to several shipwrecks and other cultural vestiges, above all in coastal waters; and 2) the support received in 1998 from the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit of the United States National Park Service to design a remote sensing system to be used in Mexican waters.The search for NuestraSeñora del Juncal continues, and this year the archival research has taken a new turn, asnew specialists from Mexico, the United States and Spain have been integrated to the team in charge of this project, As we speak, the team is working planning an intense field season for 2012. Cenotes and Inundated Caves A universe of its own are the cenotes and inundated caves of the Yucatan Peninsula, where amazing discoveries have been made since 1999, when INAH’sSubdirección de ArqueologíaSubacuática (SAS, Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology) received several reports from cave divers regarding the finding of prehistoric and pre-Columbian materials. Thousands of years ago, these caves were dry and served as an ideal shelter for animals and human beings alike.Since the sea level in this part of the Caribbean has increased more than 60 m in the last 10,000 years, the caves are now totally covered by water.Discoveries include bones of extinct animals, skeletons and ashes dating from more than ten thousand years ago;hundreds of pre-Hispanic Maya skulls, some of them with intentional cranial deformation; ceramic from the same period; and some elements from colonial times, as rifles used in the “Caste War” or Guerra de Castas, a wideMaya rebellionagainst the white elite (criollos and mestizos) of the colonial government in Yucatán,that lasted from 1847 to 1901. The existence of several cave divers groups in the Yucatan Peninsula has been a decisive factor for these findings. Cave diving organizations in Yucatan and Quintana Roo calculate in thousands the number of cenotes and inundated caves in this region, many of which contain cultural vestiges. INAH’s division of underwater archaeology works very closely with most of these divers, offering them special courses like the one from the Nautical Archeology Society (NAS) to teach them how to behave in the presence of cultural remains and how to help �archaeologists to record this material in a proper way. Since cave diving is an extreme type of diving which requires special training, sophisticated equipment and a constant practice,in Mexico there are not many archaeologists who can do this job, therefore, the work with these groups has proved quite positive for underwater archeology in such peculiar and dangerous bodies of water. Five Important Programs Sometimes, when you begin to work towardsa dream, time goes by and you don’t realize how big your dream has grown. This happened to us in Mexico, when we became suddenly aware that besides the projects carried out, there were many things we were doing at the same time that needed to be introduced into a proper structure. This is how a new project was born: Special Programs of the Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology, which includes five components: 1) Attending reports of underwater cultural heritage findings and their legal protection; 2) Training; 3) Divulgation; 4) Conservation of materials recovered from aquatic environments; and 5) National and international collaboration. Each year, we travel to different parts of the country in order to attend reports of archaeological material findings. Through these inspectionswe have also contacted different authorities and began raising consciousness about the value and importance of such finds. Significant achievements have been obtained with local authorities and members of the communities with jobs related to the underwater cultural heritage, like fishermen, divers and tourist guides. Among the most significantdiscoveries made through fishermen in the coastal waters of Champotón, Campeche, is a 18th shipwreck known as “El Pesquero,” probably of British origin (BarbaMeinecke 2008). Also, last year, port authorities in Veracruz asked INAH to survey the area where they were planning to extend the port facilities. Archaeologists from the Vice Directorate found and recorded hull remains from an 18th century ship, as well as ceramics and glass materials. Traininghas been a permanent concern. Researchers from INAH receive constant courses on topics like geophysics, recording, videography, diving, etc. In this regard, national and international support still isa determinant factor. Specialists from Mexico and abroad participate each year in our field seasons, sharing their experience and knowledge, not only with researchers but also with archaeology and conservation students, diving instructors, and local people interested in the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage.Together with training, dissemination has been a permanent commitment. All researchers from SAS/INAH participate in symposiums, presentations, lectures and interviews both in academic and public forums. This program includes itinerant exhibitions, mainly in towns and cities around the places where archaeological work is being done, as well as video documentaries and publications. Regarding the conservation of materials recovered from underwater sites, one of our policies has always been not to recover any object if its conservation cannot be guaranteed and only to recover those elements that serve our research objectives or those in danger of destruction or looting. In this program, we have received the invaluable support from different laboratories within INAH in Mexico �City and Campeche, and the Corrosion Laboratory from the Universidad Autónoma de Campeche (UAC, Autonomous University of Campeche). The Manila Galleon Project Even if the main part of our archaeological work has taken place in the area of the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula, in 1999 researchers Edward von der Porten and Jack Hunter started a project in Baja California, searching for the remains of one of the Manila Galleons that traveled between America and Asia from 1565 until 1815.The Baja California Peninsula occupies 33% of Mexico’s total coast. This peninsula is full of historic events related to the sea: the search for new territories and routes; the passage of pirates, buccaneers and corsairs; scientific expeditions; establishment of ports and Japanese fishing communities; the pearl industry; maritime accidents through the 19th and 20th centuries, and of course, the Manila Galleon route (Mejía 2007). It was during the 1970’s that American beachcombers began reporting findings of porcelain fragments in some beaches of Baja California, especially in the area of Ensenada. Some years later, news reached a group of researchers who immediately knew the potential of these findings. The University of Santa Clara in California and the National Institute of Anthropology and History, through its Centro INAH Baja California and the Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology, were invited to participate in this multidisciplinary project, which includes archaeologists, geophysicists, historians, geologists,art historians, and conservators. Field seasons have been short and not sufficient, due to oceanographic and climatic adverse conditions, and financial limitations.In spite of this, results have been fruitful. Archaeologists have surveyed the area, both land and underwater, using metal detectors, remote sensing equipment, and GPSs.An important collection of shards of Chinese porcelain has been collected, together with beeswax blocks, stoneware fragments,a Fu dog bronze sculptureand some coins, among other elements. Preliminary analyses indicate that these objects date from the late 16th centuryand were part of the cargo of a Manila Galleon. The next field season will take place in 2012. The Nevado de Toluca Volcano An hour West from Mexico City there is a volcano known as the Nevado de Toluca, that rises to 4,600 metersabove sea level. In its crater, there are two cold lakes— named Luna and Sol (Moon and Sun)—where pre-Columbian groups depositedofferings to fertility deities, and from where divers in the 1950’s, 1960’s and 1970’s recovered rare serpent shaped wooden objects and incense cones and spheres (Luna Erreguerenaet al 2009: XIV). In May 2007, thanks to a donation given by Mr. Richard Siegel and a complementary funding from the Goldsbury Foundation—both received through archaeologist Johan Reinhard—researchers from INAH carried out a field season focusing mainly in the smallerLuna Lake. While some archaeologists worked �underwater, a professor and a group of students from the EscuelaNacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH, National School of Anthropology and History) did some excavationpits on the shore.Findings were similar to those recovered some years ago: wooden objects shaped like serpents; 75 cones and spheresof a type of incense known as copal still inuse today, plus cactus plants used for self-penitence (Junco 2009: 26). Travelling exhibitions, together with a documentary film and a book entitled Celestial Waters. Nevado de Toluca, have beenpresented in many of the little towns around the volcano, especially among elementary and high school students. Besides, schools have received a copy of the book entitled“Under de sea, there are more than fishes…” designed especially for children and youth to raise awareness about the Mexican underwater cultural heritage and the importance of its preservation. This year, INAH will publish a comic book, which tells the story of the volcano and the archaeological work carried out, aimed at those people who don’t like to read books. Management of Sites Management of underwater cultural heritage is something relatively new in Mexico. INAH participates in management programs in two protected areas: a park integrated by 23 reefs in Veracruz, Gulf of Mexico, and the Chinchorro Bank Biosphere Reserve situated in the Mesoamerican Reef, the second largest in the world, after the Australian Great Barrier. In both cases, INAH is working very closely with CONANP, an official branch of the ministry in charge of the environment, to protect the underwater archaeological heritage (Luna and Carrillo 2005). Last August, a joint mission UNESCO-ICOMOS-UICN made an inspection visit to Chinchorro, after INAH and CONANP presented a technical file for the nomination of this reserve as a Mixed Site to be included as part of the world heritage. It would be the first Mixed Site (natural and cultural) for Mexico, and the first in the world with an underwater cultural component. Besides its wonderful ecological diversity, this place contains shipwrecks and isolated elements dating from the 16th century to the present. So far, INAH has located and recorded 68 sites. Presence in International Forums Being member of national and international councils dedicated to underwater archaeology and the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage, has allowed Mexico to be in constant contact with specialists from all around the world, as well as being part of a global effort to fight treasure hunters and to have a voice in the making of public awareness and policies regarding this legacy.Mexico was part of the group of experts who worked for the elaboration of the text for the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Thispaved the way to be one of the first State Parties to ratify theConvention in July 2006 after a long and complex process that involved academic, legal and �technicalauthorities. Being one of the first twenty State Parties that ratified the Convention allowedMexico to become one of the eleven membersof the initial group that integrated the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (STAB). Legal Aspects Mexico has fought a constant battle against treasure hunters. The infiltration of these groups into political spheres has made things even more difficult. However, based on the Ley Federal sobreMonumentos y ZonasArqueológicos, Artísticos e Históricos (Federal Law on Archaeological, Artistic and HistoricalMonuments and Sites) (INAH 1972) and theDisposicionesReglamentariaspara la InvestigaciónArqueológica en México (Regulations for Archaeological Research in Mexico) (INAH 1977), among other laws, these attempts have been stopped successfully. INAH has an ArchaeologyCouncil whose duty is to receive, evaluate, approve or reject all archaeological projects pretended to be carried out in Mexico, be on land or underwater. When the Council receives an underwater archaeology project, it calls the Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology for an opinion. In this way, many requests—some of them disguised as “research projects”—from treasure hunters have been detected and rejected. Instruments like the UNESCO 2001 Convention and the ICOMOS International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage are crucial in supporting countries that do not have a law to protect their underwater cultural heritage and those whose laws are weak in this regard; even thosewho havespecific laws can find reinforcement through these international agreements. Regional and International Cooperation A golden formula is to give back to life what you have received from it, hence the importance of education that is crucial in the development of underwater archaeology and the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage. A good way is to join efforts and design regional courses directed to underwater archaeologists and specialists belonging to related disciplines. In 2010, UNESCO’s Secretariat for the 2001 Convention andthe National Institute of Anthropology and History organizedthe course “Research and Management in Underwater and Maritime Archaeology”, which took place in the Mexican port of Campeche with the attendance of 27 specialists from 14 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean.One of its main achievements was the creation of the OrganizaciónLatinoamericana de ArqueologíaSubacuática (OLAS, Latin American Organization on Underwater Archaeology). Currently, INAH’s Vice Directorate of Underwater Archaeology, with the special collaboration of Mexican historian Flor Trejo and Spanish professor Fernando Serrano Mangas, is organizing the course “Specialization in underwater archaeology of the Carrera de Indias and the recognition of the underwater cultural heritage (late 15th and early 19th centuries), which will take place in 2012 atthe National School of Anthropology and History in Mexico City. �Conclusion In conclusion, I want to express my gratitude for this invitation to share Mexico’s experience in the field. Our experience in thirty-one years has been full of learning and growing, of challenges and achievements. Today, Mexico has a leading role as pioneer in the protection of the underwater cultural heritage and the development of underwater archaeology in Latin America, even though we have never excavated intensively a shipwreck or lifted a whole ship from the bottom of the sea, or count witha state of the art conservation laboratory for materials recovered from aquatic environments. Many of our projects were born from reports of archaeological findings, some due to the pressure of treasure hunters, and others based on research goals. Our work has been steady and according to the possibilities and priorities of the moment, never imagining the option of negotiating a legacy that is irreplaceable and non-renewable, which is valuable beyond economic considerations and that does not only belong to the nation in whose waters it is found, but to all human kind. Modern times have witnessed a paradox in history. Many of those countries with wonderful ancient cultures belong today to the so called “third world”; therefore, they do not have the financial resources, advanced technology nor the specialists needed to investigate and preserve the remains of those cultures that lay in the bottom of their seas or in their rivers and lakes. Some of the countries in the Asian Pacific region, as well as Mexico, are good examples of this. On the other hand, many of the so-called “first world countries” have the resources, but they do not possess the cultural richness that our countries have. Maybe this is the reason why some of the main groups of treasure hunters come precisely from these rich countries with no strong bonds toward their past and their ancestors. All countries have the right and the responsibility to preserve their underwater cultural heritage in accordance with their own idiosyncrasy and circumstances, which are different and unique. Underwater cultural heritage has remained stable and preserved over hundreds or even thousands of years in its aquatic context. There is no hurry and no justification to recover it, if one doesn’t have the proper resources and meet the international standards clearly established in the ICOMOS Charter and the 2001 UNESCO Convention.Maybe one of the great lessons we have learned in Mexico is the fact that you can create your own reality, and begin working in the preservation and research of the underwater cultural heritage even if the feeling is that there are not enough means, because the only thing that is needed is to have a burning passion in your heart, and to believe that this portion of human history deserves to be preserved and investigated properly. Look then for the right people in your own country and the support of your own authorities; then, look for the assistance and cooperation of those countries and colleagues that have already walked a similar path and who have proved that it doesn’t matter what you have, but how you use it. �Bibliography Meinecke, Band Elena, M., 2008 Arqueología subacuática en la costa de Campeche: El caso del pecio “El Pesquero, Champotón.” Primeros acercamientos en torno a su investigación. Unpublished paper presented at the Sixth World Archaeological Congress, Dublin, Ireland. Creamer, M., 1984 Pre Columbian Aids to Navigation. A Mariner’s Perspective. Unpublished internal report to the Subdirección de Arqueología Subacuática, INAH, Mexico. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia., 1972 Ley Federal sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicos, Artísticos e Históricos. (Diario Oficial, 6 de mayo de 1972) INAH/SEP. México, D.F. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia., 1977 Disposiciones Reglamentarias para la Investigación Arqueológica en México. INAH/SEP. México, D.F. Junco, R., 2009 “Arqueología subacuática: descifrando los misteriosdel Nevado de Toluca”. In Luna Erreguerena, Pilar, Arturo Montero and Roberto Junco (coords.) Las Aguas Celestiales. Nevado de Toluca. INAH-Concepto Editorial. Mexico, pp. 23-31. Luna Erreguerena, P., 1982 La arqueología subacuática.Professional ENAH/UNAM. Mexico. thesis. Luna Erreguerena, P., 2008 “The Submerged Cultural Heritage in Mexico”, in (eds.) Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton and Pilar Luna Erreguerena, Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in Latin America and the Caribbean. Left Coast Press, Inc. One World Archaeology 56, Walnut Creek, CA. pp. 55-65. Luna Erreguerena, P., 2009 “Introducción”, in Pilar Luna Erreguerena, Arturo Montero and Roberto Junco (coords.) Las Aguas Celestiales. Nevado de Toluca, INAH-Concepto Editorial, México. Luna Erreguerena, P. and Carrillo Márquez, L., 2005 “Banco Chinchorro: Retos en torno a la conservación manejo y disfrute del patrimonio mixto (natural y cultural)”. Hereditas, Año 4, Vol. 11, abril, CONACULTA-INAH, México. pp. 26-39 Mejía, L. M., 2007 Arqueología subacuática en Baja California. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historiaviewed 23 August 2011, http://www.subacuatica.inah.gob.mx �Sabloff, J.A. andRathje, W., 1975 "The Lost Worlds of the Ancient Maya," Oceans Vol. S8: pp. 56-59. Trejo Rivera, F. (Coord.)., 2003 La Flota de la Nueva España: Vicisitudes y naufragios. Colección Obra Varia, INAH, México, D.F. UNESCO., 2001 La Convención de la UNESCO sobre la Protección del Patrimonio Cultural Subacuático. París, Francie, viewed 25 August 2011, http://portal.unesco.org � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b69a183b0af21a620d8cc640170c4ab0.jpg 91129dec1b4a1cf169a08c464f2db353 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 667 Height 429 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4c724cd01c002619bd401e714e9d69de.jpg 81e025d785bc18a2e765763709fae2da Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 287 Height 324 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Archaeology in México: From the Bottom of the Sea to the Crater of a Volcano Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Speaker Description An account of the resource <p>Over thirty years, underwater archaeology division at Mexico&rsquo;s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) has gone through diverse stages and fulfilled assorted projects in marine waters, in cenotes (sinkholes) and inundates caves, at the lagoons in the crater of a volcano, and in a beach in Baja California searching for the remains of a Manila Galleon cargo. Amazing discoveries include bones of extinct animals, skeletons and ashes dating from more than ten thousand years ago, hundreds of pre-Hispanic Maya skulls, and shipwrecks ranging from the 16th to the 21st centuries. Since the beginning national and international collaboration has been the key. Being part of the group of experts who worked for the elaboration of the text of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage paved the way for Mexico being one of the first State Parties in ratifying this Convention; this also led to become one of the initial group that integrated the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (STAB). Instruments like the Convention and the ICOMOS International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage are crucial in helping to win the battle against the permanent pressure of treasure hunter groups in countries like Mexico, which has a leading role as pioneer in the protection of the underwater cultural heritage and the development of underwater archaeology in Latin America. Together with UNESCO, INAH Mexico organized in 2010 the course &ldquo;Research and Management in Underwater and Maritime Archaeology&rdquo;, in which 27 specialists from 14 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean participated. The future looks promising for this region.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pilar Luna Erreguerena Roberto Junco Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Keynote https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9344e9ee0a6f5bca03707353f5a2bc9f.pdf b92e42add0ca5bd590bcf4b0315da853 PDF Text Text Ship’s Cargo beyond the sea: New Evidence from Dong Mae Nang Muang, Nakorn Sawan Province, Central Thailand Pimchanok Pongkasetkan1 Abstract This paper mainly focuses on Trade Ceramics and other cargo found from the Dvaravati settlement in Upper Chao Phraya basin, Central Thailand. Specifically, this paper focuses on the case study of the site of Dong Mae Nang Muang, Nakorn Sawan province. In 2008 an archaeological project was done to gain better knowledge of the site. Four test pits, one test trench and an earthen mound were excavated. These activities expanded the current understanding of the site's characteristics. The excavation revealed imported goods from all over the world such as; ceramics, glass and semi-precious stone beads and glass vessels. This important phenomenon was a strong impact on current knowledge of the inter-relationship between Dvaravati, an ancient settlement in the Upper Chao Phraya basin, 2 and the sea port town via China and Western Asia , this has reconsidered the role of economics in the area especially the details of trade-routes and the merchandise during the th th Dvaravati period (5 -12 centuries AD). Characteristic of Dong Mae Nang Muang Dong Mae Nang Muang is located in present day Banpotpisai district, Nakorn Sawan province. From an inscription (K966) discovered at the site we know that its name in antiquity was Thanya Pura (Coedès 1961; Vallibhotama 1978). Located in the upper reaches of the Chao Phraya Basin, this site represents one of the northernmost settlements of Dvaravati culture in central Thailand. Strategically placed on the tributaries of major river systems; the PingRiver and Nan River, the settlement flourished for a period of approximately 400 years between the 8 th and 12th centuries Common Era (CE)3. Despite being located over 300 kilometres north of the modern-day coastline, Dong Mae Nang Muang was not an isolated site on the periphery, but participated in and contributed to the vibrant cultural, religious, artistic and economic exchanges that took place within the Dvaravati culture of central Thailand (Murphy and Pongkasetkan 2010). Dong Mae Nang Muang is a moated site with a surrounding rampart. At some stage during the Dvaravati period it was extended to the west by the addition of an extra moat resulting in the ground plan changing from squareshaped to more oblong in character. The site measures 630 by 650 metres and covers an area of approximately 40 hectares. To date, the research conducted extends from the first surveys and excavations by the Fine Arts Department in 1956 and 1967, to recent projects of Master’s degree students of the Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University and most recently 1 Curator of Southeast Asian Ceramics museum, Bangkok University Can not be specific because the analysis results indicate that some evidence made in Western Asia, but not clearly specific where. 3 A Georgian Calendar designation that starts at year one, based on the year of the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with one added to every year after. 2 �excavations by the Fine Arts Department, Lopburi, 2008–20094. The initial surveys by the Fine Arts Department recorded up to thirteen earthen mounds at the site and excavations revealed that they were Buddhist monuments, the majority being stupas. There have also been numerous reports of votive tablets and Buddha image discoveries at the site over the past 60 or so years however, none have been excavated in situ (Murphy and Pongkasetkan 2010). On the basis of relative dating techniques the current proposed dates of occupation arising from the 2009 excavations cover the 8 th to 12th centuries CE. For example, the earthenware Dvaravati pottery discovered suggests a date from the 8th century onwards; the stoneware and Sassanid ceramics point towards the 9th and 10th centuries; stucco found during excavations at monument MS1 is late Dvaravati in style, so falls between the 10th and 11th centuries; while Inscription K966 gives a 12 th-century date. The excavations also revealed no evidence whatsoever for prehistoric occupation of the site nor did it show any indication that Dong Mae Nang Muang was inhabited after the 12th century. Excavations at Dong Mae Nang Muang, 2008–2009 Since the Fine Arts Department archaeological excavations in 1967, no further archaeological research has been conducted at Dong Mae Nang Muang. Since those excavations focused entirely on the monuments, no evidence for the length or nature of human occupation was obtained. Hence, the project “Cultural development of the ancient town of Dong Mae Nang Muang,” was initiated by the author in order to explore the cultural and chronological development of the site. Field activity entailed survey work, interviewing of local villagers and excavation from January 2008 to July 2009. 4 For a summary of all research carried out to date on the site of Dong Mae Nang Muang see Murphy and Pongkasetkan (2010). For a detailed discussion of the excavations that took place in 2009 see Pongkasetkan (2010) and The Fine Arts Department (2010). �Figure 1. Aerial Picture of Dong Mae Nang Muang and the test pits location (Adopt from Google Earth). Excavation of test pits TP1-TP4 and RTP1 Excavations took place between April and July 2009 and consist of four 3 by 3 metre test pits (TP1-4), one test trench through the rampart (RTP1) and the excavation of an earthen mound designated MS1 (Figure 2). Two test pits, TP3 and TP4, were located within the interior of the moat. TP1 was located in the area enclosed by the western moat extension while TP2 was situated outside the moat. All four test pits were excavated in order to clarify the stratigraphy and archaeological record and to provide information on the material culture, dating and past activities that were carried out at the site. The rampart test trench was excavated in the interior moat while MS1 lies just outside the southern moat. The test pit data yielded new information about population density, habitation and economic activity at the site. The main inhabited and economic areas were located within the moat. The western extension and the area directly outside the moat appear to be much less densely occupied; further survey and excavation work are need to give a complete picture. As would be expected, the moat and rampart are contemporaneous with the rest of the site. Their construction took place within the Dvaravati period. Excavation of the earthen mound MS1 Dong Mae Nang Muang has numerous earthen mounds inside and outside the moat. They are presumed �5 to be religious structures of some kind, perhaps Stupas , Viharns 6 or 7 Ubosots , but it is impossible to say for certain without detailed investigation of each individual structure. The test excavation revealed evidence of Dvaravati pottery, finger-marked bricks consistent with those found at other Dvaravati period sites, Dvaravati-style stucco and a possible terracotta stupa finial. Some of the most surprising discoveries during the course of both excavations, however, were the human burials at the foundation level of the monument. Over 50 inhumations were discovered in total throughout the entire area of the monument; however, they do not appear to extend outside of the site's boundary. Stratigraphically, the burials were found directly under the layer containing the remains of the monument proper. The layer itself is about 1 metre in depth; the burials were placed at different levels within it. The question therefore arises whether the burials predate the construction of the monument. Not only are the burials located in a separate stratigraphic layer, but also no Dvaravati material was found within the layer of the burials themselves. However, since there is no evidence of prehistoric occupation at the site, the working hypothesis continues to be that the burials date to the Dvaravati period. Imported Good: Ceramics sherds consideration The evidence from the excavation of TP3 and TP4 yielded some fascinating points-of-view of the relationship within the outer communities especially from the ceramics sherds and glass vessel. 8 9 Chinese, Khmer and Sassanids ceramics were found together in the same context, as well as glass vessel. The dating of Chinese ceramics are during the 11th – 12th centuries AD, or during Northern Song Dynasty. Around the 11th century the Chinese court had intensely turned the market from the Silk Route into Maritime Silk Route (Qingxin 2009:83) The Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD) was a great empire, with great economic development the Stupas is the word from Sanskrit: m., स्तूप, stūpa, and Pāli: थुप "thūpa", literally meaning "heap"(from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stupa). It is the monument that establish for both of Buddhism and Jain. It is usually made in half-round or bell shape with the pointed finial. 6 Viharn or Vihara is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist monastery. It originally meant "a secluded place in which to walk", and referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering monks during the rainy season.(from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihara) It are formed in square or rectangular shape, and placed with the Buddha image. 7 Ubosot is derived from the Pali term uposathagara, which refers to a hall used for rituals on the upostha days -- the Buddhist Sabbath, which falls four times a month on the full moon, new moon, and eighth day after each. (from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubosot). The form of ubosot is usually similar to the Viharn, rectangular or square in shape, but there’s no need to have the Buddha image inside. 8 th th Khmer is word that called Ancient Cambodia culture during 5 -12 centuries AD. In which, it th th th th is also called sometimes that Pre-Angkorian (5 -8 centuries AD) and Angkorian (8 -12 centuries AD). 9 Sassanids ceramics is the word that author use for describe the ceramics that was produce during the Sassanian Empire. The Sassanid Empire, which succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognized as one of the two main powers in Western Asia and Europe, alongside the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire, for a period of more than 400 years(from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid) 5 �cities flourished and its science and technology advanced (Qingxin 2009: 81) . It was one of the world’s most advanced and wealthy states. Regardless of the outcome, the Song Dynasty was still an era worthy of special attention. It was during this time that the Maritime Silk Road was at the height of its splendor (Qingxin 2009:82) The Song Dynasty was especially focused on 10 Sino - foreign relations and foreign trade. The politico-economics caused for China’s north and west over-land passage to basically shut off (Qingxin 2009: 83). This created a natural inclination towards developing ties with nations of Southeast Asia across the sea. From above, the main factor of economics between Southeast Asia and China were caused from the inclination of the Silk Road. A number of Chinese ceramics sherds found from Dong Mae Nang Maung are good samples to confirm this theory. The analysis of Chinese ceramics sherds from Dong Mae Nang Muang are identified as follows: 1) Qing Bai, Ding Kiln, Northern Song Dynasty, 10th-11th centuries AD Qing Bai from Ding kiln. Dating of this type is around 10th century AD, bowl shape, grayish white color in fabric and glazed. This type is hardly found in Thailand except some sites in the Malay Peninsula such as Klong Ta Rua, Nakorn Srithamarat province (Chantawit 1993:184). 2) Jar, green glaze, Xicun Kiln, Northern Song Dynasty, 10th century AD Sherds of Jar with thick mouth rim, gray color in fabric, yellowish green to brownish green glaze. This type was found all over Thailand during this time in sites such as Koh Ko Khao, Punga, Klong Tha Rua, Nakorn Srithamarat (Chantawit 1993: 182), Sting Pra, Songkhla (Chantawit 1993:16), Umphang, Tak, Vichayen House, Lopburi, Sra Morakot, Prachinburi and etc. (Thammapreechakorn 2010:37) Bowl, cup, ewer and jar were commonly found 3) Bowl, Qing Bai, Jingdezhen kiln, Northern Song Dynasty 10 th – 11th centuries AD A group of Qing Bai from Jingdezhen kiln were commonly found in some Khmer settlements in the northeast and central Thailand. Some types found at Dong Mae Nang Muang include: bowl decorated with lotus petal motif, whitish gray color in fabrique, white clear glaze. The most interesting context of this sherd, when compared with the other similar wares found in other Khmer monuments in Thailand, is it is usually accompanied with the other Qing Bai from other kilns and Khmer ware from kiln sites in Cambodia and Thailand11. For example Ban Klor, Chaiyapum(Chantawit 1993: 323 ), Orapim Mound, Prasat Phnom Wan, Nakorn Ratchasima, Prasat Nang Rum, Nakorn Ratchasima and etc. (Chantawit 1993: 322 ), 4) Covered Box, Qing Bai, Nan’an kiln, Quanzhou, Fujian region, late Northern Song Dynasty, 11th century AD 10 a prefix used to refer to China (from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino) Commented by Louise Allison Cort, Curator of Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M.Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, USA, and she gave additional note that this groups are also found at port town and In-Land port town. 11 �Covered Box in the form of melon shape is regularly found from Dvaravati, Khmer, and Lanna ancient settlements (Thammapreechakorn 2010:35) Figure 2. TOP FOUR - Chinese Ceramics, Northern Song Dynasty, 10th-11th centuries AD. found at Dong Mae Nang Muang, from above left-right: Ding Kiln(CCHD1-7), Xicun kiln(CCHX 1-2) and lower left-right: Jingdezhen kiln(CCHJ 1), Nan’an kiln(CCHN 2) (Now under examination by author). BOTTOM TWO - Sassanid Ceramics from Dong Mae Nang Muang (From Left: SF309, SF313, SF322, SF323, Right: SF329) Apart from Chinese ceramics, there are also around forty percent of Khmer ceramics accompanied too. The green glaze Angkorian ware, or Phnom Kulen ware, were also found together with the Northern Song ceramics in the same context. The association of green glaze Angkorian or Phnom Kulen ware is very interesting. It has not been recognized as a maritime-merchant commodity but its appearance exists all over Khmer monuments in both Cambodia and Thailand (Pongkasetkan 2010:135). �12 The most known waster , the Phnom kulen, corresponds to types of green glaze ceramics found in Bernard Groslier archaeologically excavated sites, which date prior to 1050 AD. Green glazed covered urns also found there, however, do not appear in excavation until after 1050 AD. The characteristics of the Phnom Kulen ware are generally yellowish to brownish 13 green glaze and also show a broad range of mottled shade between brown, black and olive, obtained by heavier concentrations of iron oxides in their glazes (Brown 1988:43). The production sites of Phnom Kulen ware were located in the area of Phnom Kulen plateau. Several kiln sites were discovered along the way from Angkor region in Siem Reap province, which is situated between the Plateau of Kulen and city of Rolous (Rooney, et al. 2010:172). From several archaeological projects that were done during the last 20 years, some have 14 unearthed charcoal samples dated by the AMS technique and provide a date of 970(±30) – 905 (±30) BP (Miksic, et al. 2010) or the beginning of the 11th century AD. Generally forms of Phnom Kulen ware are covered box in the form of flat or tall shape, fruit-shaped, plain zoomorphic, plain cylindrical jar, covered cylindrical jar, bottle, and architectural ornaments (Rooney, et al. 2010:172). The Phnom Kulen ware were commonly found in Khmer monuments such as Prasat Ban Phluang in Surin province, Chau Say Tevoda, Srah Srang, Bantay Kdei and etc.(Rooney, et al. 2010:12). A number of Phnom Kulen ware were also discovered at the site of Dong Mae Nang Muang. Covered jars, jars and covered boxes were found in large numbers both in the habitation and in monument contexts. Figure 3. Covered boxes, Phnom Kulen ware, Dong Mae Nang Muang (From left above CKMP10, left lower CKMP11, covered box in the right side is now kept at the site) 12 Wasted product from the kiln Dark brown spot from Iron Oxide that appear on the pottery fabric 14 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry 13 �Sassanid ceramics are yet another kind of ceramic found at Dong Mae Nang Muang. Blue turquoise glaze on earthenware is their main characteristic. It was commonly found in the Dvaravati settlement in Thailand., for example, U-thong in Supanburi province(FAD 2002: 65) or Dong Lakorn in Nakorn Nayok province (FAD 1997: 23) It is usually dated to the 3rd – 7th centuries AD but it was thought that technical production was still carried on until the Early Islamic Period(Pongkasetkan 2010: 134). During the time of the Sassanian Empire, the Iranian highlands had an important role in the history of East-West contact, both on the Overland Silk Road and Maritime Silk Road. Some Sassanian treasure were left all over Asia and Europe (Fukai 1981:35). It is extremely difficult at this time to distinguish ceramics from Late Parthian (249 B.C. – 226 AD) and Early Sassanian periods(226-642 AD); just as in other fields it is difficult to define the works of the late Sassanid Period and the Early Islamic Period (Harper 1978:160). The basic typology that was defined by Shinji Fukai (1981:36-46) composed of two glaze colours of green and blue-turquoise and in the forms of jar and cup. The excavation at Dong Mae Nang Muang revealed some pieces of Sassanids ceramics, both of green and blue glaze, probably jar, associated with Chinese Northern Song and Khmer ceramics. The stratigraphy dates these finds to the 10th-11th centuries AD, according from the Northern Song and Phnom Kulen ware, therefore, it could be implied about that there’re the usage of imported ceramics from Western Asia, Chinese and Khmer in the Dvaravati settlement in the upper Chao Phraya basin during 10 th-11th centuries AD. Glass Vessel Glass vessels were also found. From the analysis of glass vessel sherds 15, with LA-ICP-MS technique16 (Lankton and Gratuze 2010:4). James Lankton suggested that they might be made in Western Asia rather than locally made. Figure 5. Glass sherds from Dong Mae Nang Muang (SF336). 15 These glass sherds were analyzed by James W Lankton, Honorary Senior Research Fellow, UCL Institute of Archaeology, London, UK and Bernard Gratuze, IRAMAT, Institut de Recherches sur les Archéomatériaux, Centre Ernest-Babelon, C.N.R.S, Orleans, France in 2010. 16 Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry �Dong Mae Nang Muang as a Regional Centre The evidence presented here shows clearly that Dong Mae Nang Muang was an important regional centre in the Upper Chao Phraya Basin. Its location on the Ping and Nan tributaries opened it to communication with other sites in the area such as Khaogralone, Chansen, Thap Chumpon, U-Trapao and Kok Mai Den(Pongkasetkan 2010: 200). Khaogralone, for instance, was also located on a tributary of the Ping River thus facilitating access with Dong Mae Nang Muang. The Ping and Nan rivers join to create the Chao Phraya River with the confluence located at Pak Nam Po, Muang district, Nakorn Sawan. Dong Mae Nang Muang, with its direct access to those major waterways should therefore be considered a regional centre within the Upper Chao Phraya Basin. From an economic and commercial point-of-view this site can be considered a trade centre. Excavations have revealed Chinese Northern Song 17 ceramics, green-glazed Angkor-period ceramics , Sassanid Ceramics, glass and semiprecious stone beads. None of those products were manufactured locally. All were obtained through trade connections with sites along the coast or directly through the maritime network. The excavations in 2009 unearthed Sassanid Ceramics in the Upper Chao Phraya Basin for the first time. Before then, Sassanid Ceramics had only ever been discovered at Dvaravati settlements in the Lower Chao Phraya Basin close to the coast. The discovery of Sassanid Ceramics along with the other imported goods further emphasises the active role Dong Mae Nang Muang played in trade and commerce during the Dvaravati period. The earthenware pottery record also shows close connections with sites in the Chi and Mun river systems of northeast Thailand. Even though Phnom Kulen ware can not be considered ship’s cargo since it has never been found in context on a sunken ship site it is regardless a very interesting artefact to consider in the overall economic system of the Upper Chao Phraya Basin. The trade items from both the sea and inland ports were unearthed associated with each other at this one site, this fact infers that the goods distribution from both sea ports and inland-ports are similar. It appears therefore that Dong Mae Nang Muang was interacting with both the northeast and Lower Chao Phraya Basin. Bibliography Barram, A., and Glover, I., 2008 Boisselier, J., 1975 Brown, R., 1988 17 “Re-thinking Dvaravati”, in (eds.) Jean-Pierre Pautreau, et al. From Homo Erectus to the living traditions; choice of papers from the 11th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Siam Ratana Ltd, Chiang Mai, pp. 175-82. The Heritage of Thai Sculpture, Asia Books, Bangkok. The Ceramics of South-East Asia: Their Dating and Identification, Oxford Press, Singapore. Usually called Phnom Kulen ceramics �Chandawij, N., 1994 Coedès, G., 1961 Dupont, P., 2006 Fine Department. 1993 Chinese Ceramics from Archaeological Sited in Thailand, Fine Art Department, Thailand. in Thai language "Les expressions vrah kamraten an et kamraten jagat en vieux khmer”, in The Adyar Library Bulletin 25, 1-4, Jubilee Vol, pp. 447-60. The Archaeology of the Mons of Dvāravatī, translated with updates, additional figures and plans by Joyanto K. Sen, two volumes, White Lotus, Bangkok. Art Report on the Excavation of Dong La Korn, Muang district, Nakornnayok province, Fine Art Department in Thai language Fine Art Archaeology of U-Thong, Fine Art Department. in Thai Department. language 2002 Report on the Excavation at Dong Mae Nang Muang, Fine Art Jerinpon subdistrict, Banpotpisai District, Nakorn Sawan Department. Province, Fine Art Department, Lopburi, in Thai language. 2010 Ceramics of Ancient Persia, Weatherhill, Tokyo. Fukai, S., 1981 Glover, I. C., Ban Don Ta Phet: the 1984-85 excavation. In (eds.) Ian C. Glover and Emily A. Glover, Southeast Asian 1990 Archaeology 1986, British Archaeological Reports S-521, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford pp.139-83. The Royal Hunter: Art of the Sasanian Empire, Asia Harper, P.O., 1978 Society, New York. Krairiksh, P., “Semas with Scenes from the Mahanipata-Jatakas in the National Museum at Khon Kaen”, in Art and Archaeology 1974 in Thailand, Fine Art Department, Bangkok, pp.35-100. Regarding the Assessment at the Thanal Mrech kiln site Miksic, J., TMK 02, Angkor Thom, Phnom Kulen, Cambodia., Rachna, C., Piphal, H., and Archaeological report, PDF file. Visoth, C. www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/wps/wps09_126.pdf Early Landscapes of Myanmar, River Books, Bangkok. Moore, E., 2007 Murphy, A., "Fifty Years of Archaeological Research at Dong Mae Pongkasetkan Nang Muang: An Ancient Gateway to the Upper Chao Phraya Basin", in Journal of the Siam Society, 98, pp. 49P., 2010 74. Dvaravati, A Critical Study Based on the Archaeological Indrawooth, P., Evidence, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, in Thai 1999 language. Report on the Excavation at Muang Fa Daed Song Yang, Indrawooth,P., Kamalasai District, Kalasin Province, Silpakorn University, 2001 Bangkok, in Thai language. Indrawooth P. Krabuansaeng S., and Nakwek, P., 1991 “Muang Fa Daed Song Yang: new archaeological discoveries”, In (ed.) Université Silpakorn, Récentes Recherches en Archéologie en Thaïlande: Deuxième Symposium Franco-Thai, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, pp. 98-111. �Pongkasetkan, P., 2010 Qingxin, L., 2009 Rooney, D., Pinsri, K., and Thammapreecha korn, P., 2010 Skilling, P., 2003 Thammapreecha korn, P., 2010 Wales, H. G. Q., 1936 Woodward, H., 1997 Cultural development of the ancient town of Dong. Mae Nang Muang, Banpotpisai district, Nakornsawan province, Masters Thesis, Faculty of Archaeology, Silpakorn University, in Thai language Maritime Silk Road, China International Press Khmer Ceramics Beauty and Meaning, River Books, Bangkok. “Dvaravati: Recent Revelations and Research”, in (ed.) Chris Baker, Dedications to Her Royal Highness Princess Galyani Vadhana Krom Luang Naradhiwas Rajanagarindra on her 80th birthday, The Siam Society, Bangkok, pp. 87-112. New Dating and Identification of Chinese Ceramics found in Thailand, unpublished document, Southeast Asian Ceramics Museum, Bangkok University. “Further excavations at P’ong Tuk (Siam)”, in Indian Arts and Letters, 10, 1, pp. 42-8. The Sacred Sculpture of Thailand, River Books, Bangkok. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ship's Cargo beyond the sea: New Evidence from Dong Mae Nang Muang, Nakorn Sawan Province, Central Thailand Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource This paper mainly focuses on Trade Ceramics and other cargo found from the Dvaravati settlement in Upper Chao Phraya basin, Central Thailand. Specifically, this paper focuses on the case study of the site of Dong Mae Nang Muang, Nakorn Sawan province. In 2008 an archaeological project was done to gain better knowledge of the site. Four test pits, one test trench and an earthen mound were excavated. These activities expanded the current understanding of the site's characteristics. The excavation revealed imported goods from all over the world such as; ceramics, glass and semi-precious stone beads and glass vessels. This important phenomenon was a strong impact on current knowledge of the inter-relationship between Dvaravati, an ancient settlement in the Upper Chao Phraya basin, and the sea port town via China and Western Asia2, this has reconsidered the role of economics in the area especially the details of trade-routes and the merchandise during the Dvaravati period (5th-12th centuries AD). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pimchanok Pongkasetkan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9652f256e2ccf3b2e4055c61e1eb9e5c.pdf d140b64485067aee39e14464a5c8bfb2 PDF Text Text The Archaeobotanical Analysis of Flora Samples from the Phanom Surin Shipwreck, Central Thailand Preeyanuch Jumprom ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 7 Trade goods in shipwrecks – sources, routes and markets, including glass on the Maritime Silk Road because this paper is about the analysis of the archaeological evidenc es, especially the flora remains from the Phanom Surin shipwreck site, Lower Central of Thailand. The 2013-20 15 and 2021 excavations at Phanom Surin Shipwreck at Phanthainorasing Sub-district in Samut Sakhon Provinc e revealed a number of archaeological finds in the Arab-style ship dating back to 9th century CE. The organic m atters were dominantly counted. This paper aims to give an interpretation on flora found in the ship by archaeob otanical classification and identification methods. Some specimens of flora artefacts, woods, ropes, and seeds we re sent to a laboratory for doing scientific tests. The plant seeds were found in the stern. The analysis suggests th at most commons are betel nuts and lucky bean seeds which were trade items. Rare items include rice grains, cor iander, calabash (bottle gourd) and jujube. Some seeds are not clear to be identified. The macrobotanical remain s were likely consumed by ship’s crews; i.e. nourishment, medicine, ship repairing and sailing. Some species ha ve been known to the Arab manuscripts dating back to 9th century CE. The analyses provide further information of tools made of domestic plants that were applied for ship building, sailing, and using on board that facilitate se afarers’ way of life during their journey across the ocean. The significant finds show the relationship between th e locals and the overseas seafarers. List of Figure: Figure 1. Location of the shipwreck site in Samut Sakhon Province, Thailand. INTRODUCTION In 2013, the discovery of a shipwreck site in the muddy shrimp pond at Phanthai Norasing sub-district in Samut Sakhon Province, Lower Central Thailand revealed the buried ship and associated finds in si tu. The 2013 - 2015 and 2021 excavations at Phanom Surin Shipwreck at Phanthainorasing Sub-distric t in Samut Sakhon Province revealed a lot of archaeological finds in the Arab-style ship dating back to 9th century CE. The organic matters were dominantly counted. This paper discusses the result of the s tudy of botanical artefacts from excavation of the wetland shipwreck site, which includes scientific an alysis of the following topics: (i) location and excavation projects of the shipwreck site, (ii) classificati on and identification of flora objects found from the site and (iii) interpretation of the origin and usabil ity of flora samples. Background In September 2013, the 1st Regional Office of Fine Arts Department at Ratchaburi was informed abou t the discovery of an ancient shipwreck. Officials in charge were sent for site investigation. After the i nitial investigation, the shipwreck was found to be lying in the shrimp pond of Mr. Surin and Mrs. Pha nom Sri Ngamdee where it had been discovered during rehabilitation of the pond. A huge square timb er was discovered sitting in N-S orientation, having one end under the thick ground. Seams of fibre ro pe lashings on the fragments of recovered planks were still visible. There was also an assemblage of c eramic sherds that were recovered. The definition of “Archaeobotany” Archaeobotany is the study of ancient plant remains. By studying archaeobotanical remains we can fin d out how people used plants in the past: for food, fuel, medicine, symbolic or ritual purposes, or for b uilding and crafts. We can also use plant remains to reconstruct past vegetation and the ways humans i nteracted with their environment. 1 �Location and excavation projects The location of the shipwreck site is in Phanthai Norasing sub-district in Samut Sakhon Province, Low er Central Thailand. The geographical feature of this area is the coastal plain, with the site located onl y 8 kilometres from the Gulf of Thailand to the south. The discovery of a shipwreck site in the muddy shrimp pond revealed the buried ship and associated finds in situ. Archaeologists of Fine Arts Departm ent conducted excavation and conservation at the wetland site between 2013 - 2015 and 2021.The exc avation was conducted in 2 periods: First period was between December 2013 - June 2014 and Februa ry – July 2015 to mark the scope of site and study of ship construction and associated artefacts. The se cond period was excavated in January – September 2021 that uncovered the entire ship structure and n umerous archaeological finds. Figure 1. Location of the shipwreck site in Samut Sakhon Province, Thailand. The ship structures have an approximate length of 25 metres and width of 8 metres. Upon closer inspe ction, the south end is presumably the bow of the ship. The hull on the west side was still standing upr ight. Some planks have fallen down as the sewn fastenings were too decayed to support the structures. On the port side, the ship hull obviously collapsed and flat down to the east. The planks are made fro m hardwood with holes drilled along the edges and assembled with black fibre ropes. ‘Wadding’ was l ashed along the ship length to seal space between planks. This shipwreck appears to have double wadd ing. The keelson is one of the main structures of the shipwreck. It was found in the middle of the ship, havi ng features of a square timber measured length of 17.65 metres. On the larger end, the cross section is 70 cm wide and 60 cm thick. The other end of the shipwreck is not visible. The assumption can be tha t it was severely damaged causing the artefacts to spread far out from where the ship end should be fo und. There were two poles found at the site so far. One was found outside of the western side of the sh ipwreck. Its total length was 17.37 metres with a circumference of 53 cm on the small end and 101 cm on the other. On the small end, there is a groove. It is possible for a sheave fitting. The second spar w as found perpendicular to the shipwreck on the eastern side. At the large end, it was cut off semicircul ar making one side flat with the other side still round. Rattan ropes were found associated with this spa r as well. Considering the size, the second one is a bit bigger than the first spar and has a length of 17. 40 metres. The end of the second spar was also found with a square tenon of 17 x 53 centimeters. It mi ght be a joining part with another spar. From a comparative study, the ship assembled in such was com monly known among ancient Arab shipbuilding techniques. 2 �According to Area 1, the work was extended from where the ship structure was first exposed. The exc avation of the shipwreck unearths the skeleton of an ancient shipwreck that will slowly and subsequen tly reveal its characteristics and construction techniques of sewn-plank methods used for shipbuilding. Area 2, this area was extended to the north of Area 1, separated by the earthen dike of approximately two metres width in the middle. The result of excavation shows fragments of ship structure such as fra mes, planks, and artefacts such as ceramic sherds, fibre ropes, rattan ropes, betel nuts, and plenty of cu t wood and set forth, were spread out all over the area. The excavation in 2021 was undertaken by using the non-intrusive archaeological excavation techniqu e in both areas. Most importantly, this non-intrusive method was adopted to prevent stepping on the o bjects and a number of small artefacts were found using this technique. Moreover, the new technologi es were also applied for more efficient and effective results such as Geo-Information System (GIS), 3 D scanning, total station and photos by drone. CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF FLORA OBJECTS There are diverse kinds of organic materials discovered at the Phnom-Surin Shipwreck that are classifi ed based on their physical characteristics. These categorizations include coconut shells with holes, bas ketry, black ropes, rattan-braided ropes, and various sizes of brown ropes. Some specimens, such as w oods, ropes, and seeds, were sent to a laboratory for further scientific tests. The scientific study was op erated at Synchrotron Research Institute, Nakhon Ratchasima Province by Dr. Paul Joseph Grote and Dr.Wipanu Rakmai, researchers from Northeastern Research Institute of Petrified Wood and Mineral Resources. To avoid destroying some samples, the macro and micro organic remains were identified b y Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and X-ray microtomography technique. 1. Timbers Northeast of Area 2 was found with a distribution of timbers, crudely worked, with average length of 133-150 cm and diameter of 1-5 cm. It was found that some timbers were assembled together with rop es. During excavation, the timbers were intact but rapidly decayed after being exposed. Area 1 also ha s rounded timbers but all are damaged. Moreover, many wood samples were found. Some wood utensils were modified from coconut shell, a nd bamboo. For example, the bamboo pole that is used for carrying heavy things on both sides. A ladl e that was made from a half coconut shell was attached to a bamboo handle. 2. Basketry There are many baskets found from the site, most of them seem to be made from bamboo strips. 3. Cordages There are three kinds of rope found in this site as follows. ● The first is Black rope, it was being used for ship’s structure assemblage, and for hand ling pottery. The diameter ranges from 0.1-0.2 cm. SEM technique demonstrated the r esult of the black rope that it was made from the Arenga Pinnata fiber (sugar palm tre e). Arenga pinnata is an economically important feather palm native to tropical Asia, f rom eastern India east to Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines in the east. Commo n names include sugar palm, black sugar palm, and kaong palm, among other names. The dark fibrous bark is manufactured into cordage, brushes, brooms, thatch roofing, or filters. ● Besides, brown ropes were also found, they have larger diameter. The construction of the rope indicated a Z twist, consisting of small strands. These brown ropes can be use 3 �● d for rigging as it was found coiled. The scientific analysis indicated that the Brown r ope was made from palm or coconut fiber. Rattan braided ropes were set on board perhaps for navigational function. There are 2 0 – 26 rattan strands twined together to make a circular pattern that increases the dura bility. Rattan strands were made from Rattan or calamus rotang, also known as comm on rattan, is a plant species native to India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. The important fe ature of calamus is it being cohesive and waterproof. 4. Seeds From the number of seeds or fruits. There are more than 20 types of seed found from the excavation a nd floatation technique – as to whether they were loaded as cargo or for other purposes. The most common seed found in this shipwreck is Betel nuts, Areca catechu. Measuring from the com plete pieces shows an average size of 2-3 cm diameter in circular or oval shape. They can be found all over the shipwreck. Interestingly, a number of them were found in one of the Chinese jars in its origin al place at the time the ship was wrecked. Betel nuts contain a large quantity of tannin and are used for dying fabric like fishing nets. Tannin extracted from betel nuts makes fabric softer and stronger, helpi ng to extend the lifetime of the fibre and used as an adhesive in woodwork. The areca nut is also popul ar for chewing throughout some Asian countries. Areca palms are grown in Bangladesh, India, Indone sia, Malaysia, Taiwan and many other Asian countries for their seeds. Another seed that is also found a lot is Lucky Bean seed or Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. The seeds are oval in shape pointed on both ends, their size is 1-1.5 cm diameter in common. The hard shell colours range from dark yellow to dark brown. Lucky Bean is commonly found in tropical regions. It is a most popular medicinal plant which is referred in Ayurvedic texts as an antirheumatic, this plant contains many active phytochemicals in seeds which shows its protectant capacity against various diseases. The non-intrusive archaeological excavation technique in 2021 has revealed the large amounts of smal l grains that found from the floatation technique. Coriander fruits (Coriandrum sativum) is the dry see ds that used as a spice and herb. Most of them are in globular form, have a diameter of 3-5 mm. Coria nder also called cilantro or Chinese parsley. Native to the Mediterranean and Middle East regions, the  plant is widely cultivated in many places worldwide for its culinary uses. All parts of this plant are edi ble, the fresh leaves and the dried seeds are the parts most traditionally used in cooking. Seeds of Wild jujube (Ziziphus oenoplia Rhamnaceae) were also found. Wild jujube is a flowering pla nt with a broad distribution through tropical and subtropical Asia and Australia. The plant produces zi ziphines and has a long history of use as an herbal medicine. In India the root is used in Ayurvedic me dicine. A few seeds was considered to be the Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), also called white-flowered g ourd or calabash gourd, running or climbing vine of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae), native to tropica l Africa but cultivated in warm climates around the world for its ornamental and useful hard-shelled fr uits. It was one of the world's first cultivated plants grown not primarily for food, but for use as contai ners. Rice grains were found resembling the stains on the interior walls of torpedo jars. The analysis from th eir appearance was assumed to be Oryza sativa. Rice is the main food of Asian people, the archaeologi cal evidence shows that the early rice cultivation came from China dating to 5000 BCE. Rice is also th e main food of the crew of Phanom-Surin shipwreck. 4 �5. Bitumen The interior of the torpedo jar is coated with a black substance. Presumably, this can be evidence of a coating technique for waterproof function or of the substance that was once contained in the jar. Besid es a black stain, also found is a dark brown substance. The scientific analysis determined that black su bstance is bitumen from the Middle East (Irag or Iran). INTERPRETATION Archaeological finds discovered in this shipwreck are varied. There are countless archaeobotanical re mains found in the shipwreck. Some specimens of flora artefacts, woods, ropes, and seeds were sent to a laboratory for doing scientific tests. The plant seeds were mainly found in the stern. The analysis su ggests that most common archaeobotanical remains are betel nuts and lucky bean seeds which were co nsidered trade items. Rare items include rice grains, coriander, calabash (bottle gourd) and wild jujube are found as well. Some seeds are not clearly identified. The macrobotanical remains were likely cons umed by ship’s crews; for example, self-nourishment, medicine, ship repairing and sailing. Some spec ies have been known to the Arab manuscripts dating back to 9th century CE. The analyses provide furt her information of tools made of domestic plants that were applied for ship building, sailing, and using on board that facilitate seafarers’ way of life during their journey across the ocean. These finds signifi es the relationship between the locals and the overseas seafarers through their uses of cross-regional pl ants on the ship. CONCLUSION Dating of the Phanom-Surin sunken ship had been known by means of Relative and scientific dating m ethods. The carbon-14 dating (AMS) of the shipwreck site by using the three samples of organic matte r, that is to say, betel nut, rattan, and rope, suggests that the site dates back to 1,200 – 1,300 years ago which is consistent with the Chinese Tang wares and torpedo jar found in the ship. Judging from objec ts in its cargo, especially the torpedo jar, container of bitumen, the ship sailed from the Persian Gulf to the Southeast Asia and embarked to some seaports in Southern Peninsula and/or Indian archipelagos ( Kota kapur, Muang Thong, Laem Pho, for examples) for collecting local products such as betel nuts, r attan, ivory and antler as well as Chinese jars used as containers of some local products. Afterwards, t he ship sailed to the Gulf of Thailand and used a waterway connecting to encounters with local comm unities seeking local products and/or selling goods. It is likely that goods from the ship that was sold t o the local here were torpedo jars containing bitumen and Chinese jars containing betel nuts, for two p roducts were rare to find in this area. Local goods that the dhow’s merchants and sailors needed were r ice grains, basketry, meats as food that contained in the local carinated-potteries. Most of them were u sed as cooking vessels which had smoke residue on their bottom. This ship and the objects whether lo ading on board for voyage’s supplying or being commodities give a new insight into the sailing trade r outes between the Middle-East and the Far East (China) via the Southeast Asia and the trading interact ion between the Arabian merchants and/or the Persian merchants and the local communities of the Dv aravati culture in central Thailand. To conclude, the paper first discussed the background information of the shipwreck. The paper then ex plained the types of archaeobotanical finds discovered in the shipwreck and how they were being anal yzed. The results of the analysis were then systematically listed here and supplement our understandin g of the lives and trading network of the crews. (Insert your synthesized discovery here – e.g. it is beli eved that this shipwreck is X because we have found many Y, etc) 5 �Bibliography Chaimanee, Nirand. The Academic Report volume no. 15/2014. The Geological survey of the Location of Phanom-Surin Shipwreck, Samut Sakhon Province. Bangkok, Mineral resources division, Department of Mineral Resources, 2014. Fine Arts Department, Minister of Culture. Ancient Maritime Cross-cultural Exchanges: Archaeological Research in Tha iland. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 2019. Jumprom Preeyanuch. Recovery of a Lost Arab-style Ship at Phano m-Surin, the Wetland Excavation Site in Central Thailand. Pp 226 – 247. Fuller, D.Q., Lucas, L.. Archaeobotany. In: Smith, C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, New York, 2014 Grote, P. J., Rugmai, W., Ploymukda, S. et al. Use of in situ silica bodies in identification of rope fibers from the Phanom-Sur in shipwreck, Samut Sakhon, Thailand. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 13, 183 (2021). Connan Jacques, Priestman Seth, Vosmer Tom, Komoot Abhirada, Tofighian Hossein, Ghorbani Buyuk, Engel Michael H., Z umberge Alex, Van De Velde Thomas. “Geochemical analysis of bitumen from West Asian torpedo jars from the c. 8th century Phanom-Surin shipwreck in Thailand”, Journal of Archaeological Science 117, 2020, p. 1-18. Srisuchat, Amara. Srivijaya in Suvarnadvipa. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 2014. Srisuchat, Tharapong. “Thailand and Maritime Silk Routes: The Role of the Ancient Ports and Harbour Cities in Thailand” in The Silpakorn Journal Vol. 33 No. 6 January-February 1990. Pp. 4-12. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1990 . The 1st Regional Office of Fine Arts. Study of Phanom Surin Shipwreck, Phanthai Norasing Sub-district, Meuang Distri ct, Samut Sakhon Province (2013-2015). Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 2016. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeobotanical Analysis of Flora Samples from the Phanom Surin Shipwreck, Central Thailand Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 7 Trade goods in shipwrecks – sources, routes and markets, including glass on the Maritime Silk Road because this paper is about the analysis of the archaeological evidenc es, especially the flora remains from the Phanom Surin shipwreck site, Lower Central of Thailand. The 2013-20 15 and 2021 excavations at Phanom Surin Shipwreck at Phanthainorasing Sub-district in Samut Sakhon Provinc e revealed a number of archaeological finds in the Arab-style ship dating back to 9th century CE. The organic m atters were dominantly counted. This paper aims to give an interpretation on flora found in the ship by archaeob otanical classification and identification methods. Some specimens of flora artefacts, woods, ropes, and seeds we re sent to a laboratory for doing scientific tests. The plant seeds were found in the stern. The analysis suggests th at most commons are betel nuts and lucky bean seeds which were trade items. Rare items include rice grains, cor iander, calabash (bottle gourd) and jujube. Some seeds are not clear to be identified. The macrobotanical remain s were likely consumed by ship’s crews; i.e. nourishment, medicine, ship repairing and sailing. Some species ha ve been known to the Arab manuscripts dating back to 9th century CE. The analyses provide further information of tools made of domestic plants that were applied for ship building, sailing, and using on board that facilitate se afarers’ way of life during their journey across the ocean. The significant finds show the relationship between th e locals and the overseas seafarers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Preeyanuch Jumprom Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jumprom, Preeyanuch. 2023. “The Archaeobotanical Analysis of Flora Samples from the Phanom Surin Shipwreck Site, Central Thailand Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1985 Asia-Pac Session 7 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: Volume One: The Lands below the Winds Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Professor Anthony Reid Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Yale University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1990-09-10 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Professor Anthony Reid Item Type Book ISBN 0300047509 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1990-09-10 Library Catalog Amazon.com Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Yale University Press Short Title Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680 Title A name given to the resource Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450-1680: Volume One: The Lands below the Winds Southeast Asia