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Title A name given to the resource The Early Kingdoms: Vietnam Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Keith Weller Taylor Nicholas Tarling Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Keith Weller Taylor Editor Nicholas Tarling Item Type Book Section Book Title The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Title A name given to the resource The Early Kingdoms: Vietnam Volume 1, part 1 Southeast Asia Vietnam https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/114ebf151676569cb80a84ff884b7f44.pdf 1a72028a879ec98ebb971ae731962644 PDF Text Text The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities Wongsakorn Rahothan (Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, Thailand) Dr Tom Vosmer (University of Western Australia, and Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Museum) ABSTRACT The Underwater Archaeology Division of Thailand conducted an archaeological expedition in 2019 to trace the wreck sites in the southern peninsula. As a result, the Ban Khlong Yuan boat (BKY) was found in Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. The area supported an urban town and seaport of the Srivijaya Kingdom between the seventh and twelfth centuries. The remains of the BKY boat were recently re-articulated. The focus of this paper is to present a brief overview of the reconstruction process, highlight analytical materials found in the wreck, and make comparisons of the BKY boat with other lashed-lug vessels of the region. A lines plan will be derived from the reconstruction of the BKY boat and the basic naval architectural data presented. AMS dating and identification of shipbuilding materials demonstrate that the BKY boat is an early ninth-century lashed-lug boat built of genus Hopea timber, with boatbuilding techniques comparable to the Punjulharjo boat (Central Java, Indonesia), the Chau Tân boat (Quang Ngai Province, Central Vietnam), and the Butuan boats (Northern Mindanao, Philippines). Comparisons of lashedlug designs and boatbuilding techniques among these vessels will be explored. The sophisticated boat represents a boatwright’s intellect of indigenous people in Peninsular Thailand during the ninth century. The widespread lashedlug boats found across Southeast Asian waters reflect skilled local boat-builders, mariners and middlemen who effectively engaged in transoceanic trade between the east and west at the ports of the dominant polity. Keywords: lashed-lug boat, maritime archaeology, Chaiya List of figures and table Figure 1. (a) Location of BKY boat and archaeological and ethnographic lashed-lug sites (after Manguin 2019). (b) BKY planks re-aligned. (c & d) BKY planks re-articulated. (e) Preliminary outline of BKY hull. Figure 2. (a) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of Butuan 1 and 5. P. quadrialatus (Philippine rosewood) is confined to the southern Philippines. (b) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Intan and Cirebon ships. (c) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Punjulharjo boat. (d) The Ban Khlong Yuan boat was discovered near the centre of the ranges of its timbers. Figure 3. (a) Boats with continuous plank ridges. (b) Lug configurations of four Butuan boats (after Lacsina 2016). (c) Scan of Ban Khlong Yuan keel plank showing dowel and lashing holes. Figure 4. (a) Remains of a composite anchor on the Belitung shipwreck site. Courtesy Michael Flecker. (b) Two of the Binh Chau anchors from Vietnam. Courtesy Ian McCann. (c) Reconstruction of a Binh Chau composite anchor. (d) Edge-drilled timber on the Phanom-Surin site in Thailand. (e) Close-up of an edge-drilled timber from the Phanom Surin vessel. (f) Process of converting a lashed-lug plank into timbers suitable for use as stringers, such as on the Phanom-Surin ship. Table 1. AMS radiocarbon dating results of BKY boat samples INTRODUCTION Southeast Asian maritime and underwater archaeology is still developing and in-depth watercraft studies have until recently been somewhat neglected, research criteria not always rigorously applied. For a relatively new area of enquiry an emphasis on data collection and classification is crucial (Bass 1983, 97). 1 �Boats which feature a ‘lashed-lug’ construction technique are firmly considered to be an archetype of Southeast Asia (Miksic 2017, 566, Manguin 2019, 408; 2021, 137; Staples and Blue 2019, 275). Even though the form of the lugs among the boat remains vary, the lugs of the eponymous ‘lashed-lug’ boats are their primary defining feature. Structural features of lashed-lug boats follow an easily recognizable paradigm, but there are features that differ among vessels. This may be due to their date, region of construction, religious, spiritual or cultural traditions, regional sea and weather conditions, their intended purpose, the specific species of timbers or bindings used or even the personal preference of builders. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat conforms to the general model of lashed-lug vessels: double-ended (i.e. pointed at each end in plan view), a keel plank rather than a standard keel, carved planks with lugs spaced at regular intervals, left proud on the inside surface, to which frames are lashed, planks edge-joined with blind dowels and (sometimes) individual discrete lashings binding planks together, no stem or stern posts but the ends of strakes connecting to carved V-shaped ‘wings’ at bow and stern, and longitudinal stringers lashed to the inside of frames. The lugs are spaced at regular intervals except in about amidships, where the keel and two planks on either side are lacking lugs. Ethnographic examples and the remains of the seventh century Punjulharjo ship (Mochtar 2018) suggest that beams or thwarts were fitted to which temporary decking could be lashed. Manguin has done an admirable job of decerning and describing the evolutionary path of lashed-lug boats over a period of centuries from those stitched together without the use of dowels through a gradual transition to a few dowels, to more dowels and less stitching, and finally to dowels only, the discrete stitching having completely disappeared (Manguin 2019, 2021). The Ban Khlong Yuan boat lies in the middle of this evolution, displaying a pair of L-shaped holes for individual lashings on either side of the lugs and four dowels in way of the lugs and four dowels in the space between the lugs. DISCOVERY OF THE BAN KHLONG YUAN BOAT The Ban Khlong Yuan (BKY) boat was first discovered in 2002 in Khlong Yuan village, Chaiya District, Surat Thani Province, located on the east coast of Peninsular Thailand. The unexpected find occurred when the owner of a plantation was excavating a reservoir and stumbled upon the boat's timbers. This significant discovery was later mentioned in a field survey report included in Plengmetha Khawnuna's Master's thesis (Khawnuna 2014, 183-4). In March 2019, the Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Thailand, visited the boat timbers kept by villagers in a palm plantation. The wood-crafting techniques demonstrated by the preserved wood remains showed that the archaeological remains were from an ancient lashed-lug boat.These planks represent part of a group of about forty lashed-lug boat and ship remains in Southeast Asia dating from the 1st millennium through the first half of the 2nd millennium CE (Figure 1). Relatively few of these regional lashed-lug boat remains were found underwater—most were in waterlogged terrestrial sites, which in some cases led to relatively well-preserved remains. Unfortunately, much of the information on some of these remains is incomplete and a few of the sites have been destroyed or are inaccessible. The Punjulharjo boat from Indonesia is the most well-preserved and accessible and a classic example. Protected by mud, at least two of the Butuan boats in the Philippines are also fairly well preserved. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat tends toward the other end of the spectrum. After the planks were 2 �Table 1. AMS radiocarbon dating results of BKY boat samples. Conventional Calibrated Age Radiocarbon Age (IntCal 13 datasheet using OxCal 4.4) 86.75 ± 0.32 1260 ± 30 BP 668 – 779 CE 724 CE dowel 86.45 ± 0.32 1170 ± 30 BP 771 – 918 CE 845 CE shell plank 86.12 ± 0.26 1200 ± 24 BP 768 – 890 CE 829 CE Site Sample Type Submitter ID Percentage Modern Carbon BKY Organic cord BKY Wood BKY Wood Median Age recovered by villagers they were not conserved, but stored outside and allowed to dry, leading to some shrinkage, deterioration and possible distortion. Three samples were sent for AMS radiocarbon dating, the results demonstrating manufacture during the eight to ninth century CE (Table 1). One plank was identified as (Hopea sp), a dowel as Terminalia mucronata. BKY PLANKS The BKY remains comprise the lower portions of both wing-ends and nine planks—the keel plank, with five planks on one side of the keel plank and three on the other—extending from one of the preserved wingends over a distance of about 8.5 metres. Additionally, smaller plank fragments were collected, making a total of eighty-four disarticulated timbers. CHALLENGES IN RECONSTRUCTING THE BAN KHLONG YUAN BOAT The process of reconstructing the Ban Khlong Yuan boat presented significant challenges due to the degraded and disarticulated state of the timbers. For clues, the lugs on the adjacent strakes must align transversely across the planks. Secondly, dowel and stitching, holes in adjacent planks must match holes. Thirdly, the keel plank and two planks each side were missing lugs in one place. A gap without lugs, or a wider spacing of lugs at one point is a common feature of lashed-lug construction, designating midships, they would need to be aligned. Following this process, we successfully aligned all the planks and one of the wing-ends (Figure 1). The next step involved assembling the timbers into the appropriate shape, using sandbags to support the structure. After the reconstruction, a recording of the boat was taken, revealing that nearly half of the original remains were missing, making it challenging to determine the boat's full length. With the planks reassembled sections spaced at one-metre intervals were derived from direct measurement to the inside of the planking and refined to smooth anomalies. 3 �LINES PLAN Part of our investigation was aimed at creating a Lines Plan from the existing remains, then running the resulting hull form through a number of naval architectural analyses to determine basic hydrostatics. The lines plan requires a number of assumptions to be made and reference to other extant lashed-lug boats. Figure 1. (a) Location of BKY boat and archaeological and ethnographic lashed-lug sites (after Manguin 2019). (b) BKY planks re-aligned. (c & d) BKY planks re-articulated. (e) Preliminary outline of BKY hull. Lashed-lug boats are double-ended and roughly symmetrical in plan, so if the form of the existing hull remains could be determined, a mirror image could be created, paired with the existing hull form and integrated to the shape of the remaining isolated wing-end, which had a sharply-raked profile. The greatest height of the extant planking was estimated to be at about the presumed waterline. With upper planking missing, the topside sectional form, the height and shape of the sheerline, as well as the maximum length and beam could only be estimated, based on boats of similar size and shape. The wings-ends provided reliable information on the form of each end. As remarked earlier, a gap in the lug spacing near amidships is typical. The midline of this gap was about 6.87 metres from the preserved end, which suggested a keel length of about 13.74 metres. However, Lacsina states “The boatbuilders also fashioned one end of the boat on either side of the midships gap to be longer than the other side.” (Lacsina 2016, 224). Midships on Butuan 2 is 53 percent of its length from the bow, on the ship 54 percent from the bow end of the keel (Liebner 2014), on the Punjulharjo boat 55 percent of the overall length from the bow. We therefore assumed that the likely distance from amidships to the bow 4 �end of the keel on BKY was approximately 54 percent of the overall length. Since the distance from stern end of the keel to the ‘midships’ point was 6.87, the length ahead of that point on the keel would be: 6.87 46% = X 54% X = 8.06m ∴ keel length = 6.87 +8.06 = 14.93m Knowing the angle of the isolated wing-end which attaches to keel, we can then estimate the overall length of the boat. Here we have to take some guidance from ethnographic and archaeological examples as well as naval architecture. Work toward a final hypothetical hull form is ongoing but a number of general observations can be made. BKY has a relatively flat bottom, with little deadrise and a gently curving bilge, not unlike Butuan Boat 2 in the Philippines. The ends are fine and hollow. The keel profile is relatively flat through much of its length, with bow end slightly higher. Integrating the angled wing end into the form of the Ban Khlong Yuan hull produced a vessel about 17 metres long. The overall length of the BKY boat is nearly the same as Punjulharjo but given that about two metres of the length of BKY is in the raked bow, and the ends of Punjulharjo are essentially vertical, BKY could be proportionally a 15-metre vessel, 94 per cent of the length of Punjulharjo. Our preliminary reconstruction produced a maximum beam of 3.34, waterline beam of 2.93 metres, depth from gunwale of 1.4 metres and waterline length of 15.46 metres on an estimated draft of .77 metres. These dimensions are very preliminary but refinement of the Lines Plan will enable hydrostatic calculations to be done with naval architecture software. However, a rough estimate of the displacement can be made on the basis of the hull form we have so far. The rule of thumb for vessels with moderately fine ends is: displacement equals waterline length times waterline beam times draft times 0.5 (Flecker 2002, 138). Applying this formula to our dimensions: Displacement = 15.46 X 2.93 X 0.77 X 0.5 = 17.44 tonnes These dimensions and calculations are very preliminary but refinement of the Lines Plan is continuing and will enable hydrostatic calculations to be done with naval architecture software. RELATIONSHIPS TO OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Our research has attempted to draw relationships among the many lashed-lug boat remains in the region and how they may relate to the BKY boat, based on specific structural features or materials used but faced a lack of detailed information as most sites have not been examined or reported in detail, their materials not identified; nor structure accurately reported, dating information lacking. That most of the timber and fibre species are widespread in Southeast Asia and were widely traded in antiquity colours the analysis. A comprehensive project to revisit sites and record data on a granular level is needed. However, there are some species whose range is more limited, which could perhaps narrow regions of origin of some craft. Butuan 1 and 5 used timbers that, among other species, grow exclusively in the Philippines (Lacsina 2016, 196) (Figure 2). The native range of Durio species, identified in the Intan shipwreck, was native to Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo, as were Punjulharjo timbers Palaquium gutta 5 �and Scorodocarpus borneensis. The Ban Khlong Yuan boat used a Hopea species ranging over Southeast Asia, but a dowel was identified as Terminalia mucronata. STRUCTURAL ANALYSES Specific features such as dowel and lug spacing, presence or absence of plank lashings, configuration of lugs, or a ridge connecting lugs might provide clues to origin, technological transfer or developmental paths. Figure 2. (a) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of Butuan 1 and 5. P. quadrialatus (Philippine rosewood) is confined to the southern Philippines. (b) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Intan and Cirebon ships. (c) The native ranges of timbers used in the construction of the Punjulharjo boat. (d) The Ban Khlong Yuan boat was discovered near the centre of the ranges of its timbers. The keel plank of the BKY boat possesses rectangular carved lugs with a continuous raised ridge running through the centre of the plank, a feature shared with other lashed-lug vessels such as Butuan 4 & 5 (Lacsina 2016), Chau Tân (McCann 2019, 52), the San Isidro wreck (Goddio et al. 1996, Lacsina 2016, 140), the Kolam Pinisi boat (Manguin 2019, 407), the Flying Fish wreck (Flecker and Tai 2020) and the Sungai Limau Manis boat remains (Yahya 2005, 8). The large Cirebon wreck had two planks on each side at the turn of the bilge displaying the continuous ridge (Liebner 2014, 383). Strakes above that have individual lugs, while all of the strakes below the turn of the bilge had a continuous wide ridge. 6 �It is speculated that boatbuilders may have incorporated the ridge to increase resistance to bending. Lacsina (2016, 213) suggests that the ridge could provide structure for lashing holes drilled all the way through its width, evident on Butuan 4 and 5, and some Cirebon planks. The keel ridge could also serve as a convenient baseline from which to measure the distance from side to side as building progressed, thereby maintaining symmetry. Lamalera boatbuilders explained that the ridge protected the hull from being worn thin when bailing water (Barnes 1985, 347; 1996, 206) but does not explain the ridge over the entire length of planks. All these keel and plank ridges appear in widespread geographical locations and bear widely separated dates (Figure 3), lending little to illuminating any direct relationship. LUG CONFIGURATION The shape and spacing of lugs may reveal some relationships among boats. The rectangular lug, such as on the BKY boat is the most common. That four Butuan boats display four different keel plank lug patterns (Lacsina 2016, 211) (see Figure 3) is unexpected, especially in watercraft of the same technical tradition, built at approximately the same time, and discovered in the same area. Boats 1 and 2 have multiple narrow lugs at each lug position, while Boats 4 and 5 (and possibly Boat 3) utilised a continuous raised ridge. The earliest lashed-lug boat discovered, the Pontian boat in Malaysia, had rounded and conical-section lugs. Pairs of discrete lashings held planks together, with a single dowel fitted between them (Manguin 2019, 402, 409). Pontian shares this style of lug with the Kuan Luk Pad and Khok Yang boat remains in Thailand. FRAME LASHING Ethnographic examples show frames lashings on individual lugs but the Punjulharjo and Flying Fish show frame lashings crossing from one plank to another (Flecker and Tai 2020, 9; Mochtar 2018). Structurally, this would make sense, as such a lashing would bind the planks more tightly together. Unfortunately, lashing of frames on the BKY boat have not survived so there is no basis for comparison. DOWEL SPACING AND NUMBER Dowel spacing or number could offer clues to origin, dating and cross-cultural exchange. Maguin has documented an evolutionary path over centuries from the use of lashing only, to the sparse use of dowels coupled with plank lashings, to increasing use of dowels and the eventual disappearance of plank lashings (Manguin 2019, 402; 2021, 138). The fifth to sixth century Kuan Luk Pad timbers and Khok Yang timbers in Thailand (undated) show no evidence of dowels, while the Pontian boat (third to fifth centuries) displays only a single dowel between lashings. The seventh to eighth century Sambirejo and Punjulharjo boats show dowel numbers increasing. The BKY boat dos not have locking pins but boasts a huge number of dowels, generally four in way of each lug and four between lugs. This number of dowels seems to be a relatively late development linked with the gradual disappearance of lashings fastening the planks. The BKY boat demonstrates perhaps the height of dowel fastening prior to the abandonment of plank lashing (see Figure 3). 7 �COUNTER-PEGGING In the 9-10th c. Butuan boats plank lashings have disappeared, replaced with dowels only, sometimes secured with locking pins. Locking pins are evident on Butuan 1 and 5, a plank from Sambirejo, the Cirebon ship, Paya Pasi. The practice exists today, such as with the Lamalera whaling boats of Indonesia. All are widely spaced geographically and temporally. MARITIME CULTURAL EXCHANGE Examples of interaction can be highlighted which unexpectedly involve lashed-lug vessels and rare sewnplank ‘Indian Ocean style’ vessels in Southeast Asia: the 9th-century Belitung shipwreck and the 8-9thcentury Phanom-Surin shipwreck (Komoot 2021). Both show design and construction features associated with western Indian Ocean tradition. The two raise questions about the development of boat-building in Southeast Asia as well as the patterns and intensity of Indian Ocean trade and cultural exchange. Figure 3. (a) Boats with continuous plank ridges. (b) Lug configurations of four Butuan boats (after Lacsina 2016). (c) Scan of Ban Khlong Yuan keel plank showing dowel and lashing holes. On board the Belitung ship was a peculiar composite anchor, a type never before seen (Flecker 2001, 344) comprising a long wooden shank, iron arms and an iron or lead collar sandwiched between them (Figure 8 �4a-c). More recently, remains of anchors of this type, the Binh Chau and Chau Tân anchors, apparently associated with 1st millennium lashed-lug vessels were recovered in Vietnam. McCann states that there is enough evidence to conclude that these anchors and the Belitung anchor are of the same type (McCann 2019: 53). Materials used in the Phanom-Surin sewn-plank ship are indigenous to Southeast Asia (Jumprom 2019, 243). Intriguingly, there appears to be a direct connection between the Phanom-Surin ship and lashed-lug vessels. Rectangular-section timbers have been noted on Phanom-Surin, drilled with blind and diagonal holes (Figure 4d-f) resembling lashed-lug planks. Cutting out the centre where the lugs are, one is left with long rectangular-section timbers suitable for use as stringers, pre-drilled for lashing to frames or for securing cargo. That Phanom-Surin shipwrights were aware of the lashed-lug tradition is clear. What is puzzling is that, while edge dowels were such a significant feature of lashed-lug construction, dowels are totally absent in Phanom-Surin and Belitung. Figure 4. (a) Remains of a composite anchor on the Belitung shipwreck site. Courtesy Michael Flecker. (b) Two of the Binh Chau anchors from Vietnam. Courtesy Ian McCann. (c) Reconstruction of a Binh Chau composite anchor. (d) Edge-drilled timber on the Phanom Surin vessel. (f) Process of converting a lashed-lug plank into timbers suitable for use as stringers, such as on the Phanom-Surin ship. CONCLUSION Despite there now being many lashed-lug remains in the region, we still do not have the detailed information required to discern meaningful technological interactions or local developments. Despite detailed reports by scholars such as Horridge (1978, 1981, 1982) Liebner (2014), Lacsina (2011, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2022) Manguin (1985, 2009, 2012, 2019, 2021), Mochtar (2018) and Purnawibowo and Mochtar (2021) which 9 �have greatly advanced our understanding, until we amass a body of more detailed data it is difficult to define relationships or pinpoint the BKY boat’s place in the milieu. The BKY boat represents a regional trading vessel that thrived during the prosperous maritime activity of Southeast Asia in the eighth to ninth centuries and is a key illustration of the structural features marking the transition from lashed and doweled construction to boats with dowels-only near the end of the first millennium CE. The sophisticated boatbuilding techniques observed on the BKY boat are comparable to those found in other lashed-lug boats across the region, indicating the intellectual prowess of in Southeast Asian boatwrights, reflecting keen interest in experimentation and in developing technical solutions to the challenges of producing viable sea-going watercraft. These techniques represent a shared knowledge among the ancient peoples of Southeast Asia. Lashed-lug boats are thus not solely the cultural heritage of one nation but a shared cultural heritage of Southeast Asia. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge the Underwater Archaeology Division of the Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture in Thailand for their support, cooperation and encouragement in the Ban Khlong Yuan boat reconstruction project. We also thank the Archaeology Department of the University of Western Australia and the Department of Maritime Archaeology of the Western Australian Museum. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnes, Robert H. “Whaling vessels of Indonesia.” In Sewn Plank Boats, edited by Sean McGrail and Eric Kentley, 345-366. Greenwich: British Archaeological Reports International Series 276, National Maritime Museum, 1985. Barnes, Robert H. “Sea hunters of Indonesia: Fishers and weavers of Lamalera.” Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. Bass, George F. “A plea for historical particularism.” In Shipwreck anthropology, edited by Richard A. Gould, 91–104. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1983. Flecker, Michael. “A Ninth-Century AD Arab or Indian Shipwreck in Indonesia: First Evidence for Direct Trade with China.” World Archaeology 32 no. 3, (2001): 335- 354. Flecker, Michael and Yew Seng Tai, “The Flying Fish Wreck: An Early 12th Century Southeast Asian Ship with a Chinese Cargo.” Sabah Museum Journal 3, (2019): 1-42. Goddio, Franck, Monique Crick and Patrice Sandin. San Isidro wreck '96: Excavation's preliminary report and ceramic cargo's study. Manila: National Museum, 1996. Horridge, Adrian. The design of planked boats of the Moluccas. Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1978. Horridge, Adrian. “The ancient planked boats of the islands east of Asia.” In Five hundred years of nautical science 1500-1900, Proceedings of the Third International Reunion for the History of Nautical Science and Hydrography, edited by Derek Howse. Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, (1981): 241-258. Horridge, Adrian. “The lashed-lug boat of the eastern archipelagoes, the Alcina MS and the Lomblen whaling boats.” Greenwich: Maritime Monographs and Reports. Trustees of the National Maritime Museum, 1982. Jumprom, Preeyanuch. “Recovery of a lost Arab-styled ship at Phanom-Surin the wetland excavation site in central Thailand.” In Ancient maritime cross-cultural exchanges: archaeological research in Thailand, edited by Amara Srisuchat and Wilfried Giessler. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, (2019): 226-247. 10 �Khawnuna, Plengmetha. The Cultural Development of the Ancient Communities in Chaiya District, Surat Thani Province. Master's Thesis, Department of Archaeology, Graduate School, Silpakorn University, 2014. Komoot, Abhirada. “Maritime connections in the Indian Ocean world during the late first Millennium CE through an archaeological study of Phanom-Surin ship in Thailand.” PhD thesis, University of Western Australia, 2021. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft in Philippine archaeological sites.” (2011). https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216561888 Lacsina, Ligaya. “The Butuan Boats of the Philippines: Southeast Asian edge-joined and lashed-lug watercraft.” Bulletin of the Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology 39, (2015): 126–132. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques.” PhD thesis, Flinders University, 2016. Lacsina, Ligaya. “The same-same boatbuilding tradition? Looking at different examples of lashed-lug boats from the Southeast Asian region.” Proceedings of the International Symposium (15th–16th June 2017). (2019): 38-53. Lacsina, Ligaya. “From the Site to the Museum: archaeologically excavated Butuan boat remains displayed in the National Museum of the Philippines.” Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology 47 no. 1 (2022): 63-85. Liebner, Horst Hubertus. “The Siren of Cirebon, a tenth-century trading vessel lost in the Java Sea.” PhD thesis, The University of Leeds, 2014. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Sewn-plank craft of South-East Asia.” In Sewn Plank Boats, edited by Sean McGrail and Eric Kentley, 319-343. BAR International Series 276, Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, 1985. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “The boat remains of Punjulharjo: A preliminary report.” Paris: École française d'Extrême-Orient, 3-4, 2009. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Asian ship-building traditions in the Indian Ocean at the dawn of European expansion.” In: The Trading World of the Indian Ocean, 1500-1800, edited by Om Prakash, in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Volume Ill, Part 7, edited by Debi Prasad Chattopadhyaya, 597-629. Delhi: Pearson, 2012. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: the stitched-plank and lashed-lug tradition.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 48 no. 2, 2019: 400–415. Manguin, Pierre-Yves. “The assembly of hulls in Southeast Asian shipbuilding traditions: from lashings to treenails,” Archaeonautica 21 (2021): 137–140. Available at: https://doi.org/10.4000/archaeonautica.2397 McCann, Ian. “The Binh Chau anchors: a 7th-8th CE Composite Conundrum: Master’s thesis, University of New England, 2019. Miksic, John. “Ships, Sailors and Kingdoms of Ancient Southeast Asia.” In The Sea in History – The Ancient World, edited by Christian Buchet, Pascal Arnaud, and Philip de Souza, 560–572 Martlesham: Boydell & Brewer, 2017. Mochtar, Agni Sesaria. “The Seventh-Century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashed-lug boatbuilding tradition.” Master’s thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide, (2018). Purnawibowo, Stanov. and Mochtar, Agni Sesaria. “Analisis teknologi pembuatan perahu pada temuan sisa perahu kuno dari abad VII M situs Bongal, pantai barat Sumatera Utara.” (“Boatbuilding Technology Analysis of the Seventh Century Boat Remains from Bongal Site on the West Coast of North Sumatera”), Majalah Arkeologi 30 no. 2 (2021): 99-112. Staples, Eric. and Blue, Lucy. “Archaeological, historical and ethnographic approaches to the study of sewn boats-past, present and future.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 48, no. 2, (2019): 269–285. Yahya, Matzin bin Haji) The Boats of Brunei Darussalam, Brunei: Brunei Museums Department, 2005. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities Description An account of the resource The Underwater Archaeology Division of Thailand conducted an archaeological expedition in 2019 to trace the wreck sites in the southern peninsula. As a result, the Ban Khlong Yuan boat (BKY) was found in Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. The area supported an urban town and seaport of the Srivijaya Kingdom between the seventh and twelfth centuries. The remains of the BKY boat were recently re-articulated. The focus of this paper is to present a brief overview of the reconstruction process, highlight analytical materials found in the wreck, and make comparisons of the BKY boat with other lashed-lug vessels of the region. A lines plan will be derived from the reconstruction of the BKY boat and the basic naval architectural data presented. AMS dating and identification of shipbuilding materials demonstrate that the BKY boat is an early ninth-century lashed-lug boat built of genus Hopea timber, with boatbuilding techniques comparable to the Punjulharjo boat (Central Java, Indonesia), the Chau Tân boat (Quang Ngai Province, Central Vietnam), and the Butuan boats (Northern Mindanao, Philippines). Comparisons of lashedlug designs and boatbuilding techniques among these vessels will be explored. The sophisticated boat represents a boatwright’s intellect of indigenous people in Peninsular Thailand during the ninth century. The widespread lashedlug boats found across Southeast Asian waters reflect skilled local boat-builders, mariners and middlemen who effectively engaged in transoceanic trade between the east and west at the ports of the dominant polity. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wongsakorn Rahothan Dr Tom Vosmer Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rahothan, Wongsakorn and Tom Vosmer. 2023. “The Early Ninth-Century ‘Ban Khlong Yuan’ Lashed-Lug Boat of Chaiya, Peninsular Thailand: comparisons, contrasts and capabilities.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1944 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/aac684a25246f9d94bd70937f29ea769.pdf 1c6e71ba4896ed3f5732973be43800ee PDF Text Text The elaboration of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Etienne Clément Abstract The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2001. Like many such treaties, its text is the result of a compromise between opposing views. The negotiations leading to this instruments started in the Eighties at the initiative of underwater archaeologists who teamed up with lawyers and with the International Law Association. These pioneers considered that the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) did not protect adequately the underwater cultural heritage. But many States Parties to the UNCLOS were reluctant to re-open any kind of negotiation that might affect the delicate balance of the UNCLOS. Moreover, the industry of salvage was also extremely reluctant to any new international legislation that may affect their activities, especially in the high seas. The process of preparation of an international legal instrument was suspended several times. It was finally put on tracks thanks to the pugnacity of a few UNESCO staff and ICOMOS members supported by Ministries of a Foreign Affairs of several countries wo convinced the UNESCO General Conference to enter the process of elaboration of a Convention. During the negotiation of the text, the views expressed by the delegations of UNESCO Member states were often antagonistic. In the discussions, the ICOMOS Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH) played a major role, by sensitizing the diplomats to the urgency of adopting a legal instrument at a time when technology had made possible to explore practically all ancient vessels lying on the seabed. The author has participated in some key steps of the elaboration of the Convention and will present some of the legal and ethical positions expressed at the negotiations and that have led to the compromise adopted in 2001. Key words: UNESCO, UNCLOS, outreach, UCH �Introduction The protection of the underwater cultural heritage, in particular ancient shipwrecks laying on the seabed under various jurisdictions, is by nature an international issue. It is therefore natural that the United Nations, in particular UNESCO as the specialized agency with the UN mandate for cultural heritage, has looked into the matter and adopted in 2001 the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, one of the seven UNESCO Conventions in the area of culture. It was elaborated as a response from the international community to the removal and destruction of underwater cultural heritage by industrial activities and by the so-called “treasures hunters”. The Convention reflects the growing recognition of the need to ensure the same protection to underwater cultural heritage as that already accorded to land-based heritage. It provides legal protection, enables States Parties to adopt common approaches to preservation and provides effective professional guidelines. The mains principles of the convention and its Annex had long been endorsed by professionals in UCH. It is to be remembered that the draft of the Annex was drafted by UCH professionals who started working on it in 1983. The Convention entered into force in January 2009. As of 15 July 2017, 57 countries are States Parties to it, which is an honorable score but does not give it the status of a universal instrument. For instance only two countries in Asia and the Pacific have joined it. But those States which joined it made an important commitment by agreeing on rules applicable by vessels bearing their flag and by their nationals, including also the treasures hunters. �Keys steps towards a Convention UNESCO has been concerned with the protection of UCH since its early days. Its Recommendation on International Principles Applicable to Archaeological Excavations, a non-legally binding text adopted by the General conference in 1956 applies also to underwater archaeology. The Council of Europe, as early as 1978, began to develop a draft European convention for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage. The draft reached an advanced stage but was never adopted by the Council of Ministers. The issue was raised again during the negotiations for the United Nations Law of the Sea Convention and resulted, in the closing days of these negotiations, in the adoption of two articles (149 and 303). However these articles are widely felt by cultural experts to be unsatisfactory and incomplete. They are indeed ineffective to protect underwater cultural heritage beyond the contiguous zone, they do not resolve the conflict between ownership claims, salvage claims and cultural heritage interests and they do not give any guidance on how underwater cultural heritage should be treated. They are also sufficiently ambiguous to give rise to alternative interpretations. In 1990, under the leadership of its Chairperson, Professor Patrick J. O’Keefe1, the Cultural Heritage Law Committee of the International Law Association undertook to study the international legal protection of the underwater cultural heritage. It produced its first report and a draft text of a convention for the meeting of the International Law Association in Cairo in 1992. One year later, the Director-General of UNESCO was requested by the UNESCO Executive Board to undertake a study into the feasibility of a new international instrument. As the International Law Association �had an advisory status with UNESCO and was well advanced in its work on a draft convention, the Director-General decided to wait until the ILA work was complete before reporting back to the UNESCO Executive Board. In 1994, in Buenos Aires, the Cultural Heritage Law Committee produced its final report and draft convention to the ILA meeting which adopted it and transmitted it to the Director-General of UNESCO. In parallel to this legal process, a group of influential underwater archaeologists who were members of the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) created the ICOMOS Committee for Underwater Cultural heritage (ICUCH) and advocated within ICOMOs for the development of specific ethical and professional standards for underwater archaeology. They argued that underwater archaeology had particular requirements related to its environment which has led to the development of specific techniques and that underwater conservation is always a pressing and expensive immediate necessity. Their efforts led to the preparation and adoption of the International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage by ICOMOS General Conference in Sofia in 1996. To be noted that the ICUCH played a major role during the whole negotiation process of the 2001 Convention, in particular through its Chairpersons, Graeme Henderson (Australia) and Robert Grenier (Canada). With the ILA draft in its hands, as a useful basis for a possible new instrument, the UNESCO Secretariat was ready to start preparing a feasibility study requested by the Executive Board. Within the UNESCO Secretariat in 1994, Dr. Lyndel V.Prott was the Head of the International Section of the Division of Cultural Heritage. She played a major role, as a renowned lawyer and an international civil servant, all over the process of elaboration of the Convention. I had the honor to be the other member of �her two-person team and rejoined later by a then junior colleague, Mr. Ieng Srong. In preparing the feasibility study, the Secretariat looked at the relevant articles of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and at the International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage. In 1995, a large number of artifacts found in the wreck of the Titanic, which was discovered several years before, were exhibited all over the world. This travelling exhibition gave a sort of technology signal that most shipwrecks that could be found on the seabed were technically accessible and that cultural objects could be removed. At the occasion of one such international exhibition in Greenwich (United Kingdom), an expert meeting was organized for legal experts and underwater archaeologists. It included those experts who had worked on the ILA draft and the ICOMOS Charter as well as lawyers familiarized with salvage Law. The discussions anticipated the difficulty of finding a compromise on a draft legally-binding text which could be accepted and implemented universally. The Director-General submitted the feasibility to the Executive Board in May—June 19952 and recommended that this Board transmits its recommendation to the UNESCO General Conference which has the authority, under UNESCO’s constitution, to decide on the elaboration of a Convention. But during the discussion, although a number of delegates emphasized the urgency of the situation, the majority requested more time before launching the preparation of a Convention. They insisted that the jurisdictional aspects of the question should be further studied, namely the compatibility of a possible new convention with the provisions on jurisdiction contained in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). �Therefore, instead of transmitting the Director-General’s recommendation to the General conference, the Executive Board requested him to urgently convene an expert meeting to discuss this issue and to report to the General Conference just a few months later. But the time was too short between June and October 1995 to convene, before the General Conference, an expert meeting based on a fair geographical balance and representing the various interests involved. The Secretariat therefore wrote to all countries which had expressed an interest in order to receive their comments on the feasibility study. Thirteen replies (Australia, Colombia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, The Netherlands, Philippines, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States and the U.N. Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea) were received. A majority of them were in favor of a Convention. But divergent opinions were expressed about the content of the norms, for instance on the concept of a specific cultural heritage zone or on specific protected areas. It was also accepted that UNESCO was the appropriate forum and that the norms to be prepared should duly take into account the balance achieved in the UNCLOS Convention. The 1995 session of the UNESCO General Conference did not launch yet the formal process of elaborating a Convention. Instead, it invited the Director-General: - to pursue further discussions with the United Nations in respect of the UNCLOS and with the International Maritime Organization (IMO) - to organize, in consultations with UN and IMO, a meeting of experts representing expertise in archaeology, salvage and jurisdictional regimes - to make the views of the experts known to UNESCO Member States and invite their comments; �- and to report back to the 29th session of the General Conference (1997) Therefore UNESCO Secretariat had proposed to the IMO (London) and to the United Nations Division of the Law of the Sea (New York) to nominate some of the above experts in order to ensure consistency with the work already developed within these two organizations. The expert meeting took place in May 1996. It was chaired by Dr. Carsten Lund (Denmark). To be noted that Dr. Lund remained the Chair of all further intergovernmental experts meetings that took place until the adoption of the Convention in 2001. The 1996 meetings was an important one because it agreed that a possible Convention be grounded on the principle incorporated in Article 303 (1) of the UNCLOS Convention which says that: “States have a duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall cooperate for this purpose”. The majority agreed that UNESCO was the right venue for such a Convention, although a minority group believe that it should be adopted within the Law of the sea framework at the United Nations in New York. The General Conference finally gave the green light for a Convention in October 1997 at its 29th session3. It decided that the question should be regulated and that the method adopted should be an international convention. It invited the Director-General to convene meeting, but this time with expert representing their Governments. Four such governmental experts meeting took place from 1998 to 2001. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was finally adopted on 2 November by the Plenary Session of the 31st General Conference with 88 votes in favor, 4 against and 15 abstentions4. �Major issues during the negotiation of a Convention The three main issues at the core of the experts’ deliberations were: - the jurisdiction (including the necessary compliance with the UNCLOS) - the relation with the Law of salvage or salvage law - the standards for research in underwater cultural heritage. Jurisdiction Fig. 1: The maritime zones. In the territorial sea, the national legislation of the coastal State applies to underwater cultural heritage. Beyond the territorial sea, the coastal State’s jurisdiction is generally very limited under national legislations. Often the coastal States have jurisdiction over their own nationals and vessels bearing their flag. But it is often expressed in vague terms and with serious difficulties of implementation without any State cooperation system. Underwater cultural heritage being largely located in the oceans which fall �under the Law of the Sea Convention, its legal regime falls under UNCLOS articles 149 and 303: Article 149 Archaeological and historical objects. All objects of an archaeological and historical nature found in the area shall be preserved or disposed of for the benefit of mankind as a whole, particular regard being paid to the preferential rights of the State or country of origin, or the State of cultural origin, or the State of historical and archaeological origin. Article 303 Archaeological and historical objects found at sea i. States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall co-operate for this purpose. ii. In order to control traffic in such objects, the coastal State may, in applying Article 33, presume that their removal from the sea-bed in the zone referred to in that article without its approval would result in an infringement within its territory or territorial sea of the laws and regulations referred to in that article. iii. Nothing in this article affects the rights of identifiable owners, the law of salvage or other rules of admiralty, or laws and practices with respect to cultural exchanges. iv. This article is without prejudice to other international agreements and rules of international law regarding the protection of objects of an archaeological and historical nature. These articles, according to archaeologists and lawyers concerned with the preservation of the underwater cultural heritage, were considered as �insufficient for an effective protection of the cultural heritage. Indeed, in the Exclusive Economic Zone and on the Continental Shelf, UCH remains practically unprotected. Another serious problem is that the provision in Article 303 stating that 'Nothing in this article affects the rights of identifiable owners, the law of salvage or other rules of admiralty…” appeared to protect the commercial exploitation of historic shipwrecks, leading to the destruction of archaeological resources without their scientific examination. The relation with salvage law was therefore an issue of very lively discussions, often antagonistic, during the several experts meetings form 1998 to 2001. Salvage law Salvage Law or Law of Salvage or Law of Finds is based on practical and economic considerations. The function of salvage is to encourage the recovery of goods at sea that are in danger of being lost. The primary objective of the salvage industry, recognized in salvage law, is the recovery of commercially valuable property from a shipwreck. But in some countries, the salvage industry had extended its activity to commercial exploitation of submerged archaeological sites, often by teams of unqualified persons. Therefore for many years archaeologists had been concerned by the loss of scientific information caused by such unprofessional excavation and by the destruction of artefacts not considered commercially valuable. The activities of the salvage industry were regulated by the 1989 International Convention on Salvage, adopted under the auspices of the International Maritime organization (IMO). It does not include provisions on the underwater cultural heritage. As the Article 303, iii, of the UNCLOS protects salvage law, most experts considered that the international legal framework in 1998 was an invitation to looting. �Standards for research in UCH When the first meeting of experts opened in 1996, the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) had just adopted its International Charter on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage at its General Conference in Sofia (see above). To be noted that the International Law Association had included in several provisions of its draft Convention on UCH that underwater excavations were to be undertaken in accordance with the ICOMOS UCH Charter, which would be an annex to the ILA draft. Therefore given the importance of the ICOMOS Charter which sets standards for research and conservation of the UCH, the members of the ICOMOS Committee for Underwater Cultural heritage (ICUCH) were associated closely to the elaboration of the text of the UNESCO Convention. They were very influential in the process leading to the adoption of the 2001 Convention. The way towards a compromise The process involved a long and patient campaign initiated by underwater archaeologists in Europe, Australia, North America and later in other regions. They needed to convince even their own peers - i.e. the ‘land’ archaeologists- to team-up with them in order to convince Ministries of Foreign affairs of their respective countries to support the idea of a Convention. Indeed in many countries Ministries of Foreign Affairs were quite hesitant to open negotiations on an issue related to the Law of the Sea, only a few years after the entry into force of the UNCLOS Convention. To be noted that members of the International Law Association (ILA), especially Professor Patrick J. O’Keefe, the Chairperson of the ILA Cultural Heritage Law Committee, played an �important role in the informal lobby in favor of an effective convention. Other influential institutions included ICOMOS, ICUCH, the International Council of Museums (ICOM) and several Maritime museums all over the world. In 1998, reaching of a compromise to be included in a Convention appeared to be very challenging. At the beginning of the discussions, there was a consensus only on the necessity to avoid creating a new “archaeological zone” in addition to the zones established by UNCLOS. There was also an agreement that a Convention should refer to some kind of guidelines on how to treat UCH. All the other issues were the object of profound divergences between experts and between the UNESCO Member States. However, gradually, a consensus emerged to obtain protection of UCH wherever it is located beyond the territorial seas, in all maritime zones including international waters, through a State cooperation system. The salvage Industry was also represented in the experts meetings. Indeed at the request of the UNESCO General Conference, UNESCO Secretariat had asked the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to designate experts to represent the interests of the maritime industry, including the salvage industry. The Tourism diving industry was not invited as such, but several countries’ delegations included experts which expressed the views of this sector. The consistency with the UNCLOS Convention was ensured by representatives of the UN Division of the Law of the Sea (New York) who played a very positive role in this respect. Some “Treasures Hunters”, although not invited officially, showed up at one of the meetings and opposed the adoption of a text, without success. To be noted that “treasures hunters” were more influential among �international TV channels, which, during the years of the negotiations, displayed TV shows glorifying their activities. The negotiations also had to face language difficulties. For instance, archaeologists and lawyers understood differently the concept of “rules”, the former saw them as rules applicable to professionals and the latter as rules applicable to States. This has rendered the role of the courageous Chairperson, Dr. Carsten Lund (Denmark), an almost impossible task5. The composition of each country’s delegation was also a challenge. Only important delegations could include international lawyers, cultural heritage lawyers, salvage lawyers as well as archaeologists. But most delegations were composed of only one international lawyer, often with little background in archaeology. The compromise adopted in 2001 Despite the antagonistic positions that continued to be expressed during the whole negotiation process, a compromise was reached in 2001. It included a very advanced State cooperation system containing provisions of legal and professional or ethical nature binding both States parties and UCH professionals. The Convention was structured under a main text and an Annex which is an integral part of the Convention. The main text contains basic principles for the protection of UCH and a detailed State cooperation system. The Annex includes widely recognized practical rules for the treatment and research of UCH which reflects practically the text of the ICOMOS Charter. The basic principles of the Convention include the obligation to preserve UCH “for the benefit of humanity”, the “in situ” preservation as the first option (not the only one), a commitment for no commercial exploitation and an obligation of training and information sharing. It does not include �the sovereignty rights of States and the issue of the ownership of wrecks which remain regulated by civil law, other domestic law and private international law. The compromise on the relation with salvage law was one of the most difficult to reach. It is contained in Article 4 of the 2001 Convention which excludes the application of salvage law, except when and if three cumulative conditions are met: Article 4- Relationship to Law of Salvage or Law of Finds Any activity relating to underwater cultural heritage to which this Convention applies shall not be subject to the law of salvage or law of finds, unless it: (a) is authorized by the competent authorities, and (b) in in full conformity with this Convention, and (c) ensures that any recovery of the underwater cultural heritage achieves its maximum protection. But the Convention was not adopted by consensus. The Culture commission of the General Conference had recommended the Plenary of the UNESCO 31st General Conference to adopt the draft Convention by 94 votes in favor, 5 against and 19 abstentions. The Plenary adopted it with 88 votes in favor, 4 against and 15 abstentions6. Conclusion Sixteen years later, the Convention is ratified by 57 countries. This relatively low level of ratification can be explained by several factors. Perhaps it still reflects the fact that the Convention may have a few detractors among some of the UNESCO Member States. But most �probably, many countries do not consider the ratification as a priority as they do have the technology nor the human or financial resources to be involved in activities towards the underwater cultural heritage. In these countries, there are also very few archaeologists who have training in underwater archaeology. There is therefore no effective influential group that could persuade their respective authorities to join the Convention or that could campaign among the public on the importance of this heritage for their country and for humanity. But the advancement of technology and the ability of a growing number of countries to own such technology may however have a positive influence on the rate of ratifications in the following years. Endnotes 1 Professor Patrick J. O’Keefe has worked for more than 40 years on legal instruments to protect the underwater cultural heritage. He has. 2 UNESCO General Conference documents 28C/39 and 28C/39 Add. 3 UNESCO General Conference Document 29C/Resolution 21 4 UNESCO General Conference Documents 31C/24 and 31C/Resolution XV, para D 5 Lund, C., 2006. The making of the UNESCO Convention 2001. Finishing the interrupted voyage, papers of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, Institute of Art and Law/UNESCO, Leicester/Bangkok: 14-19 6 UNESCO General Conference Documents 31 C/24 and 31 C/Resolution XV, para D References: Clément, E. 1996, Current developments at UNESCO concerning the protection of the underwater cultural heritage, Marine policy, Vol 20, No 4, pp 309-323 O’Keefe, P.J., 2014, Shipwrecked Heritage: A Commentary on the UNESCO Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Second edition, Institute of Art and Law, Builth Wells, UK. �Prott, L.V., 2006, Finishing the interrupted voyage: papers of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, Institute of Art and Law/UNESCO, Leicester/Bangkok. Srati, A., 1999, Draft Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural heritage, a commentary prepared for UNESCO, UNESCO document CLT99/WS/8 UNESCO, 1984, La sauvegarde du patrimoine subaquatique, cahiers techniques: musées et monuments # 4, UNESCO document [II] CLT.82/XXIX.4/F Biography Etienne Clément, JD 1978, LLM International Law 1980, (University Brussels) had responsibilities in UNESCO 1984-2015. He contributed to the development of international standards for the protection of cultural heritage, including to the elaboration of 2001 Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention. From 1998, he was UNESCO Representative to Cambodia, Deputy Director Field operations (Paris), Deputy Director Regional Bureau (Bangkok) and Director Pacific States. He is author of articles on conventions for cultural heritage and is currently advising governments on these instruments. He lectures at Science Po Lille (France) and is member of ICOMOS International Committee on Legal, Administrative and Financial Issues (ICLAFI). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 7: Underwater Cultural Heritage Politics, Laws, Ethics and Values Description An account of the resource All cultural materials are potentially cultural resources. However, because not all of them can be preserved or studied, choices must be made based on evaluation and re-evaluation. Values are learned and depend on cultural, intellectual, historical, and psychological frames of reference. Consequently, valuation is made individually, but is shared by communities. Valuation of underwater cultural heritage has, then, a broad range of determining value depending on the community to which it belongs. A clear example of this is the protection of human remains. The 2001 UNESCO Convention includes, in its definition of underwater cultural heritage, human remains which have been underwater for more than 100 years. However, the Christian philosophy on the treatment of human remains is different to that of Asian philosophy that teaches that human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage since, if they are seen by someone in an underwater site, it is imperative to rescue the human remains and bury them on land according to their beliefs. This session aims to create a forum for policymakers, managers, and archaeologists devoted to underwater cultural heritage where they can share their experiences of and research on the valuation of underwater cultural heritage. We aim to accept papers that help us to understand the definition of ‘underwater cultural heritage’ in the Asia-Pacific regions, comparing those definitions with the definition of the 2001 UNESCO Convention and trying to find a common interpretation. We will also be looking to examine the meaning of the underwater cultural heritage sites and objects for different communities. Finally, we will be expecting papers exploring the different possibilities of the use and/or conservation of this underwater cultural heritage according to the values and needs of the different communities. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd., UK Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The elaboration of the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2001. Like many such treaties, its text is the result of a compromise between opposing views. The negotiations leading to this instruments started in the Eighties at the initiative of underwater archaeologists who teamed up with lawyers and with the International Law Association. These pioneers considered that the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) did not protect adequately the underwater cultural heritage. But many States Parties to the UNCLOS were reluctant to re-open any kind of negotiation that might affect the delicate balance of the UNCLOS. Moreover, the industry of salvage was also extremely reluctant to any new international legislation that may affect their activities, especially in the high seas. The process of preparation of an international legal instrument was suspended several times. It was finally put on tracks thanks to the pugnacity of a few UNESCO staff and ICOMOS members supported by Ministries of a Foreign Affairs of several countries wo convinced the UNESCO General Conference to enter the process of elaboration of a Convention. During the negotiation of the text, the views expressed by the delegations of UNESCO Member states were often antagonistic. In the discussions, the ICOMOS Committee on Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICUCH) played a major role, by sensitizing the diplomats to the urgency of adopting a legal instrument at a time when technology had made possible to explore practically all ancient vessels lying on the seabed. The author has participated in some key steps of the elaboration of the Convention and will present some of the legal and ethical positions expressed at the negotiations and that have led to the compromise adopted in 2001. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Etienne Clément Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Etienne Clément Asia-Pac Session 7 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The End of the T’ang Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Robert M. Somers Denis Twitchett Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Robert M. Somers Editor Denis Twitchett Item Type Book Section Book Title Sui and T’ang China Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Pages 682-790 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series The Cambridge History of China Title A name given to the resource The End of the T’ang Volume 3 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/45797196b5f418082118327cf12bec5a.pdf 4f835872505b469e39b2ff2f5a1e7481 PDF Text Text The ethics behind climate change: Small Island Developing States in the Pacific as new underwater cultural heritage Dr. Elena Perez-Alvaro Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd. elenaperezalvaro@gmail.com Abstract Predictions forecast changes in climate that may affect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Warmer waters mean more chemical changes and the proliferation of teredo navalis. Ocean currents may cause disturbances to the layer of sediment protecting underwater cultural heritage sites. The rises in sea levels would reduce the amount of time an air-breathing diver can safely spend under water and hence their productivity. Rises would also mean expansion, which could raise the problem of ocean delimitation. Also our land tangible cultural heritage will be submerged: entire nations and their cultural heritage may disappear, an issue affecting mostly the Small Island Developing States -many of them in the Pacific-, more vulnerable to rises in sea levels. Their identity as citizens of their cities, as members of a community with their own tangible past, complete with their cultural heritage, will disappear. Their land heritage will become underwater cultural heritage but for more than 100 years will not be protected under the 2001 UNESCO Convention. This paper will look at climate change in these Asia-Pacific communities from the ethics as a core element and will study the introduction of these flooded areas as new underwater cultural heritage, proposing an AsiaPacific values-orientated qualification of underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource. Key words: SIDS, tangible cultural heritage, climate change, UNESCO Convention Introduction One of the commonly agreed principles of preservation of underwater cultural heritage named by the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is the preservation in situ �as the first option (Preamble, Article 2.5. and Rule 1 of the Annex (UNESCO, 2001). The reason for this being mainly because archaeological objects are better preserved under layers of mud and in saline water. The ship, once she has sunk and lies at the seabed, reaches a state of equilibrium with the upper parts destroyed and the buried remains covered (Green, 1990). After reaching this state of equilibrium, the wreck will either be only disturbed by human intervention or by geological changes like the ones forecast by climate change (Wachsmann, 2011). Global warming is, as (Chapman, 2003) observes, an environmental and political issue. Climate change is warming the oceans and the ice at the poles is melting causing sea levels to rise. Oceans are also being over fertilized and suffering chemical changes, such as acidification or changes on the salinity. Currents also may change their pattern and consequently, ecosystems are becoming increasingly endangered. These climate changes will have a direct impact on underwater cultural heritage (Dunkley, 2013); (Van de Noort, 2013). Higher global surface temperature will dry out some submerged heritage and, on the contrary, sea-level rises will flood many coastal areas, creating new underwater cultural heritage. In fact, climate change will raise the sea level enough to inundate 136 sites considered by UNESCO to be cultural and historical treasures (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014). In addition, each one of the changes (warmer waters, changes in currents, rising oceans and chemical changes) will have a different effect on the various materials that constitute a submerged archaeological site. Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are vulnerable to rises in sea levels and even become uninhabitable (UNESCO, 2008). In this regard, some authors warn that climate change will also modify social and cultural behaviours, with communities changing how they live and work, migrating �and abandoning their heritage. Therefore, all heritage needs to be considered vulnerable to natural disasters (UNESCO, 2008). The first part of this paper will analyse some cases of sites affected by climate change that have already happened. Later, we will look at the concept of “climate change”. The third part studies what would happen to these Small Islands Developing States and the concept of identity. We will next be looking to both ethical and legal aspects of climate change affecting the cultural heritage. Finally, this paper will propose a new policy for the preservation of underwater cultural heritage under the threat of the climate change. Issue Climate change has already caused damages to underwater cultural heritage. Sheridan and Sheridan (2013) state that civilization is heading to informed self-destruction. They define culture as “the last cab off the climate rank”. Several examples: 1. In Spain, a Phoenician shipwreck is being exposed due to the change of currents affecting the oceans. The shipwreck that was 25 years ago at a depth of 6 metres it is now only at a depth of 1.8 metres (Rubio, 2014). Its preservation in situ may not be the best option anymore, since it is now readily accessible to human intervention and to further changes in the currents that may damage her. 2. The raising of sea levels has disturbed the underwater graves of soldiers killed in World War II on the Marshall Islands (McGrath, 2014). The tides have exposed a cemetery containing 26 human bodies and the coffins and human remains are being washed away. 3. According to a leaked diplomatic cable1, the Dalai Lama called attention to the climate changes that Tibet is suffering. Although �Tibet is entirely landlocked, its temples are being inundated which will convert them to underwater cultural heritage in the future, an example that could be repeated: The Dalai Lama argued that the political agenda should be sidelined for five to ten years and the international community should shift its focus to climate change on the Tibetan plateau. Melting glaciers, deforestation and increasingly polluted water from mining projects were problems that 'cannot wait.' The Dalai Lama criticized China's energy policy, alleging that dam construction in Kham and Amdo have displaced thousands of Tibetans and left temples and monasteries underwater. In view of these examples, climate change is an ultimate moral challenge and cultural heritage managers have to be prepared for policy’s changes (Sheridan and Sheridan, 2013). If the current global temperature is prolonged over the next two millennia, 40 of the UNESCO Cultural World Heritage sites will be affected. Of the 720 sites listed in the cultural and mixed categories in the UNESCO World Heritage list, 136 of them will be impacted by rises in sea levels (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014). In addition, 3 to 12 countries will lose more than half of their current land surface (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014). Consequently, climate change may affect the underwater cultural heritage in two forms: a) Additional submerged places will be created and, on the contrary, previously submerged places will become exposed. A total of fifteen of the world’s twenty megacities are situated by the sea. “If water levels rise even further, by 3, 4 or 5 metres in centuries to come, we will have to give up some of the cities” (Rahmstorf and Richardson, 2009). These underwater cities or even countries will be in the future underwater cultural heritage. This paper will focus on this aspect. �b) The current underwater cultural heritage will be affected, damaged or moved. Variations in seawater follow universal chemical, physical and biological laws. The shipwreck, in contact with water, experiences equilibrium (Florian, 1987). At 400-800 metres depth archaeological sites experience low and near constant water temperatures all year-round (Daly, 2011). Sunlight, a biodeterioration accelerator, does not penetrate below 200m. At the seafloor the current speeds are often very low with minimal tidal effects and sediment transfer rates are also low. Erosion by currents, tidal movements or changes in water circulation, resulting in objects being removed and displaced is a real threat as well as erosion by dredging, fishing and anchoring. Sediment accretion will be also having consequences (Chapman, 2003): archaeological deposits could be buried by accreting silts. As a consequence, the discovering of the new underwater sites would be more difficult. State of knowledge Earth is a planet with high water content (71%). In fact it should be called Ocean, instead of Earth as the volume of water is 1370 million km³ (Rahmstorf and Richardson, 2009). There are four main climate changes that will affect the oceans: 1. The Warming of the Waters. There have always been fluctuations in water temperature, especially in the surface layer of water that is in direct contact with the atmosphere (the top 50–200 metres). The temperature in this layer has increased by more than 3°C in the last 50 years. Such an increase in temperature will most likely gradually spread to deeper layers, where shipwrecks and other heritage sites are located. This warming could result in changes such as coral bleaching and species migration. Other issues will also affect �underwater tangible heritage such as chemical changes or the increasing of shipworms. 2. Currents. Some experts predict that climate change could cause a possible interruption of the thermohaline circulation, largely responsible for regulating the earth’s temperature. Such change would affect the submerged heritage in different ways, such as the modification of the sediment layer. Much underwater cultural heritage is preserved at present thanks to a protective layer of sediment, mostly formed by microorganisms. Any disturbance of this layer could damage the archaeological materials. A change in currents can also displace some or all of a submerged archaeological site, decontextualizing it from its original location or otherwise dispersing the objects. 3. Chemical Changes. A variety of chemical changes might occur in the waters as a result of climate change such as acidity and salinity. If the pH of seawater decreases and the oxygen increases, it will become more acidic. As a consequence, underwater material is more likely to corrode. Also textiles dissolve more readily in acidic water, meaning any archaeological textiles remaining under water would likely be lost. Changes in salinity may also be proved problematic since salinity also accelerates corrosion. 4. The Rising Sea Levels. Increased global temperatures melts land ice, which adds water to the sea. Similarly, an increase in water temperature results in the expansion of the sea, since warm water occupies a larger volume than colder water. Sea levels react only very slowly, and it takes many centuries—or even millennia—for large continental ice masses to melt. However, since ice masses are becoming wetter because of the contact with water, they will almost certainly melt at a much faster rate. Researchers estimate �that there will be a rise in the sea level of between 18 and 59 cm by the year 2100; but it could exceed one metre. The rising sea level would be the most difficult challenge facing cultural heritage. Not only could it submerge the land-based cultural heritage, but underwater cultural heritage might also be affected. Some of the issues recognised in this regard are as follows:  Increased depth. More water means greater depth and shipwrecks lying on the seabed will be subject to greater pressure, which may be more than they can withstand.  Prospection. It would have an effect, mainly due to the reduction in the amount of time a diver can remain under water.  Marine boundaries. Higher sea levels will result in legal maritime boundaries becoming less well-defined. Political issues and legal disputes are expected to arise in the affected areas and the melting of the Arctic will open new maritime commercial routes which will translate into claiming of new territories as we will see.  Flooding. Some land-based archaeological sites will flood, meaning that some cultural heritage will become underwater cultural heritage.  Increased storms. Higher sea levels will cause more powerful storms that will devastate low-lying areas. These will be in the form of tropical storms and hurricanes/cyclones, at best eroding at worst destroying both land and underwater heritage. Although these are largely predictions for the future, some cultural heritage sites are already experiencing these changes. Small Islands Developing States The Pacific Islands region comprises 22 countries and territories, nine of them fully independent (Barnett and Campbell, 2010). It is divided into �three regions: Melanesia -of large cultural diversity and more than 800 languages spoken-, Polynesia -more homogenous- with “only” 30 languages- and Micronesia -with strong links to the United States (Barnett and Campbell, 2010). This cultural diversity may change for the effects of climate change. The IPCC 4th assessment report identifies small island states as being the most vulnerable countries of the world to the adverse impacts of climate change. The Pacific is in fact one of the world’s most vulnerable regions. Not only their cultural heritage will be affected but also their agriculture, water resources, forestry, tourism and other industry-related sectors. However, the impact of climate change in these communities will not only be noticeable on flooding lands, but also in its effects on agricultural production and fisheries, and, as a consequence, in the availability of food. However, there has been little research on understanding how people is going to adapt to climate change. For instance, the Tuvalu State is already losing not only its territory because of the floodings, but also its identity and heritage: its culture as a nation is transforming. Communities on the Torres Strait are also suffering king tides and flooding that make life non-viable. The islands will probably be completely submerged in the future, meaning 7000 people already have to adapt to climate change. Australia has invited them to live on Australian territory but this would mean that the land of such states—and, therefore, their tangible culture—will be lost. There are two basic responses to climate change for these territories: mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation includes all policies and laws that have been drafted on climate change. Adaptation has its origins in evolutionary biology, seen as the basis for natural selections and it implies long-term processes. This paper proposes a mix of mitigation and �adaptation actions in order to understand and face the effects of climate change on the cultural heritage. Ethical dilemmas This section will highlight the main ethical dilemmas attached to the loss of a territory, as it is going to happen to some Asia-Pacific States. 1. Identity seems a concept intrinsically linked to the concept of heritage. For Ashworth (2007) heritage is a need of the individual and of society to reinforce a socio-cultural identity: it is a contemporary commodity and it is linked to the concept of “national identity” that can be shaped through a few selected points of heritage and supporting mythologies. An object of heritage can become an evocative symbol of identification that acts as a trigger for emotions and narratives. 2. Emotion: this identification of a person with a place or an object is established because the person identifies itself with the place (or object) and feels something related to it. In this regard, Smith (2006) concludes that the “real sense of heritage is when our emotions and sense of self are truly engaged”. The emotional value of heritage is felt and it is reinforced through experiences and re-experiences that create a sense of nostalgia (Smith and Waterton, 2009). Heritage is then not valued for the specific information it contains but for the notions it evokes among people. 3. Memories: memories, as emotions, are not spontaneous but they need to be actively remembered (Smith and Waterton, 2009): they need a root in a concrete object or site and need to be maintained. Cultural heritage is intrinsically political and symbolic, used in lieu of description to evoke memories or emotions. And it is highly selective. If some Small Island Developing States of the Pacific leave their territories and, as a consequence, part of their tangible cultural heritage, �they will lose part of their identity, their memories and the emotions that they experience with their heritage. Legal perspective Legislation can be used to minimize human threats to underwater cultural heritage. There is only 1.9 million km² of ocean area where nature conservation regulations apply. There is some Marine Protected Areas (MPA) but some authors (Rahmstorf and Richardson, 2009) believe that at least 20 to 30% of the world’s oceans should be protected. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), Group I concludes that the oceans are warming and the salinification of water is changing. Although they are not visible ocean circulation changes, the ocean biogeochemistry is changing since there is evidence of decreased oxygen concentrations. And the sea level is definitely rising (IPCC, 2007). Despite of all this information, international instruments fails to protect cultural heritage from climate change forces (Sheridan and Sheridan, 2013). There are gaps in the capacity of the legislation for future protection. Only the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) has some response to climate change (Sheridan and Sheridan, 2013). The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage does not mention climate change as an adverse factor for underwater cultural heritage. However, Dromgoole (2013) feels that the term in the definition “partially or totally underwater, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years” is of importance for the predicted sea level changes due to climate change. However, and despite this minor concession, the Convention does not explicitly mention “climate change” and as a consequence, it does not propose solutions. Neither the 1982 UNCLOS Convention does. �The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) has no direct reference to underwater cultural heritage, nor does the Kyoto Protocol (1997) which aims to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases. The instruments that try to cover the topic provide good intentions rather than solutions. They make a good starting point for the development of the field, although they tend to be vague and imprecise and no remedies are proposed. As a consequence, there is a need for ranking the potential impact of climate change on individual heritage and determining the vulnerability, sensitivity and resilience to future changes (Howard, 2003). Conclusions As this paper has tried to demonstrate, rises in sea levels, warmer waters, ocean acidification and changes in currents will affect underwater cultural heritage (Dunkley, 2013). Warmer waters mean more energetic oceans (that cause more erosion) and the migration of invasive species. It also means expansion, which will cause the problem of oceans delimitation. In addition, this rises in sea levels will reduce the amount of time and productivity an air-breathing diver can spend under water safely. In addition, saltier waters mean less clear waters. Changes in ocean temperatures also affect and alter oceanic currents which will have an impact on underwater visibility for divers besides of the erosion of the heritage. And although the direct effects of acidification are not still well understood (but it is known that will harm marine fauna) it increases the current rates of metal corrosion, which will be particularly harmful to the underwater heritage of the World Wars (Dunkley, 2013). Each site deserves unique treatment and it is difficult to set common criteria. The climate change consequences on heritage need different strands of research, like risk factors, socio-economic research and nature and cultural stress factors (UNESCO, 2008). Some authors predict that �future generations will face damage and loss of underwater cultural heritage or will have to make great efforts to protect them (Marzeion and Levermann, 2014). However, as Sheridan and Sheridan (2013) observe, it seems that people may need to see their cultural heritage threatened, temples washed away or cathedrals destroyed by flooding to be convinced of the effects of climate change in culture and to evaluate and propose solutions. However, it is erroneous to assume that the most visible remains are the most threatened. There is a need for practical and political response to the effects of climate change on underwater cultural heritage but also a priority of raising awareness of the impacts. Some authors emphasise the inadequate financial resources and a lack of creativity on managing underwater cultural heritage despite it being a growing “industry” (Kingsley, 2011). Some inter-agency cooperation might be necessary (Van de Noort, 2013), as well as convincing policy makers to include climate change impacts in planning (Cassar and Pender, 2005). This paper proposes the inclusion of underwater cultural heritage as natural heritage, which is another subject on policy agendas for protecting the world’s oceans from climate change. The differentiation between cultural and natural is a barrier that excludes underwater cultural heritage and avoids a common interdisciplinary work, as it will be seen in the next section. However, is an Asia-Pacific values-orientated qualification of underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource, focusing on identifying and recovering the connections between the nature and culture sectors. Proposal The present study focuses the required actions to manage the underwater cultural heritage under the threat of climate change in four steps: recognizing the loss, starting the debate, creating a legal framework in �which situate the debate and recognizing underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource. 1. Recognizing the loss: there have already been two periods of climate change in the past which could have affected the heritage. It is essential to understand that although climate change does destroy the heritage, it also creates new heritage (for instance flooded cities or islands will become underwater cultural heritage in 100 years). This is an ethical issue on heritage as process: understanding that it is inevitable to lose some cultural heritage but that we will also gain some. On these premises, however, it is again the time to evaluate the importance of the sites and to undertake actions to preserve the selected ones. 2. Starting the debate: climate change debate has occupied few concerns in the archaeological and heritage arena. Whatever the causes, the effects may be devastating (Chapman, 2003). This paper has tried to trigger the debate, which needs to be discussed and disseminated through academic, social and political agendas. 3. Creating a legal framework: the 2001 UNESCO Convention that guides States on the management of their underwater cultural heritage does not include climate change as a danger to the heritage. As with any other international instruments, the authors of the Convention would hope to become an example to the states (Carman, 2013). If this Convention does not take climate change into consideration neither will States. This paper presents a high-risk concept: underwater cultural heritage is a part of the oceans and as a consequence underwater cultural heritage preservation has more similarities to underwater natural heritage than to terrestrial cultural heritage. Although the methodology (archaeology) and the ethical concerns that both underwater and land heritage face have a major equivalence, in the aspects of preserving and facing climate change, underwater cultural heritage has to fight the same battles as the �natural heritage in the oceans. The changes that will affect them are the same. As a consequence, the same legal and political agendas on climate change affecting the oceans should already include (as coral reefs are included) underwater cultural heritage on their agendas. 4. Recognizing underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource: Aznar-Gómez (2013) states that although underwater cultural heritage is not considered a natural resource by the UNCLOS Convention, the seabed and the sand is covering the archaeological objects. Also the nonsedentary fishing species live around artificial reefs made by shipwrecks. For this reason, some authors (Rössler, 2006) have tried to link cultural and biological diversity for the better preservation of underwater cultural heritage. In fact, the 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage is an instrument for the preservation of both, cultural and natural heritage. Aplin (2002) argues that distinction between natural and cultural heritage is blurred and Chapman (2003) reminds the close relationship between ecological and archaeological site management and suggests a liaison between archaeologists and other parties interested in natural environment. Lixinski (2008: 379) claims that the “nature and culture dichotomy” listed in the 1972 World Heritage Convention is simply artificial, as it is proved to be in the wording “the combined works of nature and man”. According to the author, the holistic approach to heritage seen as “significance” and not as a place or as an object blurs that dichotomy. Accordingly, it is necessary to adjust natural policies on the oceans to accommodate underwater cultural heritage. If shipwrecks are considered artificial reefs, the same preservation policies applied to natural reefs can be applied to the artificial ones (that is, underwater cultural heritage). �Endnotes 1 US embassy cables. The guardian. 10th August 2010 Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/220120 References Aplin, G. 2002. Heritage identification, conservation and management. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ashworth, G. J. 2007. On townscapes, heritages and identities. In: Institute for Advanced Studies Colloquium on Urban-Rural (2007). Flows and Boundaries. Lancaster: Lancaster University. Aznar-Gómez, M.J. 2013. Treasure hunters. In: AIMA 13 Conference: Towards Ratification: Australia's Underwater Cultural Heritage. [Unpublished paper]. Canberra: 4 October 2013 Barnett, J., and Campbell, J. 2010. Climate change and small island states: Power, knowledge, and the South Pacific. Earthscan. Carman, J. 2013. Legislation in Archaeology: Overview and Introduction. In: C. Smith (2013) Encyclopaedia of Global Archaeology. New York: Springer: 4469-4485 Cassar, M. and Pender, R. 2005. The impact of climate change on cultural heritage: evidence and response. Published in the 14th Triennial Meeting The Hague Preprints. Vol. II. Chapman, H. P. 2003. Global warming: The implications for sustainable archaeological resource management. Conservation and management of archaeological sites, 5(4): 241-245. Daly, C. 2011. Climate change and the Conservation of Archaeological sites: a review of impacts theory conservation and management of archaeological sites. Dublin Institute of Technology, vol. 13, no 4: 293310. Dromgoole, S. 2013. Underwater cultural heritage and international law. Cambridge University Press. (Vol. 101). �Dunkley, M. 2013. Ocean Climate Change and Underwater Archaeology. [online]. English Heritage 12th September 2013. Available at: http://heritagecalling.com/2013/09/12/oceanic-climate-change-andunderwater-archaeology/. Florian, M-L.E. 1987. Deterioration of organic materials other than wood. In C. Pearson (1987). Conservation of marine archaeological objects. Butterworth and Co Publishers: 21-54. Green, J. 1990. Maritime Archaeology: A technical Handbook. San Diego: Academic Press. Howard, P. 2003. Heritage: management, interpretation, identity. London: Library of Congress Cataloguing-in Publication Data. IPCC 2007. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change. Available at: https://www.ipccwg1.unibe.ch/. Kingsley, S. 2011. Challenges of Maritime Archaeology: in too deep. In: T.F. King (2011). A companion to cultural resource management. Wiley: Blackwell Publications: 223-244. Kyoto Protocol 1997. United Nations. Available at: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php. Lixinski, L. 2008. World Heritage and the Heritage of the World: Book Review. By F.Francioni and F. Lenzerini. The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008 European Journal of Legal Studies. Vol 2 (1) 2008: 371-386. McGrath, M. 2014. Climate change helps seas disturb Japanese war dead [online]. BBC News: Science and Environment. 7th June 2014. Available at: http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27742957. Marzeion, B. and Levermann, A. 2014. Loss of cultural world heritage and currently inhabited places to sea-level rise. Environmental Research Letters. 9 (2014) 034001: 1-7. Rahmstorf, S. and Richardson, K. 2009. Our threatened Oceans. The sustainability Project. London: Haus Publishing. �Rössler, M. 2006. World Heritage- Linking Cultural and Biological Diversity. In: B.T. Hoffman (2006). Art and Cultural Heritage: Law, Policy and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 201-205. Rubio, M. 2014. Peligro: el mar devuelve el barco fenicio. [online]. Laverdad.es: Murcia. 6th May 2014. Available at: http://www.laverdad.es/murcia/v/20140505/mazarron/peligro-devuelvebarco-fenicio-20140505.html. Sheridan, R. and Sheridan, J. 2013. International heritage instruments and climate change. Illinois: Common Ground Publishing LLC. Smith, L. 2006. Uses of Heritage. London and New York: Routledge. Smith, L. and Waterton, E. 2009. Heritage, Communities and Archaeology. Wiltshire: Duckworth Debates in Archaeology. UNESCO 1972. Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Paris, 16 November 1972. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/. UNESCO 2001. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Paris, 2 November 2001. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001260/126065e.pdf. UNESCO 2008. Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties. UNESCO World Heritage Centre publications on climate change. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/CC-policydocument/ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1994. United Nations “Rio Conventions”. Available at: http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/items/6036.php. Van de Noort, R. 2013. Wetland Archaeology in the 21st Century: Adapting to Climate Change. In F. Menotti and A. O’Sullivan (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Wetland Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 719732. �Wachsmann, S. 2011. Deep-submergence Archaeology. In: A. Catsambis, B. Ford and D.L. Hamilton (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 202-221. Biography Elena Perez-Alvaro, doctor in Underwater Cultural Heritage, is a cultural heritage consultant for Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd. Her primary responsibility is to provide the clients with curatorial specialist advice, from management to legal or uses advice. Her publications consider ethical, legal and management aspects of cultural heritage, including the valuation and interpretation of cultural heritage, protection from climate change, the enhancement of intangible heritage, the relationship between natural and cultural heritage, cultural heritage of colonised countries or the cultural heritage of indigenous communities. She has also undertaken a wide variety of teaching posts, including at university level. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 7: Underwater Cultural Heritage Politics, Laws, Ethics and Values Description An account of the resource All cultural materials are potentially cultural resources. However, because not all of them can be preserved or studied, choices must be made based on evaluation and re-evaluation. Values are learned and depend on cultural, intellectual, historical, and psychological frames of reference. Consequently, valuation is made individually, but is shared by communities. Valuation of underwater cultural heritage has, then, a broad range of determining value depending on the community to which it belongs. A clear example of this is the protection of human remains. The 2001 UNESCO Convention includes, in its definition of underwater cultural heritage, human remains which have been underwater for more than 100 years. However, the Christian philosophy on the treatment of human remains is different to that of Asian philosophy that teaches that human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage since, if they are seen by someone in an underwater site, it is imperative to rescue the human remains and bury them on land according to their beliefs. This session aims to create a forum for policymakers, managers, and archaeologists devoted to underwater cultural heritage where they can share their experiences of and research on the valuation of underwater cultural heritage. We aim to accept papers that help us to understand the definition of ‘underwater cultural heritage’ in the Asia-Pacific regions, comparing those definitions with the definition of the 2001 UNESCO Convention and trying to find a common interpretation. We will also be looking to examine the meaning of the underwater cultural heritage sites and objects for different communities. Finally, we will be expecting papers exploring the different possibilities of the use and/or conservation of this underwater cultural heritage according to the values and needs of the different communities. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Licit Cultural Heritage Ltd., UK Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The ethics behind climate change: Small Island Developing States in the Pacific as new underwater cultural heritage Description An account of the resource Predictions forecast changes in climate that may affect underwater cultural heritage in the future. Warmer waters mean more chemical changes and the proliferation of teredo navalis. Ocean currents may cause disturbances to the layer of sediment protecting underwater cultural heritage sites. The rises in sea levels would reduce the amount of time an air-breathing diver can safely spend under water and hence their productivity. Rises would also mean expansion, which could raise the problem of ocean delimitation. Also our land tangible cultural heritage will be submerged: entire nations and their cultural heritage may disappear, an issue affecting mostly the Small Island Developing States -many of them in the Pacific-, more vulnerable to rises in sea levels. Their identity as citizens of their cities, as members of a community with their own tangible past, complete with their cultural heritage, will disappear. Their land heritage will become underwater cultural heritage but for more than 100 years will not be protected under the 2001 UNESCO Convention. This paper will look at climate change in these Asia-Pacific communities from the ethics as a core element and will study the introduction of these flooded areas as new underwater cultural heritage, proposing an AsiaPacific values-orientated qualification of underwater cultural heritage as a natural resource. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Elena Perez-Alvaro Asia-Pac Session 7 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/108d8a9dea3b67e4cc1eb48328ee8a66.pdf 6f546c4bea76c12b9cce7fcf6a7890ef PDF Text Text The Ethics of Archaeology Documentaries Karen Martin-Stone Abstract Archaeology documentaries are an essential tool in the communication of archaeology to the public. It is in the interests of the discipline to ensure that archaeological research is portrayed accurately and ethically. Various professional archaeology organisations have developed voluntary codes of ethics for their members, yet documentary filmmakers are not bound by an established code of professional ethics. This study investigates whether archaeological codes of ethics can apply to filmmakers of archaeology documentaries, with a specific focus on films with underwater cultural heritage (UCH) subjects. This study also seeks to explore specific ethical considerations. It looks at the range of key stakeholders in archaeology documentaries, including participating archaeologists, the cultural stakeholders of the heritage site (eg. survivors of wreck events, descendants of individuals involved, and affiliated contemporary cultural groups), organisations with heritage management responsibilities, members of the public and interest groups. The concept of “truth” and its representation in film is discussed, as is the impact of filming on the conservation of UCH sites. Introduction Archaeology documentaries are an essential tool in the communication of archaeology to the public. It is in the interests of the discipline to ensure that archaeological research is portrayed accurately and ethically. Documentaries aim to communicate a message in an engaging way to a broad audience. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the nature of ethical collaboration between archaeologists and documentary filmmakers. This study looks at the three fundamental ethical considerations in archaeology documentaries – participants, truth and conservation. It also considers existing archaeological examples of ethical codes, their treatment of the fundamental ethical considerations, and their applicability and enforcement within the documentary sphere. Ethics The ancient Greeks were the first to conceptualise ethics. They had a philosophy that deconstructed applied thought into the three disciplines of aesthetics, epistemology and ethics (Patterson and Wilkins 2008:4). These disciplines sought to understand beauty, knowledge and ‘good’ behaviour. Over time, ethics has come to mean the rational decision-making process when faced with a moral dilemma. Centre and Jackson (2003) have created a simple working definition of ethics as, “standards set by a profession, an organization (sic), or oneself, based on conscience – what is right or fair to others as well as to oneself?” (Centre and Jackson 2003:362). As such, ethics are a cultural construct intended to influence individual behaviour for the greater good. At its most broad, this definition can be understood to include state and national legislation and international legal instruments, such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention). This paper will review three different kinds of ethical codes that apply to underwater archaeology, and discuss them in the context of archaeology documentaries. There is a bias in the examples selected, towards the �Australian experience; however the concepts can be applied to the international experience. Ethics in underwater archaeology Ethical codes in underwater archaeology apply at the level of industry-adopted code, state and territory legislation, national legislation and international legal instruments. Adoption of these codes varies between countries. This study examines three examples to illustrate how ethical principles are upheld. AIMA Code of Ethics The Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (AIMA) Code of Ethics proscribes an archaeologist’s responsibility to the public, to his / her colleagues and to his / her employers and clients. The Code establishes the general aims of encouraging members to: - Represent archaeology in a responsible manner; - Support conservation of the archaeological resource; - Respect the concerns of cultural stakeholders; - Support and promote the discipline of maritime archaeology; and - Maintain professional standards. (after AIMA, undated). The AIMA Code of Ethics is binding on members under the organisation’s constitution [Section 5(15)], and breaches of the Code can result in expulsion from the organisation under Section 32(1) (AIMA 2004:11). Historic Shipwrecks Act (1976) In Australia, the Commonwealth Historic Shipwrecks Act (1976) (the Act) was developed at a time when pressures from treasure hunting required robust measures to prevent the destruction and looting of significant wrecks in Australian waters (Hosty and Stuart 1994:12). The Act provides for: - Blanket protection of shipwrecks and relics over 75 years old in Australian waters; - Protection of shipwrecks and relics less than 75 years old, by Ministerial declaration; - The maintenance of a Register of Historic Shipwrecks; - Prohibition of interference with shipwrecks and relics; - Regulation of permits for the exploration and recovery of wrecks and relics; - Notification of the discovery of wrecks and relics; - Administration of parts of the Act by State and Territory authorities; and - Inspection and seizure measures where an offence may have been committed under the Act. (Commonwealth Consolidated Acts 1976) The Act applies to activity in Commonwealth waters, and is supported by complementary State and Territory legislation that applies in State and Territory waters. The Criminal Code applies to the Act, and offences attract a penalty of up to $AUD10,000 for individuals, or $AUD50,000 for companies. 2001 Convention The 2001 Convention was established at the 2001 UNESCO General Conference. The 2001 Convention has been ratified by thirty-six countries, termed ‘state parties’ �in the Convention, and accepted by four further state parties. The 2001 Convention provides for the following general principles: - In situ preservation of UCH should be considered as the first option; - Commercial exploitation of UCH is fundamentally incompatible with its protection; - Activities directed at UCH shall be as non-destructive as possible, and conducted to the highest possible professional standard; - Public awareness of, and access to, UCH should be promoted, except where incompatible with its protection; and - International co-operation in UCH research and management is encouraged (after UNESCO 2001). The 2001 Convention applies to UCH greater than one hundred years old, in seas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. It is binding only on state party signatories. These signatories are responsible for the seizure and protection of underwater cultural heritage illegally obtained, and for imposing and enforcing sanctions for offences committed under the 2001 Convention. Ethics in documentary practice Professional organisations The documentary filmmaking profession is yet to develop a professional code of ethics for the broad field of documentaries. However, a code of ethics has been developed by the organisation, Filmmakers for Conservation, which focuses on the ethical treatment of animals and the natural environment during the process of filming nature documentaries (Filmmakers for Conservation 2008:1). This paper does not intend to imply that individual documentary filmmakers do not conduct their practice ethically, nor that the profession is averse to the development of a code of ethics. Documentary ethics have been discussed at length in academic and mainstream media (for example, Aufderheide, et al. 2009; Butchart 2006; Donovan 2008; Maccarone 2010; Nash 2009; Nichols 2001; Rosenthal and& Corner 2005; Schilt 2000; Winston 2000). Despite this, “documentary ethics remains a field characterised by a focus on crises and the application of multiple ethical theories and concepts” (Nash 2011:1). Commonwealth legislation Australia does not have specific legislation for media practice, only media ownership. It has neither Constitutional protection nor a Bill of Rights protecting freedom of expression. Some freedom of expression is regulated by States and Territories through racial vilification and defamation legislation, and it is possible that censorship laws, “may also be used to prevent freedom of speech by restricting distribution of certain films and publications, although these laws now serve mainly to classify publications according to the age groups which can see them, rather than preventing their publication” (Jordan 2002:3). In practice, the High Court is seen to protect freedom of expression rights through its interpretation of the Constitution and common law (Williams 2000:35). International legal instruments Unlike UCH, media expression has not received the focus of a specific international legal instrument. However, the concept of freedom of expression has been enshrined in an international legal instrument. The Universal Declaration of Human �Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Article 19 of the UDHR specifies that: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers (UN General Assembly 2011:5). The UDHR has held the force of international law since 1976, as part of the International Bill of Human Rights. Ethical considerations in archaeology documentaries Documentary filmmakers are not journalists. Clarifying the position of documentary filmmakers within the broad category of ‘mass media’ will assist archaeologists to make informed decisions about the mass communication of their work. Many governments include film and television in a group of professions termed “creative industries” (Flew 2005:118). Documentary theorists accept that representing reality involves creating a fiction, in the sense that it necessarily involves artifice, contrivance, selectivity and subjectivity (Eitzen 1995:82). At their core, documentaries are non-fiction films that tell a story. Like all story-telling, documentary films often have a point of view. Film theorist, Erik Barnouw (1993), categorises the various forms of documentary according to their point of view: explorer, reporter, painter, advocate, bugler, prosecutor, poet, chronicler, promoter, observer, catalyst and guerrilla (after Barnouw 1993:v). These categories demonstrate the storied nature of documentary, and the fundamental difference between journalism and documentary: that documentary does not claim to be objective. “[T]he documentarian’s concern is to win an audience’s assent, not provide an ‘information transfer’ device or simply entertain” (Nichols 2006:1). The necessary selectivity of the documentary editing process, in order to tell a story, inevitably draws questions over the ethics of selectively portraying reality. These questions usually reflect concern about the documentary representation of participants (responsibility to subjects) or truth (responsibility to audience) (Nichols 2006:1-2). Archaeology documentaries also have an implied responsibility to manage risk to the featured cultural heritage. Participants The need for archaeologists to address ethical issues around people has been well documented (see, for example, World Archaeological Congress, 1990; Zimmerman, et al. 2003). Ethical issues are mostly consistent across terrestrial and underwater archaeology, and include addressing an archaeologist’s responsibility to descendant and Indigenous communities, the discipline of archaeology, organisational stakeholders and diverse publics. The archaeologist takes responsibility for external people – the amorphous ‘them.’ Film theorist, Bill Nichols, asks, “What Do We Do with People When We Make a Documentary?” (Nichols 2001:5). This is the ethical question central to documentary filmmaking. “Filmmakers who set out to represent people whom they do not initially know but who typify or have special knowledge of a problem or issue of interest run the risk of exploiting them” (Nichols 2001:9). Nichols (2001:5) contends that a human subject’s value to the filmmaker lies in, “the ways in which their everyday behaviour and personality serves the needs of the filmmaker”. As �such, a power imbalance is inherent in the filmmaker-participant relationship. In the documentary context, archaeologists now face an internal, powerless ethical situation – they become part of the amorphous ‘them.’ The ‘us and them’ power imbalance between filmmaker and archaeologists is central to the discussion of ethics in archaeology documentaries. Brian Fagan and Mark Rose (2003:164) note that, “on all too many occasions, we [archaeologists] have almost no control over the content, even over what is being said”. They advocate that archaeologists carefully balance the ethical dilemma of promoting the findings of science within the demands of a television marketplace. Brian Winston (2000:162) proposes that the filmmaker’s power over the participant should be renounced by taking the stance of an advocate or enabler, though he admits this is ‘unlikely’ when the ‘powerless’ participants are exploited by the media industry. Each participant or stakeholder in a documentary will have an expectation that their concerns will be handled sensitively and accurately by the filmmaker. So how do established codes of ethics protect the participants in archaeology documentaries? First, we must acknowledge who the participants are. The key stakeholders in underwater archaeology documentaries include: - participating archaeologists; - owners of the site; - cultural stakeholders of the heritage site (eg. survivors of wreck events, descendants of individuals involved, affiliated contemporary cultural groups, and organisations with heritage management responsibilities); - members of the public and / or the audience; and - other interest groups, including salvors. The codes of ethics profiled in this paper address some, but not all, stakeholder groups. The AIMA Code of Ethics requires members to respect the concerns of cultural stakeholders, and addresses the concerns of archaeologists through its requirements for professional standards of conduct, promotion of the discipline and responsible representation of archaeology. Members of the public / the audience are addressed through the 2001 Convention’s requirement that public awareness be promoted. The 2001 Convention also encourages co-operative research and site management, which benefits archaeologists and cultural stakeholders. Owners of the site and other interest groups are not explicitly acknowledged, however they may have other avenues of recourse to address any concerns. It is pertinent to note that the AIMA Code of Ethics is not binding on a documentary filmmaker (or any other non-member), and the 2001 Convention is only binding on state party signatories. Therefore, it is incumbent upon archaeologists participating in a documentary to seek information about the filmmaker’s ethical position and to communicate comprehensively about ethical issues. Truth The archaeologist’s version or representation of their research may not be consistent with the story or point of view the filmmaker wishes to represent. “[T]he narratives often applied to archaeology revolve around words like ancient, secret, mystery, lost, civilisation, empire, detective” (Henson 2005:2). Archaeologists with significant experience working with television documentaries have concluded, “All you can do is ensure that the science is compromised as little as possible, realizing that some loss of integrity, some overstatement, is inevitable” (Fagan & Rose 2003:165). �Truth in underwater archaeology is encouraged by the AIMA Code of Ethics’ requirement to represent archaeology responsibly and to respect the concerns and input of cultural stakeholders. The 2001 Convention’s emphasis on collaborative research and management of UCH also places value on the perspectives of cultural stakeholders. Again, it should be noted that neither of these codes necessarily apply to the documentary filmmaker. The right to freedom of expression upheld by the UDHR enshrines an individual’s right to represent their perspective, regardless of an audience’s perception of the truth value of that perspective. In Australia, there are no professional organisation codes of ethics, nor State, Territory or Commonwealth legislation that influence a documentary filmmaker with regards to representing ‘truth.’ However, “truth” is a subjective judgement, and there may be multiple truths and perspectives threading through a single story. A documentary filmmaker must edit reality to tell a story, and create his or her own version of truth. While relatively powerless in the filmmaker-participant dynamic, the risk of being blatantly misrepresented is probably low, particularly if an archaeologist has ensured their research is ethically sound. Perhaps most vulnerable are the local and descendant communities that archaeologists must reach out to when they use the media and that the media must treat fairly if they intend to profit by them. (Fagan & Rose 2003:174). Conservation The conservation of UCH is better protected than participants and truth through the process of filming a documentary. The AIMA Code of Ethics, the Historic Shipwrecks Act (1976) and the 2001 Convention all provide for the protection and conservation of UCH. While there are limits to the protection provided by the Act and the 2001 Convention, the Act is equally binding on the filmmaker as it is on the archaeologist. The 2001 Convention only protects cultural heritage greater than one hundred years old, and the Act shipwrecks greater than 75 years old (unless through Ministerial declaration). While age is a useful determinant for applying blanket protection, it has no regard for the significance of the cultural heritage being protected. Consequently, it does not protect more recent UCH that may be deemed to hold cultural or archaeological significance, such as wrecks associated with wars or natural disasters, until such time as these sites have been identified, assessed, nominated for protection and declared by the Minister to be a historic shipwreck under Section 5 of the Act. Conclusion This study has found that there are fewer codes of ethics that apply to filmmakers than apply to archaeologists. When these codes were assessed according to their effect within archaeology documentaries, it was found that while archaeologists may be bound by an enforceable code of ethics in their research, there was little protection guaranteeing that the archaeologists would be ethically represented by the filmmakers. This imbalance of power in the filmmaker-participant relationship requires archaeologists to take a proactive approach to addressing their concerns within the filmmaking process. �Regardless of the shortcomings of the various codes, it is clear that both professions embrace discussion of ethical considerations and the development of ethical approaches. This paper seeks to open an interdisciplinary dialogue to balance filmmakers’ requirements within ethical archaeological practice, to achieve a satisfactory outcome for all participants. With clear communication and wholehearted collaboration, it is expected that mutually beneficial productions can be developed in a highly ethical manner. Formatted: Font: 12 pt Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge the contribution of Ms. Helen Carter, Dr. Julia Erhart and Associate Professor Heather Burke to the development of the ideas in this paper. Any errors are the responsibility of the author. Formatted: Font: 12 pt �Bibliography AIMA (Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Inc.), n.d. AIMA Code of Ethics, Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Inc., viewed 25 August 2011, <http://www.aima.iinet.net.au/home/ethics.pdf> AIMA (Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Inc.), 2004 Constitution and Amendments, Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Inc. viewed 25 August 2011, <http://aima.iinet.net.au/frames/aimavtframe.html> Aufderheide, P., Jaszi, P., amd Chandra, M., 2009 Honest Truths: Documentary filmmakers on ethical challenges in their work, American University Center for Social Media viewed 25 August 2011, <http://www.centerforsocialmedia.org/sites/default/files/Honest_ Truths__Documentary_Filmmakers_on_Ethical_Challenges_in_Their_ Work.pdf> Barnouw, E., 1993 Documentary: a history of the non-fiction film. Oxford University Press. Butchart, G.C., 2006 “On ethics and documentary: a real and actual truth,” in Communication Theory, 16, pp.:427-452. Centre, A.H., and & Jackson, P., 2003 “Standards, Ethics and Values” in Public Relations Practices: Managerial Case Studies and Problems, (6th edition). Prentice Hall, pp. 363-401. Commonwealth Consolidated Acts, n.d. Historic Shipwrecks Act, 1976, viewed 25 August 2011, <http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/hsa1976235/ > Donovan, K., 2008 Tagged: A Case Study in Documentary Ethics. PhD Thesis, University of Technology, Sydney. Eitzen, D., 1995 “When is a documentary?: documentary as a mode of reception” in Cinema Journal, 35,:1, pp.:81-102 Fagan, B., and & Rose, M., 2003 "Ethics and the media",. iIn (eds) Larry J. Zimmerman, Karen D. L.J., Vitelli, K.D., and Julie Hollowell-Zimmer, and Julia J. Hollowell, J. (eds), Ethical Issues in Archaeology,. Altamira Press, in cooperation with the Society for American Archaeology, Walnut Creek, Lanham, New York and Oxford. Formatted Table �Filmmakers for Conservation, 2008 Code of Ethics, Filmmakers for Conservation, viewed 27 August 2011, <http://www.filmmakersforconservation.org/conservationfilmmaking/code-of-ethics.html> Flew, T., 2005 “Creative Industries” in New Media: an Introduction, (2nd edition). Oxford University Press, pp. 115-139. Henson, D., 2005 “Television archaeology: education or entertainment?” in the online proceedings of the History in British Education (first conference), University of London’s Vice-Chancellor’s Fund, viewed 27 August 2011, <http://www.history.ac.uk/resources/history-in-britisheducation/first-conference/henson-paper> Hosty, K., and& Stuart, I., 1994 Jordan, R., 2002 “Maritime archaeology over the last twenty years,” in Australian Archaeology, 39, pp.:9-19 Maccarone, E.M., 2010 “Ethical responsibilities to subjects and documentary filmmaking,’ in Journal of Mass Media Ethics 25(3):192-206. Nash, K., 2009 Beyond the Frame: A study in observational documentary ethics. PhD Thesis, University of New England, Armidale. Nash, K., 2011 “Beyond the frame: researching documentary ethics,” in Broderick, M., & Leahy, G., (eds), TEXT Special Issue, ASPERA: New Screens, New Producers, New Learning: Papers from the Australian Screen Production Education and Research Association Conference of July 2010, viewed 25 August 2011, <http://www.documentary.org/content/what-doabout-documentary-distortion-toward-code-ethics-0> Nichols, B., 1991 Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. Nichols, B., 2001 Introduction to Documentary. Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis. Nichols, B., 2006 What to Do About Documentary Distortion? Toward a Code of Ethics, viewed 25 August 2011, <http://www.documentary.org/content/what-do-aboutdocumentary-distortion-toward-code-ethics-0> Patterson, P., and & Wilkins, L., Media Ethics. Issues and Cases. (6th edition). McGraw Hill, New York. Free Speech and the Constitution. Research Note no. 42 200102, Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia, viewed 25 August 2011, <http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/200102/02rn42.htm> �2008 Rosenthal, A., and& Corner, J., (eds.), 2005 New Challenges for Documentary, 2nd edition. Manchester University Press, Manchester and New York. Schilt, P., 2000 “Media whores and perverse media: documentary film meets tabloid TV in Nick Broomfield’s Wuornos: The Selling of a Serial Killer. In Velvet Light Trap 45 (Spring), 50-61. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, viewed 25 August 2011, <http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwatercultural-heritage/the-2001-convention/official-text/> United Nations The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), viewed 25 General Assembly, August 2011, <http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/> n.d. Williams, G., 2000 Winston, B., 2000 A Bill of Rights for Australia, University of NSW Press, Sydney. World Archaeological Congress, 1990 World Archaeological Congress Code of Ethics, viewed 27 August 2011, <http://www.worldarchaeologicalcongress.org/site/about_ethi.p hp> Zimmerman, L.J., Vitelli, K.D., and Hollowell-Zimmer, J. (eds), 2003 Ethical Issues in Archaeology. Altamira Press, in cooperation with the Society for American Archaeology, Walnut Creek, Lanham, New York and Oxford. Lies, Damn Lies and Documentaries. British Film Institute Publishing, London. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Ethics of Archaeology Documentaries Subject The topic of the resource Session 5 UCH in the Making… online session Description An account of the resource Archaeology documentaries are an essential tool in the communication of archaeology to the public. It is in the interests of the discipline to ensure that archaeological research is portrayed accurately and ethically. Various professional archaeology organisations have developed voluntary codes of ethics for their members, yet documentary filmmakers are not bound by an established code of professional ethics. This study investigates whether archaeological codes of ethics can apply to filmmakers of archaeology documentaries, with a specific focus on films with underwater cultural heritage (UCH) subjects. This study also seeks to explore specific ethical considerations. It looks at the range of key stakeholders in archaeology documentaries, including participating archaeologists, the cultural stakeholders of the heritage site (eg. survivors of wreck events, descendants of individuals involved, and affiliated contemporary cultural groups), organisations with heritage management responsibilities, members of the public and interest groups. The concept of “truth” and its representation in film is discussed, as is the impact of filming on the conservation of UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Karen Martin-Stone Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-Distance Contacts between Oceania and East Africa Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Blench, Roger Julian Reade Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Blench, Roger Editor Julian Reade Item Type Book Section Book Title The Indian Ocean in Antiquity Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Pages 417-38 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Title A name given to the resource The Ethnographic Evidence for Long-Distance Contacts between Oceania and East Africa https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/99fa28cddc8bac103ef9f04b52d265c8.pdf ae2468f942b018da26c628be8e87d652 PDF Text Text The experimental reconstructions of the Punjulharjo boat from Indonesia: New insights for understanding the lashed-lug boatbuilding techniques. Chiara Zazzaro (Università di Napoli L’Orientale, Italy) Agni Mochtar (Università di Napoli L’Orientale, Italy; National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Indonesia) Luigi Ombrato (Università di Napoli Federico II, Italy) ABSTRACT The article presents the methodology applied for the re-investigation and for the experimental reconstruction of the Punjulharjo boat, the most complete Southeast Asian lashed-lug boat found to date. This work, based on archaeological data, ethnographic, and iconographic sources, brought better understanding of the boat and of the lashed-lug system. Archaeological data were gathered through direct observation of the Punjulharjo boat remains displayed on the original finding location and examination of photos taken during the excavation. The reconstruction approach was engineering and experimental, it consisted in producing hypothetical representations of the Punjulharjo boat, in digital, virtual and 3D print form. As a result, the team identified different lashing systems, hypothesized diverse uses of the lugs within the planking joinery and vertical structures, illustrated the complexity of the planking pattern and hypothesized the aspect and location (or relocation) of the beams, rudders, mast, and other superstructures. Keywords: photogrammetry, 3D modelling, hypothetical restitution, and land shipwreck List of figures Figure 1. Map showing the distribution of boat remains with lashed-lug joints, found in Southeast Asia. (Photo Agni Mochtar). Figure 2. Photo showing the location of the Punjulharjo boat exhibit hall. (Photo: Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa). Figure 3. Adze mark (a). Saw mark (b). (Photo: Chiara Zazzaro). Figure 4. Agni Mochtar taking wood samples from the Punjulharjo boat. (Photo: Chiara Zazzaro). Figure 5. Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa doing the photogrammetry of the Punjulharjo boat. (Photo: Chiara Zazzaro). INTRODUCTION The Punjulharjo boat belongs to the shell-first, lashed-lug construction, one of the boat building traditions in Southeast Asia. To date, over twenty sites with boat remains showing lashed-lug construction have been found in Southeast Asia, unfortunately, unless the Punjulharjo boat, most of them are fragmentary (Figure 1) (Manguin 2019; Shinatria 2018). The most prominent feature of this tradition is the protruding lugs carved out on the edge-joined hull planks, where the frames were placed on to and were lashed with ropes (usually Arenga pinnata, sugar palm). Plank fastening consists of ligatures, dowels, or a combination of both. Another characteristic of this type of construction is the use of a keel plank and wing ends, two or more overlapped wooden blocks on each extremity. The shell-first wooden construction and the use of the edge-joint dowels is still employed today in some boatyards in Indonesia, while the lashed-lug construction is more rarely attested (see Lamalera, East Nusa Tenggara, Barnes 1996). Comparable quarter rudders fittings, wing ends, and further construction 1 �Figure 1. Map showing the distribution of boat remains with lashed-lug joints, found in Southeast Asia. (Photo Agni Mochtar). features are attested in contemporary Indonesian boats, therefore the ethnographic method has been largely applied together with archaeological and iconographic comparisons for the reconstruction of the possible original aspect of the boat. After presenting the previous and current state of our knowledge on the Punjulharjo boat, the authors will discuss the methodology applied for the study of the environmental context and of the boat architecture, as well as methods and procedures employed for the analysis of the hull (distortions and species analysis), to understand the use and function of the boat and to achieve a preliminary hypothetical reconstructions of the original aspect of the boat. The final results will be presented in a comprehensive forthcoming publication. CASE STUDY The Punjulharjo boat is the most ancient complete wooden vessel known to date in Southeast Asia, found in the village of Punjulharjo, District of Rembang in 2008. The boat was buried below ca. 2 meters of intertidal soil, 500 meters from the actual shoreline, in an area today occupied by salters. Today, the boat is displayed in a semi-open building in its original finding location (Figure 2). After the initial finding, an excavation was conducted by Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta in 2009. The excavation team found that the hull was still intact from the bow to the stern with only a few upper strakes missing, many internal strengthening components were also still intact. The team reported that 2 �Figure 2. Photo showing the location of the Punjulharjo boat exhibit hall. (Photo: Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa). the boat was 15.6m in length, 4.6m in width amidship. The planks were fastened by dowels and lashings, while frames, stringers, and stanchions were fastened exclusively by lashings. The reports from the 2009 excavation provided us with remarkable information about the boat (Siswanto 2010). However, at that time the boat was not analyzed using nautical archaeological approach and thus, many technological aspects of the boat were overlooked. One example is that the drawing of the plan view is missing important information about the plank fastening, resulting in inconsistency. After the excavation, the boat was handed over to the heritage preservation office and later was subjected to a lengthy conservation treatment using Polyethylene Glycol 400/4000. For conservation purposes, the hull was dismantled. Upon the completion of the treatment, the timbers were re-assembled, and the final result is what we can see now in the exhibition hall. Unfortunately, aside from a few floor timbers, all the internal strengthening components were broken down into small pieces and could not be reassembled. During the last phase of the conservation, Agni Mochtar visited the site and re-examined the boat remains with a new perspective, using nautical archaeological approach for her master degree thesis (Mochtar 2018). The re-examination of the boat provided a better understanding of the building technique of the boat. Correction and addition were made to the previous drawings to offer a better representation of the actual boat. Mochtar has added all the ligature holes on the planks to show how the hull was fastened, she also notices that there is a pattern in the dowel and ligature holes on the seam of the planks: one set consists of a pair of ligature holes flanked by one dowel hole on each side, and in between two sets there is an additional dowel hole. From this analysis, it was concluded that even though the boat was rather medium in size, the hull was robust with sufficient fastenings and internal strengthening. The thickness of the plank and the rigid bow and stern assembly also contributed to this. Ligatures were the primary fastening, supported by dowels in the planks seam, and with an addition of mortise and tenon on the extremities. The ligatures provided strong fastening, but at the same time gave enough flexibility to make the hull more durable. 3 �Mochtar’s master thesis also recorded a different measurement of the boat from the survey and excavation reports, especially the width of the beam. However, a closer investigation of the reason behind this was beyond the scope of her thesis, other than merely suspecting an incorrect postconservation reconstruction process (Mochtar 2018). In February and December 2020, a team of the Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” and Universitas Indonesia including Ginanjar Purnawibawa, visited the site of Punjulharjo with the aim to integrate the current state of knowledge of the boat with new observations and surveys. This team conducted a close inspection of the hull and a photogrammetry survey to provide a permanent record of the current state of conservation of the boat and for further study aimed at the analysis and reconstruction of the original aspect of the boat. The team also took over 300 detail photographs of the boat, aimed at detecting/showing tool marks, details of the joinery, plank distortions etc., and photographed the materials associated with the shipwreck kept in the site storage, including jars and bowl fragments, and bones. In January 2022 a team of Puslit Arkenas, Balai Arkeologi D.I. Yogyakarta, now BRIN, Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” and Universitas Indonesia visited the site, once again, to take systematic sampling of the wood species and to sample the sediments associated to the context of finding of the boat for geoarchaeological analysis. METHODS AND PROCEDURES OF THE 2020 AND 2022 FIELD SEASONS The study of the environmental context Boats found in land context usually share similar issues related to their study and interpretative process, so as similar approaches to survey methods; they are either been intentionally buried, or stranded / beached, or have been buried for environmental changing (Delgado 2013). For the Punjulharjo boat the first case can be excluded, as there is no evidence of rituals or related findings, therefore the second two options can be considered. Preliminary geomorphological and geoarchaeological investigations about the area were conducted by Carlo Donadio and Andri Purnomo with assistance of the team on the field. Considering that the boat was moved from its original context and that the boat’s exhibit hall has been built exactly in the same place where the boat was found, the team had to examine the environment in the area around and select a suitable spot where to sample the sediments for sedimentary analysis. The area selected for stratigraphic sampling was 47 meters south of the boat’s current position, this was estimated not to be contaminated or disturbed by modern activities. Soil samples were taken from sediment layers which were estimated to have come from the same stratigraphy of the site at the time of the discovery of the Punjulharjo boat, based on photographic documentation of excavation activities carried out by Balai Arkeologi D.I. Yogyakarta in 2009. The position of the sampling area was recorded by GPS and a stratigraphic section was excavated using simple tools (trowel, meter). Three soil samples were then taken from three different layers, each sample contained ± 500 g of soil. The sediments were then analyzed in the laboratories of the University of Napoli Federico II. The results of the analyses, together with a comprehensive interpretation, will be presented later in the final report of this project. Further observation on construction features Main observations on the construction features of the Punjulharjo boats were already conducted by Agni Mochtar for her master degree thesis (Mochtar 2018). Further observations conducted on the site in 4 �2020 included an inventory of tool marks, and systematic dowels and lugs distance measurements. Despite almost all the original dowels were substituted with new one during the restoration process, it was still possible to measure their original location either on the site using a meter or on the digital 3D model in areas that were not physically reachable. The patterns of the dowels distribution is confirmed as described by Mochtar (2018), the distance of the dowels from center to center is ca. 9-11cm in average with larger gaps in proximity of the stitches. As for the lugs, the lugs size is slightly variable, distances among lugs are pretty regular: ca. 83-88 cm from center to center and wider, up to 1 m in between the VII and the VIII frame from the stern, therefore in the aft part of the boat (see also Mochtar 2018). A portion of the planking with the lugs was 3D print in scale in order to experiment the lashing and stitching system manually. As for the tool marks: it was not always easy to detect them, considering the conservation treatment which may have affected the aspect of the wood surface or marks that may have been due to postexcavation manipulations. Despite that, adze marks were detected on the planking outer surface and on the rudder beam. Some are deep and almost perpendicular to the wood surface, others are tangent to the surface, both belonging to a tool bearing a blade ca. 4cm wide. Saw marks were detected in correspondence of all the lugs on the sides facing stern and the stem (Figure 3a). Possible chisel marks were also observed to finish the fittings of the rudder beam (Figure 3b). Wood sampling The 2009 report on the excavation of the Punjulharjo boat reported the identification of wood species only from three different parts of the boat, namely from a hull plank, a dowel, and a frame. The aim of the new research was to obtain a comprehensive information on the boat’s construction materials based on a greater number of samples and a more controlled collection and analysis process (Figure 4a). Wood samples were taken from all hull planks, the beam, stanchions, and frames. They were carefully taken using a knife and/or drill in non-visible areas. For each sampled area of the boat, photographic documentation of the conditions before and after the sampling was carried out. The sampling position was then recorded and mapped on the orthophoto extrapolated from the three-dimensional survey of the boat. The following samples were collected: 26 samples from the hull planks, 7 samples from the frames, 1 sample of the rudder beam, 3 samples from the dowels. Wood samples are in course of analyses by the Anatomy and Quality of Lignocellulose Materials laboratory (http://xylarium.pustekolah.org), at the Forest Products Research and Development Center of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Indonesia (http://hasilhutan.litbang.menlhk.go.id/). The photogrammetry survey and further analysis Previous survey methods on the Punjulharjo boat were conducted for the first time during the excavation in 2009, before the boat was dismantled for conservative purpose. The result was a series of drawings including a plan view, a longitudinal section and 17 cross sections corresponding to each lug alignment (Siswanto 2010). Plans and sections were drawn entirely by hand, an automatic level was used to determine the z coordinates of a number of points noted on the plan. These drawings lack descriptive details about the aspect of the wood, actual shape and size of the different elements, and dowels pattern. This may have been partially due to the high number of difficult areas to reach, to the intrinsic complexity of the boat construction, the high number of corners, and the in situ condition. The difficulties to represent the details in the previous drawings, due to the high number of corners for the presence of the lugs, and the difficult areas to reach, brought the team to choose a detailed photogrammetry as the best survey method. 5 �Figure 3. Adze mark (a, left). Saw mark (b, right). (Photo: Chiara Zazzaro). For the photogrammetry the team used two types of cameras, a Canon M100, taking up to 712 photos and a Sony RX100 II, taking up to 1021 photos, and a Drone DJI Mavic 2 Pro, taking up to 72 photographs. This latter was used to survey both the site around the museum and to obtain orthophotos of the plan view of the boat, to have more details of the inner hull, otherwise difficult to reach (Figure 4b). A close-range photogrammetry of a beam element was also conducted. The beam was found near the stern of the ship and was interpreted as a beam for positioning the rudders. Photographs were then processed using the software PhotoScan Pro, to produce point cloud, mesh, a 3D model of the boat and orthophotos. The 3D model was used as a basis to understand and correct the distortion and to integrate the missing parts of the hull. Observations made on the site were combined and completed with those made on the digital model. By reflecting and overlapping a series of sections, the team could better estimate the level of asymmetry, distortions and anomalies among port and starboard side of the hull which is too much for being proper of the boat: it could be due to the wreckage or to the depositional process, or to the reconstruction process after the restoration. Sheer fractures and sheer stress, due to rotation, were also noticed. In this case, the team tried to estimate the flexions of the sheer and mediate the asymmetry among the two sides. The corrected sections were used to extrapolate naval lines, the hypothetical original shape of the boat. As an example, the team suggested a correction of the width at amidship from 3.50m, as measured on the site, to ca. 3.37m, after correction. From the 3D model the team could also extrapolate a shell expansion plan, in this, length and width of the planks are respected, and their original shape is reconstructed mediating among the gaps and worn parts. These parts were carefully observed and measured on the field in 2020, in order to distinguish traces of decay and/or distortions and to integrate them in the most accurate way. Rotation inboard or outboard and angles of distortion in the planks seams were also recorded. The planking pattern shows that the central planks are much longer than those at fore and aft. Here, planks have joggled edges and hook scarfs: an intricate system to fit planks together preventing longitudinal slippage. Boatbuilders were forced to use shorter planks at fore and aft, but at the same time they had to prevent longitudinal slippage, considering that all the fastening elements, ligatures/stitches, dowels and lashings run transversally and there is nothing else to ensure longitudinal strength/compactness. Concerning the beam, originally found near the stern, this was interpreted as possible rudder beam and it was relocated on the stern, although it was difficult to decide at which height of the hull it should be relocated. At this scope the team had to try different fittings manipulating the beam digitally and rotating 6 �Figure 4. Agni Mochtar taking wood samples from the Punjulharjo boat (a, left). Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa doing the photogrammetry of the Punjulharjo boat (b, right). (Photos: Chiara Zazzaro). it according to the visible features, such as grooves, holes and cavities, until it could fit in the hypothetical right place on the hull. The reconstruction process The reconstruction process consisted in integrating data collected from the in-depth study of the boat and from the 3D photogrammetric model with the evidence from other archaeological remains and from iconographic and ethnographic evidence. The internal strengthening, the lashing and stitching system were modeled based on previous excavation photos, ethnographic comparisons, such as the lashed-lug system employed in contemporary boats from Lamalera (Barnes 1996; Dwyer and Akerman 1996), and using an experimental approach. This consisted in printing three 3D digital models of hull portions to experiment the characteristics of the internal construction and the various options and combinations of the lashing and stitching systems recorded. The last step of the reconstruction process consisted in integrating not attested parts of the boat, such the mast, the sail and the rudder. These parts were reconstructed using ethnographic data from Lamalera and from ethnographic accounts, but also using iconographic comparisons, e.g. the representations of ships in the Borbudur temple. The result is a hypothetic 3D virtual reconstruction of the Punjulharjo boat. Acknowledgements Tri Subekso (Dinas Kebudayaan, Kepemudaan, dan Olahraga Kabupaten Semarang) and Retna Dyah Radityawati (Dinas Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata Rembang) accompanied during the visit. The fieldwork was conducted under the auspicious of the Indonesian Ministry of Research and Technology and of the Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional (Arkenas), and it was conducted in the context of a long-term joint research project of the Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”, Universitas Indonesia and Arkenas titled: Indonesian Endangered Boatbuilding Knowledge, started in 2019. This interdisciplinary project aims at investigating Indonesian ancient and contemporary boatbuilding practices documenting the archaeological, ethnographic and linguistic evidence in selected areas of the country. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnes, R. H. Sea Hunters of Indonesia: Fishers and Weavers of Lamalera. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1996. Burningham, Nick. “Indonesian quarter-rudder mountings.” IJNA 29, no 1 (1996): 100–119. https://doi.org/10.1006/ijna.2000. 0271. Delgado, J. P. “Ships on Land.” In The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, edited by Ben Ford, Donny L. Hamilton, and Alexis Catsambis, 182–191. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Dwyer, D., and K. Akerman. “The Pelédang: The lashed-lug whaling craft of Lamalera, Lomblen (Lembata), Nusa Tenggara Timur, Indonesia.” The Beagle: Records of the Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory 14 (1996): 123–147. Horridge, G. A. “The Lashed‐lug Boat of the Eastern Archipelagoes, the Alcina MS and the Lomblen Whaling Boats.” Maritime Monographs and Reports 54. London: National Maritime Museum, 1982. Lacsina, L. “Examining Pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan boats and the Use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques.” Phd diss., Flinders University, 2016. https://www.academia.edu/download/54-800536/ThesisLacsina2016.pdf Manguin, P.-Y. The Boat Remains of Punjulharjo: A preliminary report. EFEO, 2009. Manguin, P.‐Y. “Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: The stitched‐plank and lashed‐lug tradition.” IJNA 48 (2019): 400–415. Mochtar, A. S. “The Seventh-century Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: A study of the early Southeast Asian lashed-lug boatbuilding tradition.” Master diss., Flinders University, 2018. https://flex.flinders.edu.au/file/5b8a6d45-1c8d-4a109647e24526ef1714/1/ThesisMochtar2018.pdf Nishino, N., T. Aoyama, J. Kimura, T. Nogami, and T. L. Le. “Nishimura Masanari’s Study of the Earliest Known Shipwreck Found in Vietnam.” Asian Review of World Histories 5 (2017): 106–122. Priyanto, Waluyo Agus. “Conservation Research and Treatment Programs: Case Study of Ancient Boat Site in Rembang Regency.” The MUA Collection, 2020. Accessed September 23, 2020. http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1263. Purnawibowo, S., and A. Restiyadi. Identifikasi Tinggalan Arkeologi Maritim di Situs Bukit Bongal, Tapanuli Tengah, Sumatera Utara. Balai Arkeologi Provinsi Sumatera Utara, 2020. Siswanto, and N. Abbas. “Ringkasan Hasil Penelitian Situs Perahu Punjulharjo, Kabupaten Rembang.” Varuna Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, 2010. Suranto, Y. “Sumbangan Pemikiran Bagi Penanganan Perahu Kuna Punjulharjo Rembang.” Varuna Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, 2010. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Experimental Reconstructions of the Punjulharjo Boat from Indonesia: New Insights for Understanding the Lashed-lug Boatbuilding Techniques. Description An account of the resource The article presents the methodology applied for the re-investigation and for the experimental reconstruction of the Punjulharjo boat, the most complete Southeast Asian lashed-lug boat found to date. This work, based on archaeological data, ethnographic, and iconographic sources, brought better understanding of the boat and of the lashed-lug system. Archaeological data were gathered through direct observation of the Punjulharjo boat remains displayed on the original finding location and examination of photos taken during the excavation. The reconstruction approach was engineering and experimental, it consisted in producing hypothetical representations of the Punjulharjo boat, in digital, virtual and 3D print form. As a result, the team identified different lashing systems, hypothesized diverse uses of the lugs within the planking joinery and vertical structures, illustrated the complexity of the planking pattern and hypothesized the aspect and location (or relocation) of the beams, rudders, mast, and other superstructures. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chiara Zazzaro Agni Mochtar Luigi Ombrato Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Zazzaro, Chiara. 2023. “The experimental reconstructions of the Punjulharjo boat: New insights for understanding the lashed-lug boatbuilding techniques.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1945 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/50a6ebaedfbb04f8fdaf5f0392f860b0.pdf 6512df859210b201a29fa40dbe801fff PDF Text Text The Fates of Hepingdao and Dashawan: Challenges of coastal archaeological sites in northern Taiwan Ellen Hsieh (Deputy Director, National Tsing Hua University, Research Center for Underwater Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT Although an in-situ exhibition after an excavation is ideal for public archaeology, it is also challenging for several reasons. This paper compares the cultural heritage management of two coastal archaeological sites in Keelung, northern Taiwan, from excavation to presentation to the public. In 2019, archeologists funded by the government excavated the remaining structures of a seventeenth-century Spanish church at Hepingdao and those of a nineteenth-century Chinese fort at Dashawan. Together, these sites reflect the rich history of Keelung and the dynamics of regional maritime history, as the church is the only tangible cultural heritage of the Spanish colonial period in Taiwan (1626-1642), and the fort is the only excavated archaeological site associated with the Sino-French War (1884-1885). Moreover, the prehistoric and protohistoric cultural layers in both sites provide critical data regarding how indigenous communities used marine resources and participated in maritime networks. Although both sites were designated municipal archaeological sites after the excavations, different arrangements were made: the trenches at Hepingdao remain open, and an in-situ exhibition center is planned, whereas the archeological discovery of the Dashawan fort has been backfilled, even though the archaeologist also promoted an in-situ exhibition strategy. This paper analyzes the environmental and social factors considered and the consequences of the subsequent arrangements from site preservation and public archaeology perspectives. Keywords: maritime archaeology, cultural heritage management, public archaeology, site preservation LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Locations of Hepingdao, Dashawan, and Keelung City Center Figure 2 Hepingdao B Site under the temporary tent Figure 3 Dashawan Site after backfill INTRODUCTION In-situ exhibitions are ideal for public archaeology once sites with significant educational and economic values have been recognized. In contrast to backfilling the site or moving the unique structure to another place, an in-situ exhibition maintains the integrity and authenticity of the site. Visitors can study archaeological methods and theory at the same time as they view structures and artifacts. Tourism and other indirect profits usually carry a certain weight in decision-making (Murray 1980; Gogová 2016). However, this strategy also faces various practical challenges, ranging from conservation technology to climate (Lu 1993; Doumas 1998). This paper analyses the decision-making and the consequences of managing two archaeological sites along the coast of Keelung, Hepingdao (HPD) and Dashawan (DSW), in northern Taiwan. Both sites contain multicultural layers, from the Neolithic period to the twentieth-century Japanese colonial period. The highlight of Hepingao is the foundation of Todos los Santos Church, the first Christian monument built during the Spanish colonial period (1626-1642); the latter site features the remaining structure of the Dashawan Fort, a battlefield of the Sino-French War (1884-1885). Both excavations were conducted in the same year, and both were funded by the government. However, very different arrangements were made for each site, as the site at Hepingao was slated for an in-situ exhibition while that at Dashawan was backfilled to resemble an untouched state. These decisions, influenced by the coastal environment, archaeological findings, and local contexts, had different influences on the two sites and the public visiting them. Aligned with the main thrust of Session 13, the environment emerged as one of the most critical decision-making factors in both cases. 1 �CASE STUDIES Between 2017 and 2021, Keelung City Government received a grant from the Minister of Culture's 'Regeneration of Historic Sites' program and conducted a project called 'Grand Keelung Historical Site Reconstruction Integration Plan.' The excavations of HPD and DSW between 2019 and 2020 were the only archaeological excavations among the fifty-three sub-projects under this umbrella (Keelung City Government n.d.). The two sites are located east of the present city center: HPD is a small island off Keelung, at the mouth of the port, and DSW falls between HPD and the city center (Figure 1). This was the first time that the Keelung City Government supported large-scale archaeology projects. In both cases, some structures had been identified in previous studies, but not enough information was known to reveal the whole structure nor to evaluate the historical and cultural value of the site. The grant provided unique opportunities for archaeologists to enhance their understanding of these sites. Figure 1 Locations of Hepingdao, Dashawan, and Keelung City Center 2 �Hepingdao Archaeological Site (HPD) Hepingdao, or the island named Heping (meaning peace), was once the earliest location of 'Keelung' in historical records. However, it had been neglected for decades after the current city center was developed. The HPD archaeology project no doubt uncovered a Golden Age of the island. There are three targeted locations in the HPD Archaeology project. Location A is at the shipyard of the CSBC Corporation, and it is the potential location of the Spanish Fort San Salvador. Due to the restrictions of the current shipyard, no excavation could have been conducted. Location B is in a parking lot, a small piece of land that has escaped heavy development on the island, and has been in excavations since 2011, while Location C was recently discovered in the middle of the 2019-2020 season. This paper focuses on Location B in reference to 'Hepingdao Site (HPD). In 2019-2020, the HPD Archaeology project conducted by National Tsing Hua University (NTHU) continued excavations based on the results of previous small projects and revealed most of the remaining foundation of the Todos los Santos Church. The orientation of the structure, the shape of the apse, and the size of the building were clarified for the first time. The church faces southwest toward the seashore, and the thirty-meter-long ruin suggests that the original building could have been up to fifty meters in length. In addition, burials were discovered inside and outside the church. Most individuals were found in a praying posture, clearly associated with the church and the earliest Catholic mission in Taiwan (Tsang, Hsieh, and Cruz Berrocal 2021). In addition to Spanish colonial history, this excavation uncovered the longue durée history of human activities on the island in trenches less than two meters deep. The Yuanshan cultural layer (3500-2000 B.P.) contained jade ornaments and tools from the east coast of Taiwan, suggesting a connection to the early networks surrounding Taiwan Island. The rich marine animal bones and associated fishing tools also provide clues about maritime culture and human impacts on ecosystems. The Metal Age Shihsanhang cultural layer (2000 B.P.- 400 B.P.) contained glass beads that reflect the maritime exchange networks in Asian waters. The latest phase of this period would be directly connected to the Basay indigenous people who actively interacted with the Europeans during the early modern period. Finally, the remains of the dormitories of the shipyard employees during the Japanese period were also documented. In short, the discoveries in HPD reflect northern Taiwan's diverse and rich maritime history (Tsang, Hsieh, and Cruz Berrocal 2021; Cruz Berrocal et al. 2020; Cruz Berrocal et al. 2018). The PIs of the HPD archaeology project recognized the value of the site for exhibition and suggested keeping the trench open after the excavation. This included the remaining church foundation and burial pits, some Japanese structures that cut through or connected with the Spanish walls, a few Qing Dynasty stone pavements and post holes outside the church, and a portion of the Neolithic archaeological layer inside the church. The trenches with the above features thus were not fully excavated. The Keelung City Cultural Affairs Bureau initiated a plan for an on-site exhibition center. Further, it evaluated the potential of creating a Hepingdao Archaeology Park, integrating most of the cultural and natural heritage on the island. Dashawan Archaeological Site (DSW) Dashawan, meaning 'the great sandy bay,' is opposite the Zhongzheng District Office and beside a busy road. According to historical documents, the Qing government built a fort on the flat area of Dashawan in the 1840s. Called 'La Galissonnière Fort' or 'Fort Neuf' in some French records, the fort did not leave many traces in historical documents. However, as the main battlefield of the Sino-French War, which led to the establishment of Taiwan as an independent province of Qing China, the site's historical value is unquestionable. After the war, the governor changed his defense strategy and built new forts on the hills of Keelung. As a result, Dashawan Fort, already heavily damaged during the war, was abandoned. During the Japanese period, the area was developed as a public recreational beach, thus further destroying the remaining structures. The region's landscape changed again after the local government filled the beach for the port facilities. Before the 2019-2020 excavation conducted by Long Men Archaeo Company (LMAC), the few portions of walls still standing and visible on the surface (some even merged with local residential houses) were insufficient for scholars to understand 3 �the original design of the fort. Only one portion of a wall, three meters high and two meters wide, is visible to the public. The view to the water is blocked by the Eastern Container Port Terminal. The new excavation found more surviving structures of the site and revealed the impressive earthwork below the observable structure, including rammed earth, iron bars, and wooden piles. With further historical research, the original size of the fort was determined to be 50 meters long and 16.4 meters wide. Moreover, like the case of HPD, archaeologists found remains before and after the Qing occupation. These range from prehistoric materials traced back to the Shuntangpu Culture (4500-3500 B.P.) to Japanese toilet remains (Lu 2021). Based on the unique findings at Dashawan, the archaeologist also suggested exhibiting the revealed structure in situ in the future. However, the site was backfilled at the end of the project. Since 2021, the Keelung City Government has tidied up the area where one small portion of the Dashawan walls is visible and grouped it with other nearby historical monuments, including the French Cemetery, the Fortress Commander's Residence, and the dormitories of the Fortress Command (some also recently reconstructed with the same funding source as the excavation). Together, these formed the Dashawn History Cultural Park. From an academic viewpoint, the discoveries of the two sites are equally important and worth displaying for public education. However, the resulting arrangements of the two sites were quite different, directly influencing the site's future. What were the main factors considered in this division-making process? Moreover, how would these policies impact the site's preservation and public archaeology? RESOURCES The resources available to conduct this research include the final reports of the two archaeological sites, government media, and records of the meetings relating to the site management, which are all open to the public. Furthermore, as one of the PIs of the Hepingdao archaeological project and a council member of the archaeological review committee of Keelung City, the author participated in the discussion about the Hepingdao site and attended some meetings for the Dashawan Site. In addition, the author interviewed several stakeholders, including locals who lived next to the sites. FRAMEWORK The Keelung City government only had a little experience in archaeological site management before the excavations of HPD and DSW. Nevertheless, the Cultural Affairs Bureau of Keelung City, as the competent authority of archaeological sites based on the revision of the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act in 2012, actively developed the sites. The nomination of the two cases as municipal archaeological sites and the plans for their integration into the public sites mentioned above happened even before the final archaeological reports were submitted. Most discussions regarding the future of the sites went beyond academic perspectives. Impact factors Environmental issues Located in a rainy city where people need umbrellas during two third of the year, the yearly average pH scales of the rain in the past twenty years were always below 5.0, and the relative humidity is consistently above 70 percent, an in-situ exhibition plan is generally challenging due to the expectable water damage. In addition, the coastal environments make the task even more difficult. The main structures at the two sites were both built close to the original seashore, and the locations today still belong to the tsunami risk area. Although the current distance between the HPD site and the present 4 �coastline is shorter than the case of DSW (150 meters and 200 meters, respectively), the location of the former is relatively higher (12 meters and 4 meters above sea level, respectively) and safe. Furthermore, the stone foundation in HPD stands on the bedrock of the island, whereas the earthen foundation in DSW sits on the original beach over a thin layer of artificial clay. The excellent condition of the skeletons found in HPD testified that the site's environment is relatively stable. On the other hand, the earthen structure discovered at DSW is 60-150cm below the surface, where underground water threatened the trenches during the excavation. In short, compared with HPD, the location of DSW and the materiality of the underground structure make it extremely challenging to arrange an in-situ exhibition. Consolidating the deep sandy trench would not be an easy task, and the change of humidity and salinity might threaten the stability of the structure. One church, many forts The uniqueness of the finding is another consideration for the policymakers, especially when the budget is limited. Because the city is located at a strategic point in Taiwan, fortresses are the primary monument type. Although the archaeologist highlighted that the DSW fort is one of the earliest Qing forts, the only fort located on the beach and not modified by later political powers, and the only fort of this type studied by archaeological methods, its educational and recreational value is not apparent for the non-professionals. On the other hand, the remaining Todos los Santos church and burial pits are easy to recognize and understand. Although most Taiwanese are not Christian, the discovery of the church not only surprised the Catholic communities in Taiwan but also raised general curiosity. It is the first church in Taiwan and the only tangible cultural heritage of Spanish colonial history. Although both HPD and DSW are sites with multiple cultural layers, the latter only showcased the Qing military structure. In contrast, the features of various periods displayed at HPD could attract visitors with a variety of interests and demonstrate the complex findings in a historical archaeology site. Public awareness Promotion of the site was part of the contract in both cases, and NTHU and LMAC fulfilled these requirements differently. The excavation of DSW was out of the public eye. After the dig, the LMAC team invited historians and archaeologists, hosted a series of professional lectures for the public, and published the content of academic presentations. In contrast, since the beginning of the excavation, the NTHU team saw the excavation of HPD as an excellent opportunity for archaeology outreach and student training and promoted the site through various open archaeology events and social media. After the structure of the church foundation was fully revealed, the site served as the mayor's reception room, and even the president was invited to visit. In addition, an introductory book was published in a tone for a more public than academic audience. All these efforts made the public more aware of HPD than DSW. In addition, for the government, backfilling HPD and withdrawing the site's former function as a parking lot were likely to cause much public grievance. No similar complaints would have arisen at DSW. Consequences Based on the above factors, it is understandable that HPD became the preferred location for an in-situ exhibition rather than DSW. Today, the trenches of HPD are still open, and the plan for the exhibition center is ongoing (Figure 2), including rescue archaeology for the placement of the pillars that will support the center of the building. In contrast, although the environment around the Dashawan ruins has been beautified, the landscape features remain the same as before the excavation (Figure 3). These arrangements led to different consequences regarding the preservation and public archaeology of the sites.     5 �Figure 2 Hepingdao Site under the current tent Figure 3 Dashawan Site after backfill     6 �Site preservation Site preservation decisions are related to the protection of archaeological structures. Backfilling offers the most protection, while an in-situ exhibition requires treatments that assist in preserving the site. Although the decision to create an in-situ exhibition of HPD quickly gained general agreement, preserving the open-air trenches took more work than expected. The change in the site is visible: the exposed bedrock quickly weathered, and the geological joints faded away. The walls of the trenches, especially the backfill portions made by previous excavation seasons, have partially collapsed. Under the extremely wet climate, soil consolidation is urgent for the site; however, the cost is unaffordable for the local government. A solid tent with an award-winning design replaced the previous one for the Keelung City Expo, but it is not wide enough. The pouring rain still resulted in the corner of the structure being inevitably occupied by moss and weeds. The idea of filling the site and opening it again was brought out once, but there would be a risk of damaging the site during the process. Moreover, an additional considerable expense was needed for this proposal. The discussion and action around conservation have been slow compared with other actions. A microclimate monitoring system will be set up in mid-2023 to collect data for future decisions. The forthcoming exhibition building, designed to transfer the site into an indoor exhibition, should slow the weathering process. An active environmental control strategy should be integrated into the design (Luo et al. 2015). In contrast, for the DSW site, the LMAC team had provided three preservation strategies: fully backfill, partially backfill, and total exposure for exhibition. The final decision to fully backfill was recognized as a low-impact method for the site. However, the archaeologist noted that the wooden piles in the structure would still eventually corrode under the current environment. In addition, weeds, acid rain, and air pollution from heavy traffic would still cause biological and chemical weathering of the structure on the ground. Public Archaeology Public archaeology hopes to engage the public in the value of archaeology and local history. Despite its preservation challenges, visual and physical access to the results of excavation support this goal and offer other community benefits. As an open site with easy access, public archaeology events hosted by different stakeholders, including government, scholars, and local NGOs, continue happening at HPD, creating various conversations and narratives. The site has become a popular attraction in Keelung, promising economic value for the local government, who even foresee that the archaeology park can push private sectors to help renew the cityscape. However, the rotation of political parties brings some uncertainty to site management, and the new government incumbent in 2023 still needs to take responsibility for the site. In DSW, since the trenches were never visible to the public, the idea of an in-situ exhibition hardly reached a greater audience. The government nevertheless spent many resources to enhance the cityscape of the DSW area, and the remaining fort structure was integrated into the new plan. However, the small wall is overshadowed by other historical buildings and colorful modern artworks, and the tiny information board does not draw much attention from visitors. The fort's potential economic value then was hard to evaluate. After the temporary events are finished, the site remains quiet. Although opening the site again once the government terminates the current Container Port Terminal has been proposed by urban designers, there is no timeline for such a dreamy plan; thus, changing the site's status is not a priority for the government. CONCLUDING REMARKS This comparative study provides insights into the balance between site preservation and public archaeology. From the viewpoint of preservation, restoring the site to make it close to its pre-excavated condition, like what has been practiced for most underwater archaeological features, might be the best way to protect the site. However, making the sites accessible to the public has 7 �various advantages in terms of public education, tourism, and promoting the discipline. Moreover, these case studies also illustrate that the relationships between archaeology and urban development are not always conflicting. HPD and DSW are equally invaluable for academia, but various natural and social factors have led to different fates of the sites. What we can learn from these cases is that a better preservation plan is needed, especially when working in the coastal region. The decision to establish an in-situ exhibition could not be easily made due to its high cost, but there are other ways to enhance the site's accessibility and sustainability. For example, 3D documentation and virtual exhibitions have provided new experiences for appreciating archaeological sites, although the lack of authenticity is still debatable. What is critical is to keep the discussion going. HPD and DSW should be situated in a connected relationship rather than a competing one. Since the prehistoric period, the development of the two areas jointly tells the remarkable history of Keelung. The future HPD exhibition center could be transformed into a space that represents the region's maritime history and incorporates resources from the greater area.      BIBLIOGRAPHY Cruz Berrocal, María , Elena Serrano Herrero, Marc Gener Moret, Antonio Uriarte González, Mar Torra Pérez, Susana Consuegra Rodríguez, Alexandre Chevalier, Frederique Valentin, and Cheng-hwa Tsang. 2018. "A Comprised Archaeological History of Taiwan through the Long-Term Record of Heping Dao, Keelung." International Journal of Historical Archaeology 22:905-940. Cruz Berrocal, María , Elena Serrano, Frederique Valentin, Cheng-hwa Tsang, Amaya Gorostiza, Elena Campoy, Rui Pereira, Antonio González Martín, and Karsten Bracker. 2020. "The Study of European Migration in Asia-Pacific During the Early Modern Period: San Salvador de Isla Hermosa (Keelung, Taiwan)." International Journal of Historical Archaeology 24:233-283. Doumas, Christos. 1998. "Excavation and rescue operations: what to preserve and why." Museum International 50 (2):6-9. Gogová, Stanislava. 2016. "In fondo and in situ archaeology presentation in Slovakia." European Journal of Science and Theology 12:245-252. Keelung City Government. n.d. "About https://greatkeelung.klcg.gov.tw/en/Index. Keelung: Project Introduction." accessed April 22nd. Lu, Li-cheng. 1993. Conservation and Educational Exhibition of Archaeological Site Park. Taitung: National Museum of Prehistory Planning Bureau. Lu, Tai-long. 2021. Final Report: The Dashawa stone structure archaeological project. Keelung City Cultural Affair Bureau. Luo, Xilian, Zhaolin Gu, Tianyu Li, Xiangzhao Meng, Tao Ma, and Chuck Yu. 2015. "Environmental control strategies for the in situ preservation of unearthed relics in archaeology museums." Journal of Cultural Heritage 16 (6):790-797. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2015.03.013. Murray, Jeffrey S. 1980. "The Exhibition of In Situ Archaeological Features for Public Interpretation." Canadian Journal of Archaeology / Journal Canadien d’Archéologie (4):173-179. Tsang, Cheng-hwa, Ellen Hsieh, and María Cruz Berrocal. 2021. Final report: Fort San Salvador and Todos Los Santos Church Archaeological Project (HPD-B Site). Keelung. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 25: Environmental implications of underwater cultural heritage degradation and the conservation of marine ecosystems Subject The topic of the resource Session 25 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 25 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Fates of Hepingdao and Dashawan: Challenges of coastal archaeological sites in northern Taiwan Description An account of the resource Although an in-situ exhibition after an excavation is ideal for public archaeology, it is also challenging for several reasons. This paper compares the cultural heritage management of two coastal archaeological sites in Keelung, northern Taiwan, from excavation to presentation to the public. In 2019, archeologists funded by the government excavated the remaining structures of a seventeenth-century Spanish church at Hepingdao and those of a nineteenth-century Chinese fort at Dashawan. Together, these sites reflect the rich history of Keelung and the dynamics of regional maritime history, as the church is the only tangible cultural heritage of the Spanish colonial period in Taiwan (1626-1642), and the fort is the only excavated archaeological site associated with the Sino-French War (1884-1885). Moreover, the prehistoric and protohistoric cultural layers in both sites provide critical data regarding how indigenous communities used marine resources and participated in maritime networks. Although both sites were designated municipal archaeological sites after the excavations, different arrangements were made: the trenches at Hepingdao remain open, and an in-situ exhibition center is planned, whereas the archeological discovery of the Dashawan fort has been backfilled, even though the archaeologist also promoted an in-situ exhibition strategy. This paper analyzes the environmental and social factors considered and the consequences of the subsequent arrangements from site preservation and public archaeology perspectives Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ellen Hsieh Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Hsieh, Ellen . 2023. “The Fates of Hepingdao and Dashawan: Challenges of coastal archaeological sites in northern Taiwan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Bishnu Pada Bose. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1972 Asia-Pac Session 25 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/99361f1d51fe7353d45bd169f8f4e481.pdf 04584b2117e43c41b2579bf5ecdbab4f PDF Text Text The Fiji Museum’s efforts towards the Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites in Fiji Elia Nakoro History Archaeology Department, The Fiji Museum, Thurston Gardens, Suva Fiji Email: rocksfel@yahoo.com.au Abstract Fiji’s 300 isles are enclosed within a total sea area of about 1,260,000km2 of its Exclusive Economic Zone and to date very little work has been carried out on underwater and maritime archaeology. Resource materials documented by the Archaeology Department of the Fiji Museum have identified more than 500 shipwrecks, a great number of which were wrecked less than 50 years ago. The establishment of an Underwater Unit at the Fiji Museum is needed to safeguard the nation’s underwater historic sites and raise awareness towards understanding the untold sunken mysteries that connect Fiji to the world; however there are several issues that need to be addressed in order for this Unit to be established and run effectively. This paper discusses the need for further capacity building and training in Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) studies to successfully document, survey and protect Fiji’s underwater cultural sites. Furthermore, the area of developing policy papers, funding proposals and the documentation of findings will also require special attention to sustain UCH projects. Alike the other developing countries, the paper highlights the daunting challenges that face the Fiji Museum including the lack of human resources, equipment and above all insufficient funding to carry out this much needed work. Key words: Capacity building, Collaboration, Levuka Town, Sacred, Underwater Cultural Heritage, World Heritage Site Introduction The Fiji Islands The Republic of the Fiji Islands encompasses a group of over 300 volcanic island landmasses, of which over 100 islands are inhabited. Fiji is located in the tropics of the southern hemisphere and has a total land area of approximately 18,300km 2 that covers the region positioned between a latitude of 12N-21°S and longitude 176°E-178°W (Fig. 1). Fiji has two main islands namely, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu and approximately 80% of the population resides on these two islands the majority of which is located in rural areas and about 40% of the people dwelling in urban areas. 83% percent of land is owned by indigenous Fijians while nine percent is State owned and eight percent is 1 �Freehold land (Ministry of Information, Communications and Media Relations, 2006). The Fiji group is situated in tropical waters, surrounded by coral reefs and considerable variation in the physical island formations histories enclosed within a total sea area of about 1,260,000km2 of its Exclusive Economic Zone where more than 500 shipwrecks have been documented, a great number of which were wrecked less than 50 years ago. Fig. 1 Map of the Fiji Islands. (Nakoro, 2014) A Brief History Fiji has a colorful past of tradition and culture. The first settlements in Fiji were constructed by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 3500 years ago. Voyaging and settlements in this period were associated with the manufacturing of Lapita ware of distinctive intricate dentate stamped motifs. Western influence of European traders began in 1800 as Oliver Slater, a survivor of the ship Argo, which was wrecked near Oneata, an island in the Lau group discovered sandalwood at Bua 2 �Bay on Vanua Levu. This was followed by sandalwood traders, beachcombers, whalers, beche-de-mer traders and missionaries (Williams, 1858). However, in the early seventeen and eighteenth century, European explorers began to discover the Fiji group of islands and other Pacific Islands in the exploration of the South Seas. Islands were charted from aboard ships with the fear of local hostility. During the sandalwood trade, beachcombers were welcomed by Fijian chiefs as they brought with them new ideas on life and knowledge of western technology including firearms. These were shipwrecked sailors, runaway convicts from New South Wales and ship deserters as they escape harsh conditions on board, low wages and severe punishments (Donnelly et al., 1994). In the early 19th century, exploration journals and missionary records described hostility and settlement fortifications (Donnelly et al., 1994). In the pre-history context there are no written records however there were social structures that defined roles in a community together with visual evidence and oral stories being passed down from one generation to another or through ceremonies and rituals. In order to preserve and hold such cultural wealth of the nation in trust for all generations, the Fiji Museum was established. The Fiji Museum The idea to have a museum was first mooted in 1904 where donations from the first colonial administrations made up the initial collection exhibited for public display. Today, over a century since its operations began, the institution showcases and stores treasured cultural artifacts and memories of the past and is responsible for the collection, documentation, exhibition, conservation and preservation of Fiji’s significant cultural artifacts and sites of local and national heritage. The Fiji Museum holds a remarkable collection, which includes archaeological material dating back to about 3,500 years ago and cultural objects representing Fiji’s indigenous inhabitants as well as other communities that have settled in the island group over the last century, items from its Pacific Island neighbors, and from around the world. The significance of the institution is in documenting historical events, conducting research, education, public outreach and keeping cultures and history alive. In addition to focusing on local cultural material - the institution also aims to strengthen a regional study and the collection of cultural materials of the South Pacific. 3 �Organizational Structure Governed by the Fiji Museum Act1 and the Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Palaeontogical Interest Act2, the institution is a statutory body that comes under a Board of Trustees. The Fiji Museum has six professional departments namely the Conservation department, Education department, Collections department, Pre-history Archaeology department, Historical Archaeology department and Exhibitions department. These departments form the core functions in the maintenance and operations of the institution however these departments function with little funds. The Archaeology Department The Archaeology unit of the Fiji Museum was established in 1995 and consists of two sections: (1) Pre-history Archaeology Department and (2) the History Archaeology Department. The legislation that governs the work of the department was endorsed by cabinet in 1940. Fiji’s pre-history period was confirmed from results of an excavation in 2003 that was collaboratively undertaken by the Archaeology Department and the University of the South Pacific, Fiji to be approximately 3050 years BP/1100 BC to European contact within the group. The first Europeans to have engagements with native Fijians were European explorers where Abel Janzoon Tasman visited Fiji waters in 1643. However during the sandalwood trading around 1800 Europeans heavily interacted with the natives in the purchase of sandalwood. The findings of the earliest settlement southwest of Fiji predate most oral narratives known by Fijians today. The History Archaeology Department deals with all the events and history from the European contact period to the present day. The Department of History Archaeology's role in the museum is to identify sites, conduct research, and provide protection for historic sites, which also includes maritime sites. In this capacity, the department carries out legislative review, identification and recording of all historical sites, and cultural heritage management related activities. The department also assists in the enforcement of the legislation "the Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Palaeontological Interest Act" around the Fiji Islands. The History Archaeology 4 �Department maintains a register of all historical sites. This is an ongoing project through which a comprehensive database of all known historical sites is being compiled. The department is interested in documenting as many heritage buildings in Fiji, especially in Suva, Levuka and the sugar producing towns where many colonial buildings are situated and also documenting significant cultural heritage sites not to mention the recording of all maritime and underwater cultural heritage sites. The Archaeology Department’s Legal Frame Work The Fiji Museum’s Archaeology Departments administers the legislation under the Laws of Fiji: Chapter 264, which is the Preservation of objects of Archaeological and Palaeontological Interest Act. Under the legislation it requires the Archaeology Department to promote and preserve all objects that include any erection (buildings), memorial (monuments), tumulus (burial mounds), cairn (pile of stones), place of interment (cemetery), pit-dwelling, trench (war ditches), fortification stone walls, irrigation works, mounds, excavation (for research purposes), caves, rock drawings, paintings, sculpture, inscription (carving of words on rocks etc), monolith (sacred rocks), or any remains thereof, fossil remains of man or animals or plants or any bed or beds containing such fossil remains thereof, or any object (or any remains thereof) which is or are of archaeological, anthropological, ethnological, prehistoric, or historic interest, and includes - (a) the site on which such object of archaeological or palaeontological interest was discovered or exists; (b) such portion of land adjoining the said site as may be required for fencing or covering in or otherwise preserving such object of archaeological or palaeontological interest; and (c) the means of access to and convenient inspection of such object of archaeological or palaeontological interest. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Fiji Some work has been accomplished in the last few years in an effort to establish the foundation of collating data on underwater cultural heritage focusing on shipwrecks and implement protection procedures on these sites. However, the importance of being aware of the existence of these heritage sites forms the basis of taking such a bold step. The Historical Archaeology Department to date has managed to compile a national shipwreck database (Fig. 2) that maps out a plan of action on work that needs to be undertaken to safeguard these valuable and historic heritages. This research has been 5 �carried out over several years by looking at archival literature records, archived newspapers and maritime records of the country. As a result, research showed that Fiji has a total of more than five hundred (500) documented shipwrecks on its territorial waters. These include both old and new shipwrecks within the last 10 years. As illustrated in the image above, the database is maintained using Microsoft Office Access and it will continue to be modified in the future to also capture images of the ship before and after it wrecked once a full-scale research has been conducted. Since Fiji is lacking legislative cover on underwater cultural heritage, the Fiji Government (Department of National Heritage, Culture and Arts under the Ministry of Education), is giving its full support and backing to oversee and assist in the process of producing legal documents. As we convene, there is a team responsible for drafting and reviewing the current legislation Chapter 264: Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Paleontological Interest to include specifically the safeguarding of underwater and maritime cultural heritage. Fig. 2 A glimpse of Fiji's shipwreck database. (Fiji Museum, 2014) 6 �Underwater surveys A single underwater survey has been undertaken in Fiji to date by a diving team from the Australian National Maritime Museum (Fig. 3). The team comprised of Mr. Kieran Hosty, Mr. Paul Hundley and a staff member of the Archaeology Department of the Fiji Museum who conducted surveys of the harbor of Levuka Town for the nomination of the town as a World Heritage Site. The township of Levuka on the island of Ovalau is located on the east of the main island Viti Levu and is home to British colonial building structures. It is a living town and the only one in the Pacific. Several English merchant schooners are submerged in the harbor of Levuka. For this purpose, the underwater survey was carried out to assist in the nomination document, identifying the core zone for the town and the buffer boundary as a world heritage requirement and also provide protection on these sunken vessels. The Levuka World Heritage local committee was able to draft a new legislation that included the protection of shipwrecked vessels in the Levuka Bay. The Fiji Government has since completed the submission and the nomination of the township of Levuka to the World Heritage Committee and the town has been inscribed as a World Heritage cultural site, however the effort to include the shipwrecks as a component of the nomination was later withdrawn with legitimate reasons for management of the nominated properties. Types of Maritime Cultural Heritage sites in Fiji In addition to shipwrecks, there are other underwater and maritime cultural sites from myths and historical accounts to be considered such as the use of traditional canoes, sunken double hull canoes, sunken settlements, fish traps and sharpening stones that represent ideal potential projects in the exploration and preservation of underwater cultural heritage. The types of maritime cultural heritage sites in Fiji are summarized below: 1. Sacred Canoes or Waqa Tabu (Drua) In the 1800s, Europeans were amazed with the majestic naval fleet that the native Fijians were using. These boats known as the waqa drua (double hull) or waqa tabu (sacred) are said to be the biggest of all the types of canoes used in Fiji. It was also sacred as its construction was fitted for high chiefs. Generally acknowledged as the 7 �finest two-hulled sailing vessels, the largest of these required 50 men to navigate and in war might use up to 100 –but it could transport 300 or more warriors– and was claimed to have sailed faster with the wind than the European vessels that visited the Fiji Islands in those days. The canoe was structurally unlike other sea-going canoes, although it sailed by similar techniques, the hulls being made from fitted planks, not dugouts. Moreover the deck was a platform resting across the two canoes. To all who shared in the activities and the rituals of the construction and the launching this was indeed a sacred canoe. Every feature had its particular function and the craft were superbly handled by none better than the Bauan navy (Tippett, 1968). There is great traditional ceremonial sacrifice attached with the construction of a new drua, which begins from the initial process of tree felling which is associated with songs, chanting while hauling the fallen tree for the keel and feasting once hauling. It is said that it could take five to seven years for the drua construction. At the launching of the new drua, many lives were lost as the drua slid on the sea of blood of slaves who served as rollers under its massive hulls (Tippett, 1968). There are also claims that these majestic drua lay buried under one of the major river system of Fiji, the Rewa River or Wailevu. This river system was an active pathway during the reign of Ratu Seru Cakobau, the self proclaimed king of Fiji. Ratu Cakobau originally was from the island of Bau, a small island off the eastern coast of the main island and was constantly engaged in war in his effort to unify the islands under his authority. 2. Fish Traps (Impounding enclosures of stone-Moka) Fish traps are found in most parts of the islands and most field tours on Viti Levu have revealed the remains of these enclosures occur along the western coast and the islands off the mainland. This method of trapping fish is by means of low walls of boulders set out in horseshoe form between tide marks and is one of the most primitive methods of fishing, maybe the earliest of the efforts of early man to devise a mechanical arrangement for the automatic capture of fishes (Hornel, 1940). Very little has been documented about the construction and the use of these stonewalls however it has been generally described by early researchers. 3. Sunken Islands and Settlements 8 �Vuniivilevu and Burotu are two islands in Fiji that allegedly ‘vanished’ (Fig. 4). Vuniivilevu is located in the Lomaiviti group, east of Viti Levu and it was believed to have disappeared as a result of collapse of part of the Viti Levu insular shelf between 1200 and 1600 AD (Nunn et al., 2005). According to informants and oral narratives collected by Nunn et al., (2005) Vuniivilevu was inhabited and residents dispersed to neighboring islands and other parts of Fiji. The island was believed to have disappeared as punishment for the excessive cannibalism and disobedience to the Gods according to other accounts. While some parts of the province of Tailevu have close attachments and rituals connected to the sea area where Vuniivilevu used to be, the area is said to be sacred where most seafarers pay great respect when passing through. In 2012, Valentin Bayer, a German tourist on Caqalai Island discovered a piece of pottery while snorkeling northwest of Caqalai Island. The remnant pottery was the neck of a clay water container, depicted in (Fig. 5). The finding may provide evidence that Vuniivilevu was initially an inhabited island before submerging. Burotu is another example of a mythical island, which appears occasionally in the Lau group specifically near the island of Matuku. It is also sometimes referred to as Burotukula (kula is red) because of the reported redness of many things on the island. Villagers of Levukaidaku claim that at times they do come across burnt-out fishing torches of coconut fronds believed to have been used on the island of Burotukula the night before. There are also occasions where red feathers were washed ashore. There is also a myth that says the island is occupied by beautiful women. A number of oral traditions were collected firsthand from Matuku Island in December 2003. 9 �Fig. 4 Locations of sunken islands and settlement. (Nakoro, 2014) Fig. 5 A Chief’s Kitchen, “At Home in Fiji”. (Cumming, 1888) The key aspect of the story of Burotu that distinguishes it from many others involving vanished islands in the Pacific is that Burotu allegedly reappears and disappears periodically (Nunn et al., 2005). The last sighting of Burotu was reported by a school Head Teacher, Mr. Emitai Vakacegu in 2003 at 6 am. The school teacher and his 10 �students witnessed the 30 minutes glimpse of the island over the horizon of Levukaidaku village. Other sightings of Burotu were reported in 1933, 1948, 1953, 1980-83, 1993, and 1995 (Nunn et al., 2005). In 2011, villagers from a community in the Province of Tailevu recovered pottery sherds from Moon Reef five kilometers off the eastern coast of Viti Levu. Moon reef is crescent shaped where tourists go for snorkeling and to watch dolphins and villagers believe that Moon Reef used to be an island. Similarly, in the Lomaiviti (central Fiji) group, a former Fiji Museum Archaeology staff, Mr. Kolinio Moce describes a sunken settlement more than five kilometers on the reef off Nukuloa village on Gau Island. According to Mr. Moce the settlement contains pillars and several whole clay pots that have become overridden with corals and algae over the years. Limitations in the Fiji context Over the past years the museum has struggled in its efforts to safeguard and preserve Fijian cultural material. While the institute has huge potential for improvements, its endeavors are limited and hindered by a lack of funding. The frequent changes in Governments have impacted the operations of the Fiji Museum as grants received vary, often dwindling. The current regime provided the museum with an annual grant of $230,000 used mainly to cover the operational costs such as staff salaries. Additional costs- such as field expedition expenses -are covered through community sponsorship or via proceeds collected from visitors to the museum, which comprise an average of about 21,000 local visitors (school students being the majority) and between 9,00012,000 tourists annually. In recent times, the department has been overwhelmed with the great influx of local interests from traditional land owning units. The rate of development has accelerated recently and a number of sacred sites have been decimated as a result. The work required to run an effective Underwater Unit is hindered by a lack of skilled staff and the Fiji Museum is barely managing to achieve goals in the vocation to protect and monitor Fiji’s national tangible cultural heritage at present. While Fiji has been represented in two foundation courses that were organised by UNESCO Bangkok, the capacity and facilities required for training including storage, lab equipment and diving gears are lacking and unlikely to happen without financial support from outside donors. To date the existing database has been constructed using 11 �secondary information and reconnaissance surveys to confirm the existence of shipwrecks and pinpoint their exact locations have not been undertaken. A big threat to underwater cultural heritage are the booming scrap metal industries that pay good money for scrap metal that can be sourced from just about anywhere. Underwater treasures are accessible only to those who have the resources to obtain it- from fishermen to sports/leisure divers and as there are no records to begin with and Fiji’s legal framework does not have specific provisions for the preservation of maritime sites and underwater shipwrecks – potential cultural sites are at great risk of being lost. The Way Forward Fiji has ratified two UNESCO Conventions on culture and heritage and is currently in the process of preparing the ratification of the Convention of the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. The Fiji government is also concerned with the state and protection of Fiji’s underwater cultural heritage sites and is also supporting the need to deliberate on the 2001 Convention as soon as possible, with discussions earmarked for 2015. Networking and the involvement of key stakeholders at the local, regional and international level is necessary for this undertaking. For example, the Applied Geosciences and Technology Division (SOPAC) conducts marine geophysics surveys within the Pacific region and the Historical Archaeology Department has begun networking through dialogue to promote future collaboration once the underwater unit is successfully established. There is also a need for assistance in the form of awareness and capacity building at local and regional levels. Relevant experts from UNESCO and within the realm of the UCH fraternity are needed to provide guidance through the provisions in the convention and all local stakeholders are required to be a part of this process. Workshops need to be developed for policy makers to design the legal framework that will best capture the preservation of UCH in Fiji without neglecting the management aspect of the whole process. It is also vital to have awareness workshops taken to grass root levels. The communities will play a vital role in the success of preserving the nation’s cultural heritage therefore needs to be properly informed and be aware of the importance of preserving our heritage, whether it is underwater or on land. 12 �Conclusion Maritime sites are important to communities in that they are sacred and tied closely to cultural identities. These undocumented sites in Fiji waters hold vast amounts of information and offer enormous potential in the field of maritime and underwater cultural heritage research. Not only would this provide greater understanding of the great tales of adventure behind shipwrecks, the callous ceremonial rituals attached with the construction of a sacred canoe or the events that took place before an island or settlement vanished, it also provides the basis for safeguarding the remains of the past that now underwater. Safeguarding and preserving underwater cultural heritage is vital to maintaining connectivity between Fiji and the Pacific and the world. It is important that, in order to achieve measurable and positive outcomes in safeguarding these valuable assets, Fiji has all its policies and legislation structures grounded on a solid platform. The nomination of Levuka Town as a World Heritage Site for example took more than a decade of work and research before it was eventually listed in 2014. This process, however lengthy, has provided valuable lessons on the various procedures to follow when the time comes for Fiji to ratify the 2001 convention. Essential components such as community awareness, informing government agencies and non-government stakeholders will all be part and parcel of the process of formulating and implementing appropriate legislation, establishing an underwater unit that will work towards preserving these untold and forgotten treasures. Acknowledgements The author is thankful to the Fiji Museum management and to the Department of National Heritage, Culture and Arts for their continued support in recognizing the need to protect Fiji’s underwater and maritime cultural heritage sites. Endnote 1Fiji Museum Act (Laws of Fiji, Chapter 263). 2Preservation of Objects of Paleontological Interest Act: (Laws of Fiji, Chapter 264). References Cumming, G., 1888. At Home in Fiji. Sixth Edition, William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh, London. Donnelly, T., 1994. A History and Geography of Fiji, Fiji in the Pacific. Fourth Edition, John Wiley and Sons Australia Ltd, Australia: 11-19. 13 �Hornell, J., 1940. Report on the Fisheries of Fiji. F. W. Smith, Government Printer, Suva, Fiji: 63-64. Hosty, K., and Hundley, P., 2001. Maritime Archaeological Investigation off the Port of Levuka, Island of Ovalau, Fiji. Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney NSW Australia. Kleinschmidt, T., 1877. Theodor Kleinschmidt’s Notes on the Hill Tribes of Viti Levu, 1877-1878. Domodomo, Fiji Museum, Suva, Fiji. Kumar, R., 2005. Geology, climate and landscape of the PABITRA Wet-Zone Transect, Viti LevuIsland, Fiji. Pacific Science, Vol. 59: 141-157. Preservation of Objects of Archaeological and Palaeontological Interest in Laws of Fiji. Chapter 264, Government of Fiji, 1940. Government Printery, Suva, Fiji Islands: 2. 2006. Fiji Today 2004/2005. Ministry of Information, Communications and Media Relations. Fiji Embassy, Washington DC. Nunn, P., Geraghty, P., Nakoro, E., Nasila, A., and Tukidia, S., 2005. Vuniivilevu and Burotu: The Geography, Ethnography, and Hazard Implications of Vanished Islands in Fiji. People and Culture in Oceania, Vol. 21: 88-102. Nuttall P., Ledua, K., Newell, A., Vunaki, P., and Philips, C., 2012. The Drua Files: a Report on the Collection and Recording of Cultural knowledge of Drua and Associated Culture. University of the South Pacific and the Fiji Islands Voyaging Society, Suva, Fiji. Seeman, B., 1973 Viti: An Account of a Government Mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands 1860-1861. Dawsons of Pall Mall, Folkestone and London. Tippett, R. A., 1968. Fijian Material Culture: A Study of Cultural Context, Function and Change. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin No. 232, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, Hawaii. Williams, T., 1858. Fiji and the Fijians: The Islands and their Inhabitants. Vol. 1, George Stringer Rowe, William Nichols, London. Biography Elia Nakoro is the Head of the History Archaeology Department at the Fiji Museum responsible for identifying, surveying, mapping, researching and providing for the protection of the maritime and historic sites of Fiji. Having worked at the Fiji Museum and on cultural heritage projects for close to a decade, Elia has vast experience in 14 �conducting desktop overviews, archaeological field assessments, archaeological monitoring programs, and salvaging excavations for the identification and protection of terrestrial cultural heritage sites as a national pre-development process and as part of a biodiversity surveys for conserving Fiji’s forests. In the foreseeable future, Mr. Nakoro hopes to be involved in establishing an Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit for Fiji towards identifying and safeguarding Fiji’s underwater and maritime sites. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development Subject The topic of the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 with links to the papers presented in Session 3. Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Fiji Museum's efforts towards the Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites in Fiji Description An account of the resource Fiji’s 300 isles are enclosed within a total sea area of about 1,260,000km2 of its Exclusive Economic Zone and to date very little work has been carried out on underwater and maritime archaeology. Resource materials documented by the Archaeology Department of the Fiji Museum have identified more than 500 shipwrecks, a great number of which were wrecked less than 50 years ago. The establishment of an Underwater Unit at the Fiji Museum is needed to safeguard the nation’s underwater historic sites and raise awareness towards understanding the untold sunken mysteries that connect Fiji to the world; however there are several issues that need to be addressed in order for this Unit to be established and run effectively. This paper discusses the need for further capacity building and training in Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) studies to successfully document, survey and protect Fiji’s underwater cultural sites. Furthermore, the area of developing policy papers, funding proposals and the documentation of findings will also require special attention to sustain UCH projects. Alike the other developing countries, the paper highlights the daunting challenges that face the Fiji Museum including the lack of human resources, equipment and above all insufficient funding to carry out this much needed work. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Elia Nakoro, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 3 2014