53 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Classical Cultures of Indonesia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John N. Miksic Ian Glover Peter Bellwood Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available RoutledgeCurzon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author John N. Miksic Editor Ian Glover Peter Bellwood Item Type Book Section Book Title Southeast Asia from Prehistory to History Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available RoutledgeCurzon Title A name given to the resource The Classical Cultures of Indonesia Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Coastal States of Champa Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource William A. Southworth Ian Glover Peter Bellwood Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available RoutledgeCurzon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author William A. Southworth Editor Ian Glover Peter Bellwood Item Type Book Section Book Title Southeast Asia from Prehistory to History Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Pages 209-233 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available RoutledgeCurzon Title A name given to the resource The Coastal States of Champa Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/db333a221a32866af0908e1f8529fbe5.pdf 2ce324676657651adfb93b7c0e6d837a PDF Text Text The construction of a simple sand dumping barge to aid reburial of a shipwreck site Jon Carpenter Western Australian Museum Department of Materials Conservation, Shipwreck Galleries, 45-47 Cliff St, Fremantle, WA, 6160, Australia E-mail: jon.carpenter@museum.wa.gov.au Jim Grehan and Jan Dols Marine Engineer volunteers c/o Department of Materials Conservation Shipwreck Galleries, 45-47 Cliff St Fremantle, WA, 6160, Australia Abstract A gradual and unremitting decrease in the level of the sand forming the seabed in which the wreck of the James Matthews (1841) lies buried (located in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia) became a cause for concern as progressive deterioration of the structures on the site was taking place. The situation led to the innovative use of linked medium density polyethylene Traffic Management Delineator barriers (Omni OB1800) to create a walled enclosure around the site into which sand could be reintroduced to bury exposed structures and prevent its subsequent dispersal, as would be the case if it were simply dumped over the wreck. The shallow, 2.5m depth of water over the wreck site restricted the possibility of delivering a substantial quantity of sand via a large vessel or barge. Commercial dredging and pumping of sand was also considered but financial constraints ultimately ruled out any of these options. The volume of sand required to fill the enclosed area was calculated to be 165 cubic metres. To improve the rate at which a reasonable amount of sand could be added to the enclosure a small budget ($2000 AUD) was provided by the Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project (AHSPP) for the Western Australian Museum’s team of retired, volunteer Marine Engineers to design and construct a 3m x 4m sand dumping barge. Costs incurred were mainly for the steel framework and floor components of the barge as they required materials of specific dimensions. A small boat winch and pulley were also specific purchases. Floatation was provided by fourteen steel drums (each 200 litre capacity), which were obtained gratis. Note no labour costs were incurred to construct the barge. 1 �Key words: barge, sand dumping, steel, construct, drums, reburial. Introduction The wreck of the James Matthews (1841) is located in shallow water close to Woodman Point in Cockburn Sound and not far from the Port of Fremantle in Western Australia (Henderson, 2009). At the time of discovery, in the early 1970’s, thesite was completely buried in sand except for one or two small concretions noticeable in the seagrass and a few pieces of scattered roofing slate that proved to be a part of the vessel’s cargo. Excavation of the wreck site, not long after it was found, was extensive and reburial with the dredged overburden undertaken but the level of sand coverage was not completely satisfactory. The loss of extensive areas of seagrass over the years, that in part, afforded some stability to the sands that buried the James Matthews, have prevented the natural build-up of sediment at the site. Over the last few years it has become apparent that structures on the wreck site are deteriorating as they have become progressively more exposed. The nearby activities (approximately 300 m away) of a dredging arm operating off the end of a reclaimer jetty, used to recover shell dredged further out to sea that is regularly dumped by barges, has created an extensive depression (12 m deep) in the seabed. This ‘hole’ and the associated barge channel leading to it have possibly contributed to a general decrease in the level of the nearby seabed, with its consequent impact on the wreck site, as sand in the vicinity gravitates towards these depressions. To rebury most of the exposed structure at the James Matthews site it was determined that a depth of at least 0.8 metres of sand was necessary. Sandtrapping mesh covers have been previously trialled with success on parts of the site but an assessment of the overall area to be covered and the elevation of the structures within it implied that mesh alone was unlikely to be appropriate for total 2 �reburial. The situation led to the innovative use of 36 linked Traffic Management Delineator barriers (Omni OB1800), made of medium density polyethylene, to create a walled enclosure around the site into which sand could be reintroduced to bury exposed structures and prevent its subsequent dispersal, as would be the case if it were simply dumped over the wreck. For more information about the James Matthews and the Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project readers are referred to the papers in these conference proceedings by Richards et al. (2014) and Shefi et al. (2014) Methodology The shallow 2.5 metre depth of water over the James Matthews wreck site restricted the possibility of delivering a substantial quantity of sand via a large vessel or barge. Commercial dredging and pumping of sand was also considered but financial constraints ultimately ruled out any of these options. The volume of sand required to fill the enclosed area to the recommended height of 0.8m was calculated to be 165 cubic metres. To improve the rate at which a reasonable amount of sand could be added to the enclosure a small budget ($2000 AUD) was provided Historic by the Australian Shipwreck Protection Project (AHSPP) for the Western Australian Museum’s team of retired, Engineers volunteer to Marine design and construct a 3 x 4 metre sand dumping barge (overall dimensions actually 3050mm x 3900mm). Costs incurred were mainly for the steel framework Fig. 1: The completed sand barge when first launched. (J. and floor components of the Carpenter). barge as they required materials of specific dimensions. A small boat winch and 3 �pulley were also specific purchases. Fourteen steel drums (each 200 litre capacity) were used in the construction, all of which were obtained gratis. Four drums were positioned vertically essentially halving the depth to which they would submerge and therefore halving their effective floatation capacity resulting in an overall buoyancy equivalent to twelve drums. Note no labour costs were incurred in the construction of the barge (Fig. 1). Construction and Operation. The sand barge proposal for the James Matthews reburial project started out with a basic sketch comprising a series of 200 litre drums, arranged in a rectangular formation, including a floor that incorporated two doors, a locking mechanism and a raised-frame structure from which to operate a pulley system for closing the doors after sand was discharged. It was initially envisaged that the ends of the drums would be simply welded together, as a cost saving measure, although this didn’t immediately address the issue of joining the drums at the barge corners. The museum’s team of volunteer Marine Engineers had the necessary skills and tools to construct the barge and would provide a free design process and labour. Construction was to be carried out using welded and bolted mild steel. Due to time constraints during its manufacture the non-galvanized metal parts of the barge were only painted with a corrosion inhibiting zinc undercoat. The engineers advised against direct end to end welding of the drums in favour of constructing a framework into which individual drums could be placed and replaced if no longer airtight. The dual doors were omitted in favour of a single central door. This was done to simplify its construction and operation but importantly to avoid the possibility of one door not operating in unison with the other and potentially resulting in the barge tipping over from the weight of the sand remaining on one side. 4 �The project began with the welded assembly of four individual outer frames made from angle iron (100mmx 100mm) designed to hold two horizontal drums on each of the fore and aft frames(1940 mm x 540 mm) and three horizontal drums and later two vertical drums on each side frame (3850 Fig. 2: The four outer frames with strapped drums installed. (J. mm x 540 mm). Flat steel Carpenter). retaining straps (50mmx3mm) were rolled to conform to the curvature of the drums and welded in place to fit across each frame. A detachable set of the curved straps, each with a screw threaded rod welded on the ends, were made to mate with corresponding holes to bolt the drums to the frame (Fig. 2). As the horizontal drums at the corners of the barge could not be joined easily it was decided to mount an extra drum vertically at each corner. This also presented a curved surface and therefore cleaner ‘entry’ to the sea when the barge would be under tow and added the equivalent of an extra two drums to the overall buoyancy. The vertical drums Fig. 3: The main frames and door in position in preparation to were mounted on extensions to install the floor sections either side (assembly is inverted). (J. Carpenter). the side frames, the base of the drum resting on a flat bar welded to form a triangle at each of the four corners. 5 �Each corner drum was secured by threaded rods (15mm diameter) bolted through the extended frame and through a steel cross-strap positioned on top of each drum. All other nuts/bolts used to assemble the barge were 10mm in diameter. At this stage the four main drum frames (sides and ends, with drums temporarily removed) were bolted to a welded rectangular-shaped central frame (1800mm x 2750mm), made from angle-iron(100mmx 100mm)that was to become the framework for the barge floor incorporating the door. The floor/door frame and frame of the actual door (800mm x 2750mm) were made from welded square section steel tube (75mm x 75mm). The open ends of the tube were fitted with cover plates and welded to be air-tight. To provide a strong floor and improve overall rigidity of the construction, steel ‘C’ section purlins (galvanized) were used (200mm x 75mm x 2mm). The purlins were cut into short lengths and the ends welded to each side of the frames and to each other. This further improved floor strength and the overall rigidity of the barge (Fig. 3). To prevent sand dropping through any small gaps between various spot welded areas of the floor and door they were filled with silicon gap filler. The larger gap in the floor along the hinged side of the door was covered with a strip of sheet rubber adhered with contact cement onto the fixed portion of the floor frame. The hinge for the door was made from a single length of steel rod (20mm diameter)mounted through drilled steel brackets welded alternately to the floor and door frames. This hinged shaft was prevented from sliding out of the brackets by securing it with locking pins incorporating washers to minimise rubbing and wear. The catches holding the door in the closed position operate by rotation of a second full length steel rod, mounted in similar drilled brackets, possessing three welded lugs that come to bear and hold against a flat overlapping steel lip welded along the closing side of the door. This lip laps over the adjacent floor frame and prevents the door from being raised above its fully-closed position. The lip also helps to prevent sand loaded into the barge from dropping through the clearance gap for the door. The door locking shaft is prevented from slipping out of its 6 �mounting brackets by the door locking lugs as each of the three lugs is rotated between two brackets welded to the floor frame. One end of the locking shaft has a right-angle lever welded to it that almost horizontally aligns with a welded ‘U’shaped bracket when the door is in the closed position. The ‘U’ bracket retains a steel ring of sufficient internal diameter for it to slide along the bracket and simultaneously over the door locking lever. This is achieved by applying downward hand-pressure on the lever to bring it into a parallel position with the bracket. Once released the lever locks the ring in place as it attempts to spring back to its former position. To open the door the ring is struck with a long-handled hammer until it drops off the lever (and is retained by the bracket) and the weight of sand on the barge floor forces the door to open. As the door drops down the actuating lever rapidly goes up in the opposite direction (Note this is a safety concern and the person releasing the lever must keep well clear of the lever and descending door). To raise the door and temporarily hold it closed, a small ratchet type boat winch with a stainless steel cable, attached by a shackle to the door, is mounted on a bracket attached to a tripod frame with a pulley wheel fitted to its apex. The ratchet system allows the winch to hold the door in the closed position in order for the lever locking ring to be re-engaged. The winch was inexpensive and its pulling capacity (500 kg) and gear ratio (3:1) more than sufficient to raise the door but it was not intended that it be used to hold the weight of a load of sand. Before the door is opened with a load of sand the winch ratchet must be disengaged to allow the winch to free-wheel and the cable to run out (Note this was a safety concern as the winch handle could not be detached and its rapid rotation seen as a potential risk to the operator who must keep well clear until the door is released and it has to be raised again). 7 �During the construction process the sheer weight of the main components of the sand barge (~700kg), particularly the central frame with its floor and door, presented handling issues both during its manufacture and its physical loading and unloading from the truck at the deployment area. Although it is possible to lift and carry parts of the barge separately albeit with 8 to 10personnel and then assemble it on-site, it is recommended that a truck with a HIAB crane be hired to load the barge in one piece onto the truck and then unload the barge directly into the water. This method of deployment was used when the sand barge was reassembled a second time to dump the remaining sand after the main fieldwork phase had concluded. Field Operation Fig. 4: Manoeuvring the loaded sand barge into position. (J. Carpenter). Initially, during the main fieldwork phase, the sand barge was physically handled as separate components as it was too wide to fit on the tray of the museum’s truck when fully assembled. The components were very heavy and required 8-10 personnel to manually lift and manoeuvre. The disassembled sand barge was delivered to a boat ramp where the barge was unloaded, the floor section placed on a four wheeled support frame, the remaining components bolted to it, the drums installed and the barge launched down the ramp restrained by a rope. The fourteen drums provided adequate buoyancy despite some initial concern that the weight of the overall framework and particularly the floor with its door was excessive. To minimise the possibility for metal fatigue and/or loosening of the retaining bolts, caused by any rocking motion of the corner drums when the barge was underway, 8 �a rope was secured around the drums to minimise any unwanted movement. A tow rope was attached to two shackles fixed near the corners of the bow and the barge towed to the sand loading area. Initially clean, washed proprietary sand was physically loaded into the barge via sand bags (maximum weight 20 kg) Fig. 5: The door opening to release a load of sand onto the directly from a nearby beach and James Matthews site inside the wall of barriers. (J. Carpenter). then subsequently from a larger boat moored adjacent to the wreck site. The loaded barge was not difficult to manoeuvre over the wreck site using a combination of small boats and ropes then, aided by snorkelers, it was easily moved into its final position for discharging the load of sand (1.0 - 1.5 ton) (Fig. 4). The hammering of the ring to release the door and its re-locking was performed by a snorkeler using the procedure described in the Construction and Operation section of this paper (Fig. 5). A second snorkeler disengaged the ratchet on the winch before the door was released and re-engaged the ratchet to close the door after all the sand was removed from the barge. As the single door is centrally Fig. 6: Snorkelers removing sand not directly released when Carpenter). 9 the door opened. (J. �located and it does not cover the entire floor a ledge of fixed floor (480 mm wide) on either side retained sand that snorkelers easily removed by hand (Fig. 6). At the end of the day the barge was left moored over the James Matthews site,, two solar cell charged lamps were attached as riding lights to warn fishers in small boats should they be travelling in the vicinity of the wreck at night. Conclusion In operation the sand barge performed very well. In the restrictive circumstances of budget constraints and the shallow water situation of the James Matthews wreck site the barge provided a means of delivering a reasonable quantity of sand with each load (1.0-1.5 ton). The overall amount of sand delivered to the site at this stage of the project is 20 m3 or 30 ton, which is the equivalent of about 5-10cm of sand coverage over the entire site. Obviously significantly more sand is required, however due to the sand barge’s robust construction an idea that was perhaps, initially, conceived as a basic and relatively cheap construction, to be used only once and then disposed of, is currently held in storage for future use. Acknowledgements The Marine Engineers team comprises of eight retired marine engineers and their manager, Richard Garcia. The two persons, Jim Grehan and Jan Doles, engaged full-time in the barge manufacture, are listed as main contributors to this paper. The additional contribution of the other team members, however small, is still considered significant and is hereby gratefully acknowledged. References Henderson, G., 2009. Redemption of a Slave Ship. The James Matthews. Western Australian Museum, Perth. Richards, V., MacLeod, I. and Veth, P., 2014. The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project – In-situ preservation and long-term monitoring of the Clarence (1850) and James Matthews (1841) shipwreck sites. In S. Tripati and V. 10 �Walker (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 12-16 May 2014, Honolulu, Hawaii, Hawaii. Shefi, D., Veth, P., Philippou, C., Rodrigues, J., Richards, V. and Harvey, P., 2014.The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project – interim progress report. In S. Tripati and V. Walker (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 12-16 May 2014, Honolulu, Hawaii, Hawaii. Biography Jon Carpenter is a conservator with 40 years of experience working principally with maritime archaeological materials at the Department of Materials Conservation, Western Australian Museum. The work performed is mainly with iron objects recovered from marine sites and he has conserved cannon from the earliest known shipwreck in Australia, the Trial (1622) and from HMS Sirius(1790), the Principle Escort of the First Fleet transporting colonists to Australia in 1788. As a diver and conservator operating in the field he conducts pre-disturbance assessments of shipwreck sites, including digital photography/video and on-site conservation of recovered artefact material. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 7: Preservation and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials and Site Management Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 7 chairs Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from freshwater, marine and wet terrestrial sites. The main purposes of this session are to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as the development of conservation networks throughout the region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas: • In situ preservation of marine archaeological materials, including reburial practices • Conservation management of shipwreck sites, including on-site monitoring • Conservation treatment case studies • Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials • Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region • Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs Suggestions for additional topics are welcomed by the session organizers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The construction of a simple sand dumping barge to aid reburial of a shipwreck site Description An account of the resource A gradual and unremitting decrease in the level of the sand forming the seabed in which the wreck of the James Matthews (1841) lies buried (located in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia) became a cause for concern as progressive deterioration of the structures on the site was taking place. The situation led to the innovative use of linked medium density polyethylene Traffic Management Delineator barriers (Omni OB1800) to create a walled enclosure around the site into which sand could be reintroduced to bury exposed structures and prevent its subsequent dispersal, as would be the case if it were simply dumped over the wreck. The shallow, 2.5m depth of water over the wreck site restricted the possibility of delivering a substantial quantity of sand via a large vessel or barge. Commercial dredging and pumping of sand was also considered but financial constraints ultimately ruled out any of these options. The volume of sand required to fill the enclosed area was calculated to be 165 cubic metres. To improve the rate at which a reasonable amount of sand could be added to the enclosure a small budget ($2000 AUD) was provided by the Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project (AHSPP) for the Western Australian Museum’s team of retired, volunteer Marine Engineers to design and construct a 3m x 4m sand dumping barge. Costs incurred were mainly for the steel framework and floor components of the barge as they required materials of specific dimensions. A small boat winch and pulley were also specific purchases. Floatation was provided by fourteen steel drums (each 200 litre capacity), which were obtained gratis. Note no labour costs were incurred to construct the barge. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jon Carpenter Jim Grehan Jan Dols, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 7 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/875858654025fec90d9a9ab6e63862ab.pdf 58a5982c7977d3775fdaf32e9a11a520 PDF Text Text The continuation of traditional boatbuilding in Cam Pha, Sam Son and Cua Lo, Vietnam Ken Preston Independent Researcher Seattle, US Email: kenpreston46@gmail.com Abstract This paper will describe recent and current construction activity on three separate building sites, one each in Cam Pha (near Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh Hoa), and Cua Lo (near Vinh). The three sites produce boats generally in the Northern Vietnamese/Chinese tradition, but with significant differences in both design and construction details and techniques. The designs that will be discussed are all traditional style motor vessels, that is, vessels whose design and style were developed prior to the availability of powerful diesel engines but are now motorized. They include:  The Halong Bay “Square Head” boat, a mid-sized utility and fishing vessel that is the dominant wooden boat in Halong Bay in the size range from 18' to about 35'.  The Sam Son large traditional fishing vessel, A 60' class seagoing shallow draft vessel derived directly from a 3-masted lug rigged sailing vessel with a long history in the Northern Coastal waters.  The Cua Lo mid-sized utility fishing boat (works in a number of fisheries), which is the only significant design in use from the small fishing port on the south bank of the river at Cua Lo. Key words: Traditional Boatbuilding Techniques, Cam Pha, Sam Son, Cua Lo, Northern Vietnam Background Between 2005 and 2013, I have made a total of 8 trips to Vietnam, totaling about one year accumulated time in country, or in nearby Laos and Cambodia. My purpose has been to document the continued building and use of wooden fishing and freight vessels along the coast and up the Mekong. I have made repeated visits to certain specific boat building sites and boatyards. Among these are three in particular in northern Vietnam. Many of their techniques are very similar and the boats they build have much in common. The three sites, Cam Pha (23 km north of Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh Hoa) and Cua Lo (near Vinh), are all within a distance of 300 km along the northern coast. Though they have other commercial interests, all three are vigorous fishing towns. 1 �Although epochal changes in technology can lead to radical changes in boat building and design (availability of steel saws leading to readily available planking for example, or the introduction of inexpensive diesel engines leading to broad transom sterns) my expectation is that a thorough knowledge of the surviving traditional construction techniques and vessel designs will provide significant insight into the origin and perhaps age of shipwrecks and on-shore remnants of older vessels. The common boat building techniques and the similarities of design characteristics of the boats built in the three towns described can be summarized as follows:  The planking is edge nailed from plank to plank  The primary fastenings are black iron, hand forged square spikes and commercial bolts and nuts.  The boats are built right way up on a single central plank, with one or both ends bent up to serve as stem and stern post.  If a separate stem timber is used, it is bolted directly to the central bottom plank, effectively replacing the bent up bottom plank's function.  The wood is bent when necessary by heating it over a slow fire and bending the plank with weights or levers or both.  Although all three boat designs are more or less descended from sailing ancestors, they are all pure motor boats today.  They are usually built to ground readily, with hoisting rudders and flat (but rockered) bottoms that keep their props mostly off the bottom.  The boats have long overhanging bows, and their lines are long and easy, with very few sharp bends in the planking.  Two of the three are, in effect “5-plank” boats with two chines each side. That is, they have the flat bottom “plank”, sloping bilge “planks” and near vertical side “planks”, though each “plank” will be made of a number of individual pieces. Cam Pha When I first became aware of the building site on the derelict beach below the town of Cam Pha in 2005, one old man with a crew of up to eight men and women was building 2 �two different sizes of the typical “Halong Bay Squarehead” utility vessel. These boats are traditional both in their overall style and in the manner of their construction. Their defining characteristic is their odd (but very useful) square foredeck. They are commonly built in lengths from 20' to about 40', the smallest having no cabin other than a small box or a deck over the engine and perhaps an arched canvas cover over the hold. The larger sizes have substantial houses built at deck level over their engine areas. 1 Fig. 1 Cam Pha Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston) The building process of the traditional “squarehead” boat (Figs. 1 and 2)  The central plank is tapered at the forward end then bent sharply upward at each end by heating over a slow fire while forcing one end of the plank down with weights. More recently, a separate stem timber is bolted to the forward end of the central plank and the aft end is bent up as before.  The central plank is set up, with props at bow and stern to support the ends and bolted down to deadmen set in the sand.  Planks are added to the boat in pairs, port and starboard, by edge nailing with 3 �hand forged square boat spikes about 5” long x 1/4” thick. The plank is first offered up and the inner edge marked to follow the previous plank. The builders use large wooden clamps, chains and prybars to hold the plank in position while it is marked and fastened.  The upper edge of the new plank is marked to utilize the available wood while achieving the hull curvature the builder has in mind and the plank is sawn to shape.  It is offered up a second time to check the sawn shape, and at that time the two adjacent plank edges are marked for spike locations at about one foot on center. The “new” plank will be chisel cut to produce a V-shaped tapered opening into the interior of the plank at each nail location, then the plank will be braced on edge and a nail “guide hole” drilled from the center of the plank into the chiseled entry.  The plank already on the vessel will also be drilled, from the marked nail location straight into the center of the plank.  With both the old and new planks drilled for spiking, the new plank is offered up one more time and pried into position with clamps and pry bars while it is nailed off.  If all goes well the spikes will be driven home using a punch to drive them into the chisel cut slots into the face of the plank. If there is trouble with the fit up, the spikes can be withdrawn with the same punch, catching under the hooked head of the spike, the correction made and the plank finally fastened off.  These boats are not 5-plank boats; they are a simple round bottomed shape. At the turn of the bilge nothing is done differently, except that the new plank is pried up to match the builder's idea of the correct angle. Usually, with one plank above the bottom in place, a floor timber will be added amidships, chopped to the angle with a balance-hatchet and spiked in place. A similar timber will be placed to form the lowest member of the future transom stern. 4 �Fig. 2 Cam Pha Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)  Thereafter, the sides are raised with at most a few additional floor timbers and a futtock or two to help hold the growing hull together. The wood used at Cam Pha is generally dreadful, full of knots and checks, and sawn relatively thin. The fit up of the plank seams is quite casual.The builders rely heavily on good caulkers to make their boats water tight.  At the top of the lower portion of the hull, a doubly thick but narrow plank or “wale” is placed full length each side. By this time the stem and transom are both well established and effectively locked into place by the planking and the wale.  A cross-timber is added at the top of the stem, extending out to the sides to mark the extent of the foredeck and provide a landing for the forward end of the sheer plank (which is twisted sharply through nearly 90 degrees to land flat on the cross timber) and the filler pieces that bridge the wide gap in the planking under the foredeck.  Aft, the wale continues on past the lower transom and defines the lower edge of the upper transom. This was originally a common feature on Chinese sailing vessels, on which the upper, outer transom provided some protection to the 5 �rudder (hanging on the lower transom) in following seas. Nowadays the rudder is often a typical steel plate motorboat's rudder, positioned deeper under the hull in the prop-wash.  Since the sheer plank tumbles home a bit aft and rolls out nearly 90 degrees forward to form the squarehead, it is always fitted in at least two pieces, scarfed about amidships.  With the planking finished (or nearly so) the balance of the framing is fitted into the hull, using all sorts of rough pieces of timber, sawn to gentle curves, beveled to fit with the balance hatchet and spiked into place with boat spikes. Here and there the hull, as originally planked, won't suit the builder's eye and he'll bore a hole through plank and frame for a bolt, which will be used as a clamp to force the planking into place against the frame.  Very different from Western practice, the floors and frames do not usually overlap much if at all, and may not even touch each other.  With the planking complete, in the older model, a false stem was fitted over the hood ends of the planks at the bow and shaped to a somewhat sharp entry. In the past two years the use of a completely separate stem has become the norm and that stem, bolted to the central bottom plank, is rabbeted in normal fashion as planks are brought to it.  At some point after the planking is complete to the sheer, the curvature of the plank ends, where they transition from the lower to the upper transom, will be marked by eye with white chalk and cut out with a mallet and chisel.  With the frames in place and trimmed to height, bulkheads are installed full depth (spiked to the frames and edge nailed plank to plank) at least one at the forward end of the engine area and another at the forward end of the fish hold. Often even fairly small boats are divided into five compartments (lazarette, engine room, fish hold, forward hold, and a space under the fore deck). Often the fish hold will be drilled through the planking to provide a free-flooding wet well for the catch. No doubt the hulls derive a great deal of their strength from the bulkheads, since the frames are not continuous anywhere.  Deck framing and hatch coamings are installed along with uprights extending 6 �from the floor timbers to the eventual height of the cabin top.  Decks are laid and cabin joinery completed.  With the hull construction complete, she's released from her anchorage to the earth and propped up first on one side, then the other for caulking. Since the planks were fitted roughly and tight edge to edge and no caulking seam was cut, it is done by the caulkers as they go along, opening up not only the seams between planks but also the checks and splits in the planking. Quantities of waste fiber are driven into the seams and splits, trimmed with a chisel, and troweled over with a gray mastic for sealant.  At that point the vessel is ready for power and outfitting for her work and is routinely put overboard on a high tide and towed away to have her engine fitted elsewhere. Fig. 3 Cua Lo Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston) Sam Son (Figs. 3 and 4) Although the boatyard in the river mouth north of town does significant new construction of various sorts, for this paper we will only consider the construction of large traditional vessels on the beach in front of town. They are built on a single very long bottom plank 7 �bent up at each end to form the stem and what amounts to the central plank of a narrow transom stern. They are fastened with hand forged square boat spikes and commercial steel carriage bolts. Since I have not seen the entire building sequence, some points can only be surmised, but in general:  The bottom (which comprises the “bottom plank” and the two “bilge planks”) is built complete in one piece lying on coconut palm trunks that are set to support the line of the bottom rocker, on sand bags a foot or so above the beach. The bottom planking is bolted through the floor timbers (which do not extend past its edge) but a number of edge nails are also used.  The entire side “slabs” are edge nailed together and cut to final profile flat on the beach. When I arrived to see one of these boats at this stage, the port side was complete and lying flat on the sand alongside the completed bottom, with its stern quarter region already bent into a sharp curve upward. The starboard side was not yet complete forward, additional planks were being offered up where the slab lay in the sand, but the stern quarter area was already in the midst of being bent up over a slow fire. This is the only example I have seen of bending the slab upward by levers rather than downward with weight, a concession to the size of the completed sides, which are massive, with planking nearly 2” thick and require a number of planks edge nailed and scarfed lengthwise.  Unlike at Cam Pha, these heavy planks are not repeatedly offered up and marked, cut, offered again, marked again, drilled, offered again and finally nailed. Rather they are offered only once on the sand, cut to shape with a circular saw, and edge nailed directly where they lie. The chisel cuts to provide an entry for the spike are the same as at Cam Pha but the hole is drilled from the chiseled opening into the two planks. Since the drill cannot bend to run cleanly into the center of the old plank as it effectively does at Cam Pha the drilled hole necessarily is aimed toward the far side of the plank. A small bend is placed in each spike before driving and most of them stay within the planking. Only now and then does one break out to the surface of the side. 8 �Fig. 4 Cua Lo Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston)  With the sides nearly complete but lying flat on the sand on either side of the hull, a single temporary mold is erected and braced off amidships.  In the course of a long day, the sides are raised into position on the bottom, wrapped around the temporary mold and fastened off to the bottom and the raised stem and transom sections of the central plank. The process requires about 20 men to pick up the sides one at a time and temporarily hold them generally in place with rope, chain and chain falls. But the rest of the day's effort only involves eight to ten men, slowly urging the side slabs into contact first with the transom portion of the center plank, then bit by bit with prybars, chain falls, large wedges and brute strength, bringing the chine together full length. The chine fasteners are carriage bolts roughly 1/2” x 10”, driven into drilled holes through the side and into the edge grain of the bottom on approximately one foot centers.  Thereafter the futtocks (side frames) are cut and fitted, one pair per floor timber, but not necessarily in contact with the floor and not normally bolted to it. In some 9 �examples I've seen the futtocks are deliberately spaced between the floors. The futtocks are shaped like hockey sticks, sawn to shape, so that the short end of the hockey stick projects out onto the hull bottom and becomes a primary connection and strength member at the chine. They extend well above the original side slabs to support additional structure.  Above the sides that were erected in one piece, a thicker plank or wale is wrapped around the frames. Bulwarks are raised a further foot to 18” and given a rail cap, which is often armored with a smoothly welded stainless steel cover to help prevent hangups of the fine web used in their nets.  Aft, three or four beams are let into the top plank of the original sides and are used to extend the deck substantially to each side, with the bulwarks boxing in a comfortable aft work deck. This gives the boat a peculiar appearance aft, with a large boxy aft deck area above the shapely quarters.  The rudder lowers through a trunk extending from the aft deck through the bottom, and the whole aft compartment is left free flooding and not even caulked. A tight bulkhead between the rudder compartment and the rest of the vessel may be the only tight bulkhead. Other bulkheads may be added, but in many cases the hull is effectively open from end to end.  A centerline hatch runs full length of the fore deck, covered with loose hatch covers that apparently are never dogged down.  The “pilot house”, if any, is low, providing only sitting headroom, and may be nonexistent, the engine house covering the engine but not offering crew quarters.  As recently as the 1990's these boats were rigged with three masts and three lug sails and provided with a Chinese style daggerboard working vertically in a trunk, but none of them carry a rig today and there is no sign of the daggerboard. Cua Lo (Figs. 5 and 6) The small fishing boat harbor in the creek at Cua Lo is remarkable in that all the resident boats are the same model, ranging in size from about 25' to about 50' overall length. Before my visit in late 2012 I had not seen any of these boats under construction, only hauled for maintenance. In late 2012 there were two new boats 10 �about 35 feet long standing partially framed and planked in the yard on the south bank nearest the mouth of the creek. Fig. 5 Sam Son Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston) At that time one was clearly a week or two further along than the other, which immediately gave some indication of the sequence of building. I was able to examine them in detail at that time and again about one month later. More recently, in late 2013 the same small yard had three boats under construction spaced a couple of weeks apart, from a bare bottom going together to a nearly planked up vessel. Between these three visits we have essentially complete documentation of the building sequence.  The boats are built on a central plank which is bent up aft to form the run, leading to what will be a broad, but narrow (top to bottom) planked transom in the finished boat.  A separate stem timber is bolted to the bottom plank and rabbeted for the planking. The first three or four floor timbers swallow the stem.  The floor timbers are cut to the profile of the bottom and the planks are bolted to them, rather than being edge nailed without benefit of frames. Fastenings in 11 �general are bolts, not spikes. The boats give the impression of being round bilged from outside, but they are actually multi-chined, with hard chines as well as an arced bottom. The planking is very thick and probably planed to relieve the sharp corners outboard. The planks are definitely planed to remove scars from flame bending.  Sawn elbows are bolted to the floors, and the futtocks in turn are bolted to the elbows, forming a typical western-style complete frame. However, only a few frames are completed before the planking is advanced further. The hard chines are formed by sawing the angles into the floors and futtocks, not by making each futtock straight and splicing the frame with gussets.  Rather than advancing the planking piece by piece, when the turn of the bilge is reached a separate plank is placed above the next chine angle to stabilize the frames and apparently also to provide a guide for building subsequent frames. Great care is taken with fitting each plank and the plank seams are routinely nearly perfect.  The boats have a great deal of rocker and the stern is built broad and flat, which forms a very easy long run. Individual planks at the stern are allowed to run wild for most of the construction.  The slot and framing for the rudder trunk are placed early in the bottom construction. Since the harbor partially dries at low tide all the boats have hoisting wooden “barn door” rudders.  Perhaps unique to this design, two futtocks on each side up forward are made of massive timbers, and project well above deck and bulwarks. They will support a cross timber which will support the long booms which the local fleet uses to push a net ahead of the boat.  To provide more working deck aft, the next to last topside plank is rolled out from plumb to nearly horizontal and extends the beam a few inches each side, thus producing a small reverse knuckle in the topsides aft. Alternatively, two or three cross beams may be let into the sides and the aft deck planked over them to provide yet a wider work area aft.  The final topsides plank lands on top of the timber that all the previous bottom 12 �and side planks had been bolted to and becomes the bulwarks of the cockpit and the working deck forward, but also the lower sides of the engine house or cabin midships. Fig. 6 Sam Son Construction Sequence, 2005 – 2012. (Ken Preston) Summary The primary techniques of the northern Vietnamese boat builders, flame bending, edge nailing, building the bottom on a single central plank and raising the sides on the bottom (whether in one piece, or plank by plank) are consistent along the northern coast of Vietnam but those techniques allow for construction of a wide range of boat types. Thus, even if the style of boat changes (e.g. from sail to power) the building techniques will still provide a “signature” which may be useful in identifying their origin. Biography Ken Preston was born in 1946, took a degree in Geology, and served in the US Army in Vietnam. He went commercial fishing off the US West Coast until he went broke, then pursued a career in marine construction (harbor works, bridges, docks, dredging, breakwaters and so forth). Ken held a license as a tug boat operator for a period of years, but only worked on boats locally on construction projects. Since 2005 he has spent six weeks to two months each year traveling in Indochina, documenting the remaining traditional (primarily wooden) fishing and freight boats of the region. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The continuation of traditional boatbuilding in Cam Pha, Sam Son and Cua Lo, Vietnam Description An account of the resource This paper will describe recent and current construction activity on three separate building sites, one each in Cam Pha (near Halong City), Sam Son (near Thanh Hoa), and Cua Lo (near Vinh). The three sites produce boats generally in the Northern Vietnamese/Chinese tradition, but with significant differences in both design and construction details and techniques. The designs that will be discussed are all traditional style motor vessels, that is, vessels whose design and style were developed prior to the availability of powerful diesel engines but are now motorized. They include: *The Halong Bay “Square Head” boat, a mid-sized utility and fishing vessel that is the dominant wooden boat in Halong Bay in the size range from 18' to about 35'. *The Sam Son large traditional fishing vessel, A 60' class seagoing shallow draft vessel derived directly from a 3-masted lug rigged sailing vessel with a long history in the Northern Coastal waters. *The Cua Lo mid-sized utility fishing boat (works in a number of fisheries), which is the only significant design in use from the small fishing port on the south bank of the river at Cua Lo Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ken Preston, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5df9542e49a1a96ed071953c9f25e37e.pdf 4b58a84e44c5e29fe9889c508195279c PDF Text Text The Cultural Property of Military Forts on the Sea or Kai-hou in Tokyo Bay: From the viewpoint of underwater cultural heritage Tatsuya Nakada Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 108-8477 Email: picono@kaiyodia.ac.jp Toshiaki Hayashibara Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology,Fukuoka, Japan, 812-0041 Email: underwater03@gmail.com Abstract At the end of the 19th century the Japanese government built several military forts on the sea or artificial islands inside Tokyo bay in order to defend its capital from foreign sea powers. Three outer forts or Kai-hou, which were between the cape of Kannon, the cape of Huttsu, and Saruis land, formed the first naval defensive line. The first fort started to be constructed in 1881, and then finished in 1890. The second was built between 1889 and 1914, and the third between 1892 and 1921. Among three, only the third one does not exist anymore. In 2000 the governmental demolition project of the third fort began mainly because of the congested seaborne traffic, and was completed in 2007. During the work, some of its building materials were salvaged, which have been exhibited in a city park since 2006; they are now Yokosuka-City-Designated Important Cultural Properties. The underwater structures of the fort were also removed and reconstructed in a council owned ground; in 2013 they were also registered as the above-mentioned cultural properties. On the other hand, the first fort is now owned and charged by the ministry of finance and the second by the ministry of land, infrastructure, transport and tourism. Although both have already been registered as Sites Which Contain Buried Cultural Properties by the local educational committee, the governmental restoration work of the second fort is under way without any legal procedures in conformity with the Japanese domestic law of Act on Protection of Cultural Properties. Key words: Kai-hou, Tokyo Bay, Taisho Period, Protection of Cultural Properties, Archaeological Heritage Site Introduction Kai-hou means fort on the sea. On the same ground that in the last period of Edo gun batteries on the sea called O-daiba (o is an honorific title which is added before noun for shogunate or its related organizations or facilities) was constructed to defend the capital, Meiji Government constructed three Kaihous on the sea located in the middle of Tokyo Bay. They could be regarded as Underwater Cultural Heritage. As two kaihous of three are designated as archaeological Heritage Sites in accordance with Act on Protection of 1 �Cultural Properties, the treatment of them shall be abided by the Act. Kai-hous in Tokyo bay (Military Forts on the Sea or Kai-hous) They are artificial islands on the sea with defensive facilities including gun batteries constructed to defend Tokyo from Meiji to Taisho period (the late 19th century to the early 20th century). After three forts on the sea were built, the army had resided there. never fired in the actual war. The cannons were After the Great Kanto earthquake of 1923, the alteration of national defensive policy made Kai-hous unnecessary. They have been let Fig. 1 A Bird's Eye View of Tokyo Bay. (T. Hayashibara) alone for a long time. The Construction Technology of Kai-hou in Tokyo Bay Perceived foreign vessels had come to frequently appear offshore Japan at the end of Edo period; the necessity of coastal defense was urged. Particularly Perry's squadron’s visit to Uraga obliged Edo Shogunate to defend Tokyo bay. The first defensive and inspection line from Cape Kenzaki to Cape Sunosaki intended to confirm the purpose of arrival of ships and ordered them to expel from Edo bay, and the second defensive line from the cape Kannon to the cape Huttsu intended to sink them simultaneously by all forts around the line in case of invading across the line (Fig. 1).The first artificial fort (Shinagawa O-daiba) was constructed near the coastline of Edo Castle. Though at first 12 forts were scheduled to be construct, only 6 forts were built due to finance and technical problems. The line between the cape Huttsu in Chiba Prefecture and the cape Kannon in Kanagawa prefecture “to repel” foreign vessels at the end of Edo Period had geopolitical merits of the narrowest sea area in Tokyo bay. Meiji government had also determined to construct artificial lands or forts on the sea. The each distance among forts called Kai-hous was approximately 2.5 km considering shot-range at that time. Having been used enormous amount of stone or sand, they were gathered and transported from Chiba and Kanagawa prefectures. A variety of techniques such as construction technology of Shinagawa O-daiba, traditional masonry technique and most 2 �advanced engineering works or diving technology (such as helmet type of diving apparatus) were used at the construction. Because of deep water (about 40m around the third Kai-hou) and too fast current, construction work sometimes ran into difficulties and took a toll of lives. However it took 43 years for the construction of Kai-hous to complete works. The History and Situation of Kai-hous in Tokyo Bay The first Kai-hou is located at the westward 2.3km offshore Futtu city of Chiba prefecture, and belongs to the Ministry of Finance. Its area is 23,000m 2 at high tide. The depth of water is around 1-3 m. As it is not preserved, sand used as its base appears exposed and neglected; some structures have collapsed (Fig. 2 and 3). The second Kai-hou is located at the further westward offshore 2.5 km from the first Kai-hou offshore the Cape Futtsu. Its area is 41,000m2 at high tide. The depth of water is around 8-10 m. The second Kai-hou also seems to have been neglected. Having been equipped with radar and used for emergency drills, recently the ministry of land, infrastructure, transport and tourism (hereinafter MILT) has maintained and reused the second Kai-hou. Fig. 2 The Whole View of the first Kai-hou. Fig. 3 Several Parts of Military Facilities (Google Earth) Collapsed on the Side of the first Kai-hou. (T. Hayashibara) The third Kai-hou is located at the northward offshore 2.5 km from the Cape of Kannon. Its area was 26,000m2 at high tide. The depth of water is the deepest of all Kai-hous at around 40m. Although it took 30 years to complete the construction, one third of the third Kai-hou was submerged due to Great Kanto earthquake of 1923. Since these became obstacles on navigation route, the removal project was implemented in 2000- 3 �2007. All structures seen on the surface of the sea were moved away. Though we cannot confirm, underwater remains (basic parts of the structure) appear to be intact. Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties and Kai-hous Archaeological Heritage Site Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties (1950) adopted the legal terminology “buried cultural property” for the first time as a conception including ruins or relics. As long as underwater objects are found within the territorial sea, raised objects or artifacts could be treated as “buried cultural property” (Cabinet Legislation Bureau, September 18th, 1960). Then archaeological heritage sites would be delimited by arbitrary zoning around the areas which could contain “buried cultural property” or ruins. In case of the first and second Kai-hous, historical facts are evident. Among Shinagawa O-daibas which is historically and technically relevant to Kai-hous, the third and sixth O-daibas were designated as National historic site in 1926 by Historical Spot, Scenic Beauty and Natural Monument Preservation Law (1919). In 1995, the Agency for Cultural Affairs referred to heritage of industrial modernization as a type of cultural property due to a revision of the criteria of the designation for Historical Spot, Scenic Beauty and Natural Monument. Therefore the legal range of cultural property was extended from mid-Meiji era to end of WW II. In August 1 of 2002, Cultural Properties Department proclaimed that it surveyed to register Tokyo bay gun battery ruins as heritage of industrial modernization. It selected Motosu gun battery, the first and the second Kai-hous from a body of Tokyo bay gun battery ruins as “heritage of industrial modernization”. Research products could nominate as national historic site. In April 30 of 2003, Futtsu City Council of Cultural Property confirmed that the proposal of designation of historic sites should be embodied within the year on the memorandum titled “Respecting the Protection and Practical Utilization of the first Kai-hou and the Cape Futtsu” (Kosaka, 2004). Although more than 20 years have elapsed since then, the report is yet to be published. According to “the distributive map of ruins in Futtsu City” made in March 1975 for the first time, all Motosu gun batteries, the first and second Kai-hous weren’t registered as archaeological heritage sites. It was not until 1987 that the first and second Kai-hous were not only registered in “Map of Ruins,” but also Motosu gun Battery was registered in “the map.” Motosu gun battery, the first and second Kai-hous 4 �were registered in “the distributive map of ruins in Chiba prefecture” (March2000). Consequently the construction works shall be notified within 60 days in compliance with articles 92-95 of Act on Protection of Cultural Properties. In July 2010, it turned out that a branch office of MILT destroyed considerable parts of the second Kai-hou registered as archaeological heritage site. Worried the second Kaihou might collapse by typhoon or earthquake, the construction began in 2007 so as to remove obstacles on navigation routes. A section chief of Tokyo Bay Waterway Office told that no report was given from Third Regional Coast Guard Headquarters who owns the second Kai-hou, we didn’t perceive the second Kai-hou was included in Archaeological Heritage Site. In the meantime it was revealed that the construction was the whole renovation of the second Kai-hou, and Futtsu City Council of Cultural Property held an urgent meeting in July2010.We inquired the Chiba Prefecture Board of Education about this problem, and the Board replied as follows. First concerning the well-known archaeological heritage site registered as “the second Kai-hou,” the construction had been carried out without any notification or consultation for both prefecture and city Board of Education. Secondly, as regards the third Kai-hou, Tokyo Bay Waterway Office removed the sunken rocks and tried to record the state of ruins and to open the information to the public 2000 to 2007. Thirdly, as regards the construction of the second Kai-hou, a request paper (August 11, 2010) which stipulated the fact that many people in Futtsu committed to this construction was submitted to Tokyo Bay Waterway Office. The Different Treatment of Kai-hous by Different Administration Both the first and second Kai-hous have the Futtu city’s land register. These registers were decided as the matter respecting the jurisdiction of Kai-hous (decree 72) (Takahashi, 2004a). The third Kai-hou belonged to Yokosuka city. When sunken rocks were removed due to safe navigation, its land register was erased prior to the construction. Since 35% of the third Kai-hou became sunken debris, the underwater structures up to the depth of 23m from the surface were removed in 2007. This construction raised so called “Large-sized Barracks” from plenty of remains in February 2005. This was transported to Umikaze Park owned by Yokosuka city in February 2006, it is 5 �permanently open to the public since March 1 of 2006 (Fig. 4). A Body, which developed into NPO in February 2009, posed a problem about the conservation of the third Kai-hou remains in January 2007. There were some remains raised other than “Large-sized Barracks.” The Body held a symposium on the relocation to Oppama of other remains of the third Kai-hou in July 2007. “Large-sized Barracks” was designated as important cultural properties by Yokosuka city in March 10 of 2009. Regarding this chance as the best timing, the NPO consulted with MILT about the treatment of remains of third Kai-hou. Thus three remains named Observation Station, Searchlight and Side Storage Room were determined to be selected and relocated them to City Ground in Natsui land. After this construction was carried out in 2010, three underwater remains were open to the public in April in the following year. Then the NPO moved to get the designation of remains exhibited at Oppama as important cultural property. Designation of cultural properties by Agency for Cultural Affairs is of great use when citizens make applications for subsidy. Consequently three structures were additionally designated as important cultural properties. It is worthy of notice that Tokyo Fig. 4 Large-sized Barracks of the 3rd Kai- Bay Waterway Office was willing to disclose houRaised in February, 2005 is Permanently Open to the Public in Umikaze Park of their own actual conditions exposed by the Yokosuka City. (T. Nakada) removal construction to citizens. This suggests that the office recorded certainly information of building technology through observing remains raised (Takahashi, 2004a). “The construction History of the Third Kai-houin Tokyo bay” (a volume of 630 pages) published in March2010 by Tokyo Bay Waterway Office based upon lots of information is the precious and exhaustive document record. World Heritage and Kai-hous Etuko Takahashi who was one of authors of “The construction History of the Third Kaihou in Tokyo bay” stated that though a body of gun batteries in Tokyo bay including Shinagawa O-daiba deserved World Heritage, the current state remained seriously critical (Asahi Shimbun, 2009). Such a point of view is extremely significant. Because 6 �viewing or estimating Kai-hous in light of world heritage never permits different treatment of remains by the different authorities. Moreover from a view of World Heritage, historic remains including Kai-hous must be perceived as “in totality; the conditions of integrity to properties” (Operational Guidelines of the World Heritage Convention, para. 89). In fact, the first, second and third Kai-hous are constructed like arc shape between Cape Huttu and Saruis land. This could be overviewed as a landmark of the entrance of Tokyo bay, as Sumihisa Takahashi (1927-2005) emphasized repeatedly. He proposed the first Kai-houand Motosu gun battery at the end of the Cape Futtsu be regarded as Historic sites (Takahashi, 2002). In this sense, the expression of “Kai-hou three brothers” by the chief Kazuo Kosaka of Tokyo Bay Fort Fan Club is very symbolic. As regards the raised relics other than remains transported to Umikaze park, he stated it was desirable that Futtsu city conserve the rest of the raised relics which have historical relation with the first, second and third Kai-hous. This shows eloquently his deep insight. The idea of Kosaka and World Heritage Convention seems almost the same. The subjects of the convention are monuments, architectural works, elements or structures of an archaeological nature etc., which are of “outstanding universal value” from the historical point of view (articles 1 and 2). The Basic scheme of the Convention is to draw up the World Heritage List (article 11). The registration of the list is examined and decided based on applications by each state parties. The World Heritage Committee were created in order to examine such applications in detail. The World Heritage Committee drew up the global strategy in 1994. It mentioned new types of heritage such as cultural landscape, industrial heritage and modern architecture that had not ever been designated. Japan also added a new type of cultural property called cultural landscape to Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties in April2005. Its definition articulates “indispensable subjects to understand our lives or livelihood selected from lives or livelihood of people living in the region and landscape formed by its cultural climate” (article 2.1.5). Japanese provisional list have been drawn up by Agency for Cultural Affairs based upon the opinion of Council for Cultural Affairs. World cultural heritage special committee has made reference to the operational guidelines accepting proposals of prefectures and municipalities since 2007. It is 7 �expected that such selection is based on not political but purely archaeological examination. Fig. 5 The Whole View of the 2nd Kai-hou in Fig. 6 The Whole View of the second Kai-hou. (S. February, 2000. (Tokyo Bay Fort Fan Club) Takayama) Administrative tasks about Kai-hous The proposal to the First and the Second Kai-hous Before the destruction of considerable parts of the second Kai-hou was revealed, in the regular prefectural assembly in 2008 Mitsuru Yoshimoto proposed that the first and second Kai-hous be world heritage. In the assembly, when he questioned about survey of Agency for Cultural Affairs, the chief of board of education replied that although the first and second Kai-hous were selected as one of 50 sites and indeed the research was carried out, the report remains to be published as of February 2004. When Yoshimoto questioned whether a body of Tokyo bay forts should be registered and conserved as world heritage, the chief of board of education replied that the registration of world heritage needed the designation of national historic in advance (Yoshimoto, 2008). In the assembly in December 2010 soon after the destruction of the second Kai-hou was revealed, when Yoshimoto inquired whether the report was published, the chief of board of education replied that as of February 2011 it had not been published. Though Chiba Prefectural Board of Education alleged the report would decide the significance of the first and second Kai-hous (Yoshimoto, 2011), as of January 2014 it has yet to be published. The Present Conditions and Problems on the Second Kai-hou As the second Kai-hou has let alone for about 70 years since its abandonment, it has fallen into ruin (Fig. 5). The revetment protection and restoration works were 8 �implemented as “Renewal Project” by MLIT in 2007, some works were completed in 2013 (Fig. 6). However, in the construction, due to insufficient cooperation between project executors and administrative officers, the advance archaeological research was not implemented in conformity with Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties (Tokyo Bay Waterway office). When we participated in a marine inspection in 2012, we confirmed the state covered with concretes to rivet the coastline. The fact that the legal archaeological research was not implemented means that regardless of registration of archaeological heritage sites, “the degree of importance as cultural heritage” is never verified. Therefore researches to get hold of the current state and pick up poor information of remains is strongly required. It is desirable that such researches be carried out and the researchers publicly disseminate their products. The Treatment as Cultural Property of Parts of Foundations Left behind under the Third Kai-hou The depth of water of the third Kai-hou is around 40m. That of the second Kai-hou is only 1-4 m. The construction period of the third Kai-hou was much longer than that of the second Kai-hou. The amount of stones and sand used by the construction was approximately 16 times larger than that of the first Kai-hou, and about 4 times larger than that of the second Kai-hou. It is remarkable that underwater basic structures are still left behind on the seabed. Although we have not confirmed, it would be natural that the underwater basic parts be preserved in situ. Nobody can mention this information. Though Board of Education of Yokosuka city seems unaware of the fact, these remains are underwater cultural heritage. These remains were constructed about 120 years ago. These structures should be valued as not separate remains but integral part of the third Kai-hou. Such an understanding would enable us to learn the actual conditions of marine engineering works. However, it seems difficult that we implement archaeological researches to confirm the actual state. Because the sea area of the third Kai-hou is important point due to heavy traffic, and the depth of water is about 40 m. Accordingly we require the authorities to recognize underwater basic remains. Conclusion At the opening of a NHK TV program (August 31 of 2013) titled “Megaquake: the revival of Great Kanto earthquake,” “an artificial island” from the sky view was introduced as a marine important place for seismic observation or anti-terrorism policy. Seemingly the 9 �foundation of the island was covered with sand, so never did we dream that the island is underwater cultural heritage. However we assert the island is none other than the second Kai-hou. The fact that this historically important island was introduced as quite different island seems to have changed even the original value of the island. The construction technology of Kai-hous under turbulent times in the early years of Meiji era was excellent enough to have been required the transfer to the United States when it planned to construct Kai-hou in Chesapeak bay (Committee for Publishing a Construction History of Tokyo bay the third Kai-hou, 2005). A document titled “Matters respecting the construction of Kai-hou in Tokyo bay: An inquiry from US ambassador” (July 1906) was found in Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Japan inquired whether US also own the document in reply. That’s why an unknown history between Japan and US was revealed. In July 2003, Tokyo Bay Waterway Office found the official document in the US National Archives and Records Administration. These facts show that an appraisal which Japan solely devoted itself to import is not necessarily right. Japan had already exported the world highest level of technology to the US at that time. Yokosuka city consulted with the Agency for Cultural Affairs in May 2013 to designate Saruis land as national historic site based on Act on the Protection of Cultural Properties. The city has been trying to maintain it as a park since it was transferred from the government in 2007. As Takahashi and Kosaka pointed out, if we regard a body of batteries including Kai-hous as one package “in totality”, the designation of only one part as historic site could also contribute to “the totality” provided in the World Heritage Convention. A statement on national historical site submitted to the Agency for Cultural Affairs in 2014 is expected. References The Asahi Shimbun., August 25th, 2007, (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun., November 12th, 2009, (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun; Chiba(Ed.), July 29th, 2010, (in Japanese). Odawara Modern History Study (Ed.), 2012.Regional History of the South Kanto in Early Modern Japan: from the Perspective of Sun-Zu-So. Iwata Shoin, Tokyo, (in Japanese). Kosaka, K., 2004. Response of the Futtsu city to Tokyo bay Kai-hou. Journal of Tokyo 10 �Bay Science, Vol.2 (2): 65-66, (in Japanese). Tokyo Bay Waterway Office (Ed.), 2003. Mio (Fairway): the Changing Tokyo bay. Tokyo Bay Waterway Office, Yokosuka, (in Japanese). Committee for Publishing a Construction History of Tokyo bay the third Kai-hou (Ed.), 2005. Construction History of the third Kai-houin Tokyo bay. Tokyo Bay Waterway Office, Yokosuka, (in Japanese). Tokyo Bay Waterway Office (2013). Homepage, retrieval December 15, 2013. Fromhttp://www.pa.ktr.mlit.go.jp/wankou/jigyou_syoukai/dai2kai.htm. Liberal Democratic Party of Chiba (Ed.), January 14th, 2008. To Register the first and the second Kai-hou on the World Heritage List, Yoshimoto Mitsuru Prefectural Assembly Report, Chiba, (in Japanese). Liberal Democratic Party of Chiba (Ed.), February 1st, 2011. Revetment Repair Construction of the second Kai-hou is Being Enforced, Yoshimoto Mitsuru Prefectural Assembly Report, Chiba, (in Japanese). Johoji, A., 1971. Fortification History in Japan. Hara Shobou, Tokyo, (in Japanese). Takahashi, S., 2002. KyouSho(a memorial writing) for Professor Numata Makoto, the Chairman of the Society for Tokyo Bay Science. Journal of Tokyo Bay science, Vol. 1 (6): 184-85, (in Japanese). Takahashi, S., 2004a.A Thought on Kai-hou viewed Tokyo Bay Science. Journal of Tokyo Bay science, Vol. 2 (2): 48-49, (in Japanese). Takahashi, S., 2004b.the Cape Futtsu is Kai-mon (sea gate) of Tokyo Bay. Journal of Tokyo Bay science, Vol.2 (3): 108, (in Japanese). Chiba Prefectural Board of Education (Ed.), 2000.A Distributive Map of Buried Cultural Property in Chiba (4 volumes), Nagareyama, (in Japanese). Nagai, N., 2013. Shinagawa Daiba as Underwater Cultural Heritage. Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: the Pacific Ocean. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka, (in Japanese). Futtsu City Board of Education (Ed.), 1987.the Distribution Map of Buried Cultural Property in Futtsu city. Futtsu, (in Japanese). Yokosuka City (Ed.), 2009. The New History of Yokosuka City: Special Edition Cultural 11 �Heritage. Yokosuka City, (in Japanese). Yokosuka City (Ed.), 2012. The New History of Yokosuka City: Special Edition Military Affairs. Yokosuka City, (in Japanese). Biography Tatsuya Nakada (b. 1969) is an associate professor of Graduate School of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. He is a member of the board of Association for regional and Cultural Studies. His specialty is International Law, inter alia Law of the Sea. His main themes most particularly include “Fishery Subsidies and International Fisheries Law” and “Archaeological Heritage Management and UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage”. In the process of emerging of international community laws, recently he has been always considering how well such laws should be incorporated into Japanese legal system. Toshiaki Hayashibara (1960) has completed master's degree at Graduate School of Literature of Toyo University. He is a member of the board of Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology. His specialty is archaeology; his main themes include Japanese prehistory bronze ware research, underwater cultural heritage and Archaeological Heritage Management. In the process of participating in underwater cultural heritage research all over Japan, he has most gradually come to have his doubts about treatments of underwater cultural heritage by Japanese management of archaeological heritage. Recently he has been actively giving presentations on underwater cultural heritage and Archaeological Heritage Management. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Cultural Property of Military Forts on the Sea or Kai-hou in Tokyo Bay: From the viewpoint of underwater cultural heritage Description An account of the resource At the end of the 19th century the Japanese government built several military forts on the sea or artificial islands inside Tokyo bay in order to defend its capital from foreign sea powers. Three outer forts or Kai-hou, which were between the cape of Kannon, the cape of Huttsu, and Saruis land, formed the first naval defensive line. The first fort started to be constructed in 1881, and then finished in 1890. The second was built between 1889 and 1914, and the third between 1892 and 1921. Among three, only the third one does not exist anymore. In 2000 the governmental demolition project of the third fort began mainly because of the congested seaborne traffic, and was completed in 2007. During the work, some of its building materials were salvaged, which have been exhibited in a city park since 2006; they are now Yokosuka-City-Designated Important Cultural Properties. The underwater structures of the fort were also removed and reconstructed in a council owned ground; in 2013 they were also registered as the above-mentioned cultural properties. On the other hand, the first fort is now owned and charged by the ministry of finance and the second by the ministry of land, infrastructure, transport and tourism. Although both have already been registered as Sites Which Contain Buried Cultural Properties by the local educational committee, the governmental restoration work of the second fort is under way without any legal procedures in conformity with the Japanese domestic law of Act on Protection of Cultural Properties. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tatsuya Nakada Toshiaki Hayashibara, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/72c7a1775b5ce69e207f884688c8ca5a.pdf 7017b35e045b8f019abdf8e676faf161 PDF Text Text The diffusion of the material culture in the early period of the trade globalization: A preliminary study on silver coins and shipwreck porcelains found in East Asia of the 16th and17th centuries Liu Miao Department of History, Xiamen University, No. 422, South Siming Road Siming District, Xiamen 361005, China Email: liumiao@xmu.edu.cn Abstract In the 16th-17th centuries, world trade patterns greatly changed. East and West entered a period of an enormous amount of sailing since the 1500s. In the East, the traditional Asian maritime trade network - which mainly relied on maritime merchants of Southeast China, was gradually restored. After the discovery of the Americas in 1492 by the Spanish kingdom of Castille, and the establishment of the Eastward passage to India by the kingdom of Portugal in the late 1400s, both Spain and Portugal arrived in AsiaPacific in the 1500s and interacted with Eastern Asia local cultures. This set up the early globalization process. The silk and porcelains from China, spices from Southeast Asia, textiles from India, and coins from Mexico and Japan, were all important materials and media in the global trade of this period. Dozens of shipwrecks dated to this period have been identified as both East Asian maritime vessels (including Chinese junks) and European exploration and trading vessels in Southern China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia. Chinese porcelains were the main cargoes in all of them. We also find a growing number of silver coins at the archaeological sites and shipwrecks of this time period. These interesting maritime archaeological materials show early panPacific trading navigation between eastern Asia and the Western world. They help reveal the early international maritime trading history between eastern Asia and the West, early European colonization in eastern Asia, and resulting issues of expanding globalization. Key words: Shipwrecks, East Asia, Kraak porcelain, Zhangzhou wares, Early globalization Introduction In the early 1500s both the Portuguese and Spanish of the Iberian kingdoms reached Southeast Asia and burst into the traditional trade network of Asia. They interacted with local cultures in East Asia and established the early global system through longdistance trading. Dozens of shipwrecks dated to this period have been identified in East Asian seas as both East Asian maritime vessels (e.g., Chinese junks) and European exploration and trading vessels. We also find a growing number of silver coins at the 1 �archaeological sites and shipwrecks of the same time. They help to reveal the early international maritime trading history between East Asia and the West. The Discovery of the Shipwrecks in East Asia Shipwrecks of this era have been investigated in southern China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia. Chinese blue-and-white porcelains were the main cargoes. After a preliminary analysis, we can put these shipwrecks into several groups according to the time sequence.From the end of the15thcentury to the early 16thcentury, just before the advent of Europeans, the pattern of trade in East Asia had changed. The Lena Shoal wreck (Goddio et al., 2000) discovered off the Philippines, and the Brunei wreck (L’Hour, 2001), are the representative remains of this period. The porcelains from these wrecks are provincial wares of Jingdezhen, most of them belonging to the reign of Hongzhi (1488-1505). They often have decorations of lotuses, other floral designs and classic scrolls on them. The bowls and dishes are large, and many of the shapes, such as pen boxes, covered boxes and the angular ewers, hint at the Moslem market. Many of these vessels have been found in the Middle East and even in East Africa. Wares of this type have also been found all over Southeast Asia (Carswell, 2000). The next group of shipwrecks include Niushijiao shipwreck (Fujian) (Li, 2012), Panshiyu shipwreck (Xisha Archipelago) (Zhao, 2012), San Isidro shipwreck (Luzon, Philippines) (Dizon and Orillaneda, 2002), Xuande shipwreck and Singtai shipwreck (Malaysia) Fig.1 Jingdezhen Porcelain from Nan’ao No.1 (Brown, 2009). They include Chinese junks, Shipwreck. (Guangdong) vessels of Southeast Asia and also Portuguese ships. The main cargoes are provincial blue and white wares from Jingdezhen. But the dense patterning in sub-Yuan style which hints to the Islamic market begins to diverge. We can also find the early productions of Zhangzhou wares. Similar wares to those from the San Isidro Wreck also have been found in Southeast Asia, such as in the Philippines (Kamer, 1963) and Indonesia (Umarah, 1999). The chronology of these shipwrecks is around 1520s-1550s. 2 �The third group of shipwrecks include Nan’ao No. 1 Shipwreck (Guangdong) (Sun, 2012), Bei Jiao No.3 Shipwreck (Xisha Archipelago) (The Center for Underwater Archaeology of National Museum of China, 2006) and Wreck 2 of the Royal Captain Shoal (Philippines) (Goddio, 1998). Blue and white porcelains were also the main cargoes of this group of wrecks. They included the thinly potted wares made of hard, white porcelain with exquisitely drawn traditional Chinese motifs of happy propitious implications, which were produced from the late Jiajing period through the early Wanli period (Fig. 1). The style of the porcelains had already changed greatly. Certain types were already being created for the export market in Europe. A very popular kind of plate had a central naturalistic motif with decorated rim, usually flat, with an undecorated cavetto. Another noteworthy phenomenon of this time was the abundant emergence of Zhangzhou ware (Figs. 2-3). They were the main cargoes of Nan’ao No.1 Shipwreck and Wreck 2 of the Royal Captain Shoal. They are mainly the productions of Er Long kilns of Zhangzhou (Fujian Museum, 1997). This type of ware was also excavated from sites of Philippines and Indonesia. A few similar wares were found in the Manila galleon of San Felipe Figs. 2-3 Zhanzhou wares from Nan’ao No.1 (1576) (Von Der Porten, 2008). The typical Shipwreck. (Guangdong) Kraak panels were very scarce and only a few were designated early Kraak or protoKraak. The chronology of this group is around the 1560s to the 1580s. 3 �The fourth group include the vessel San Diego (Philippines, 1600) (Ongpin Valdes and Diem, 1993), the BinhThuan Shipwreck (Vietnam, 1608) (Flecker, 2004) and the Wanli Shipwreck (+1625) (Sjostrand and Syed Idrus, 2007). The San Diego vessel was a Manila galleon that sank off the coast of Nasugbu in the province of Batangas. One of the major items she carried on board was fine China, Kraak ware (Fig. 4), and also large quantities of blue Fig. 4 Kraak Porcelain from the vessel San Diego. (Philippines, 1600) Fig. 5 Kraak Porcelain from the Wanli Shipwreck. (Malaysia) and white porcelain and Zhangzhou ware, which was exported particularly to Southeast Asia. The majority of the entire remaining cargo of the BinhThuan shipwreck, which had a Chinese shipbuilding features, consisted of blue and white and over glazed enameldecorated Zhangzhou ceramics. The excavation of The Wanli Shipwreck in Malaysia's territorial waters revealed the largest quantity of Chinese Kraak porcelain which included a major cargo of some 37,000 pieces (Fig. 5). Kraak porcelain became extremely popular in the European markets. From these data we can see that the distinctive and paneled type of Kraak porcelain emerged abundantly in 1600 or so and swiftly became very popular in the first part of the 17th century. Zhangzhou wares were also produced and exported abundantly this time and much of them imitated the paneled decoration of Kraak porcelain of Jingdezhen. The date of this group should be the 1590s to the 1620s. 4 �The Destruction of the Traditional Trading System in Asia and the Early Global Trading System In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, just before the advent of the Portuguese, the trade network dominated by the Islam in the Southern Seas had been set up. With the Islamic culture spreading widely in Southeast Asia, some important Islamic regimes were established successively, such as Malacca, Saltanah Sulu, Borneo, etc. The old China was also included in the trade system. With the decline of Chinese official maritime trade, the private merchant forces began to rise. The site of Penny's Bay (Hong Kong) (Lam, 1989-1992) was an import private trade port of that time. As the representative of the Islamic culture, the fine porcelains of Jingdezhen in the middle Ming Dynasty were widely found in the sites and shipwrecks spread from East Africa to Southeast Asia. With the coming of the Portuguese and Spanish who pillaged and controlled the important trade of Southeast Asia at that time, the traditional trade system in the South Seas was completely broken. Macao and Manila (Philippines) became the important trade centers of this period. 1) In the beginning of 16th, the Portuguese conquered and took the port Goa in India and Malacca in Southeast Asia to establish presence for trade affairs. They gradually entered into the trade network in Asia. For a long time before 1557 they also took contraband trade with Chinese private maritime merchants in the islands near to the coast of southeast China, in the ports of Fujian, Guangdong and Zhejiang (Teixeira, 2000). Chinese scholars discovered the site of Shangchuan Island, Guangdong (Huang and Huang, 2010). Quite massive quantities of 16th century export ceramics were found, including some specially ordered wares for Portuguese. This verified that Shangchuan Island played an extraordinarily important role in the early Sino-Portuguese trade history during the 16th century, while the Xuande Wreck is thought to be the direct evidence of the Portuguese smuggling activities in the seas of East Asia before they settled in Macao in 1557.From the middle 16th century to the early 17th century Portuguese almost monopolized the trade routes of the Far East. After they settled in Macao in 1557 and Nagasaki in Japan in 1571, the Portuguese began their long distance and massive global trade. They took Macao as the base to carry on a triangle trade in the East Asian seas, in which China was the center. Macao rose in prosperity as it became the most important and largest 5 �commodity distributing center of Asia. Recently, a large quantity of Chinese export porcelains was excavated in Macao. Most of them are Kraak porcelain shards, including dishes and bowls with round and oval mouths, with reserved panels and protruding rims. A small number of red and green shards of bowls and boxes dating from the Zhengde and Jiajing periods which are similar to those of the samples found in Shangchuan Island. They showed the important position of Macao in the cultural exchange between East and West (Liu, 2010). There is also a large quantity of archaeological evidence along the Indian Ocean route from Goa to Europe (Sila Tripati et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2011; Castro, 2005). In 1571 Spain founded Manila City to establish rule in the Philippines and partake in Asian trade. They quickly established the trade with Chinese private merchants of Southeast China and the Manila Galleon trade route was soon prosperous. It functioned as a long distance and large-scale sea trade route connecting the Asian world with the American Continent until the early 19th century. Many Asian goods such as silks and porcelains were exported by the Spanish galleons and on the other hand, many New World goods, including Mexican silver, were brought to the Asian world. Except those from the shipwrecks of San Felipe and San Diego, the same style of blue-and-white porcelain productions from the Jingdezhen and Zhangzhou kilns were also found in the shell mounds of Indian Village sites at Drakes Bay, California (Shangraw and Von der Porten, 1981). Recently, more and more Chinese ceramics of this time were excavated from the archaeological sites of Mexico, Peru and other Latin American countries (Kuwayama, 2002). Those Chinese ceramics imported into Latin America included high quality productions from Jingdezhen. A large part of them were also pieces from Southern Chinese kilns, especially Zhangzhou ware. Chinese vessels returned from Manila always took back silver. This was clearly written in Chinese historical documents (Zhang, 2000). The profitable trade to Manila was almost dominated by the maritime merchants of South Fujian. Innumerable Mexican silver cargoes were brought into China, especially to the south of Fujian and east of Guangdong. They were once used as currency in people’s daily life in those places. A total of four hundred and twenty eight silver coins were recovered from the San Diego. Those that were cleaned were recognized as coins of Philip II (1556-1598), minted in 6 �Lima and Philip III (1598-1621), minted in Mexico City. Most of them are irregularly shaped. People think this irregularity can mostly be attributed to the last stage of their manufacture wherein the excess weight of the coins was clipped off by the assayer to maintain their standard value. This early kind of silver coin is also found abundantly in the sites of South Fujian, such as Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, Xiamen, etc. Most of them were excavated from cellars, and also a few from tombs (Quanzhou Heritage Management Committee, Quanzhou Maritime Museum, 1975; Chen and Shi, 1981; Fang, 2011; Zhang, 1988). Most of these coins are also irregularly shaped (Fig. 6), probably because they are the early type minted from the late 16th century to the first part of 17th century. We can see the design of the Cruze Florenzada on the cross and Great shield of the House of Hapsburg, Spanish coat of arms. According to the study of British numismatic experts, most of them were minted in Mexico City, and others minted in Potosi and Segovia, Spain. From these discoveries, we can often see that many of the silver coins were cut into pieces; we can also see the using traces. This verifies the historical record that they were once used as the circulation in people’s daily life. In 16th-17th centuries, with the arrival of Europeans and the large-scale intermediary trade practices they brought, East Asia was entangled into the global trade network. Chinese silk and porcelains, Southeast Asian spices, Indian textile, silver coin of Mexico and Japan, and other materials were the important goods and mediums of the global trade at that time. During this progress the style of the fine porcelains from Jingdezhen, as luxury goods, changed greatly. They used to be representative of material manufactured for the Islamic culture, but then changed to be products created for the export market of Europe, such as Kraak ware. On the other hand, the evidence from shipwrecks and other sites, for instance the lower quality products of Zhangzhou, shows they were produced mainly for the Asian market. This change implied the establishment of a new Asian trade system dominated by the Europeans. The rise of Chinese private maritime merchants Chinese ancient junk wrecks spread over the southeast coast of China and Southeast Asia. It implied the further development of Chinese maritime merchants and they were very active in maritime trade. With the opening of the Moon Port, Chinese maritime merchants could trade abroad legally. With the arrival of the Europeans, they took large7 �scale intermediary trade with Malacca, Macao, Japan, Manila, and were involved into the global trade network. They were active along Chinese waters from north of Japan to the south into Southeast Asian, playing an important role in the early global trade of the Westerners. They gradually became strong enough and changed into private armed groups. Guns and cannons are usually discovered in Chinese shipwrecks of this time, showing the conflict between private merchant groups and the government of the Ming Empire. It also shows the relationship of cooperation and competition between the Chinese merchants and the Westerners in 16th-17th centuries. At that time, the main way of trade the western colonists took was to establish bases at those ports where Chinese merchants often go and then transport the goods they shipped to the world elsewhere for profit. So both Portugal and Spain had taken active measures to attract Chinese merchants to trade. The early smuggling activities of Portugal along the coast of southeast China were carried out with the private merchants of Southeast China. During this process, Portuguese and private merchants of Southeast China, especially those of Fujian, associated more and more closely. They gradually took the place of Ryukyu and Malacca, to become the major trading powers in Asia (Ptak, 2003). After the Portuguese settled in Macao in 1557, more and more merchants from Fujian and Guangdong came and were enmeshed in the global trade. After the Spanish set up colonial rule in the Philippines, the Philippines had few goods to trade. Their supply mainly relied on Chinese businessmen. So the Spanish soon established commercial relationship with Chinese merchants, actively encouraging Chinese merchants to trade in Manila, and the number of Chinese ships sailing to Philippines grew every year. The expanding trade in Manila based on the traditional Chinese and Philippines’ commercial trade, became the real foundation of the Spanish Galleon trade. With the prosperity of overseas trade and ports along the coast of China, a series of handicraft and planting industries emerged and developed rapidly. The silk of Zhejiang, porcelains of Jingdezhen and Fujian, and even sugar and fruits were all produced and exported abundantly. Just as scholars have said, we should look at the late Ming Dynasty with the vision of globalization. At that time, China was involved in the process of economic globalization. Many European and American countries far away have been involved into the long-distance trade with China. With Chinese commodities, 8 �mainly silk and porcelain, sold throughout the world, 1/3 or 1/4 of the world silver output swarmed into China as the means of payment. Conclusions With the coming of the Westerners, the traditional trading system in Asia was destroyed, while the Europeans trade in Asia relied greatly on the cooperation with Chinese maritime merchants. It provided a broader overseas market for China along with the production and exportation of a series of handicraft industries in South China, such as silk and porcelain. So this progress also represents the rise of Chinese maritime merchants, especially those of South Fujian. In the Asian trade system dominated by Europeans, Chinese porcelain was an important good sold in Europe and in the interior of Asia. The change in decorative style and in the number of exports reflected how Europeans gradually deepened into Asian trade. Acknowledgements First of all, I am gratefully acknowledge the generous assistance and valuable information provided by Professor Chun-Ming Wu who was once my supervisor and now my colleague of Xiamen University. I would also like to extend my sincere gratitude to those underwater archaeologists especially those of China. My research on this paper based on the sources gained by their laborious task and many information and photos were provided by them. At last, special thanks go to Professor María Cruz Berrocal who kindly invited and helped me a lot for this conference. References Brown, R., 2009. The Ming Gap and Shipwreck Ceramics in Southeast China: Towards a Chronology of Thai Trade Ware. The Siam Society under Royal Patronage: 153-158. Carswell, J., 2000. Blue & White: Chinese Porcelain around the World. British Museum Press, London: 131-134. Castro, F., 2005. 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Discovery and Archaeological Excavation of a 16th century Trading Vessel in The Philippines. Kyodo Printing Co.Inc., Manila. Goddio, F., Pierson, S., and Crick, M., 2000.Sunken Treasures: Fifteenth Century Chinese Ceramics from the Lena Cargo. Periplus Publishing London Limited, London. Huang, W., and Huang, Q., 2010. Shangchuan Island and Early Sino-Portuguese Trade in the Sixteenth Century. In P-k. Cheng (Ed.), China Westward: Early Sino-Portuguese Trade of Chinese Ceramics. Chinese Civilisation Centre, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong: 59-87. Kamer Aga-oglu., 1963. Ming Porcelain from sites in the Philippines. Archives of the Chinese Art Society of America, Vol. 17: 7-19. Kuwayama, G., 2002. Chinese Ceramics in Colonial Latin America. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History of Art) in the University of Michigan. Lam, P., 1989-1992. Ceramic Finds of the Ming Period from Penny's Bay - An Addendum. JHKAS, Vol.13: 79-90. L’Hour, M., 2001. La mémoire engloutie de Brunei. Textuel, Paris. Li, J., 2012. China’s Underwater Excavations of 16th-17th centuries Chinese e Export Porcelain. In P-k. Cheng (Ed.), Proceedings of the International symposium: Chinese Export Ceramics in the 16th and 17th Centuries and the Spread of Material Civilization, Chinese Civilization Centre, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong: 77-80. Liu, Y., Qin, D., and Kiriama, H., 2011. The Chinese Porcelains unearthed at Gedi Ruins 10 �in Coast Province, Kenya. Wenwu, Vol. 8: 37-60 Liu, Zh., 2010. Kraak Porcelain found in Macao. In P-k. Cheng (Ed.), China Westward: Early Sino-Portuguese Trade of Chinese Ceramics. Chinese Civilisation Centre, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong: 13-34. Ongpin Valdes, C., and Diem, A. I., 1993.Saga of the San Diego (AD1600). National Museum, Inc., Manila. Teixeira, M., 2000. A Porcelana No Comércio Luso-Chinês. In Zh-L. Wu (Ed.), International Symposium on East-West Cultural Interflow. Macau Foundation. Macao: 209. Ptak, R., (Tr.), Zhao Dianhong, collated by Qian Jiang, 2003. The Fujianese, Ryukyuans and Portuguese (c. 1511 to 1540s): Allies or Competitors. Jinan historiography, Vol. 2: 319-335. Quanzhou Heritage Management Committee, Quanzhou Maritime Museum, 1975. Five batch of foreign coins unearthed from Quanzhou, Fujian. Kaogu, Vol. 6: 352-379. Shangraw, Clarence., and Von der Porten, E., 1981. The Drake and Cermeño Expeditions’Chinese Porcelains at Drake’s Bay, California, 1579 and 1595. Santa Rosa Junior college and Drake Navigator Guild, California. Sila Tripati., Pande, R., Rao, V. G., 2011. Study of Chinese Porcelain sherds of Old Goa, Indicators of Trade Contacts. Man Environment, Vol. 36 (2): 107-116. Sten Sjostrand and Sharipah Lok Lok Syed Idrus., 2007. The Wanli Shipwreck and its Ceramic Cargo. Department of Museums, Malaysia. Sun, J., 2012. The Nan’ao No.1 Shipwreck of the Ming Dynasty in Guangdong Province and the Overseas Maritime Trade in Southeastern China. In Ch Wu (Ed.), Maritime Cultural Heritage and Archaeology in Seas surrounding China. Science Press, Beijing: 155-169. The Center for Underwater Archaeology of National Museum of China, 2006.The Discoveries of Underwater Archaeological Investigations in Xisha Islands (1998~1999). Science Press, Beijing: 150-185. Umarah, A., 1999. Zhangzhou (Swatow) Ceramics: Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries Found in Indonesia. The Ceramic Society of Indonesia, Jakarta: 42. Von Der Porten, E., 2008. Identifying the Sixteenth century Ship on a Beach in Baja 11 �California. San Francisco. Zhang Xie ( 张 燮 ), 2000. Dongxiyangkao ( 东 西 洋 考 ) (Study on China and West). Zhonghuashuju, Beijing: 132. Zhang, Zh., 1988. Foreign silver coins unearthed from Dongshan, Fujian. China Numismatics, Vol. 3: 74. Zhao, J., 2012. The new discovery of underwater archaeological investigations in Xisha islands in 2009-2010. In Ch. Wu (Ed.), Maritime Cultural Heritage and Archaeology in Seas Surrounding China. Science Press, Beijing: 176-178. Miao Liu (b. 1976) working as an associate Professor of Department of History, College of Humanities, Xiamen University and mainly engages in the research of Maritime Archaeology and Chinese export porcelain. She leads the project “Chinese Export Porcelain and the Maritime Culture” awarded by Chinese National Social Science Foundation. She is the member of the Editorial Board “The Shipwrecks Archaeology Report of Dinghai Bay, Fujian” (Science Press, Beijing: 2011) and published “The export of Chinese porcelains under the ban of maritime trade policy in the early Ming Dynasty” (Kaogu, 2012). “The Islamic Cultural Factors of the Blue-and-White Porcelains in the Early Ming Dynasty” (Journal of Xiamen University Arts Social Sciences, 2008), etc. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Introduction interview with session chair María Cruz Berrocal and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Research on early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region makes a fundamental contribution to the study of Global History. In the last decades, historians are highlighting the region's relevance in the transformation of global economy through its role in far-reaching trade networks. The early beginnings of colonialism in the region, as well as the role of non-Angloamerican colonial agents in the shaping of modern world have been also highlighted. Although these debates have been driven largely from history, archaeology must become more prominent for the study of early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region through the study of consumption patterns, environmental effects, demographic impacts, transformation of gender systems brought about by contact, the role of material culture in these first colonial endeavours, and specifically, the important evidence that maritime archaeology can bring to the fore. It is argued in this session that new lines of evidence and argumentation will be found through a history- archaeology joint collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. María Cruz Berrocal Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The diffusion of the material culture in the early period of the trade globalization: A preliminary study on silver coins and shipwreck porcelains found in East Asia of the 16th and17th centuries Description An account of the resource In the 16th-17th centuries, world trade patterns greatly changed. East and West entered a period of an enormous amount of sailing since the 1500s. In the East, the traditional Asian maritime trade network - which mainly relied on maritime merchants of Southeast China, was gradually restored. After the discovery of the Americas in 1492 by the Spanish kingdom of Castille, and the establishment of the Eastward passage to India by the kingdom of Portugal in the late 1400s, both Spain and Portugal arrived in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s and interacted with Eastern Asia local cultures. This set up the early globalization process. The silk and porcelains from China, spices from Southeast Asia, textiles from India, and coins from Mexico and Japan, were all important materials and media in the global trade of this period. Dozens of shipwrecks dated to this period have been identified as both East Asian maritime vessels (including Chinese junks) and European exploration and trading vessels in Southern China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia. Chinese porcelains were the main cargoes in all of them. We also find a growing number of silver coins at the archaeological sites and shipwrecks of this time period. These interesting maritime archaeological materials show early pan-Pacific trading navigation between eastern Asia and the Western world. They help reveal the early international maritime trading history between eastern Asia and the West, early European colonization in eastern Asia, and resulting issues of expanding globalization. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Liu Miao, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 5 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/58e96f3302df29d9d6437f249a190fc4.pdf 719d17aa10db3d4ec16d1752f6d1923b PDF Text Text The discovery SS Indus (1885) with Cargo of the 3rd century BC Bharhut sculptures in Sri Lankan waters S. M. Nandadasa Central Cultural Fund, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, GL80000, Sri Lanka Email: nandadasa@yahoo.com Abstract SS Indus ran aground in 1885 somewhere in the North east coast of Sri Lanka while she was sailing from Calcutta or Kolkata to London via Colombo. At the time she possessed valuable cargo, a fine collection of sculptures from Bharhut, a 3rd century BC Buddhist monastery in India. They were masterpieces of a collection of Sir Alexander Cunningham, the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India and they were being transported for exhibition in the London Museum. For the last one century, Indian and Sri Lankan archaeologists and historians were interested in finding this shipwreck, yet no one knew the exact location of the wreck. However the recent Maritime Exploration in the month of August 2013 by the Maritime Archaeology Unit, Sri Lanka has traced the possible remains of the SS Indus off Muliative. Key words: SS Indus, Bharhut sculptures, British India, Mulaitivu, Trincomalie Introduction Interest in Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka has been increasing since the early 1960s. Being an island Nation, our past is intertwined with all aspects of maritime life and its history. The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) was established in Galle in 1992 with the objective of carrying out maritime research in and around Sri Lanka (Dayananda, 2013). From its inception, MAU has done much to further the work in this field and have lead some major maritime research history projects (Samaraweera, 2013). This work has seen the area of research extended in the North, East and NorthWest coastal regions of Sri Lanka. The end of the Civil War in 2009 enabled us to work in the North and East. Exploration in the North started in 2013. 1 �Archival references of SS Indus The main objective of this exploration was to trace any evidence of ships wrecked in the region during the last two centuries. The information collected from old news paper reports and other documents. Fortunately there is well preserved collection of the19th century daily news papers in the Colombo National Archive. The careful investigation of the document some interesting information on hitherto unknown wrecks including the SS Indus (The P & O Liner SS Indus, 1871) (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London). Bharhut sculptures The name of the SS Indus is well known among Sri Lankan and Indian historians and archaeologists, and especially those interested in the study of the Bharhut as well as the history of art and the sculptures of ancient India. Over the last one century Fig. 1 Figure showing the probable route of the researchers have worked tirelessly SS Indus from Calcutta to London via Colombo to uncover information about the and wrecked off the north coast of Sri Lanka. Indus’s cargo. They widely believed that the ship was transporting a fine collection of sculptures from the Bharhut (a well known Buddhist Monastery in India founded in the 3rd century BC) and she ran aground in the seas off Sri Lanka (Ceylon) in 1885 when retuning from India via Colombo to London. At this time of “British India” the renowned British scholar Sir Alexander Cunningham was head of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). It is widely thought that his collection of master pieces from the Bharhut was on route to London Museum, in the hold of the ill fated SS Indus. To set the geographical back ground, Bharhut Stupa is located in the present day Satna District of Madhya Pradesh in Central India. It was first identified by General Alexander Cunningham in 1873. On his second visit to Bharhut in February 1874 he collected and recorded scattered pieces of sculptures and tried to understand their 2 �layout and design. He returned there for a third time in November 1874 with some legal right and took several of the sculptures to Kolkata (or Calcutta) and founded a Bharhut Gallery in the National Museum at Kolkata. After a detailed study of Buddhist literature and sculptures from the site, he published a book in 1877 titled “The Stupa of Bharhut”, which remains highly respected study of the Bharhut Stupa. When study the history of the monument and the works of Sir Alexander Cunningham, it is important to focus on the items he collected from the site and especially upon the loss of the SS Indus because it is believed to have been carrying the best pieces. Until now, the story of the SS Indus was confined only to the interest of scholars as it was believed that the ship was wrecked in water so deep that conventional diving equipment could not be used in the exploration. Until now, it seems no one has made any serious effort to reveal the actual facts related to the wreck, no tracing to identify where the wreck is located. In 2013 the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Sri Lanka decided to extend research works in the northeast coast which include the search for the S S Indus. As the first step we studied the historical evidence to confirm a possible location. Our research has revealed that there has previously been great interest among scholars in finding this wreck. However, some misunderstanding of the information available to them had thwarted their efforts; most notably, reports of its location being “50 miles north of Trincomalie” have proven to be misleading. Opinions of scholars Rao (1987) mentioned that the “P & O Liner Indus which carried the second century BC Buddhist sculptures of Bharhut sank 50 miles north of Trincomalee (Trincomalie) in Ceylon in 1885. An attempt made to salvage them was not successful”. Gaur informed that this wreck was very popular among the archaeologists as Cunningham was first in charge of Indian Archaeology in 1860 and I 3 Fig. 2 Shipwreck is marked on the Nautical Chart right before the Mullaitive town. �believe records may be in the Kolkata Archives as the ship must have sailed from Kolkata and it is sure that this wreck contains stone sculpture from Bharhut (a Buddhist Stupa) of the 2nd century BC (personal communication). As per tradition it is at about 40 m water depth and lies North of Trincomalie. The Archaeological Commissioner of Sri Lanka, Charles Godakubre, in his Annual Report for the year 1962 – 63 has made the following statement about the SS Indus: “The possibility of doing more undersea archaeology in Ceylon in the near future takes our mind to the invaluable collection of works of art from the Stupa of Bharhut (2nd century BC) lost of 1885 in the wreck of the P & O liner Indus that ship aground on a shoal known as Mulaitivu 50 miles North of Trincomalee. It is known that some salvage operations were attempted at the time, with what results, we do not know. We shall therefore be thankful if anyone with information on this matter would pass on the same to Mr. Arthur C. Clarke or to us”. Arthur C Clarke also asks for any news of the Indus in his book, “The Tresure of the Great Reef” published in 1964. He gives a description of the supposed location of the site of the wreck as “Fifty miles to the North of Trincomalee, on a shoal known as Mullative, lays another important wreck and one which may contain the most valuable cargo lying beneath the waters around Ceylon. On November 9, 1885 the 3,462 ton P & O liner Indus was steaming south from Madras to Colombo when she went aground at full speed owing to a gross error in navigation (She was twenty miles off course, and her captain was lucky to get away with a twelve month suspension of his tickets.) At high tide, the Indus was worked off the shoal, and then had her second piece of bad luck. She came to rest immediately above one of her own anchors, and as she rose and fell in the waves she quickly knocked a hole in her bottom and sank within a few hours. There was no loss of life, but none of the cargo could be saved. Aboard the Indus was the collection of the finest works of art from the Stupa of Bharhut which had been specially selected by the director of the Indian Archaeology, General Cunningham. Today, these statues would be priceless – if they are still on Mulattive shoal. But we are not certain of this; we know that salvage operations were later carried out on the Indus with a view to recovering the indigo and other valuables aboard her. Would the divers also have bothered to bring up what they probably considered to be a few old statues? We rather doubt it, but until our researchers have settled this important point the Indus 4 �will remain on our list of possibilities, not certainties” (Clark, 1964: 239). Arthur C Clark in all the time he spent searching could not find the Indus. He was a pioneer of underwater exploration who introduced scuba diving to Sri Lanka in the early ‘60s, arguably the most eminent maritime archaeologist of his generation. Our investigation of the archival documents confirmed that there have been attempts to excavate cargo from the Indus but there is no evidence of any success. It is therefore highly likely that there has been no historical disturbance of the site which remains untouched since the ship sank. No evidence of disturbance soon after the ship was lost because there were perilous waves in monsoon weather at that time, nor in later years before the development of equipment to recover heavy items from a wreck or to stay underwater at such a depth for sufficient time. There is possibility that the strong waves would have resulted in sand covering the cargo which would add to the difficulty of retrieving it. Only in very recent times have new techniques and equipment become available to allow such excavation. These facts, together with Arthur C Clarks’ statement that he had not found the wreck or cargo, is proof of the Fig. 3 News Paper article The sculptures remaining intact beneath the sand. Times of Ceylon, Sunday Information about the Indus appeared in a news November 15th, 1885. (National paper “Times of Ceylon” on the 12 and 13 of November 1885 and also from the account given Archive, Colombo) by a passenger on the 15th. Final piece of news of the ships’ loss was printed on the 17th, in which one of the passengers gave a dramatic description of what happened when she sank and afterwards. The news printed on the 12th of November states; “The wreck of the P & O SS Indus, Completed brake up off the vessel ... “Information just brought by H.M.S Ranger which has return from the wreck with all passengers, native crew, and stewards, that the caption, chief and fourth 5 �officer, and doctor are standing by the ship in boats. Ranger reports that the ship is settling down. The four compartment has been carried away, and the aftercompartment has started. The ship is full of water. No lives have been lost, and the mails are saved”. On 13th “Times of Ceylon” had mentioned about the cargo of sunken ship........ The Indus had a large consignment some 200 chests-of indigo shipped at Madras, and many thousands of chests of tea. The latter is of course done for, but the indigo may yet be recovered next year, for it suffers little deterioration in water...... the “Indus” being completely under water and heavy seas braking over her. It is being lived that the treasure on board some 40,000 has been saved, as the mails. Undoubtedly have been and the treasure would undoubtedly be the first thing to which attention would be directed”. According to the above list of things there is no any mention about the sculptures, probably it has been there as a personal collection or not much attention was paid on them as important as we consider on this day. Narration by a passenger of the SS Indus The account which appeared on 15th Sunday in “Times of Ceylon” give us a vivid picture begins with “responsible for the opinions of our correspondent”. The dates he gives do not match with the incidents previous dating and thus lead to some confusion however; it does not harm other reliability and authenticity within his account. The reason for the apparent ‘error’ in his account may have been to protect the Captain from future legal action? “We left Madras in the Indus at about a quarter to 2.00 PM on Saturday afternoon, the 8th September bound for London via Colombo. There were but seven first class passengers in all, and all went well until the morning of Sunday, the Indus coming to grief in reality but a few hours after we had the started. I had but just finished my chota hazeri on Sunday morning, and was just entering my cabin, when I felt the ship bump, and I was nearly thrown off my feet. Running on deck at once, as indeed did everybody, we found ourselves about four miles from land, which lay to starboard and grating against the bottom heavily. I believe, but I cannot say with certainty, that the captain was on the bridge with the officers of the watch at this time. I looked at my watch, and found it was just 6.20 AM. But a few minutes previously, I had seen that we were in sight of land, and though I was rather surprised at this, I naturally did not give the matter much thought. The ships did not heel over but kept grating on 6 �the sandy bottom, and after a while the engines went full speed astern, part without any effect, though we moved from our position. The Captain then ordered the boats out with the lead, and sundry observations were taken from the ship and from the boats........” “..... Captain Breeze still made frantic endeavors to get his ship out of the mass she was in, and the engineers were kept hard at it, but we seemed to get struck only the faster. Up to this time, though we had practically been fast for eight or ten hours, absolutely nothing had been done to lighten the ship by jettisoning the cargo, though the passengers suggested it to the Captain more than once. The ship at this time, so far as we were informed, it must be remembered, had made no water. Fig. 4 Photograph of the SS Indus taken in 1881 in Towards the afternoon Southampton. (National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, the anchor was let go, and attempt made to Gould Collection, London) warp her off into deep water, which the boats had found by casting the led. This was the beginning of our worst misfortunes. I am unable to give a consecutive account of what took place during Sunday afternoon and night. Sleep we naturally get little of, and by morning we heard that the main hatch was full of water and the ship was fast. It appears that through some mismanagement we had gone ahead on our anchor and driven the fluke right into our bottom, and not content with this, we had gone on moving backwards and forwards, an had of course worked a great hole in the bottom of the vessel” (The Times of Ceylon, 1885). “....... The ship was filling fast and we naturally desired to be out of danger. Our luggage was piled up on the main deck-to be washed in to the sea. As it eventually proved–but we were not allowed to take it ashore. We took a few wraps with us and 7 �rowed ashore with little or no difficulty. There we found a small fishing village called Mullativu where we went to the Rest house and made ourselves as comfortable as we could....” (The Times of Ceylon, 1885). His detailed description creates a dramatic picture of the incident and portrays its effect on the passengers and crew and the part played by the Captain. Some of his information is most useful to our research as it includes many incidents and the consequences. Interestingly we found evidence of the rest house he mentioned but unfortunately it is no longer standing however I found a photograph of it. Last moments of the Indus The times of Ceylon on Tuesday, November 17, 1885 reported the final stage of what happened to the Indus and the information given is important to our understanding of the cargo she carried “The Indus had not settled down to one side or the other, and her masts stood straight up with the sail caps on, clean and smart. Orders were left that as much as possible should be saved, and all that remained above water dismantled, but, the bad weather coming on, compelled the wreck to be abandoned, and forced the brig to make the best of her way to Trincomalie, as already described” (The Times of Ceylon, 1885). News about Indus in an Australian news paper The loss of the Indus was published in “The Daily News” in Australia. She had previously sailed there a few times “Wreck of the P & O Company’s SS Indus “The Melbourne Superintendent of the peninsular and oriental steam navigation company (Mr. Geo Withers) has received a telegram from the head office in London stating that the company’s’ steamer Indus which left Calcutta on the 1st November for London has been wrecked at Sandra on the Indian coast a few miles north of Ceylon. The message is stated that there were some hopes of her again being successfully floated, and that the steam “Clyde” had gone to her assistance, but beyond that passengers and mails had been all saved. No further particulars were given. The Indus was one of the best known of the P & O Company’s fleet, having many voyages to Australia since the initiation of the fortnight mail service. She was built in 1871 by Messer Denn Brothers, of Glasgow, who designed her for the Indian and China trade, which was then the principle field of the company’s operations”. It was interesting to find couple of internet images of 8 �SS Indus taken at the time of a Census on 20th July 1882, three years prior to her ill fate. These are under the rights of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, Gould Collection and P & O Heritage Collection it describe the detail as “The P & O liner SS Indus (1871, 3462 GRT) in July 1882. She was in the port of London at the time of the census of April 1881. She had 17 Goan crewmen on board. She was wrecked off Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in 1885; fortunately, no lives were lost.” Commencing our field work to discover the Indus Utilizing nautical charts is a necessary means to successfully trace and record the position of the wreck. They enabled us to find and record the approximate site of the wreck. . This “pre-survey” was most useful in providing opportunities to meet the local fishing communities. We knew from previous experience how useful it is to develop a good relationship with the local fishing and diving community. Much helpful and reliable information about shipwreck can be obtained from local people. We started our Field Study in August 2013 in Mullaitive in the north of Sri Lanka:Our first task was to meet with local people, boatmen, guides, fishermen, divers and navy personal etc. We then studied all the information available to us. We used local suggestion and knowledge to target our underwater survey methods to locate the shipwreck site. We discovered that the nautical chart was incorrect and after a few days of searching, we decided to stop and find some reliable data. After much persistence, and on our last day on site, we found the exact location of what is likely to be the location of the SS Indus! The site is fully covered in fishing nets and it would be a risk to dive there before clearing the nets. Due to its age, the wreck must be in a fragile condition. We observed that it rests on a sandy bottom in water at a depth of around 810 m. The wreck is some two miles away from the location marked on the nautical chart. The location is matching with data collected from archived in terms of distance from land and seascape. It is resting in less than 10 m of water. There is no other record of a similar ship being lost in this area. The evidence on site confirms that it is unlikely 9 �that the wreck has been previously excavated. The Maritime Archaeology Unit is planning to start a test excavation on the shipwreck towards the end of 2014. Acknowledgements Professor Gamini Adikari, Director General of Central Cultural Fund, the members of Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka for their guidance and support and Valerie Lidiard for her valuable help preparing this paper and all others who assisted in our efforts to find SS Indus. References Clark, A. C., 1956. The Reefs of Taprobane. Hapor and Brothers, Ballantine Books, New York. Clark, A. C., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Treasure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, New York. Cunningham, Sir Alexander., (1814 - 1893). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online Ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford: The Stupa of Bharhut: A Buddhist Monument Ornamented with numerous sculptures Illustrative of Buddhist Legend and History in the Third Century BC (1879). Dayananda, A., 2013. The Begginning and Evolution of the Maritime Archaeology Unit in Sri Lanka (1960-92). "Samudrika"- Maritime Archaeological Symposium, Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle: 1-2. Godakumbure, C., 1962-63. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Colombo. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the Two Decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit: 1992-2013. "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium, Maritime Archaeology Unit & Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle: 3-5. Rao, S. R., 1987. Progress and Prospects of Marine Archaeology in India. National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. The Times of Ceylon, November 12, 13, 15 and 17, 1885, National Archive, Colombo. The Daily News (Perth, WA: 1882 – 1950) National Library Australia National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, www.flickr.com/photos/nationalmaritimemuse. 10 London. Gould Collection, �Biography Samaraweera Mudiyanselage Nandadasa, (b. 1966), working as a Research Officer in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF), Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle, Sri Lanka. He has obtained special degree in Archaeology, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka (1992) PG diploma in Architectural Conservation of Monuments and Sites from the Department of Architecture, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka (1993). He joined the Central Cultural Fund in 1993 as a Excavation Officer and conducted leading excavations in the World heritage Site of Sigiriya (1993-1997) and Lead the Conservation Branch as the Chief Conservation Officer (1997- 2004), Officer in Charge of the World Heritage Site of Galle project and Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) (2004- 2008) and presently working as a Senior Research Officer for MAU. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The discovery SS Indus (1885) with Cargo of the 3rd century BC Bharhut sculptures in Sri Lankan waters Description An account of the resource SS Indus ran aground in 1885 somewhere in the North east coast of Sri Lanka while she was sailing from Calcutta or Kolkata to London via Colombo. At the time she possessed valuable cargo, a fine collection of sculptures from Bharhut, a 3rd century BC Buddhist monastery in India. They were masterpieces of a collection of Sir Alexander Cunningham, the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India and they were being transported for exhibition in the London Museum. For the last one century, Indian and Sri Lankan archaeologists and historians were interested in finding this shipwreck, yet no one knew the exact location of the wreck. However the recent Maritime Exploration in the month of August 2013 by the Maritime Archaeology Unit, Sri Lanka has traced the possible remains of the SS Indus off Muliative. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource S. M. Nandadasa, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f31415b65dceef876ae2c0a993eaabd4.pdf 29974ada26d8271ca5de40a507901f90 PDF Text Text The Duty to Protect Our Ocean Heritage from Potentially Polluting Wrecks Ole Varmer (The Ocean Foundation) Mariano Aznar (ICUCH, University Jaume I) ABSTRACT The importance of conserving our ocean heritage is well recognised and was codified in international law in the 1972 World Heritage Convention. The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) recognises a duty to protect ‘objects of an archaeological or historical nature’ but is devoid of details for implementation. The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage provides sorely needed details in the various maritime zones in accordance with the LOSC and well accepted international standards of archaeology and conservation. This paper summarises the relevant international law to help address the major threats to UCH from Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs). Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage; Natural Heritage, Law of the Sea; 2001 Convention List of abbreviations Continental Shelf (CS) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs) Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within Session 13 Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) because it summarises the relevant international law and provides the context and legal foundation for the development of measures to address the threats and conserve our ocean heritage as discussed in other papers in this session. The paper starts with an overview of the international law relevant to these threats and the measures to address them. This will also provide examples addressing the major threats to UCH, the resources available to tackle these threats under the law, the framework or approach to address these threats, and the result that we seek: a moratorium on activities that are major threats to UCH until the ocean science has been conducted to ensure that these activities are truly sustainable developments. In the context of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development that means if it is not safe for life, property, the marine environment, and UCH, then it is not sustainable development. The case studies under consideration in this session include major threats to UCH from Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs), fishing, mining, energy development, climate change and the related threat from sea level rise. This paper looks at the legal duty to protect our ocean heritage from the threats presented by PPWs, however, the duty is relevant to all the threats particularly those involving activities that directly affect UCH, such as salvage, and those that may indirectly affect UCH, such as fishing and mining. CASE STUDIES The case under consideration is the law related to the threat to our ocean heritage (natural and cultural) from PPWs. According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), ‘marine pollution from sunken vessels is predicted to reach its highest level this decade, with over 8,500 shipwrecks at risk of leaking approximately 6 billion gallons of oil’ (IUCN 2023). The vast 1 �majority of PPWs are from World War I and II (WWI and WWII). They contain hazardous materials including chemicals, unexploded ordinances, and an estimated six billion gallons of heavy fuel oil. ‘This is 545 times more oil than the Exxon Valdez leak in 1989 and 30 times that of the Deepwater Horizon spill in 2010, both of which had severe and long-lasting environmental consequences’ (IUCN 2023). There are several legal questions that may arise under international and domestic law in addressing the threats presented by a sunken vessel that is a potential threat to the marine environment. This paper briefly summarises those international laws and discusses the legal issues and context that are of particular interest in not only addressing the threats to the marine environment but also in the preservation and conservation of PPWs which may be objects of an archaeological or historical nature under the 1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) if not UCH under the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (henceforth 2001 Convention). As many PPWs are sunken state craft, there are also issues of ownership, sovereign immunity, and the fact that many sites are also wartime graves. This paper is not intended to be a comprehensive analysis and a case-by-case basis analysis will be necessary and will often include the flag State, coastal State, and other States with an interest in the ship, cargo, or personnel. RESOURCES The resources needed to address the threats from PPWs are surveys to identify their location, document heritage information and environmental assessments on how to sustainably develop and manage to conserve the heritage and livelihood dependent upon a healthy ocean. There are some legal resources relevant to address the threats from PPWs including the 1982 LOSC, and the duties to protect the marine environment and objects of an archaeological and historical nature. This will be followed by discussion of the 2001 Convention that was developed to address the very brief and vague LOSC articles 149 and 303 but in a manner consistent with the balance of interests of coastal States and flag States. The evolution of the international duty to protect and conserve our ocean heritage can be traced to the Stockholm Declaration and the 1972 World Heritage Convention— where the wisdom of integrating the conservation of both natural and cultural heritage became international law. The international law to protect marine life can be traced to agreements trying to address the over exploitation that arose from technological advances in the industrial revolution as discussed by Charlotte Jarvis’ paper on bottom trawling in the same session and volume as this paper. The environmental movement that followed WWII sparked the development of laws to address the threats to our natural and cultural heritage for present and future generations. For example, the 1946 Convention for the Regulation of Whaling to conserve these overexploited creatures and the founding of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in 1948. 1972 Stockholm Declaration The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment met in Stockholm, Sweden and resulted in the Stockholm Declaration. It codified the customary practice of nations in balancing of development and protecting the environment so that it may be inherited by future generations in a healthy state (heritage). It contains principles that document and delineate the duty to protect and to cooperate for that purpose under customary international law, including that we bear ‘a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations’ (Principle 1). A ‘special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife and its habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a combination of adverse factors. Nature conservation, including wildlife, must therefore receive importance in planning for economic development’ (Principle 4). ‘States should adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to their development planning to ensure that development is compatible with the need to protect and improve environment for the benefit of their population (Principle 13)’. ‘In exercising the sovereign right to exploit their own resources, there 2 �is the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction’ (Principle 21). While there is no express reference to cultural heritage, the duty to protect the environment should be interpreted to include cultural heritage as well as natural. This view is also supported using ‘integrated and coordinated approach’ to development planning in Principle 4. This is reinforced by the integration of natural and cultural resources to be conserved in UNESCO’s 1972 World Heritage Convention. 1972 World Heritage Convention: Integrating the conservation of natural and cultural heritage While the focus in Stockholm was on the environment and sustainable development; at UNESCO headquarters in Paris the focus was an agreement to protect natural and cultural heritage. With 193 State parties, it remains one of the most widely accepted treaties. While it started with recognising terrestrial sites and traditional cultural structures, it has evolved to recognise heritage in the marine environment beyond the territorial sea into the EEZ/CS. For example, the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in Hawai’i was inscribed on the World Heritage ‘mixed list’ for its ‘outstanding universal value’ as both a natural and cultural heritage site. Of note, is that some of the natural heritage, like coral, were also recognised as cultural heritage of the native Hawaiian people and some of their practices were recognised as intangible cultural heritage. This move seaward continues as there are now calls for recognition of heritage in the high seas (UNESCO 2016), including wreck sites such as Titanic. The challenges involve ensuring consistency with the LOSC, more specifically, implementing the duty to protect and cooperate through reliance of flag State jurisdiction, and Port State jurisdiction for enforcement of activities directed at cultural heritage under the high seas. The legal context for all activities in the ocean starts with the international legal framework of the LOSC including potentially polluting wrecks. The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (the legal framework for activities at sea) The LOSC is well recognised as a codification and progressive development of the law of the sea. It provides the legal framework for the use and protection of the marine environment, including natural and cultural heritage resources. It balances the flag State rights of navigation, fishing and other uses with the coastal State jurisdiction and authority in various maritime zones including a 12 nm territorial sea, a 24 nm contiguous zone, a 200 nm EEZ, the continental shelf, the high seas and Area beyond national jurisdiction. Under Article 303(1), applicable to archaeological and historical objects found in any part of the sea, recalls the general obligation whereby ‘States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall cooperate for this purpose.’ Specifically, regarding the Area, under Article 149, ‘[a]ll objects of an archaeological and historical nature found in the Area shall be preserved or disposed of for the benefit of mankind, particular regard being paid to the preferential rights of the State or country of origin, or the State of cultural origin, or the State of historical and archaeological origin.’ While it is not always clear which nations have preferential rights, it would include the flag States of the sunken ship and nation from which the cargo came. While it is expressly limited to the Area, the consideration of preferential rights provides some guidance for cooperation on UCH found in other maritime zones, particularly the portion of the continental shelf beyond the 24-mile limit of coastal State jurisdiction under Article 303(2). The LOSC is now recognised as customary international law, and it may therefore be argued that its duty to cooperate to protect objects of an archaeological or historical nature should also be recognised as customary international law, as evidence by the practice of nations including non-parties like the USA. While there is little guidance or detail on how to fulfil the duty to protect under this Article, other Articles and laws are helpful in guiding parties as they fulfil the duty to protect including the duty to protect natural heritage and the marine environment to which it is inextricably linked. Under Articles 192 and 194 there is the general obligation of States to protect and preserve the marine environment. This general principle may be applied both to wrecks that become artificial reefs, 3 �deserving protection as part of the marine environment, and to wrecks that are potentially (or actually) endangering this environment because of their deteriorating structure or polluting cargo still aboard. Specifically, Art. 194(3)(b) deals with the measures to be taken by States, including those designed to fully minimise ‘pollution from vessels, in particular measures for preventing accidents and dealing with emergencies, ensuring the safety of operations at sea, preventing intentional and unintentional discharges, and regulating the design, construction, equipment, operation, and manning of vessels’ (Aznar 2015). Note how this duty to protect the marine environment is like the very general duty to protect cultural heritage under Articles 303 and 149. Thus, the obligation under Part XII may provide guidance on how to implement the duties under Articles 303 and 149, as the 2001 Convention does. The LOSC does not explicitly address the issue of the protection of maritime graves in international waters (Aznar 2015). The 1992 Rio Declaration Ten years after the LOSC and twenty years after the Stockholm conference, the United Nations convened another Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This 1992 Rio Conference resulted in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, including Agenda 21, which provides that there is a duty to protect the marine environment and to cooperate for that purpose—expressly flowing from the 1982 LOSC. Chapter 17.1 highlights how the LOSC ‘sets forth rights and obligations of States and provides the international basis upon which to pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marine and coastal environment and its resources.’ It then identifies approaches to implement this duty and specifically calls for integrated management and a precautionary approach in the sustainable development and protection of the marine environment. Precautionary approach A precautionary approach to addressing threats to the environment can be traced back to domestic German law in the 1970s. It was first used in an international agreement in the 1980 regarding the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. However, it was the Rio Declaration that is received wide international recognition. ‘In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall be not used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation’ Principle 15, Rio Declaration. It has been incorporated into several international treaties including: 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the 1995 WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, the 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement, the 1996 Protocol to the 1972 London Convention on the Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, the 1997 Protocol to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, the 1998 Agreement on the International Dolphin Conservation Program, the 1998 Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Persistent Organic Pollutants Protocol, the 1998 LRTAP Heavy Metals Protocol, the 1999 LRTAP Acidification Protocol, the 2000 Convention on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean, the 2001 International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems, and the 2001 Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses. It should be applied to PPWs particularly those that are historic or UCH. The precautionary approach is particularly appropriate in the management of PPWs because they are ticking time bombs and if historic, are also time capsules of our heritage. If so, the 2001 Convention is particularly relevant. 4 �2001 Convention To address the threat of looting and unwanted salvage, and the details sorely needed to implement the LOSC, UNESCO convened a meeting to negotiate an agreement to protect UCH. Consensus was reached quickly on a clear definition of UCH, and a ban against the law of finds and salvage. There was also consensus on four principles: 1) to protect and preserve UCH; 2) the preferred first policy option of in situ preservation, and adherence to the Annex Rules when a party decides not to preserve in situ and recovery is in the public interest ; 3) no ‘commercial exploitation’ of UCH; and 4) cooperation among States to protect UCH, particularly for training, education, and outreach. Consensus was not reached on the regime for cooperation in the protection of UCH in the EEZ/CS as some delegations had concerns about ‘creeping jurisdiction’ of coastal States and the treatment of foreign sunken craft within the territorial sea (Dromgoole 2013). That many PPWs are historic heritage resources calls for a precautionary approach. The fact that most PPWs are wrecks from the World Wars and are thus maritime graves also calls for a precautionary approach through a temporary moratorium against salvage (Varmer 1999). ‘This precaution is even stronger when there are human remains in the sunken wreck, which, according to Article 2(9) of the 2001 Convention, must be given proper respect’ (Aznar 2018). FRAMEWORK The legal duties to protect our ocean heritage under international law, and the goals of the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, show that the best way to address the threats from PPWs is a precautionary approach including a moratorium against activities that may trigger these ticking time bombs until the proper science and assessments are done to make sure such activities are truly sustainable. A temporary moratorium could be, and limited to, activities directed at PPWs such as salvage and certain indirect activities that could result in irreparable harm and destruction to UCH and marine life such as bottom trawling, or Deep Seabed Mining until after surveys have been conducted to ensure that no PPWs are in planned exploitation areas, proper Environmental Impact Assessments have been conducted, and significant natural and cultural heritage are Marine Protected Areas. RESULTS The IUCN has called for the development of international standards to determine the best practices for addressing this threat including the classification of PPWs according to potential environmental, social, and economic impacts (IUCN 2023). If this precautionary approach is respected, and the standards are developed and followed, the results would be a healthier ocean which is so important for those lives and livelihoods dependent upon a healthy ocean. The duties for protection would be addressed, and the economic development would clearly be sustainable. 5 �Acknowledgements Thank you to Mark Spalding, The Ocean Foundation, and Louise Sanger, Lloyd’s Register Foundation Heritage, and Education Centre, for their support of this paper and the Threats to Our Ocean Heritage project. Thank you to, Charlotte Jarvis, Michael Brennan, Jim Delgado, and Ben Ferrari for their help developing the ideas that are reflected here. Bibliography (Aznar 2015) Aznar, M. J.” Sensitive Wrecks, Protecting Them and Protecting from Them.” Revue Belge de Droit International 1-2. Bruxelles: Éditions Bruyant, 2015. (Aznar 2018) Aznar, Mariano, “In Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage as an International Legal Principle.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 13, no. 1 (2018): 67-81. DOI: 10.1007/s11457-018-9192-4, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3164159 (2001 Convention) UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Adopted 2 November 2001, entered into force 2 January 2009 (2562 UNTS 1) (Dromgoole 2013) Dromgoole, S. “Reflections on the Position of the Major Maritime Powers with Respect to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001.”, Marine Policy 38, (2013): 116-123. (IUCN2023) IUCN Issues Brief, Marine Po;;utopm From Sunken Vessels (2023) see https://www.iucn.org/resources/issuesbrief/marine-pollution-sunken-vessels#:~:text=There%20are%20an%20estimated%203,as%20'potentially %20polluting%20wrecks'. see also https://majorprojects.org.au/ppw/ (IUCN 2020) IUCN Resolution on Sunken Vessels WCC-2020-Res-026-EN International cooperation on marine pollution from sunken vessels (LOSC) Law of the Sea Convention, Adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994 (1833 UNTS 397) (NOAA 2013) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. Risk Assessment for Potentially Polluting Wrecks in U.S. Waters. Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, U.N. Doc. A/ CONF.48/14/Rev.1 (1973), p. 3; U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14 (1972), pp. 2-65. and Corr. 1 available at http://www.un-documents.net/unchedec.htm (UNESCO 2016) Freestone, D. Laffoley, D., Douvere, F. and Badman, T., World Heritage in the High Seas: An Idea Whose Time Has Come, See also World Heritage Centre World Heritage Marine Program at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/marine-programme.Hampi+World+Heritage+Site+KarnatakaHampi (Varmer 1999) Varmer, Ole. “The Case Against the ‘Salvage’ of the Cultural Heritage.” Journal of Maritime Law, and Commerce 30, no. 2 (1999): 279-302. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Duty to Protect Our Ocean Heritage from Potentially Polluting Wrecks Description An account of the resource The importance of conserving our ocean heritage is well recognised and was codified in international law in the 1972 World Heritage Convention. The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC) recognises a duty to protect ‘objects of an archaeological or historical nature’ but is devoid of details for implementation. The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage provides sorely needed details in the various maritime zones in accordance with the LOSC and well accepted international standards of archaeology and conservation. This paper summarises the relevant international law to help address the major threats to UCH from Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ole Varmer Mariano Aznar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Varmer, Ole. 2023. “The Duty to Protect Our Ocean Heritage from Potentially Polluting Wrecks (PPWs).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Perez-Alvaro. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1906 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Dynasty of Agade and the Gutian Invasion Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gadd, C.J. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Gadd, C.J. Item Type Book Section Book Title Early History of the Middle East Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Edition 3rd Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series Cambridge Ancient History Title A name given to the resource The Dynasty of Agade and the Gutian Invasion Volume 1 part 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/93e2c4e9142367ccee6cd833be8e8e58.pdf 2b1112993b181e7340c9ed8820177a3b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Earliest Hokkien Maritime Vocabulary and Jargon Recorded in a Spanish-Chinese Dictionary of the 17th Century Description An account of the resource It has always been a difficult task to research and transcribe ancient seafarers’ terms pronounced in different regional dialects. Since 2015, the author has been trying to mark the Southern Hokkien (Minnan) dialect seafarers’ terms pronunciation using Chinese Pinyin, and to record them in Chinese characters, but had not able to find the final solution. In 2018, an oldest and largest extant Spanish-Chinese dictionary was discovered in the University of Santo Tomas Archives, this Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum is supposed to have been compiled in 1626-1642 for missionary purposes in Fujian by Spanish missionaries of the Dominican order with the assistance of Chio Chiu (Zhangzhou) people living in Manila. The dictionary has a total of over 1102 pages, containing about 21,000 entries, including single words, short sentences, idioms and slang. From left to right are Spanish entries, Southern Hokkien vernacular Chinese characters, Southern Hokkien dialect in Romanization, and Mandarin in Romanization. The dictionary not only contains a lot of seafarers’ terms, but more importantly, it also has enough single words to combine into the required new terms. This solves the problem of phonetic alphabet and Chinese character recording for Southern Hokkien dialect that has plagued us for many years. Instead of presenting a regional dialect seafarers’ glossary still very much in the making, this paper has focused on possible solutions for editing maritime vocabulary and jargon in different dialects, keeping the logics of nautical technology in mind. with a particular emphasis on the technical logic behind them. Appropriate selections from dialect dictionaries compiled by missionaries in the past may all contribute to the edition of a proper nautical technical vocabulary and seafarers’ glossary for the whole Chinese coastline. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Lu, Xu. 2021. “The Earliest Hokkien Maritime Vocabulary and Jargon Recorded in a Spanish-Chinese Dictionary of the 17th Century.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/674