53 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/449e938f723f1fdf12a871ab1622bc42.pdf 80c8b127784156126aa8898c662a6d79 PDF Text Text Identifying Singapore’s Maritime Cultural Landscape Michael Ng Jian Cheng (Archaeology Unit, Tamasek History Research Centre, ISEAS Yusof Ishak Institute [formerly Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]) ABSTRACT The paper proposes to build upon existing approaches in the study of Singapore's past narrative by incorporating the study of the maritime cultural landscape (MCL) to observe the micro connections and provide a closer examination of the maritime activities around Singapore. This paper highlights Singapore's maritime cultural landscapes within the premise of the MCL approach proposed by Christer Westerdahl. The case studies under consideration include historical, archaeological and anthropological sources on maritime activity around Singapore, the current historical narrative on Singapore, and recent maritime cultural landscape studies. The expected results are to take on a different perspective in considering Singapore's maritime past as an island and coastal settlement. It hopes to further the understanding of the island’s maritime past beyond the predominant trade narrative. Ultimately, this allows stakeholders in Singapore to recognise the various types of maritime cultural heritage that may reside around Singapore’s coast and waters. Consequently, the paper will highlight how using the maritime cultural landscape approach could help with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and further our thinking on the interactions between humans and seas. INTRODUCTION Singapore's past is deeply connected to the waters surrounding its islands and is situated close to several major waterways in Southeast Asia. Present maritime borders and traffic separation schemes separate the various nation-states along these waterways; however, they were not divided in the past. On the contrary, they were an interconnected network and a platform providing maritime polities in the region access to the world around them and beyond, and vice versa (Borschberg 2012, 193). To fully appreciate the past connections between the people of Singapore from various periods and the surrounding maritime space, it is essential to identify a suitable approach that could encourage further research. Christer Westerdahl's maritime cultural landscape (MCL) approach could be an appropriate model to explore these past connections. This paper assesses the potential of Christer Westerdahl’s approach to better understanding Singapore's maritime past by preliminarily identifying Singapore’s maritime cultural landscapes based on available maritime-related historical, anthropological and archaeological data. Hopefully, it will encourage future research on Singapore's past through the MCL approach and perhaps highlight how the approach could contribute to greater ocean literacy. Evaluation of the Current Approaches to Singapore’s Past Narrative Historical and archaeological research has highlighted Singapore’s existence as an entrepôt since the fourteenth century and further understand the island’s role in the global and regional context throughout its 700 years of history (Flecker 2022a; Flecker 2022b; Kwa 2004; Kwa et al. 2019; Low 2004; Miksic 2013). In the book 1819 & Before, Singapore's Pasts, Chong (2021, vii–ix) summarised the historical and archaeological research conducted to examine the island’s past narrative. He highlighted that the scholars had revealed the networks and linkages connecting Singapore to the region over the centuries before 1819. Both recent publications, 1819 & Before, and Seven Hundred Years: A History of Singapore, emphasise the island’s pre-modern connectivity to the region by including the economic activities of the communities living on and around the island long before colonialism arrived on this island (Kwa et al. 2019, 6–11; Heng 2017, 42; Heng 2021, 31). A critical 1 �examination of recent academic pursuits of Singapore scholars indicates a considerable emphasis on the connectivity, trade and exchange between Singapore and the region. These approaches are essential because small nation-states are more susceptible to exogenous factors; however, viewing Singapore's past narrative through a macro lens cannot account for the other varieties of past human activity on the island. As an island coastal settlement, connectivity to the region would only represent one of the many pursuits in the daily lives of the common folk. The "who we are?" and "what we are?" questions of these individuals have yet to be thoroughly understood. Miksic (2021, 19–21) mentioned expanding current arguments on Singapore's past to include artefact provenance and relationships between human activity and the natural environment. In addition, research on Singapore’s prehistoric past and the lives of ordinary individuals during Singapore’s colonial period has not been emphasised. These added questions and challenges seemed like isolated areas of studies that are not in line with the current approaches to Singapore's past narrative. However, by introducing and perhaps integrating an approach which acknowledges the diversity in maritime activities, it is possible to connect these approaches and provide a more wholesome way to study Singapore's macro and micro maritime past. Thus, the MCL approach could be a viable option to combine these approaches. MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MCL can be defined as the human utilisation of maritime space by boat: settlement, fishing, hunting, shipping, and, in historical times, its attendant subcultures, such as pilotage and lighthouse and seamark maintenance (Westerdahl 1992, 5). Westerdahl (2011, 13–14; 2020, 6780) highlighted seven types of maritime cultural landscapes. It includes the economic landscape, the landscape of transport and communications, the power landscape, the outer resource landscape, the inner resource landscape, the cognitive landscape and the recreative landscape. The basis of this concept is the study of past cultures which exist at the edges of different varieties of water bodies, such as seas and oceans (Westerdahl 2020, 6780). It utilises the physical elements of landscape and seascape to analyse maritime cultures within an environment (Ford 2011, 4). Singapore, an island nation-state where most of the past and, at times, present settlements lived along the water's edge, is a good candidate for further maritime cultural landscape studies. Although the current usage of the concept is heavily associated with maritime archaeology, the critical premise concerns the understanding of landscapes created by the material culture left behind by people who lived and interacted with the physical environment in which they were situated (Ford 2011, 4). Thus, studying maritime cultures will require an examination of all aspects of the maritime past and a multi-disciplinary approach, including and beyond maritime archaeology (Ford 2011, 1–4). Some coastal site studies used the MCL approach to successfully connect the heritage deposits that reside on the shores with its underwater sites. In addition, accounting for the range of human activities throughout the various technological, economic, and geopolitical changes in their respective area (Fitzhugh 2011; Lusardi 2011). Identifying Singapore’s Maritime Cultural Landscape This section identifies Singapore’s maritime cultural landscapes from historical, anthropological, and archaeological records. Economic Landscape 2 �The fishing traps and methods, mollusc gathering, the Orang Laut community, and Kelong settlements are some identified features of sustenance and coastal agriculture within Singapore's economic landscape. Evidence of traditional fishing traps and methods was highlighted in studies by Gibson-Hill and Burdon. During the 1950s, Gibson-Hill (1950b) covered the types of fishing boats that operated from Singapore, while Burdon (1954) examined the fishing methods of Singapore. These were ethnographic studies that documented the fishing activities around Singapore Island. Although they were recorded barely seventy years ago, these fishing methods could likely have been practised before the 1950s or even before the arrival of the British in 1819. Evidence of mollusc gathering can be identified from two historical sources. The earliest pre-colonial historical source indicating shellfish collection was the Sejarah Melayu or the Malay Annals. The book, written in the 16th century, recounted a specific event of mollusc gathering during the early days of Singapore's history. It described Sang Nila Utama, a Sumatran prince who landed on the shores of Temasek or ancient Singapore with his entourage and started gathering shellfish immediately after arriving on the island. “…Sri Tri Buana went ashore with all the ship’s company and amused themselves with collecting shellfish…” (Brown 1953, 30) There were no further descriptions of what they do with the seashells, but as they have arrived from the sea through a storm, the mollusc likely forms part of their diet. During the colonial period, the gathering of molluscs continued. However, the purpose of mollusc gathering is no longer restricted to dietary but also for other uses such as the production of lime. During the colonial period, lime was obtained from mollusc remains. Lime kilns were set up along the coasts of Singapore to process these remains into lime. Lime serves an essential function as a disinfectant due to its bacteria-killing properties, and it is often used to disinfect lavatories. Coastal archaeological sites like the National Gallery Singapore, Victoria Memorial Hall and Empress Place contained sizable mollusc ecofacts alongside large quantities of ceramic artefacts in various stratigraphic and temporal layers (Lim 2017; Lim 2019). It suggests that humans were consuming these molluscs and further research can be conducted on how people interacted with the environment. The Orang Laut is a Malay term for “Sea People” or “People of the sea”. They are nomadic people who settle around the maritime zone within Southeast Asia. Based on ethnographic studies, three identified groups are within this community (Andaya 2008, 173). The Orang Laut that resides around the southern tip of the Straits of Melaka and the Riau-Lingga Archipelago was called the Orang Suku Laut (Chou 2021: 142). In Singapore, they primarily resided along the coasts and at river mouths (Gibson-Hill 1952b, 161). The history of the Orang Laut stretches since the Srivijayan/Malayu period (Andaya 2008, 191). Records mentioned them as necessary in the various polities surrounding the Singapore Straits (Andaya 2008, 173–201). When the British arrived in Singapore in 1819, eyewitness accounts described their settlements and lifestyle (Gibson-Hill 1952b, 161). Other academics attempting to preserve the legacy of the Orang Laut through research included Cynthia Chou and the authors of Beyond Bicentennial: Perspective on Malays publication (Chou 2021; Rasheed et al. 2020). Unfortunately, due to the ever-growing development and current geopolitical boundaries, many Orang Laut abandoned their way of life. On the other hand, there are non-academic attempts to preserve the Orang Laut way of life. Orang Laut Sg is a local community of Orang Laut originally residing on Pulau Semakau, an offshore island in Singapore. They started an initiative to share their stories about the island and their way of life 3 �through traditional Orang Laut cuisines and stories.1. Another local blog called " We came from the sea" was set up to share projects that study Singapore as an island or as islands.2. These attempts show the need for continued historical and ethnographic studies to preserve this community's knowledge. Future maritime archaeological research will also have to share the responsibility to protect sites that could highlight the Orang Laut's lives from a material culture and landscape perspective. Landscape of Transport and Communications (Communicative Landscape) Research on Singapore's landscape of transport and communications, or communicative landscape, has been highlighted in evaluating the current approaches to Singapore’s past narrative section. The island’s past narrative is dominated by its economic and network-related history. While records provide the documentation illustrating the ongoing trade Singapore was involved in, archaeological research provides the material culture to inform on the trade's nature and contents. These significant networks have profoundly impacted Singapore since the fourteenth century, thus the emphasis. On the other hand, the history of the minor networks has yet to be thoroughly explored compared to the study of the major networks. Singapore's geographical location is strategic not only because it lies along one of the most crucial trade networks but because it is also surrounded by a cluster of islands and land masses where different polities resided in the past. Regardless of how Singapore's settlement history oscillates between autonomous society or part of a larger polity, the people in Singapore are always in contact with their neighbours from Johor, Bintan, Batam and even the Karimun Islands (Miksic 2013). A perfect example of how intense the connection of Singapore with its neighbouring polities can be gleaned from the boat traffic between Singapore and Johor during the early colonial period. Before constructing the causeway between Singapore and Johor, goods and people had to move between these two locations by boat. The boat traffic was reported to be so intense that it operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week.3. Thus, historians and archaeologists need to start examining these micro or minor networks that have sustained the settlement in Singapore throughout history. That will require an examination of the artefacts found in Singapore that could indicate the trade and exchange between Singapore and its neighbouring polities, identify the boats and shed light on their importance in this micro landscape of transport and communication. Power Landscape One of the most overt examples of a power landscape that could still be observed in Singapore is the coastal defences erected during the colonial period of Singapore from 1819 to 1942. During the early period of colonial Singapore, several forts, including some of the offshore islands, were constructed around the south of the island to protect it from seaward or water-borne threats. This defensive doctrine continued till World War II, and some of these fortifications were expanded and improved to stay current with the latest military trends (Murfett et al. 2011). In 2008, and 2017, there were 1 Sani, Firdaus. 2020. “Orang Laut SG: Our Story.” Accessed May 3, 2023. https://oranglaut.sg/ 2 We came from the sea. n.d. “About us.” Accessed May 3, 2023. https://wecamefromthesea.wordpress.com/about/ 3 Yap, Yok Foo. 2001. “The wild days of the Causeway” TODAY, January 8, 2001. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/today20010108-1.2.19.3 4 �archaeological attempts to document some of the remaining coastal fortification structures at Fort Serapong Sentosa.4 and Pulau Ubin5 respectively. Outer Resource Landscape Records from the colonial period have indicated ship or boat construction and repair facilities along Boat Quay.6, Beach road, Tanjong Rhu and Kallang river. These records come in archival drawings and even photographs of these locations. Further research is required in this area as these records are scattered throughout the archives. Only a handful of academics covered topics related to boats of Singapore, such as Gibson-Hill and Eric Alfred. Gibson-Hill (1952a) provided brief descriptions of the Tongkang vessels and their functions as lighter. Alfred (1987) documented a list of boat types found in Singapore and provided some details about them. However, very little construction information could be gleaned from his documentation. Inner Resource Landscape (145) Miksic (2013, 266) indicated that during the fourteenth century, Singapore provided raw natural products, a collection and distribution centre for goods found in its immediate vicinity, mainly in the Riau Archipelago and as a transhipment point for commodities. Archaeological evidence shows that past Singaporeans processed raw materials to make finished products (Miksic 2013, 266). These products include earthenware pottery, copper, bronze and gold implements manufactured from imported raw materials (Miksic 2013, 266–285). In addition, according to historical records, perishable goods, including Lakawood, hornbill casques, and sea turtle shells, were retrieved from one of the archaeological sites close to the Singapore River (Miksic 2013, 285–286). During the 19th century, Singapore continued to be a transhipment point for commodities obtained from Peninsular Malaya, such as tin, rubber, pepper and gambier7. Cognitive Landscape There is some research which examines the cognitive maritime landscapes of Singapore. Tai (2021) looked into Zheng He’s navigation methods and delved deeper into his visit to Singapore. Zheng He a Ming dynasty eunuch who led a Chinese fleet on several voyages to Southeast Asia and onwards to the West. Tai (2021) examined the place names listed on the Chinese navigational charts with other Chinese records. His examination accounted for linguistic nuances between the various Chinese languages. Sinclair (2021) also examined the etymology of Singapore’s previous names, such as Temasek, Singapura, and some Singapore landmarks' names. He examined predominantly local Malay sources but made comparisons with other non-local sources and identified the linguistic distinctions between the languages and scripts. 4 Lim, Chen Sian. 2009. “Colonial Singapore: Archaeological vs Historical Records The Fort Serapong Case Study.” ScholarBank@NUS Repository. 5 Kao, Aaron. “Pulau Ubin Anti-Motor Torpedo Boat Battery: The Gun That Never Was.” In NSC Highlights (8). Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2018. 6 Vernon Cornelius-Takahama. 2004. ‘Bumboats’. Singapore Infopedia, Singapore: National Library Board. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_956_2004-12-15.html . 7 Chua, Alvin. 2004. “The Causeway.” Singapore Infopedia, Singapore: National Library Board. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_99_2004-12-30.html 5 �Jong racing could be an example of both a cognitive and recreative landscape. Jong is a lightweight sailing model that was made for racing. Jong racing was a sport played by the people in Singapore, as well as from the neighbouring islands to the south to the Lingga islands and the Straits of Johor (Gibson-Hill 1950a, 144–145; Alfred 1986, 133). A larger version of the sport, Kolek (a traditional local sailboat) racing, was carried out along the coasts of Singapore. Today, the local blog "We Came from the Sea" continues to preserve the stories from this tradition, highlighting local efforts to revive these traditions, like Mazlan Mohammed Nasir, who once was a resident on one of the offshore islands in Singapore. A Possible Approach for Sustainable Development Goals? Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) is a United Nations initiative to address today's global challenges, such as poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice. Ongoing discussions are looking into how underwater cultural heritage and interdisciplinary maritime activities can be incorporated into this initiative to help achieve goal 14, which represents life below water (Trakadas et al., 2019). SDG calls for diversity in relating maritime cultural heritage to existing environmental issues. A suitable approach is required to provide an outline for practitioners to quickly identify areas for further research, conservation, and, most importantly, collaborations with other disciplines. These areas must be diverse enough that they could correlate with different fields to achieve a fuller understanding of our surrounding water environment. Incidentally, this issue mirrors an ongoing discussion in public archaeology on how to get society to appreciate archaeology better. One of the key takeaways from this discussion is that we should not just focus on bringing archaeology to the community, but we have to consider how archaeology could meet society's educational, social, and cultural needs (Smardz, 1997, p. 103; Copeland, 2004, p. 142; White, 2019; Erdman, 2019). Perhaps, the key is to highlight archaeology’s multi and interdisciplinary nature and identify areas which can be incorporated into the needs of society. Westerdahl’s landscape concept accounts for diverse human interactions with water bodies. As demonstrated by the above examples, applying landscape studies allows for a more wholesome understanding of human interaction with water bodies. Most importantly, it was able to create the connection between the heritage deposits that reside on the shores and its immediate maritime environment. The MCL approach resonates with the societal objectives identified during the first Global Planning Meeting organised by the National Museum of Denmark (Trakadas et al., 2019). The diverse nature of the objectives calls for a diverse research approach to address the inclusion of maritime cultural heritage into SDG. Thus, using Singapore as an example, this paper highlights the possibility of adopting the maritime cultural landscape approach to achieve the SDG objectives locally in the island state. CONCLUSION In conclusion, this paper evaluates the current approaches to studying Singapore's maritime past and proposes integrating the MCL approach to examine Singapore’s past narrative thoroughly. The paper attempts to identify examples from Singapore's historical, archaeological and anthropological research that could fit into the seven iterations of the MCL. Admittedly, this paper did not manage to provide an exhaustive investigation of all the existing research materials; however, with its meagre examples, it hopes to highlight the potential of this approach and encourage future studies on Singapore's past 6 �narrative by viewing it as a maritime cultural landscape. Applying this approach also raises awareness amongst Singapore's stakeholders that maritime cultural heritage should not be fixated on the geographical and economic past. Still, it should illuminate the social–cultural interactions between people and their natural environment. Although the approach is applied within a local or micro context in this paper, it could also be used in other areas and on a macro scale. Suppose every coastal community in the Asia-Pacific region identifies its maritime cultural landscapes and realises its connectedness with adjacent landscapes and their collective impact on the ocean. In that case, it is possible to create a deeper awareness and greater sense of stewardship to improve ocean health. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alfred, Eric R. “Boats of Singapore.” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 60, no. 2 (253) (1987): 99–114. Alfred, Eric R. “The Pulau Brani Jong.” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 59, no. 2 (251) (1986): 133–138. Andaya, Leonard Y. Leaves of the Same Tree : Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824863319. 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Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. 8 �Murfett, Malcolm H., John N. Miksic, Brian P. Farrell and Ming Shun, Chiang. Between Two Oceans : a Military History of Singapore from 1275 to 1971. 2nd ed. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Editions, 2011. Rasheed, Zainul Abidin, Wan Hussin Zoohri, and Norshahril Saat, ed. Beyond Bicentennial: Perspectives on Malays. Singapore: World Scientific, 2020. Sinclair, Ian. "The Inception of Lion City." In 1819 & Before: Singapore’s Pasts, edited by Chong Guan Kwa, 65–76. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. Smardz, Karolyn. E. “The past through tomorrow: interpreting Toronto’s heritage to a multicultural public.” In Presenting Archaeology to the Public: Digging for Truths, edited by John H. Jameson, 101–113. Walnut Creek, California: Altamira Press, 1997. Tai, Yew Seng. “Zheng He’s Navigational Methods and His Visit to Longyamen, Singapore.” In 1819 & Before: Singapore’s Pasts, edited by Chong Guan Kwa, 101–114. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. Trakadas, Athena, Antony Firth, David Gregory, Dolores Elkin, Ulrike Guerin, Jon Henderson, Jun Kimura, et al. “The Ocean Decade Heritage Network: Integrating Cultural Heritage Within the UN Decade of Ocean Science 2021-2030.”  Journal of Maritime Archaeology 14, no. 2 (2019): 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-019-09241-0. Westerdahl, Christer. “The maritime cultural landscape.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21(1) (1992): 5–14. Westerdahl, Christer. “The Maritime Cultural Landscape.” In The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology 1st ed., edited by Ben Ford, Donny L. Hamilton, and Alexis Catsambis, 1–32. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Westerdahl, Christer. “Maritime Landscapes.” In Encyclopaedia of Global Archaeology, [Online], 6780–6782. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. White, Charles. S. “Schools and Public Archaeology: Igniting a Commitment to Heritage Preservation.” In Public Engagement and Education: Developing and Fostering Stewardship for an Archaeological Future, edited by Katherine M. Erdman, 21–44. Berghahn Books, 2019. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Identifying Singapore’s Maritime Cultural Landscape Description An account of the resource The paper proposes to build upon existing approaches in the study of Singapore's past narrative by incorporating the study of the maritime cultural landscape (MCL) to observe the micro connections and provide a closer examination of the maritime activities around Singapore. This paper highlights Singapore's maritime cultural landscapes within the premise of the MCL approach proposed by Christer Westerdahl. The case studies under consideration include historical, archaeological and anthropological sources on maritime activity around Singapore, the current historical narrative on Singapore, and recent maritime cultural landscape studies. The expected results are to take on a different perspective in considering Singapore's maritime past as an island and coastal settlement. It hopes to further the understanding of the island’s maritime past beyond the predominant trade narrative. Ultimately, this allows stakeholders in Singapore to recognise the various types of maritime cultural heritage that may reside around Singapore’s coast and waters. Consequently, the paper will highlight how using the maritime cultural landscape approach could help with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and further our thinking on the interactions between humans and seas. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ng Jian Cheng Michael Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Cheng, Michael Ng Jian. 2023. “Identifying Singapore’s Maritime Cultural Landscape.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Abhirada Komoot. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1933 Asia-Pac Session 3 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9e2cb4a553923b243985815059804f28.pdf 1fd38083f59f409dde4228e958732091 PDF Text Text Conservation of Maritime Cultural Heritage: View from the Angle of Quang Ngai Province (Vietnam) Ngo The Bach, M.A., Ph.D. Candidate Thang Long - Hanoi Heritage Conservation Centre 09, Hoang Dieu St., Hanoi, Vietnam Email: bach.ngothe@gmail.com Nguyen Thi Thu Ha M.A., Ph.D. Candidate Thang Long - Hanoi Heritage Conservation Centre 09, Hoang Dieu St., Hanoi, Vietnam Abstract Quang Ngai is a province located in the South Central Coast region of Vietnam, on the coast of the East Sea. It borders Quang Nam Province which is home to the famous Cu Lao Cham shipwreck in the north and the Binh Dinh Province in the south. It has a long coastline of 129km and wide territorial waters of 11.000km2. Quang Ngai has 6 seaports which are favorable for maritime transport and trade. The Ly Son Island of Quang Ngai province is located on the north-south waterway transport of our country, which is also the East-West international trade route in ancient times. The continuous discovery of shipwreck relics in the seas of Vung Tau, Binh Chau commune, Binh Son district, and Ly Son Island in recent years has demonstrated that the potential of maritime cultural heritage in the sea of Quang Ngai is enormous and rich. However, such precious heritage now is in danger of being undermined by the illegal exploitation of some local fisherman. In the context of our current status of underwater archaeology, the necessity of carrying out the studies, protection, conservation and promotion of the value of this important heritage resource is a major issue being faced by professionals and heritage managers. This article refers to the issues of preserving and promoting the value of maritime cultural heritage in Quang Ngai province, in order to serve for the exhibition in place and development of tourism as a new approach. Key words: conservation, underwater cultural heritage, shipwreck, promotion of the value, tourism. �Introduction Vietnam is located on a peninsula, one side adjacent to the East Sea, having a long coastline of 3,260 kilometers with many islands and islets spreading along the country, making this S-shaped piece of land become the great crossroads of civilizations from ancient times. Here, on this land, we realized the formation and development of the cultures, the integration and acculturation, interference, convergence and the spread of Vietnam to the world and the world to Vietnam by the sea route, although many people supposed it simply as a cultural convergence. From East Asia to Southeast Asia, from the Middle East to India, even Early modern Europe, the age-old history of the Vietnam sea and island culture has demonstrated that interference. Therefore, the study on the value of maritime cultural heritage of Vietnam is extremely necessary for peeling the depths of cultural values, reaching the awareness and deeper assessment. Such jobs are supposed to consume so much effort and time. In 2000, after the Vietnam Salvage Company (VISAL) finished the first phase excavation of the ancient shipwreck at Cham island, while many protection measures have been applied to this ancient shipwreck relic, many people have still carried out illegal tapping.1 In 2003, the Government of Vietnam allocated to the Doan Anh Duong Salvage Company participating in the surveys and excavations of ancient shipwrecks in many sea areas of Vietnam. In 2012, a 700-year-old ancient shipwreck was discovered in the sea area of Vung Tau, Binh Chau commune, Binh Son district, Quang Ngai province. The excavation of this ancient shipwreck, in association with the continuous discoveries of other shipwrecks in this sea area led to the need to study methods of �preservation, conservation and the promotion of underwater cultural heritagehere. Vietnam Sea and Islands Cultural Heritage Regarding the sea and island culture of Vietnam, it is impossible not to mention the material and the intangible culture of Vietnam's coastal areas. Right from the Neolithic, the scallop culture in the coastal areas of Vietnam appeared, bearing many special characteristics as well as general features to East Asia and Southeast Asia. Bau Du culture, Da But culture, Thach Lam - Thach Lac cultures ... have provided valuable material on the mode of living, economic life, culture and spirituality of prehistoric manthrough the landscaping tools and their habitats.2 By the Bronze Age, a variety of cultures and places belonging to the great cultures such as Dong Son, Sa Huynh, Oc Eo was found and studied through out from the North to the South, including Dau Ram (Quang Ninh province), Hoa Loc (Thanh Hoa province), Bai Coi (Ha Tinh province), Binh Chau, Long Thanh (Quang Ngai province), Can Gio (Ho Chi Minh City). Despite these examples being modest in comparison with the material provided from archaeology, these findings also help to realize the tremendous value and clarify the genealogy of Dong Son culture in the Delta and the northern plains and Sa Huynh..3 All cultures and locations mentioned above have characteristics from the culture of sea area, containing many elements of sea and islands culture, but also bearing many elements of the delta, even in the narrow region at the center of Vietnam. Coastal heritage also includes the system of ports and subports, existing at least from the ages of Dong Son - Sa Huynh - Oc Eo (from the 7th BC to 1st-2nd AD) until the 18-19th centuries with relics such as Lach Truong, Bai Coi, Hoa Diem, Go Que and etc to Van Don, Hoi Thong, Thanh Ha, Hoi An, and Nuoc Man...4 �Studying the seaport system in the historical process of Vietnam for identifying the proper role and position on the international maritime route is a confirmation on the location of S-curved coast of Vietnam on the map. Those ports and sub-ports were extremely important in commercial activities. They are not only the place to import goods, but also a haven for international sailing through the East Sea to take on fresh water and food, and avoiding storms, and pirates.5 Heritage on the coastal, island and archipelago areas of Vietnam include temples, pagodas and shrines where the Ly - Tran dynasties are from. Buddhism, which was considered as the state religion at that time to carry out a part of the People's Defense strategy, along with the army defending the borderland, including islands. Right from the feudal era, it is reported by the ancient people that O Cap (Vung Tau province today) earned their living from finding sites underwater. Over twenty years, Vietnam has unearthed six ancient shipwrecks. They are the merchant ships which passed through the Vietnamese’s seashore from overseas, but had sunk because of currents, storms, or fires. However, these are very small numbers compared with the information we learned from the field through material culture and from the retrospective information of the fisherman6. After Hon Cau, X coordinates, the Ba Ria - Vung Tau sea has also detected another two shipwrecks. Chau Thuan Bien village (Binh Son, Quang Ngai province) has a lot of shipwrecks with varied dating which were realized via analyzing the pottery artifacts. It is very clear that the Vietnamese Sea lies on the important route of international trade; therefore any and all findings in these seas have demonstrated for the role, position and value of the East Sea of Vietnam on the East - West silk and ceramic route. �The Vietnam Maritime Cultural Heritage preserved the remnants of many great naval battles in history during the dynasties of Ngo Quyen, Tran Quoc Tuan’ with the battle on Bach Dang river cited as a typical example. In addition to the battles, there wer military regimes to protect the sea. The important findings about the seal called "Phụng mệnh bình hải tướng quân chi ấn" of Le Thanh Tong (1490) found at sea Van Don (Quang Ninh province), can confirm on the existence of an army for protection of the Vietnamese seas from that period. All cases such as the Tran Khanh Du’s army carried out the business of coal wholesale; Tran Nhan Tong King moved to Yen Tu mountain for practicing Buddhism; Tran Hung Dao set up the manor at Van Kiep - Luc Đau river door and the seal called Binh Hai, the oracles of the East Sea of Nguyen Binh Khiem and etc,7 are the maritime strategies for sea protection from the fathers, suggesting to us a direction for more investment on the studies of military heritage and patriotic wars in the East Sea. Conservation of Maritime Cultural Heritage in Quang Ngai province Status of Maritime Cultural Heritage in Quang Ngai Province Quang Ngai province is located in the south central coast region of Vietnam. It borders Quang Nam province in the North and Binh Dinh province in the South and Truong Son High Mountain and majestic Tay Nguyen in the West and the East Sea in the East. Apart from the business of domestic trade, foreign trade activities here through the Hoi An port were also quite developed. In the late 16th century, early 17th century, Minh Huong (village of the Ming people) merchant ships also docked in Co Luy - Thu Xa for trading and exchanging goods and etc. The early 20th century, the Japanese, Chinese and French merchants had their ships docked in �Co Luy - Thu Xa to sell clothing, kerosene, household items, and then buy sugar, cinnamon, salt, dried areca, and honey.8 Quang Ngai has a long coastline of 129km and wide territorial waters of 11.000km2. Quang Ngai has 6 seaports which are favorable for maritime transport and trade. The Ly Son Island of Quang Ngai province is located on the north-south waterway transport of our country, which is also the East-West international trade route in ancient times. Thanks to such an important position, Quang Ngai province was evaluated to be the place having great potentialities for maritime cultural heritage. The discovery and excavation of ancient shipwreck dated the 15th century in 1999 in the place of Song Tau, Vung Tau Sea, Binh Chau commune, Binh Son district, can be said as the starting point for the process of research and discovery of maritime cultural heritages in Quang Ngai province. In addition, that was popular time of hunting antiques underwater carried out by the parts of the habitants living in this area (Fig. 1).9 Fig. 1: Local fishermen are diving to find antiques. (Quang Ngai Province Museum, The Center for Southeast Asian Prehistory) In recent years, Quang Ngai emerged as a hot spot for marine cultural heritage. The first discovery is the Binh Chau 2 ancient shipwreck in 2012. From 4th June to 23th June 2013, Binh Chau ancient shipwreck was excavated, this Binh Chau ancient shipwreck was located about 200 �meters far from Binh Chau coast and at the depth of 3.5-4m compared with sea level. We detected the remaining traces of the ship with the length of 20.5 m, the width of 5.6m and the hull of ship divided into 13 compartments with 12 partitions (Fig. 2). Artifacts collected here from include 274 ceramics barrels which are goods on board with ceramic lines such as brown glaze, celadon, blue and white porcelain, blue and white porcelain glaze, dating from the 13th century (Figs. 3-5). In addition, some metals like bronze mirror, bronze weights, boat tacks and bronze money were also discovered on this shipwreck. Archaeological excavation of Binh Chau ancient shipwreck is the 6th ancient ship excavated in the Vietnamese seas. In order to protect this national heritage, excavation experts have wrapped these shipwrecks by steel sheet piles (Larsen), pumping out the water to expose the hull and artifacts aboard, the excavations then were carried out conveniently (Fig. 6).10 Fig. 2(left): Detailed drawings of the part of Binh Chau ship’s rudder. (Quang Ngai Province Museum, The Center for Southeast Asian Prehistory) �Fig. 3(left): Hundreds of artifacts burnt and sticking overlap. (Quang Ngai Province Museum, The Center for Southeast Asian Prehistory) and Fig. 4 (right): Artifacts found in ancient shipwreck in Binh Chau - Binh Son.(Quang Ngai Province Museum, The Center for Southeast Asian Prehistory) Fig. 5: Celadon-glazed dishes and eel-skin-glazed dishes and apple skin glazed dishies, dating Nguyen Dynasty, the 13thcentury. (Quang Ngai Province Museum, The Center for Southeast Asian Prehistory) �Fig. 6: The first time of excavation of ancient shipwreck as on land. (Quang Ngai Province Museum, The Center for Southeast Asian Prehistory) Considering a whole, the maritime cultural heritages of Quang Ngai province are much more than other regions. Until now, they have discovered 10 shipwrecks, in which 08 shipwrecks discovered in the sea areas of Vung Tau - Binh Chau and 02 shipwrecks found in Ly Son Island.11 Most of the shipwrecks lie about 400m far from the coast, in water depths of between 2m to 5m. It can be seen that the distribution scope of shipwreck traces is quite concentrated, near shore and at quite shallow depth. The discovery of shipwrecks in the seas of Vung Tau province with many different dating, stretching from the 8th-9th centuries to the 18th century, shown that during 10 centuries, this place was an important destination on the route of international trade in ancient times. In Vietnam, currently, we have not yet found any other area where the relics of shipwrecks distributed densely as the area of Vung Tau, Binh Chau province and also no other province where having rich maritime �cultural heritage as Quang Ngai province. It can be said that the sea area of Vung Tau is an "ancient graveyard" with dozens of shipwrecks have been identified. But these valuable heritage resources are faced with the risk of being destroyed because of the illegal exploitation of a part of local fishermen and the expansion of the project of Dung Quat 2 port. This is really a big challenge for managers and professionals. Generally, when shipwreck relics discovered, the excavation experts often pay attention to the value of goods transported by ships, but not really fully understood the value of that underwater heritages. Therefore, since the 90s of the last century to now, there have been 6 shipwreck relics excavated officially, and dozens of illegal salvage were conducted only for economic purposes. Hundreds of thousands of artefacts were taken up and carried away for auction at domestic and abroad. By carrying out such exploitation forms, the State may earn some certain amounts for immediate benefits, but they gave up long-term benefits with more value. If we know how to combine with the shipwreck relics with the archaeological sites for creating an over of maritime cultural heritage, we will create favorable conditions for development of tourism here. Direction of Conservation of Maritime Cultural Heritages in Quang Ngai Province History has left for Quang Ngai province an extremely valuable heritage resource is maritime cultural heritage. These are assets, enormous resources for studying the values of culture, economy, politic and contemporary society and promoting the value serving for the tourism. To protect the marine heritage of Quang Ngai, we should have a new behavior more positive and proactive with this type of heritage. The question raised here is how to preserve the shipwreck relics and other �forms of marine heritage in order to promote the value for serving the public and contribute to improvement of the people's life in the region through the forms of community tourism and ecotourism.12 Based on analyzing the characteristics of the cultural heritage of Quang Ngai province and comparison with marine cultural heritage in other places, the experts came up with a new approach for the maritime cultural heritage resources of Quang Ngai province. That is the on-site conservation of shipwreck relics serving for exhibition to promote the values of heritage, as well as catering for diving tourism to sightseeing heritage - a favourite tourism type currently being interested by both domestic and foreign tourists. Moreover, the purpose of heritage conservation is to promote the values, particularly here is to build the museum for on-site exhibition and develop forms of diving tourism to sightseeing the heritages. The conservation and promotion of heritage values on the site will obtain the long term and sustainable benefits, creating more jobs and stability for local people. These values will inevitably create positive effects, which make the life of people in the region be improved; people will be more involved in the conservation of heritage. Accordingly, the serious problems such as illegal mining acts and destruction of heritage will be minimized and replaced by an attitude of respect and the actions of conservation and promotion of positive values of the heritages.13 As we know, the cultural heritage is fundamental for economic development, especially for the tourism industry. Marine cultural heritages in the sea areas of Quang Ngai and Vung Tau provinces differ with the others in term of quantity, density distribution, geographical distribution, the depth, etc. With these characteristics, currently, these sea areas are filing the application dossier to the competent authority for obtaining the �approval and recognition as National Maritime Heritage and World Heritage. Issues of Replicating the Models for Conservation of Maritime Cultural Heritage in Vietnam Conservation of marine cultural heritage is a relatively new field of study in Vietnam at present and is the top concerns of the archaeologists, the museology and researchers. Since the early 90s of the 20th century to the present, the Vietnamese archaeologists have conducted many excavations of shipwrecks from Quang Nam to Kien Giang provinces. Especially, similar to the sea areas of Vung Tau - Binh Chau and Ly Son (Quang Ngai province), Kien Giang province has also become an interesting place with a lot of shipwreck relics. Kien Giang province in general and Phu Quoc Island in particular has become the hot spots for the conservation of marine cultural heritage. Although, the distribution of heritages is not dense as the one in the sea region of Vung Tau - Binh Chau in Quang Ngai province, the sea region of Kien Giang province is potential for various types of heritage. Since 2005, in this sea area, we have discovered 3 shipwreck relics and simultaneously collected the information and artefacts from two other shipwrecks kept by local fishermen.14 Similar to the sea areas of Vung Tau - Binh Chau (Quang Ngai province), the issues of conservation and promotion of values sustainably with respect to the relics of shipwreck in Phu Quoc (Kien Giang province) is very being interested. At the same time, they also carry out the protection of the relics discovered, implementing the investigations and overall surveys of the sea areas of Phu Quoc, Kien Giang province, aim at further discovering the relics hidden, mapping the marine cultural heritage for conservation planning. The next action is to deploy the on-site conservation of marine heritages in Quang Ngai province, drawing �learned lessons and replicating this model for Phu Quoc province. The conservation and promotion of the marine cultural heritage value in Phu Quoc sea, Kien Giang province will contribute not only for serving the political aims of the State in relation to the issues of maritime sovereignty, but also for the purposes of scientist research and especially supporting for Phu Quoc in accomplishment of the national strategic by 2020 is to become the centres for tourism and marine eco-tourism developed at high level; the center for exchange of commercial, high-quality services of the country, the region and the world. Regarding the Duties for Protection and Promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage Value in Vietnam The Government of Vietnam promulgated a Decree on the management and protection of underwater cultural heritage.15 This Decree provides for the management and protection of underwater cultural heritage, including cultural heritage in the inland water areas, internal waters, territorial waters, exclusive economic zones and continental shelf of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. I would like to contribute a few thoughts after 10 years this Decree was issued: The protection and promotion of the values of Vietnam’s underwater cultural heritage must firstly carry out the comprehensive studies and evaluation of the values of heritage. However, the tasks for research, evaluation of underwater heritage is still very limited. The comprehensive, systematic and connective studies are not interested. Accordingly, there still remain a lot of topics and stages which has not been focused and many studying fields have been left vacant. Each organization, each group, each individual researcher, owns privately a block of studying materials and publishes them disjointedly, making our perception incomplete. That is the limit for the work of protection and promotion. �However, the results of research on underwater cultural heritage in Vietnam, based on the foregoing, are only as dotted markings on the panorama. In fact, the studying material son these issues were much richer. If the systematization of studying material can be implemented, it will create many valuable research works. However, those works should go deeply into each topic, each historical period, each region, each field... and then, summarize to help managers get the suitable policies and strategies in terms of not only the protection and promotion of heritage value, but also the political, economic, cultural, and social aspects. Regarding documents, artefacts, collections and exhibits of underwater cultural heritage in Vietnam, though many stages and studying fields thereof are still vacant, but based on the obtained results from the studies and the collections from the researchers and museums, it should be better to have a museum of the underwater cultural heritage. Quang Ngai province has a museum project in Ly Son on Truong Sa - Hoang Sa and a museum project on vessels and maritime cultural heritage in Phu Quoc Island. The above activities have just only exploited in the extreme small extent of this field in comparison with the large scope of underwater cultural heritage in Vietnam. Therefore, it is necessary to build a more comprehensive and broader museum with the investment from the State to promote underwater cultural heritage in Vietnam. Accordingly, we will have the orientation and a more in-depth vision in the work of study and exhibition on this field. Regarding festival of coastal areas and islands of Vietnam, since there are many similarities in term of the content, rituals and feature between them, we suggest expanding the influence of some festivals with the significance as the festival of ethnic communities, but not just the festival �at the level of village community, regional or local communities. For last several years, Ly Son has elevated to the festivals but still not satisfying as expected. To achieve this, the work for research, evaluation, rehabilitation and supplementation should be made. Accordingly, we would promote the influence in terms of politic, society, economy and culture of the festivals with the local and international communities. The protection, restoration and embellishment of the cultural heritages in general and the underwater cultural heritage in particular have been reached many remarkable achievements during recent ten years. However, with a huge volume of such heritages, it is impossible for the state budget to cover all expenses for implementing such jobs. Although, the socialization of this job in many provinces is very significant for many years, however it should be applied and replicated in this case. However, the protection of cultural heritages is still much neglected and loose. These relics in Cai Beo (Cat Ba - Hai Phong city), how much area is left while the urbanization rate is going strongly today? The archaeological sites in Truong Sa discovered by the colleagues from Vietnam Archaeology Institute in the 90s of last century, but recently, were concreted. Apart from Truong Sa, in Phu Quoc, with the rate of rapid growth at present, many construction works were springing up, but archeology has not reached out to them. Heritage sector should actively propose in advance the major construction projects in Phu Quoc, Co To... serving for the investigation, research and excavation. Conclusion Since this article presents about cultural properties in the coastal and sea and island areas of Vietnam only from the perspective of Quang Ngai province, there are many other findings, important researches and many valuable scientific insights have not been mentioned here; therefore, the �author expected that this article will get the reader's sympathy. Apart from Quang Ngai province, there are currently many other hot spots of marine cultural heritage in Vietnam. Therefore, there must be a consistent and long-term strategic and plan for the issues of conservation and protection of this important heritage for the country and the future generations. To conclude, there are two main issues we want to affirm: 1. The sea and islands cultural heritage of Vietnam is extremely rich with the various types, characteristics, and different historical periods. However, the studies in this regard have not been carried out regularly, continuously and systematically. The reason for this situation is that there is no State authorities to be assigned for taking in charge this issue to manage with the long-term orientation and for each specific stage. 2. With the abundance of sea and island heritages, the conservation and promotion of their values should have a strategy, with the longer and wider vision. However, for each particular case, it should have the situational reaction to timely protect and preserve the precious heritages for serving the long-term strategy. With that spirit, it is necessary for Vietnam to have a research agency specializing in the underwater cultural heritage, existing besides a separate museum or sectoral museum under this research agency to perform research centralised, professional projects. This research agency also needs a center of underwater archaeology, instead of an underwater archaeology division under the Vietnam Institute of Archaeology as present, which was invested by the limited and slow human resource and facilities. This is the model that the Koreans applied and they also have cooperated with Vietnam during last years for implementing many �research programs effectively. In order to make the premise for this model, all materials, documents, artefacts... should be centrally gathered with an authoritiy having the same objectives and functions for research on maritime heritages, announcing the depth issues in each study areas, each historical period, then to review and evaluate for providing the next studying direction. Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism of Vietnam or Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, under the National University of... are the appropriate authorities to perform this task. As the preparatory step, the specific research programs on maritime cultural heritage should also be planned, with the detailed assignment for each competent authority with the objectives and functions for research in each field, implementing each program or project. One of three ministries and ministerial-level agencies should gather the above experts, formulating programs, plans, schemes and projects prior to the assignment. This is a great and long-term program which needs the investment/funds from the government budget. Endnotes 1 Excavation team 2001. Excavation of the Cu Lao Cham ancient shipwreck (1997 to 1999). New discoveries in Archaeology in 2000. Vietnam Institute of Archaeology, 2001, p. 548-552 2 Ha Van Tan (eds) 1998. Vietnam Archaeology, Volume 1, Vietnam Stone Age. Hanoi Social Science Publisher. 3 Ha Van Tan (eds) 1998. Vietnam Archaeology, Volume 2, Vietnam Metal Age. Hanoi Social Science Publisher. 4 Trinh Cao Tuong 1991. Opening and studying the ancient trading port of Vietnam. Archaeology, 4/1991, p. 66-69. �5 Hoang Anh Tuan, 2008. The position of Vietnam in the system of East Sea trade ancient medieval. History research journal, 9 + 10/2008, p. 316 6 The Shipwreck Relics Discovered in Vietnam's Waters and Cu Lao Cham Shipwreck. International Conference: Shipwrecks and Cultural History in Goryeo Dynasty. Mopko, South Korea, 10/2011, pp.265-294. 7 Tran Quoc Vuong 2010. The site of Van Don. The cultural history of Van Don trading port. Hanoi, pp.65-75. Quang Ngai People's Committee, 2010. Địa chí Quảng Ngãi. The Bach Khoa Publisher., 2010. 8 9 Nguyen Dinh Chien, Pham Quoc Quan 2013. Initial information about the shipwreck in Quang Ngai. New discoveries in Archaeology in 2012. Vietnam Institute of Archaeology, 2013, pp. 714-716. 10 Nguyen Dinh Chien, Pham Quoc Quan 2014. Excavation of the Binh Chau ancient shipwreck, the 6th ancient ship in Vietnam's waters. New discoveries in Archaeology in 2013. Vietnam Institute of Archaeology, 2014, pp. 637-642. 11 Nguyen Quoc Hung 1992. Excavation of the antique treasure at the sea bottom Hon Cau (Ba Ria - Vung Tau). Archaeology, 3/1992, pp. 6273 12 Nguyen Viet & Nguyen Son Ca 2014. The 13/14 CE Wreck Excavated at the Coast of Binh Chau (Quang Ngai). The Center For Southeast Asian Prehistory. 13 Nguyen Giang Hai 2014. Vietnam Marine Archaeology: Potential and Challenges. Conference Proceedings Underwater Archaeology in Vietnam and Southeast Asia: Cooperation for development. Quang Ngai, 10/2014, pp. 1-14. 14 Pham Chi Than 2013. Discovery the X3 ancient vessels in the waters of Vung Tau. New discoveries in Archaeology in 2012. Vietnam Institute of Archaeology, 2013, pp. 625-626. 15 Government Decree No 86/2005/ND-CP, dated 08.07.2005, On the management and protection of underwater cultural heritage. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 9: Maritime/Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Southeast Asia (SEA) has been rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) over a long period, from ancient pre-history, through the age of commerce, into the World War II era. Recently, UCH research, survey, and mapping activities; preservation and management efforts; as well as human capacity building programs show the promising progress in SEA countries. However, various threats to UCH preservation and some shortcomings still can be found in many SEA countries, for instance, lack of funds, inadequate technology, limited human resources, and also lack of public and government attention to UCH legal protection and its long-term preservation. This session will highlight some topics, including current status of UCH preservation; current research or investigation on maritime heritage or UCH in SEA countries; maritime history in SEA; current legislations; recent human and natural threats to UCH in SEA countries; raising awareness and public education programs; in-situ preservation of UCH; sustainable shipwreck tourism development and balancing preservation efforts with economic benefit; community and general public engagement in UCH management plan; regional capacity building in Southeast Asia; as well as collaboration opportunities among stakeholders and SEA countries in researching, protecting, preserving, and managing UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig, Mc Gill University Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Conservation of Maritime Cultural Heritage: View from the Angle of Quang Ngai Province (Vietnam) Description An account of the resource Quang Ngai is a province located in the South Central Coast region of Vietnam, on the coast of the East Sea. It borders Quang Nam Province which is home to the famous Cu Lao Cham shipwreck in the north and the Binh Dinh Province in the south. It has a long coastline of 129km and wide territorial waters of 11.000km2. Quang Ngai has 6 seaports which are favorable for maritime transport and trade. The Ly Son Island of Quang Ngai province is located on the north-south waterway transport of our country, which is also the East-West international trade route in ancient times. The continuous discovery of shipwreck relics in the seas of Vung Tau, Binh Chau commune, Binh Son district, and Ly Son Island in recent years has demonstrated that the potential of maritime cultural heritage in the sea of Quang Ngai is enormous and rich. However, such precious heritage now is in danger of being undermined by the illegal exploitation of some local fisherman. In the context of our current status of underwater archaeology, the necessity of carrying out the studies, protection, conservation and promotion of the value of this important heritage resource is a major issue being faced by professionals and heritage managers. This article refers to the issues of preserving and promoting the value of maritime cultural heritage in Quang Ngai province, in order to serve for the exhibition in place and development of tourism as a new approach. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ngo The Bach Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Ngo The Bach Language A language of the resource English https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d0a95e90bdb2168090ca9fb6ae9f4529.pdf 13c3e666ef5c9b0e0996344347608914 PDF Text Text Vietnamese Ceramics in Asian Maritime Trade between 14th and 17th centuries Ngo The Bach Department of Research and Collections Thang Long - Hanoi Heritage Conservation Centre 19, Hoang Dieu St Hanoi Vietnam Email: bach.ngothe@gmail.com Abstract Vietnam is one of many Asian countries that have a long-standing and famous tradition of pottery production. Vietnam is also one of three countries including China, Vietnam, and Japan which exported ceramics developed to other countries. The 14th century was marked by the initial penetration of Vietnamese ceramics for foreign markets. The 15th century was considered as a prosperous period for Vietnamese export ceramics with the largest export quantity and the most abundant types thereof. The 16th century marked as a pause in the export of Vietnamese ceramics. The 17th century was the development period of commodity economy and the renaissance period of ports located in the northern and central parts of Vietnam. The article reviewed the findings regarding Vietnamese ceramics in Japan, West Asia, mainland, and insular Southeast Asia in order to partially reconstruct the historical context and the flow of Vietnamese export ceramics for the international maritime trade routes in the Vietnamese history of international trades from 14th to 17th centuries. Given that, the author pointed out the origin, chronology of the Vietnamese ceramics discovered from the relics as well as market context thereof and the destinations of Vietnamese export ceramics. Key words: Vietnamese ceramics, Dai Viet (Great Viet), Northern Vietnam, Southeast Asia, Maritime trade routes, Ceramic export Introduction Vietnam is located in Southeast Asia or Indo-China, with more than 3,000 km of long and beautiful coastline, and is at a crossroads of the exchange routes of the East to the West. It is considered as the free trade gateway of Southeast Asia occupying an important role in the system of international maritime trade routes. In the 9th century, 1 �with the advent of several commercial ports and participation of Chinese and Arabian traders, the ceramics officially involved in maritime trade system and set up "the Ceramics Road on the Sea". Vietnam is one of many Asian countries having a longstanding and famous tradition of ceramics production. Vietnam also is one of three countries including Vietnam, China and Japan that exported ceramics developed in other countries. The manufacture of Vietnamese ceramics has been formed and developed from the 1st to the 3rd centuries and strongly developed since Vietnam had won their freedom in the early 10th century. Since Ly Dynasty (1010-1225 AD) onwards, the production methods of Vietnamese ceramics developed constantly and made great advances regarding the types of products, as well as decoration patterns used on ceramics. Northern Vietnam is the place where has many well known ceramic manufacturing centers, such as Thang Long and Bat Trang in Hanoi, Van Yen, Chu Dau and Binh Giang in Hai Duong province as well as Tuc Mac and Con Che in Nam Dinh province. It is noted that apart from the production of ceramics serving for the demand of domestic market especially in the 14th century that Vietnam was officially engaged in the ceramics export network through maritime trade route. For the later periods in Later Le (the 15th century) and Restored Le Dynasties (the late 16th and the 17th century), Vietnam exported a large quantity of ceramics to Southeast Asian, Northeast Asian and Western Asian markets. In addition to a few notes scattered in the written historical sources, the ceramic artifacts discovered through excavations in the ancient trading ports, shipwrecks and others in Vietnam as well as in other countries are important evidence that contributes to the knowledge of commercial activities on the maritime trade routes. These sources seem to suggest that contact Vietnam and other countries in Asia (both East and West) were abundant and important. The participation in the international trades from the 14th to the 17th century is clear in the archaeological record, which highlights the role and position of Vietnam in Asia and even in the West. 2 �Vietnamese Ceramics and Its Maritime Trade Routes in Asia during the 14th to the 17th Centuries After King Ngo Quyen defeated the Nam Han enemy on the Bach Dang River in 938, Vietnam entered officially the new era of independence. During the Ly Dynasty (10101225 AD), Vietnamese glazed wares industry had highly developed its technical and artistic aspects. In Tran Dynasty (1225-1400 AD), a lot of ceramics manufacturing centers had been set up and developed such as Thang Long (Hanoi), Bat Trang (Hanoi), Thien Truong (Nam Dinh), Van Yen (Hai Duong) and others. A large quantity of highquality wares, such as celadon, brown glazed, brown patterned and blue and white wares including white ceramic tiles were produced in many kilns. Archaeological findings in Vietnam and other countries from the 14th century, seem to indicate that ceramics made in the kilns in northern Vietnam were not only sold in the domestic markets but also exported to the foreign markets. During archaeological excavations in the 1980s at Dazaifu, Northern Kuyshu in Japan, Vietnamese ceramics associated with the pieces of wood and dated in “Daitoku the 2nd Year (1330)” have been found there. They are considered the earliest evidences on ceramics exported from Vietnam to foreign markets. According to other documentations, the iron-brown and cobalt-blue glazed wares were similar to ceramics discovered in Dazaifu in Japan, Juara on the Tiumen Island, and Babal states of West Malaysia. Many archaeological sites in East Java and South Sulawesi in Indonesia have also yielded the same types of Vietnamese ceramics. In details, blue and white and monochrome glazed wares produced at the kilns in northern Vietnam have been found there (Cheng and Lammers, 1974: 5-16). The most remarkable object found in these sites is the base of celadon tower decorated skillfully with embossed patterns which are similar to the ones decorated on the tower of Gio Pagoda in Vinh Phuc province, Vietnam dated to the 13th to 14th century. This object is currently preserved at the Adam Malik Museum in Jakarta, Indonesia (Stevenson and Guy, 1997: 270, plate 180). According to Stevenson’s and Guy’s opinions, the fragments of brownglazed jars of Tran Dynasty have been found in Trowulan, East Java (Stevenson and Guy, 1997: 286, 3 �plate 209). This is the first evidence mentioned about Vietnamese brown glazed wares in Southeast Asia. Apart from the ceramics found on the mainland, the Vietnamese ceramics have also been found on the Rang Kwian shipwreck which sank in the Gulf of Thailand and has associated material of Chinese and Thai celadon wares. Vietnamese ceramics comprised of blue and white bowls, plates, and cups (The Fine Arts Department of Thailand) (FAD, 1990: 82-93; Tenazas, 1981: 31-32). Pursuant to the specific characteristics regarding the types and patterns, these types of wares are dated to the mid 14th century. At the end of 2000, a group of fishermen in Ca Mau province, Vietnam while fishing off the seabed picked up a large number of Vietnamese and Chinese ceramics. The museum staffs assumed that there was a shipwreck and designated the site as the Ca Mau II shipwreck. The characteristics of Vietnamese ceramics are the same with ceramics discovered in the Rang Kwian shipwreck which were considered to have a relationship with the period. The Vietnamese blue and white wares on the Ca Mau II shipwreck include a wide variety of bowls, plates and bottles. The associated Chinese ceramics comprised of Jingdezhen blue and white and Longquan celadon wares of Yuan Dynasty dated in the 14th century. Along with the Rang Kwian shipwreck, ceramics discovered on the Ca Mau II shipwreck contributed to brighten the picture regarding the Vietnamese export ceramics during the second half of 14th century. Although traces of this ship has not been confirmed, this find is nevertheless very important regarding the Vietnamese ceramics extracted from the area, which can be dated earlier than the Cu Lao Cham shipwreck sank off the coast of Hoi An in Quang Nam province, Vietnam which sank nearly a century later. This is the second ship discovered in the territorial waters of Vietnam that transported Vietnamese export ceramics. In addition to the findings in Southeast Asia, Northern Vietnamese blue and white wares have also been found in many important monuments in the West Asia. The fragments of blue and white bowl with daisy pattern has been found from the excavation in Fustat, 4 �Cairo, Egypt, whose style is the same with the one contained on the Rang Kwian and Ca Mau II shipwrecks, and the Turiang shipwreck which contains a lot of Vietnamese underglaze iron-decorated ceramics (Sten 2002). This confirms the presence of Vietnamese ceramics in the West Asian market in the same context with the Southeast Asian market. The obvious increasing quantity of the 15th century Vietnamese ceramics in oversea relics showed that there was a significant development on Vietnamese ceramics export sector for the foreign markets during this period. The discovery of the fragments of the 15th century Chu Dau blue and white wares from the commercial port of Hormuz along the coast of Persian Gulf is considered as evidence regarding the Vietnamese ceramics exporting to the West Asia by maritime routes (John Guy, 1984). The most valuable evidence of Vietnamese ceramics exported to the West Asian market is a famous Vietnamese vase which has currently being displayed in the Topkapi Sarayi Museum in Istanbul, Turkey, also known as the "Topkapi vase". This is the beautiful and well-known blue and white vase, on which the information regarding the date and place of production was recorded, such as artisan surname is Bui in Nam Sach, made in the Dai Hoa VIII (1450) (recently called Nam Sach district, Hai Duong province in today). According to the report of Seiki Kin, there are eight sites in the Ryukyu (recently Japan) discovered Vietnamese ceramics especially in Nakijin and Shuri sites. In consideration on the shape and decoration, these ceramics were from the kilns in northern Vietnam dated between the 14th and 15th century (Kin Seiki, 1999). According to the research by Professor Yoji Aoyagi in 1991, Vietnamese ceramics have also been found in 32 sites in Southeast Asia including Indonesia (11 sites), Philippines (10 sites), Malaysia (9 sites) and Brunei (2 sites) (Yoji Aoyagi, 1991: 78-82). Although the findings from this research did not reflect the update thereof and the quantity of relics of Vietnamese ceramics to be found is much less than the ones found in reality, it is enough to show that Southeast Asia is the most important market of the Vietnamese trade ceramics. A notable discovery is the 1995 excavation of the Pandanan shipwreck sank near the Pandanan Island off the southern tip of Palawan Island in the Philippines. The excavation discovered more than 4,000 ceramics in total, of which the Vietnamese 5 �ceramics occupy 70 percent. Most of them were mainly produced at Binh Dinh province in Vietnam, but a few were ceramics produced at Hai Duong province in Vietnam. Based on the report by Eusebio Dizon (1998), it is assumed that this shipwreck sank in the mid-15th century. Other excavation is the Balanakan or Blanakan shipwreck in Ujung Karawang, West Java, Indonesia there has excavated in 1998 and has also been found Vietnam ceramics, especially blue and white wares made at Hai Duong province, as well as it dated to the 15th to the 16th century (Bui Minh Tri 2001; 2002). The 1997-2000 excavation of the Cu Lao Cham shipwreck sank off the coast of Quang Nam in Vietnam has recovered more than 240,000 objects and most of them are Vietnamese ceramics dated in the 15th century that demonstrated the Vietnamese ceramics were also supplied on the maritime trade routes. According to historical record, we know that the trade network in Southeast Asia was expanded from Malacca to the northern coast of Java especially in the 15th century together with the sharing of Muslim traders. The Vietnamese historical record also confirmed that Southeast Asian merchant ships were used to make the landfall to the ports in northern Vietnam for trading and exchange of eucalyptus, pearls, and aromas during the 14th to the 15th century. Although, these notes did not mention about ceramics but they were considered that the quantity of ceramics have been found as many in the trading ports of Vietnam, such as Van Don in Quang Ninh province, Lach Truong in Thanh Hoa province and Hoi Thong in Nghe An province, and have confirmed Vietnamese ceramics were exported during this period. Currently, there is no strong evidence to confirm whether or not this was the case, but there appears to be a continued export on Vietnamese ceramics in the 16th century. The investigation in Japan has found Vietnamese ceramics dated to the second half of the 16th century especially in Keichou period (1595-1615) (Shinichiro 1999). This evidence showed that the maritime trade between Vietnam and Japan was flourishing. In details, the Vietnamese ceramics found in Japanese town were from Hoi An in Quang Nam province and possibly arrived to Japan before the reign of Tokugawa Shogun had applied the closed-door policy in 1639. The results of archaeological research in Hai 6 �Duong province showed that Vietnam had decreased ceramic productions in the beginning of the 16th century, and several types of 15th century trade ceramics were not produced anymore and this phase seems to be focused on the domestic market mainly (Bui Minh Tri 1995). In the 17th century, many evidences – especially historical record – clearly confirm that Vietnamese ceramics were exported to foreign markets. A possible reason for this is the international trade policy under the Trinh Lords and Nguyen Lords of the Dai Viet feudal state (Great Viet - Vietnam today). Another possible reason could be the establishment and development of international shipping companies in the early 17th century, especially the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, VOC). Merchant ships of this company were making long trips to the East to find the local markets, set up trading locations and expand their sales in other countries, especially in Asia (Bui Minh Tri, 2008). In that context, many trading ports with economic structure as the town were established along the coast of Vietnam during this period, specifically trading ports of Thanh Ha in Hue province, Hoi An in Quang Nam province, Nuoc Man in Binh Dinh province, Pho Hien in Hung Yen province, Kinh Ky-Ke Cho in Thang Long, Hanoi. These were the gateways for trading for the Dai Viet (Vietnam) with both Asia and Europe. At these trading ports, many kinds of goods were purchased and exchanged, including agricultural products, handicrafts and ceramics (Bui Minh Tri 1994, Do Bang 1996). In this period, the trades between Dai Viet and Japan were developing strongly especially in the first three decades of the 17th century or called Shuisen (the red seal ships) that Japanese historian called. The numbers of licensed Japanese ships traded in Dai Viet from 1604 to 1635 have 124 ships in total, including 37 boats in northern Vietnam and 87 ships in central Vietnam (Seiichi 1941). Generally, the Japanese shipped commodities, specifically silver, copper, and weapons, to Dai Viet and then they purchased mainly silk, spices, sugar and ceramics back to their country. Even after the Bakufu Shogun had issued the order of “Sakoku” to limit the foreign trades in 1636, 7 �Japan still continued to trade with Dai Viet merchant ships through China and the Netherlands (Bui Minh Tri and Pham Quoc Quan 1994: 34-51). It is worth mentioning that the Trinh Lords and Nguyen Lords did not allow Chinese and Japanese traders to reside in trading ports, but they allowed Western traders to open their trading stores. Particularly, Nguyen Lords allowed the Dutch to open their trading stores in Hoi An, Quang Namprovince in 1636. A year later, Trinh Lords also allowed the Dutch to open their trading store in Pho Hien, Hung Yen province and then open a second trading store in Thang Long (recently Hanoi) in 1645. Such events were good opportunities for trade in the developing regions. The VOC sponsored by the Dutch government had many priority rights including the exclusive trading right in the region East of Cape of Good Hope. For Dai Viet, after having set up trading stores in Pho Hien (Hung Yen) and Thang Long (Hanoi), the business of VOC had prospered because they enjoyed preferential treatment from the Trinh Lords. During this time, many kilns in northern Vietnam had competed to produce ceramics to export to foreign markets and also competed with Chinese and Japanese ceramics trade. The evidence of this can be seen through the abundant quantity of the 17th century Vietnamese ceramics found on many archaeological sites in Japan and insular Southeast Asia as well as the documentation of the VOC Company (Volker, T. 1971). In Southeast Asia, Vietnamese ceramics have been found in Pukissutosanion in Malaysia, and some in Indonesia, specifically Trowulan on East Java, Banten Girang and Banten Lama on West Java, Selayar on South Sulawesi, Warloka on Flores and Bengkulu on Sumatra (Naniek, H.W 1993). Very few of them have been found in Banten Girang and Banten Lama which were famous trading ports operated by Banten Sultan during the 16th to the 17th century. They material can be dated to the same dates as the Hizen ceramics from Japan dated in the late 17th century (Koji Ohashi and Takashi Sakai 1999). By comparative study, I assumed that the Vietnamese ceramics exported to foreign markets during this period were mainly made at the kilns in Hai Duong province on 8 �northern Vietnam. These ceramics were exported and transported by merchant ships of Chinese traders and VOC for consumption in Southeast Asia and Japan from 1625 to 1689 (Bui Minh Tri 2001). The findings of the Vietnamese ceramics in Japan, West Asia, mainland and insular Southeast Asia partly assisted us to deconstruct the historical contexts and analyze export flows of Vietnamese ceramics through international maritime trade routes. Noticeably, Vietnamese ceramics have often been found together with Chinese and Thai ceramics in many sites, which showed that they were shared and exported in the same trade flow. Conclusion Based on historical record and archaeological evidences of the trade ceramics, it appeared that the 14th century was the period for the penetration of Vietnamese ceramics into the Asian market. The 15th century was the flourishing period of Vietnamese export ceramics with the largest shipments and most complexity of export ceramics. The 16th century was marked by a pause in the export of Vietnamese ceramics. The 17th century was the development period of commodity and a prosperous period of trading ports in northern and central Vietnam. The international maritime trades by Vietnam had expanded around Asia with great opportunities to establish foreign relations with other countries in the region as well as Western countries that were based in the East. The impact of international trade had also expanded and developed on other ceramics production centers that were prospering proportionality to that of Vietnam and shared of the same Asian maritime trade routes. During the late 17th century to the early 18th century, the gradual decline of the Dai Viet’s economy associated with the decline of foreign trading stores in Thang Long in Hanoi, Pho Hien in Hung Yen province, affected the foreign economic system of the Dai Viet. The decline of Dai Viet’s trading port system originated from different causes but it was affected directly by the general downturn of Asia and the world trade system. It appears to indicate that the 17th century was experienced a return to prosperity and 9 �development on the international maritime trades, but afterward Vietnamese ceramics production stopped even to supply international maritime trade routes. th Fig. 1. Bottle, cobalt glazed ceramic, 15 ceramics, in Topkapi Saray Museum, Istanbul th Fig.3. Incense burner, blue and white ceramic, 15 century, from Treasures from the Hoi An Hoard (Cu Lao Cham shipwreck, Quang Nam, Vietnam) Fig.2. Status of an aristocratic lady, blue and white ceramic, th 15 century, from Treasures from the Hoi An Hoard (Cu Lao Cham shipwreck, Quang Nam, Vietnam) th Fig.4. Bowls with high feet, iron black ceramic, 15 century, at Puerto Galera (Philippines) 10 �th th Fig. 5. Jar, iron black ceramic, 16 -17 centuries, in the Kyushu Ceramics Museum (Japan) Fig.6. A covered jar with applied dragon embossment and painting in underglaze cobalt. In the possession of the Ozawa family, 17th century (Kyoto National Museum) Fig.7. A large dish painted with VOC trademark, Hizen th ware, 17 century. Found in Dejima port (Nagasaki, Japan) Fig.8. Types and designs of Vietnamese ceramics trade th ware to Japan in the 17 century 11 �References Aoyagi Yoji 1991. Vietnamese ceramics excavated on the islands of Southeast Asia. (In Vietnamese). Vietnam Archaeology. No 4: 78-82. Bui Minh Tri 1994. Thanh Ha commercial port. Hue, past and present (In Vietnamese). No số 4: 84-93. Bui Minh Tri 1995. Investigation Report of ceramics relics at the Cam Binh district, Hai Duong Province (In Vietnamese). Documentation of Vietnam Institute of Archaeology. Bui Minh Tri 2001. Hop Le ceramics in composition of Le Dynasty’s ceramics (In Vietnamese). Ph.D Dissertation. Documentation of Vietnam Institute of Archaeology. Bui Minh Tri 2002. Vietnamese ceramics: The date and origin (In Vietnamese). A century of Vietnam archaeology, Hanoi 2002. Bui Minh Tri 2008. Vietnamese ceramics in the Asia sea-route trade in the seventeenth century (In Vietnamese). Vietnam Archaeology. No 6: 67-82. Bui Minh Tri, Phạm Quốc Quân 1994. Hizen Ceramics (Japan) found at some Vietnam archaeological sites (In Vietnamese). Vietnam Archaeology. No 4: 34-51. Cheng Lammers and Abu Ridho 1974. Annamese Ceramics in the Museums Pusat Jakarta, Himpunan Keramik Indonesia, Jakarta. Dizon Eusebio Z., 1998. Underwater archaeology of Pandanan wreck: A mid- 15 century AD. Vessel, Southern Palawan, Philippines, International Conference in Berlin, from 31 Aug- 4 Sept. Do Bang 1996. The port city of Thuan Quang (In Vietnamese). Hue city 1996. Guy, J. 1984. Oriental Trade Ceramics in Southeast Asia: 9th to 16th Century. University of Melbourne Press: Melbourne. Iwao Seiichi 1941. Studies of the Japantowns of the South Seas. John Stevenson and John Guy 1997. Vietnamese Ceramics: A separate tradition. Art Media Resources, Chicago. Kin Seiki, 1999. Trade with Southeast Asia by the Kingdom of Ryukyu and Vietnamese Ceramics Discovered in Okinawa. (In Vietnamese) International conference on Vietnam-Japan relations: Hanoi 12 �Naniek, H.W., 1993. Vietnamese ceramics from archaeological site in Indonesia. The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies, No. 11. Ohashi Koji and Sakai Takashi 1999. Ceramics from the site of Banten in Indonesia. Bullentin of the National Museum of Japanese History. Vol. 82 Rosa Tenazas 1981. Status reports: Underwater Archaeological Investigation of the Rang Kwien Shipwreck, SPAPA Digest, Vol. II, No. 2: 31-33 Sten Sjostrand 2002. Turiang: a 14th century Chinese shipwreck, upsetting Southeast Asian ceramic history. Southeast Asia - China Interactions which was published by the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society in 2002. The Fine Arts Department of Thailand (FAD) 1990. Sumaphan Published Co., Ltd., Tsuzyki Shinichiro 1999. Vietnam ceramics excavated from Sakai site. The summary record of International Conference in Hanoi, December 1999. Volker, T., 1971. Porcelain and the Dutch East India Company. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 8: Ceramics from Shipwrecks, Harbours, Ports and Related Archaeological Sites Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 8 chair Atthasit Sukkham and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Trade ceramics have usually been found together with other evidence in many ancient shipwrecks, harbours, ports, trade centers, hinterlands and burials around the world which were linked to international maritime trade routes. These were specifically Chinese, Indian, Southeast Asian, Middle East and European trade routes over a long period of history. Trade ceramics are virtually indestructible. They are also one of the most important sources of information for maritime archaeological studies concerning the dating of ceramics and shipwrecks, origins of ceramics, points of departure and destinations of ships and shipments, for instance. This session aims to provide an opportunity for specialists to contribute their knowledge on trade ceramics in multi-disciplinary approaches and foster international collaboration for ceramic studies from the shipwrecks, harbours, ports and related archaeological sites in near future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atthasit Sukkham Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Vietnamese Ceramics in Asian Maritime Trade between 14th and 17th centuries Description An account of the resource Vietnam is one of many Asian countries that have a long-standing and famous tradition of pottery production. Vietnam is also one of three countries including China, Vietnam, and Japan which exported ceramics developed to other countries. The 14th century was marked by the initial penetration of Vietnamese ceramics for foreign markets. The 15th century was considered as a prosperous period for Vietnamese export ceramics with the largest export quantity and the most abundant types thereof. The 16th century marked as a pause in the export of Vietnamese ceramics. The 17th century was the development period of commodity economy and the renaissance period of ports located in the northern and central parts of Vietnam. The article reviewed the findings regarding Vietnamese ceramics in Japan, West Asia, mainland, and insular Southeast Asia in order to partially reconstruct the historical context and the flow of Vietnamese export ceramics for the international maritime trade routes in the Vietnamese history of international trades from 14th to 17th centuries. Given that, the author pointed out the origin, chronology of the Vietnamese ceramics discovered from the relics as well as market context thereof and the destinations of Vietnamese export ceramics. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ngo The Bach, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 8 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/608496afb48de4ebb85a75ab461d190f.mp4 a11545042455212c6d07d4862e081b4d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/12/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6f710367be2dd8879f532536b8b11c33.pdf 8b5454b707b65a9555e4cbfe91a12faf PDF Text Text Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia Ulung J. Wisha1,2, Wisnu A. Gemilang3, & Nia N. H. Ridwan3 1 Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara-Japan 2 Research Center for Oceanography, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jakarta-Indonesia 3 Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV), Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Padang-Indonesia ABSTRACT Despite the indirect impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological sites, identifying future conditions is imperative to support conservation planning to minimise the possible effects that may occur. This study aims to identify the sea level trends in several important archaeological sites in Indonesia and estimate the future change due to sea level rises. Altimetry satellite data were employed to determine the sea level anomaly (SLA) of three chosen sites: Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore, where significant historical objects were recently discovered. Hydrodynamic-based modelling was also used to estimate the water properties alteration in 2100 as predicted by IPCC AR6, with a projection of about 0.68-0.70 meters (m) sea level increase. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current magnitude will increase significantly by about 33-35per cent in 2100. It is followed by an increase in sediment transport of 18 – 37 per cent. As sedimentation is the primary issue in these three sites, sea level rises will induce sufficiently high sedimentation on archaeological remains, and artefact shifting position is also possible due to the more robust current regimes. Therefore, regular monitoring is an effort to protect the archaeological remains. If possible, excavations are also recommended to conserve the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Indonesia since it faces an upward sea level trend. Keywords: UCH, shipwreck, artefacts, sea level trends, sea level projections INTRODUCTION Sea level rise has become a growing concern in recent years as it threatens coastal areas and poses a significant threat to the preservation of underwater archaeological sites (Wetsley et al. 2023, 251-253). Indonesia with its vast coastline and rich cultural history is no exception to this issue. The rising sea level in Indonesia is gradually eroding coastal areas and threatening to submerge many ancient underwater archaeological sites, which are essential for scientific research but also for the cultural heritage of the country (Adhityatama and Yarista 2019, 55-56). Understanding the relationship between sea level rise and underwater archaeological sites in Indonesia is crucial for preserving the country's cultural heritage and preventing the loss of valuable historical information. Several shipwrecks and underwater archaeological sites in Indonesia are threatened by sea level rise, including those in the waters of Java and Sumatra. These sites would be a significant loss for scientific research and destroy Indonesia's cultural heritage. Therefore, preserving these sites and preventing them from being lost to the sea is essential. Historical shipwrecks are diving sites and the object of research in Indonesia (Dillenia et al. 2021, 2-3; Ridwan 2011, 5-6). To date, no studies assess the relationship of sea level trends with archaeological remains in the coastal and terrestrial zones. Some examples of well-known archaeological remains that may be threatened by sea level rise are: MV Boelongan Nederland, Gosong Nambi Shiwreck, and Ceramic findings in Sungai Nyalo, situated in the West Sumatra, USS Houston and HMAS Perth in 1 �Banten Bay, and Tonguwai and Soasio archaeological sites in Tidore Island, North Moluccas Province. This study will compare the status of sea level trends in these sites and their possible influence on the UCH. Estimating the future state concerning sea level projection established by The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) can be approached using hydrodynamic modelling and statistical-based analysis. Therefore, this study describes the possible impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological remains in Indonesia. This study is expected to become a basis for future decision-making regarding UCH preservation for local and central authorities. CASE STUDIES As mentioned earlier, this study will assess the possible impact of sea level rise on UCH in Indonesia. Therefore, in this section, we want to introduce several essential sites threatened by sea level rise. There are many significant archaeological sites in the West Sumatra Province. However, in this stage, we will introduce the latest identified sites surrounding Mandeh Bay, namely MV Boelongan Nederland and Gosong Nambi Shipwreck underwater sites and Sungai Nyalo terrestrial site. In 2017, RICRV discovered plenty of artefacts in the terrestrial area of Mandeh Bay called Sunyai Nyalo Village, close to the MV Boelongan Nederland shipwreck. Of 654 fragments were conserved, consisting of ceramic pieces, green-glass bottles, and earthenware bottles with European, East Asian, and Southeast Asian motifs (Figure 1a and b). This finding is an example of the incredible impact of sea level rise since the upward trend of sea level induces significant erosion in the coastal area. Therefore, these artefacts could be discovered at a one-meter depth. Thus, analysing sea level anomalies in the West Sumatra region, particularly in the surrounding Mandeh Bay, is significant in understanding its impact on shipwreck future conditions and the faith of undiscovered terrestrial remains that may still exist in the West Sumatra Province. Figure 1. The documentation of archaeological remains in the Indonesia waters; Sungai Nyalo artifact (a and b); Gosong Nambi wreck (c and d); MV Boelongan Nederland (e and f); HMAS Perth (g and h); USS Houston (i and j); Artefact findings in Tidore (k and l) A shipwreck discovered by local fishers in 2015 and initially established in 2020 is the Gosong Nambi wreck (Wisha et al. 2020, 63-65). Despite the lack of historical context for these remains, the shipwreck is the centre of biodiversity since it is trapped within an atoll formation (Figure 1c and d). Recently, locals reported that the position of this wreck is lowered due to the rubble avalanches induced by extreme weather and tides. Therefore, since the remains are vulnerable, the long-term sea 2 �level rise could cause a more lowering position of this wreck and even be buried by rubble and sediment. On the other hand, MV Boelongan Nederland was a cargo ship built in the 1920s by the Dutch shipping company Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij (KPM). The ship was used for transporting goods and passengers in and around Indonesia and Southeast Asia. During WWII, the ship was taken over by the Dutch and used to aid the war effort. However, in 1942, the Dutch scuttled the ship to prevent it from falling into the hands of the advancing Japanese forces (Ridwan et al. 2015, 84-87). The remains of MV Boelongan Nederland now lie in the waters off Mandeh Bay, West Sumatra, Indonesia, and have become a popular recreation dive site. The shipwreck is also of historical significance as it provides insights into the maritime history of Indonesia and the role played by shipping companies like KPM in the region. This site is threatened by massive sedimentation, which frequently hampers the diving activity due to the high sediment supply from the Mandeh Estuary right in front of the shipwreck position (Figures 1e and f). The shipwreck lies at a depth of about 20 m, and under the scenario of sea level rises, it is hypothesised that the sediment issue will get worse with increasing sea levels. The other case studies considered in this study are USS Houston and HMAS Perth shipwreck sites. The USS Houston and HMAS Perth were two naval warships that were heavily damaged during the battle and eventually sank during WWII in the Battle of Sunda Strait, which took place on 28 February 1942. Today, the USS Houston and HMAS Perth wrecks are popular dive sites in Indonesia and are located near the island of Java. The wrecks are historically and culturally significant and essential for scientific research and a reminder of the sacrifices made by those who fought in WWII. Efforts have been made to preserve and protect the wrecks, including establishing a protected zone around the sites and conducting ongoing monitoring and research to document changes in the condition of the wrecks over time (Figure 1g−j) (Shaw 2017, 2-7). Based on the recent documentation and field identification conducted by RICRV in 2018, HMAS Perth is positioned at 19-34 m depth, while the USS Houston is at a depth of 16-30 m, both located in the northern Panjang Island. The main problem in these sites is high sedimentation, with almost zero visibility (Ridwan 2019, 1626-1627). Moreover, the shipwrecks are surrounded by mining and industrial activities; they are located in the fishing zone; and are degraded by marine debris pollution (Wisha et al. 2022a, 106009). Therefore, the increase in sea level could worsen the shipwreck conditions in terms of greater sedimentation and degradation. In east Indonesia Tidore Island, was the location to witness the first circumnavigation of the Earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano. There are many remains on Tidore Island as evidence of Portuguese and Spanish colonialism over spice resources in this area. The most reachable sites are Tongwai and Soasio, where many artefact fragments, such as cannon, ceramics, earthenware, and metals, are scattered on the surrounding coral reef ecosystem, increasing the attractiveness of these sites to recreation (Figure 1k and l) (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 173-174). Since it is directly connected to the Pacific Ocean, the sea level rise may deteriorate the site conditions. RESOURCES To review the sea level trend in the study sites, we used the ~27-year sea level data (1992-2019) from altimetry satellites, The Sea Level Explorer established by the University of Colorado Boulder, the University of Hawaii Sea Level Center, and NASA Jet Propulsion Lab, (see https://ccar.colorado.edu/altimetry/ ). The altimetry data were sourced from the Propulsion Lab’s Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PODAAC). The sampled altimetry coordinates (Table 1) are in Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore Island. On the other hand, to estimate the possible future alteration due to sea level rises, we employed a sea level projection data provided by the NASA Sea Level Projection Tool allowing users to visualize and 3 �download the sea level projection data from the IPCC 6th Assessment Report (AR6) (see https://sealevel.nasa.gov/ipcc-ar6-sea-level-projection-tool). It is estimated that in 2100 CE the sea level will increase by 0.68 m for Mandeh and Banten Bay and 0.70 m for Tidore Island. The archaeological and environmental data were obtained from RICRV reports of field surveys in Mandeh and Banten Bay in 2018 and in Tidore in 2019. The field survey consisted of diving activity to the shipwreck sites, mini excavation, oceanographic parameters measurements, sediment sampling, local social-economy, interviews, acoustic-based measurements, and many others. Table 1. Coordinates of the sampled sea level data Location Mandeh Bay Banten Bay Southern Tidore Island Longitude 100.2500oE 106.0833oE 127.4167oE Latitude 1.2500oS 5.9167oS 0.5833oN FRAMEWORK The sea level anomaly (SLA) data was gained from yielded deviation between sea level at a specific time and the mean sea level. Then, a future linear trend was used to calculate the sea level trend, the annual amplitude, and the semi-annual amplitudes of each archaeological site. As for estimating the future changes based on sea level projection, we employed a coupled model of MIKE21 with flexible mesh to simulate the mutual interaction between waves and currents using a dynamic coupling between the hydrodynamic and spectral wave models (Wisha et al. 2022b, 78). We sampled the result from the coupled model developed according to site locations. The sediment transport model is based on the hydrodynamic models previously simulated (Wisha et al. 2022b, 78). The following equation defines the correlation between the wave energy flux component and the sediment transport: 𝑊𝑒𝑓 = 𝜌𝑔 8 𝐻𝑏2 𝐶𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑏 (1) Where: 𝑊𝑒𝑓 = Wave energy flux component along the coast at the time of wave breaking kilogram-meter per second (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 ) 𝜌 = Specific gravity (seawater) kilogram per cubic meter (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 ) 𝑔 = Gravity acceleration (9.81 meter per second squared(𝑚. 𝑠 −2 ) 𝐻𝑏 = Wave Height at the time of breaking (𝑚) 𝐶𝑏 = Breaking wave celerity meters per second (𝑚. 𝑠 −1 ) 𝛼𝑏 = Breaking wave angle A formula established by Triatmodjo (2012) was used to estimate the annum sediment transport. The formula is defined as follows: 𝑄𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑊 (𝜌𝑠 −𝜌)𝑔(1−𝑛) 𝑒𝑓 (2) Where: 𝑄𝑠 = Sediment transport along the coast cubic meter per second (𝑚3 . 𝑠 −1 ) 𝐾 = 0.39 𝜌𝑠 = Specific gravity (sand) (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 ) 𝑛 = Porosity (𝑛 ≈ 0.4) 4 �RESULT Sea Level Trend Over the Archaeological Sites in Indonesia The altimetry data show upward trends of sea level over the sampled sites, at 0.39 centimetres per year (cm/year), 0.40 cm/year, and 0.52 cm/year for Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore (Figure 2 and Table 2). Over 27 years of observed data (1992-2019), different patterns were observed in the three parts of the Indonesian region. In Mandeh Bay, the sea level has increased since 2004 and peaked in 2017 with an SLA magnitude of about 38 cm. Similar to Mandeh Bay, the SLA in Banten Bay rose significantly in 2007, where the lowest sea level was observed in the next year, reaching -30 cm. The maximum sea level over 27 years was identified in 2018, reaching 26 cm. Figure 2. Sea level trend over Indonesia region (a) derived from Altimetry data; (b) SLA in southern Tidore island; (c) SLA in Mandeh Bay; (d) SLA in Banten Bay In Tidore Island, the recorded sea level is arbitrarily erratic (Figure 2b). The sufficiently high sea level trend in this area is due to the influence and circulation of the Pacific Ocean, where El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) plays a significant role in shaping sea level (Moon et al. 2015, 8229). The lowest sea level ever recorded was observed in 1998, reaching -28 cm, while the peak levels were observed several times, such as in 2012 and 2018, reaching 25 cm. Overall, all those sampled archaeological sites face an upward trend in sea level (Table 2), so future estimation of coastal dynamics due to sea level rises is imperative. Table 2. Sea level trend over 27 years of observation Parameter Mandeh Bay Banten Bay Southern Tidore Island Trend (cm/year) Annual Amplitude (cm) Semi-Annual Amplitude (cm) 0.39 1.66 4.56 0.40 3.03 3.21 0.52 3.63 0.53 5 �The Possible Impact of Sea-Level Rises on Archaeological Remains Sea level rises significantly impact shipwreck sites, particularly those located in coastal regions or underwater. As sea levels rise it can lead to increased erosion, flooding, and sedimentation causing damage to shipwrecks and their associated artefacts. Additionally, changes in ocean currents and weather patterns can contribute to shipwreck deterioration. One of the primary concerns with rising sea levels is the potential for loss of archaeological information. As shipwrecks are exposed to increased water pressure and changing environmental conditions, they can be subject to accelerated decay and destruction. This can result in losing valuable historical and cultural information these sites contain. Moreover, sea level rise can make it difficult for archaeologists and researchers to access shipwreck sites. As water levels increase, locating and exploring these sites, particularly submerged ones, can become more challenging. This can limit the ability of researchers to conduct surveys and excavations and potentially delay or prevent the recovery of artefacts and other historical evidence. Overall, sea level rise significantly threatens shipwrecks and their associated cultural heritage. Archaeologists and policymakers must work together to mitigate the impact of rising sea levels and ensure the preservation of these valuable historical resources for future generations. Future Projection of SLR and its Influence on Coastal and Underwater Cultural Heritages In 2100 CE the IPCC sea level projection, with a scenario of high gas emission (SSP3-7.0) is that it will increase by ~0.68 m for Mandeh and Baten Bay, while in Tidore, the sea level is projected to increase by ~0.70 m (Figure 3). From these values, we simulated a model predicting the changes in water properties in the three sampled archaeological sites that have been validated using fieldmeasured data provided by RICRV. Overall, the increase in sea level contributes to higher sedimentation (Figure 4). Figure 3. Sea level projection estimated by IPCC AR6 in 2100 CE in Indonesia: Mandeh Bay (a); Banten Bay (b); and Tidore Island (c) In Banten Bay, the strongest current magnitude was approximately 0.66 m/s observed in August, and the lowest was in April with a magnitude of 0.54 m/s. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current 6 �magnitude will increase by about 33.52 per cent ranging from 0.08 to 0.096 m/s (Figure 4a). A weaker current profile was identified in Mandeh Bay, ranging from 0.042 to 0.059 m/s. With the estimated sea level rise of 0.68 m in 2100, the current magnitude will increase by approximately 34.78 per cent, reaching 0.079 m/s (Figure 4b). In Tidore, the current profile ranged from 0.047 to 0.062 m/s, and the value will increase by about 35.73per cent in 2100 CE, ranging from 0.079 to 0.09 m/s (Figure 4c). Similar to the current features, sediment transport will also increase under sea level rise. Percentagewise, the increase in sediment transport in Banten Bay, Mandeh Bay and Tidore was approximately 34.86, 18.54, and 37.07 per cent, respectively. Generally, the highest sediment transport was observed during the southwest monsoon and vice versa for the northeast monsoon (Figure 4d-f). Figure 4. Monthly average of current magnitude in the surrounding site; Banten Bay (a); Mandeh Bay (b); Tidore Island (c); and the estimated sediment transport sediment in the Banten Bay (d); Mandeh Bay (e); and Tidore Island (f). The negative values denote the left-ward transport, and the positive values denote the right-ward transport. Overall, the sea level rise potentially changes the water properties of the three sampled archaeological sites. The increase in current velocity relates to the potency of coastal erosion and sedimentation. Since sedimentation is the most crucial issue in these sites, the sea level rise will significantly impact the archaeological remains by inducing higher suspended sediment and sedimentation. In some cases, aside from making the remains more submerged, the shifting in the position of the shipwreck and artefacts due to the robust current profile is possible. Therefore, regular monitoring is required to protect the remains from the impact of sea level rise. However, archaeological excavation is also recommended if possible. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) for the basis data provided. Gratitude is also given to University Colorado Boulder for providing the sea level data and to those who have helped in the completion of this study. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Westley, K., Andreou, G., El Safadi, C., Huigens, H. O., Nikolaus, J., Ortiz-Vazquez, R., Ray, N., Smith, A., Tews, S., Blue, L., Breen, C. “Climate change and coastal archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa: assessing past impacts and future threats”. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 18, no. 2 (2023): 251-283. Adhityatama, S., & Yarista, A. S. “Potential of submerged landscape archaeology in Indonesia.” KALPATARU 28, no.1 (2019): 55–71. Dillenia, I., Troa, R. A., Triarso, E., Johan, O., Widati, N. A. R. S., Kusuma, L. P. A. S. C. H., Rustam, A., Pranowo, W. S., Heriati, A. & Adhityatama, S. “Study of the Historic Shipwreck Sites Area Development for Marine Ecotourism in Thousand Islands.” In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 925, No. 1, p. 012028). IOP Publishing, 2021. Moon, J. H., Song, Y. T., & Lee, H. “PDO and ENSO modulations intensified decadal sea level variability in the tropical Pacific.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 120, no.12(2015): 8229-8237. Rahmawan, G. A., Ridwan, N. N. H., Wisha, U. J., Ilham, I., Gemilang, W. A., Andriani, F. W., Sudaryadi, A. & Irwansyah, I. “Ekowisata Terintegrasi Situs Kapal Tenggelam di Tidore Kepulauan, Maluku Utara.” Jurnal Kelautan Nasional 16, no.3 (2021): 169-184. (In Indonesian). Ridwan, N. N. H. “The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi.” In Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila, The Philippines, 2011. Ridwan, N. N. H., Kusumah, G., Husrin, S., & Kepel, T. L. “Kapal Karam MV. Boelongan di Kawasan Mandeh, Lingkungan Laut Sekitarnya, dan Kemungkinan Pengembangannya.” Karakteristik Sumber daya Laut dan Pesisir (2015): 84-133. (In Indoensian). Ridwan, N. N. H. “Vulnerability of shipwreck sites in Indonesian waters.” Current Science 117, no.10 (2019): 1623-1628. Shaw, L. “Guardians of Sunda Strait: remembering HMAS Perth and USS Houston.” Signals, no.119(2017): 2-7. Wisha, U. J., Ridwan, N. N. H., Dhiauddin, R., Rahmawan, G. A., & Kusumah, G. “Upaya Konservasi Kapal Karam Gosong Nambi Sebagai Bukti Adanya Jalur Perdangan Maritim Masa Lalu Di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan, Sumatra Barat.” AMERTA 38, no.1 (2020): 63-76. (In Indonesian). Wisha, U. J., Gemilang, W. A., Wijaya, Y. J., & Purwanto, A. D. “Model-based estimation of plastic debris accumulation in Banten Bay, Indonesia, using particle tracking-Flow model hydrodynamics approach.” Ocean & Coastal Management, 217 (2022a): 106009. Wisha, U. J., Dhiauddin, R., Ondara, K., Gemilang, W. A., & Rahmawan, G. A. “Assessing Urban Development Impacts in the Padang Coastline City, West Sumatra Indonesia; Coastline Changes and Coastal Vulnerability.” Geoplanning: Journal of Geomatics and Planning 9, no.2 (2022b): 73-88. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia Description An account of the resource Despite the indirect impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological sites, identifying future conditions is imperative to support conservation planning to minimise the possible effects that may occur. This study aims to identify the sea level trends in several important archaeological sites in Indonesia and estimate the future change due to sea level rises. Altimetry satellite data were employed to determine the sea level anomaly (SLA) of three chosen sites: Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore, where significant historical objects were recently discovered. Hydrodynamic-based modelling was also used to estimate the water properties alteration in 2100 as predicted by IPCC AR6, with a projection of about 0.68-0.70 meters (m) sea level increase. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current magnitude will increase significantly by about 33-35per cent in 2100. It is followed by an increase in sediment transport of 18 – 37 per cent. As sedimentation is the primary issue in these three sites, sea level rises will induce sufficiently high sedimentation on archaeological remains, and artefact shifting position is also possible due to the more robust current regimes. Therefore, regular monitoring is an effort to protect the archaeological remains. If possible, excavations are also recommended to conserve the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Indonesia since it faces an upward sea level trend. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ulung J. Wisha Wisnu A. Gemilang Nia N. H. Ridwan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wisha, Ulung J., Wisnu A. Gemilang, and Nia N. H. Ridwan. 2023. “Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Perez-Alvaro. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1907 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2110a46884a982a70df582926237b63b.pdf 258ca1b5c9b77e00b0c6897d215bf590 PDF Text Text The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, SelayarSouth Sulawesi1 Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan2 ABSTRACT Indonesia has a great potential for underwater cultural heritage (UCH) but the challenge to its preservation management is also very high. Coordination among stakeholders is very important. The effort to use UCH must be aligned with the effort to preserve so that it can be sustainable for the next generations. Some problems that we are facing, namely: no optimal management; lack of awareness of people; lack of science and technology application; and no proper law enforcement. With the rapid advancement of marine technology, UCH has become increasingly easy to reach by treasures hunters such as salvage companies and local community. Many UCH in Indonesia became the victim of massive looting such as that undertaken by the local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Regency South Sulawesi Province. Marine archaeological researches in 2008 and 2009 showed the shipwreck was in a badly damaged condition due to the looting activity that has lasted almost two years. The people did not realize that the use of UCH if well-managed will improve living standards for people in the vicinity of the site. Unlike theft cases in Selayar, in Bali the local community gives high appreciation to the existence of a shipwreck site in their area. They realized that shipwrecks are one of the potential marine resources which can be exploited for marine tourism. Liberty wreck in Tulamben, Bali has become a world-class tourist destination for divers. The local people have been protecting it with the customary law they made and obeyed, i.e. with a restriction on fishing activity around the shipwreck site. So then this site is very well maintained and became a central area for growth of marine life. Liberty wreck location is an example of a very beautiful blend and harmony among the remains of ancient human objects, very rich marine life, and a very high local community appreciation. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Preservation Management, Looting Activity, Local Community, Awareness, Marine Archaeological Research INTRODUCTION Geographically Indonesia is a maritime country which two-thirds of its territory is sea areas. Indonesian archipelagic water width is 2.3 million square kilometers (km2), the territorial sea is 0.8 million km2 and the Exclusive Economic Zone is 2.7 million km2. Indonesia has 17,480 islands which stretch across 5,100 km along the equator between Pacific and Indian Ocean with 95,181 km coastline. In addition, 60% of Indonesian people live in the coastal areas (Nontji 2002; Soesilo 2006:1-2). The Indonesian archipelago has a strategic position as a very busy shipping and international sea trading line between the West and East since ancient times because it is located in “The 1 Paper presented in Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 November 2011, Manila, The Philippines. 2 Maritime Archaeologist in Research Institute of Marine and Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia, Jl. Padang – Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245, Telp/Fax. +62-751751458, e-mail: nia_arkeo@kkp.go.id, nia_hasanah@yahoo.com 1 �Silk and Spices Routes” (Reid 1993; Ricklefs 1999). Indonesia was a major producer of trading commodities in the past such as pepper, nutmeg, cloves, sandalwood, incense, and so on, and since long ago, there were many important ports such as Aceh, Palembang, Sunda Kelapa (Batavia), Banten, Cirebon, Makassar, Ternate, Tidore, which later became the great maritime empires. Besides the trade conducted by the Chinese, Indians, Persians, many foreigners came to Indonesia for the purpose of colonization, such as Portuguese, Spanish, English, Dutch, and Japanese (Poesponegoro and Notosusanto 1984). Wide waters, a busy maritime activity, sea conditions, weather conditions, war, and piracy caused the territorial waters of Indonesia to be its current rich deposition in UCH. The number of UCH in Indonesian waters until World War II is expected to reach thousands3. Those known are based on historical sources, i.e. Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) Shipwrecks List (Dutch VOC Shipwreck n.d.) English East India Company (EIC) data (East India Company Ship 1999), Chinese sources, the literature about the Pacific War, the research results of some agencies such as Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries and Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and also based on data from the National Committee for Salvage and Utilization of the Valuable Object of the Sunken Ship4. Many shipwrecks contain valuable cargo so they are targeted by treasure hunters. UCH vandalism and looting cases by individuals or companies, local and foreign have been rife in Indonesia since the 1980's until today, for example, undertaken by local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Islands Regency South Sulawesi Province.5 The lack awareness of the people about the importance and strategic value of UCH for national identity and national economic development is a big problem in Indonesia. However in Tulamben Bali, there is a local community who are aware of the presence of UCH. For that reason, there should be an effort to reduce UCH vandalism and looting cases and also to expand on the interests of the preservation and management of UCH sites. They are an opportunity and a potential new alternative to support Indonesian national development. Draft of Indonesian Ocean Policy states that management of marine resources including UCH in a sustainable manner based on Agenda 21 of the United Nations must be carried out by considering the ecological aspects, economic aspects, and public welfare/prosperity aspects. Some basic principles in the 3 One of the books that discussed about the presence of many shipwrecks in Indonesian waters is the writings of Tony Wells. See Tony Wells, Shipwrecks & Sunken Treasure in Southeast Asia, (Singapore: Time Publisher, 1995). 4 Since the number of UCH theft cases, the government established National Committee for Salvage and Utilization of the Valuable Object of the Sunken Ship, or popularly known as PANNAS BMKT in 1989. This committee consists of a number of ministries in Indonesia based on Presidential Decree year 1989 regarding PANNAS BMKT. This regulation allows private companies to conduct survey, exploration, and artifacts removal from shipwrecks. It is a likely target by non-supporters because at the time it was put in place the government was unable to handle and manage the UCH 5 See details in Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, (Jakarta: Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2008); Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, (Jakarta: Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2009); Executive Summary of Inventory and Identification the Potency of Shipwrecks for Supporting Marine Tourism Development, (Jakarta: Directorate General of Marine, Coastal, and Small Islands, 2008). 2 �management of the Indonesian sea are the principle of Integrated Management, Scientific Principles, Principles of Local Responsibility, Principles of Sustainable Development, and Principles of Community Based Development (Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources 2006; Wirasantosa, et al. 2006). SELAYAR ISLANDS REGENCY A. Location Selayar Islands Regency is part of South Sulawesi Province that consists of 123 islands, which stretches from north to south. 94.68% area of this regency is ocean. It is located at coordinates 5º42'-7º35' S and 120º15'-122º30' E bordering Bulukumba and Bone Bay on the north, Flores Sea on the east and south, and Flores Sea and Makassar Strait on the west (Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar n.d.). For some time now Selayar Islands have become an important area in national and international trading and shipping routes (Said, et al. 2007; Heersink 1999). It is predicted that there are many shipwrecks in Selayar waters. Figure 1. Map of Selayar Island Regency and “Taka Kappala” Wreck Location (Modified from many sources) 3 �B. ‘Taka Kappala’ Wreck Marine Archaeological Survey conducted in west Selayar waters in 2008 and 2009 found the UCH site located at Taka Kappala, Flores Sea at coordinates 6º39'27,7" S and 120º21'16,9" E. Administratively it is located in Tambolongan- Appatanah Village, ± 2 miles from Pulassi Island, ± 2 miles from Nambolaki Island, and ± 5 miles from Bahuluang Island. The team obtained information about this spot from the local people and then followed up with two diving activities. A shipwreck was located at 8-12 m depth. Condition of the shipwreck is that it has been severely damaged and is difficult to identify due to illegal activity that has lasted for ± 2 years by local people. It is made of iron and wood. Based on local fishermen information, they found fragments of metal from the hull section that reads "London Srinity” (or “London Trinity"?). Artifacts found in this site are namely, ceramic fragments (white, blue, red and white), bottle glass fragments, irons, coal, and wooden parts of the ship. When the survey team came to the site looters were active in four other unknown ships.6 Figure 2. Site Condition of „Taka Kappala‟ Wreck, Showing Severe Damage due to Massive Looting by Local Community (Photographed in June 2008, courtesy Ministry of Marine Affairs) 6 Some of the looters are the local people who live in the nearest island. Recorded images of that looting activity have been delivered in the local government and the police made efforts to investigate and arrest the looters. 4 �TULAMBEN BALI A. USAT Liberty Wreck USAT Liberty wreck is located in Pekraman Village, Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali. It was a United States (US) Army transport ship launched in June 1918. In November 1940 it was one of ten ships taken up by the US Army for defense service. In December 1941, it was in the Pacific and in January 1942, it was in route from Australia to the Philippines with railway parts and rubber cargo. Liberty was torpedoed by Japanese submarine I-166 on January 1942 about 10 nautical miles (NM) (~19 km) southwest of the Lombok Strait, near position 08°54′S 115°28′E / 8.9°S 115.467°E. US destroyer Paul Jones and Dutch destroyer Van Ghent took the damaged ship in tow in an attempt to reach Singaraja, the Dutch port and administrative centre for the Lesser Sunda Islands on the north coast of Bali. However it took on too much water and so was beached on the eastern shore of Bali at Tulamben so that the cargo and fittings could be salvaged. In 1963, the tremors associated with the eruption of Mount Agung caused the ship to slip off the beach, and it now lies about 200 m from shoreline at coordinates position 8°17′3″ S, 115°5′21″ E. Liberty lies on a sandy slope in 30 to 100 feet (9.1 to 30 m) of water and providing one of the most popular dive locations in Bali (Wikipedia n.d). Liberty wreck site also contains educational aspects for visitors and has always been a training ground for underwater archaeologists. Figure 3. Liberty Wreck, Marine Life, and the Diver in Tulamben Site (Photographed in 2008 by Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan) 5 �B. Tulamben Community Involvement in Preserving UCH Site The sinking of the USAT Liberty has provided enormous benefits to Tulamben community. Since the late 1980s, underwater tourism in Bali developed. Liberty wreck has become the main diving object in East Bali and the principal livelihood for the local community. The community could provide lodging services, dive resorts, restaurants, parking, dive guide, souvenir shops, dive shops, car rental, grocery store, helper and porter services, and others. Thus it can also reduce the rate of unemployment in the village. The local community is fully aware that it can generate foreign exchange and be favorable for economic development in that region. The Tulamben community therefore felt the need to help preserve this area. With the awareness of the UCH, the people themselves feel a positive impact in the fields of social, economic, and cultural. They realized that special interest tourism, in particularly wreck diving, increased rapidly in Indonesia. The number of divers on the Liberty wreck is an average of 100–200 people per day and there are about 25 dive resorts and 8 dive shops in Tulamben (AS, Jimbaran). It is estimated that the potential and economic value of marine tourism in Tulamben is about US $3,265,777 per year (Kamaluddin 2002: 146-147). The participation of local community in protecting and preserving the UCH in Tulamben is enormous. One of the ways to preserve Liberty wreck and the surrounding water areas by local community is to make regulations or customary laws called Awigawig which is fully obeyed by villagers. Awig-awig is a set of rules that manages its citizens in the customary village. It is a part of local wisdom to conserve resources in their territory (Kusumajaya 2005; Supriyatun 2007). Awig-awig contains prohibitions evident of UCH public awareness. I Nyoman Karyasa7 said that having an awig-awig in order to live peacefully is compulsory for the Tulamben society. They consider it as a rule in human interaction. In Tulamben, moral sanctions carry greater weight than physical punishments (INK, Tulamben). The rules in Awig-awig in Tulamben are: 1. No fishing allowed within 100 meters of the shipwreck (nowadays it is 1 km) 2. Not allowed taking the remains of the shipwreck 3. Not allowed damaging the coral reefs attached to the shipwreck 4. Not allowed taking the stones around the shipwreck 5. Not allowed cutting plants around the beach 6. People in violation of the above prohibitions will receive moral sanction, be ostracized from society and not allowed to follow religious rituals. In Bali it is still relevant, especially associated with the realization of the Law No. 22/1999 regarding Regional Autonomy. One of the essences of this law is to empower the regional potential, which has existed for hundreds of years in Bali. For Bali society, Awig-awig is more revered and feared than the official Indonesian law, since it has a strong root in tradition. Each village in Bali has its own awig-awig and can be totally different from the neighboring villlages‟. This customary law manifests the uniqueness of each village and serves as a village identity. Violation of the awig-awig can be punished dependent on the degree of violation. Punishments for major offences range from the dreaded boycott from all village activity to permanent exile, total banishment. A man 7 I Nyoman Karyasa is a Kelian Adat (community leader) in Pekraman Village Tulamben, he is 52 years old. 6 �expelled from his village cannot be admitted in another community, so he becomes a total out-caste, a punishment greater than physical death (Akhmad 2002; Wirawan 2002). Raising Awareness Effort for Empowering Local Community As a huge archipelago, Indonesia does have great and invaluable potential of UCH. The challenge to management it is also very high. In Indonesia, knowledge and public awareness about UCH is still very limited. Growing public awareness efforts are needed to change people's behavior that previously tended to destroy and steal UCH towards a society that cares and commits to the preservation of UCH. In this connection, coordination and support cross-sector stakeholders are very important. UCH can only be beneficial if we can develop its potential as an asset that provides enhanced community awareness and knowledge of the history, technology, social and cultural rights through approaches such as education, tourism and preservation; provide economic impact; and can improve the welfare of the community. Preservation efforts are very important to save UCH and it can be developed and utilized for sustainable development that takes into account alignments in the community. Publication and socialization on the importance of UCH and its value for local community as a part of preservation efforts must be done to raise awareness of our national cultural heritage, to give more understanding of our national history, and to create the motherland integrity that can be passed to the next generations. We should look for alternatives to the use of UCH in accordance with conservation principles and based on scientific research results, and not only based on economic interests. The examples of alternative use are for enjoyment: i.e., marine tourism (wreck diving) and pilgrimage tours. It can also be used as a center of education i.e. underwater museum and as objects of research to explore the knowledge contained therein. These options are closely associated with the development of regional character and in strengthening national identity. Development of marine tourism will become an important part of Indonesia in the future. Immediately we need to increase human resources; improve legislation, commitment and cooperation of stakeholders; and raise public awareness. UCH is expected to improve and provide positive impacts for local people and positive effects will encourage public awareness of the importance of UCH so that people will maintain the existing infrastructure and even support efforts of protection and utilization with their own capabilities (Ardiwidjaja 2007; Green 2004). We need to involve local community in the planning and carrying out of activities that are directly of interest to them. Approaches to community archaeology including community interpretation, long term commitment, participatory action research, and identify the stakeholder who shares these concerns and interests can lead to an integrated preservation (Kettle and Saul 2006:126; Yvonne 2002). The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (the Ministry) has been carrying out awareness-raising programs and capacity-building programs such as workshops; focus group discussion (FGD); training programs in wreck diving, underwater photography, handling and managing underwater artifacts, and marine tourism for local community, government and agencies related to the protection and management of UCH (i.e. Navy, Police 7 �Waters, Ministry of Transportation, Office of Tourism Arts and Culture, Office of Maritime and Fisheries, and office of Preservation of Cultural Heritage). The Ministry has also held exhibitions relating to the protection and management of UCH and has made relevant regulations regarding the establishment of maritime conservation area8. Our institutions carry out socialization activities towards local communities when we go to the field to conduct research and survey activities in hopes that these efforts create public awareness towards the importance of culture and nature preservation. One example we carried out is an FGD in Selayar in June 2008. We provided the local people (local government, representative of local community, Non Governmental Organization, and youth) with knowledge and principles to support government of Indonesia in preserving and managing UCH in their area. We also raised understanding that the presence of sustainable UCH can increase local society welfare. The FGD purpose is to investigate the public problems/issues, causes, effects, and possible solution. We gathered the feedback of the Selayar community concerning the importance of safeguarding the natural and cultural resources. We also joined forces with the local government to support the mechanism to manage local resources and involved the community in our project, with the objective that these projects will encourage them to participate in research and preservation. Public interest in UCH is vitally important. Through a public appreciation of maritime archaeology and an understanding of its potential, the perceived value and importance of the resources will grow. This will have a positive long-term impact on the discipline of archaeology, promoting respect for the finite and non renewable resource and ensuring its inclusion in future policy and planning frameworks. Public interest in UCH should therefore be positively encouraged. The awareness of the importance of preservation and coordination between inter-institution or stakeholder and the community is the key to success for implementation of the development program which can accomodate any interest without conflict. The community needs to feel part of the UCH site, so that they have a stake in the well-being of the UCH site and the government must be firm to uphold the regulation in prohibiting redundant resources exploration and illegal activities by looters. The government has to develop and utilize UCH for community interest purposes and protect it from damage, lost, and extinction (Kettle and Saul 2006; Bowen 2009; Sedyawati 2006; Helmi 2008). 8 Law No. 27/2007 regarding Coastal Zone and Small Island Management; Regulation of the Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia No. 17/2008 regarding Conservation Areas in Coastal and Small Islands. 8 �Figure 4. FGD on UCH and the Development of Marine Tourism in Selayar Regency (Photographed in June 2008 by Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan). CONCLUSION UCH is important to preserve and manage for various purposes. Efforts can include the utilization of UCH as a research object and for tourism. The implication is for the development of sustainable tourism that gives opportunities and management of sustainable prosperity for society. It is time for the Government of Indonesia to pay more attention and integrate efforts in empowering people and institutions that have authority in dealing with UCH. This will no doubt lower UCH vandalism and theft. In addition the government should continue its efforts to raise public awareness programs and improve the quality of human resources through education, training, and dissemination. The government also needs to devise a joint program and integrated management of UCH which includes: the provision of infrastructure and facilities, provision of the budget, the implementation of surveys, research, develop an institutional/committee management team of UCH, prepare a variety of laws and regulations, guidelines, and implementation guidelines of UCH management, and coordinate with various agencies. There should be a well-designed human resources development plan to deal with UCH and to solve the problems in a proper and responsible way. Raising awareness efforts to local community could assist the efforts of government in preserving and managing UCH wisely and sustainably. The goal being 9 �to achieve sustainable national development programs in the marine affairs sector and the field of culture and tourism. UCH management should be able to improve people's lives and prosperity by engaging them in activities towards the protection, conservation, and utilization of UCH; and wherever possible to minimize negative impacts. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks to Dr. Sugiarta Wirasantosa (The Former Head of Research Center for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources), Drs. Andi Muhammad Said, M. Hum (Head of Office for Preservation of Archaeological Heritage of Makassar), Drs. Gatot Ghautama, MA (The Former Head of Exploration Division Directorate of Underwater Heritage), and Drs. Robby Ardiwidjaya, M.BIT (Senior Researcher in Tourism Research and Development Center) as the expert resource persons. Thanks are also conveyed to Research Center for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources and Directorate of Coastal and Marine Affairs, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries which have funded the field survey activities; Directorate of Underwater Heritage and Tourism Research and Development Center, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, The Office for Tourism, Arts, and Cultural, and The Office for Fisheries and Marine Affairs of Selayar Regency. Oral Sources I Nyoman Karyasa, Pekraman Village, Tulamben, Karang Asem Bali, 15 August 2011, cited as INK, Tulamben. Abilawa Setyadi, Jimbaran, Bali, 26 July 2011, cited as AS, Jimbaran. BIBLIOGRAPHY Analisis Awig-awig dalam Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Perikanan di Kecamatan Gangga, Kabupaten Lombok Barat, Nusa Tenggara Barat. viewed August 2011, <http://repository.ipb.ac.id> “Pemanfaatan Benda Arkeologi Bawah Air (Shipwreck): Satu Ardiwidjaja, R., 2007 Peluang Peningkatan Daya Tarik Wisata Selam”. Dipresentasikan dalam Forum Diskusi Sumberdaya Arkeologi Laut, Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan, Jakarta. Underwater Archaeology: The NAS Guide to Principles and Bowen, A., (ed.), Practise, Second Edition, The Nautical Archaeology Society, 2009 Fort Cumberland. Directorate General of Executive Summary of Inventory and Identification the Marine, Coastal, and Potency of Shipwrecks for Supporting Marine Tourism Development, Jakarta. Small Islands, 2008 VOC Shipwreck, viewed 12 July 2010, Dutch VOC Shipwreck, Dutch n.d. <http://www.vocshipwrecks.com/>. East India Company Ship, Voyage, viewed 08 Agustus 2008, East East India Company Akhmad, S., 2002 10 �Ship, 1999, 1999 Green, J., 2004 Heersink, C., 1999 <http://www.eicships.info/voyages/lost-t.htm/>. Maritime Archaeology: A Technical Handbook, Second Edition, Elsevier Academy Press, London. Dependence on Green Gold: a Socio-Economic History of the Indonesian Coconut Island Selayar, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-, en Volkenkunde, Leiden. Helmi, S., “Kebijakan Pengelolaan Peninggalan Bawah Air di Indonesia”, Seminar Arkeologi Maritim, Universitas 2008 Indonesia, Jakarta,1-9. IPTEK: Menguak Laut Indonesia, Sarana Komunikasi Utama, Indroyono Soesilo, 2006 Bogor. Kamaluddin, L. M., “Pariwisata Bahari dan Konservasi”, dalam Pembangunan Ekonomi Maritim di Indonesia, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2002 Jakarta. Kettle, K. C., and Saul, 2nd Edition Guidelines for Managing the Integration of Culture into Development Programmes, SEAMEO-SPAFA, Bangkok. L., 2006 Konsep Pelestarian dan Pemanfaatan Peninggalan Bawah Kusumajaya, I Made, Air oleh Masyarakat Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem, 2005 Propinsi Bali, Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Propinsi Bali-NTB-NTT, Denpasar. Law No. 22/1999 regarding Regional Autonomy Marshal, Y., 2002 Nontji, A., 2002 Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar, n.d. Poesponegoro, M.D., and Notosusanto, N., (ed.), 1984 Reid, S., 1993 Research Centre for Maritime Territories Law No. 27/2007 regarding Coastal Zone and Small Island Management. “What is Community Archaeology”, World Archaeology Journal Vol. 34 (2), Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISSN 0043-8243, 211-219. Laut Nusantara, Penerbit Djambatan, Jakarta. Pemerintah Kabupaten Selayar, viewed 27 June <http://www.selayar.go.id/>. 2011, Sejarah Nasional Indonesia II, Balai Pustaka, Jakarta. The Silk and Spice Routes Exploration by Sea, UNESCO, London. Regulation of the Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia No. 17/2008 regarding Conservation Areas in Coastal and Small Islands. Draft of Indonesian Ocean Policy, Jakarta. 11 �and Non Living Resources, 2006 Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2008 Research Centre for Maritime Territories and Non Living Resources, 2009 Ricklefs, M.C., 1999 Said, A. M., Ramli, M., and Sumantri, I., (ed.), 2007 Sedyawati, E., 2006 Supriyatun, M.M. Rini, 2007 Wells, T., 1995 Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia, n.d. Wirasantosa, S., Ridwan, N.N., and Dilenia, I., 2006 Wirawan, K., 2002 Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, Jakarta. Technical Report on Marine Archaeological Research in Selayar Regency, Jakarta. Sejarah Indonesia Modern, UGM press, Yogyakarta. Directory of Cultural Tourism Potency of Selayar Island South Sulawesi Indonesia, Office for Preservation of Archaeological Heritage of Makassar, Makassar. Tinggalan Kapal Karam: Harta Karun atau Tinggalan Sejarah ?, Artikel untuk Rubrik OPINI, Jakarta. “Potensi Objek Wisata Warisan Budaya Bawah Air di Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem, Propinsi Bali, Varuna, Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air Vol. I/2007, ISSN 1979-0666X. 94-108. Shipwrecks & Sunken Treasure in Southeast Asia, Times Edition, Singapore. Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia, USAT Liberty, viewed 20 August 2011, <http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAT_Liberty>. “Kebijakan dan Peran Departemen Kelautan & Perikanan dalam Eksplorasi Peninggalan Bawah Air”, dipresentasikan pada Rapat Koordinasi Penyusunan Kebijakan Pelestarian, Pengembangan, dan Pemanfaatan Peninggalan Budaya Bawah Air, Bogor. Awig-awig Diciptakan untuk Jaga Keharmonisan, 2 January 2002, viewed August 2011, <http://www.network54.com/Forum> 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource Indonesia has a great potential for underwater cultural heritage (UCH) but the challenge to its preservation management is also very high. Coordination among stakeholders is very important. The effort to use UCH must be aligned with the effort to preserve so that it can be sustainable for the next generations. Some problems that we are facing, namely: no optimal management; lack of awareness of people; lack of science and technology application; and no proper law enforcement. With the rapid advancement of marine technology, UCH has become increasingly easy to reach by treasures hunters such as salvage companies and local community. Many UCH in Indonesia became the victim of massive looting such as that undertaken by the local community in Taka Kappala Waters, Selayar Regency South Sulawesi Province. Marine archaeological researches in 2008 and 2009 showed the shipwreck was in a badly damaged condition due to the looting activity that has lasted almost two years. The people did not realize that the use of UCH if well-managed will improve living standards for people in the vicinity of the site. Unlike theft cases in Selayar, in Bali the local community gives high appreciation to the existence of a shipwreck site in their area. They realized that shipwrecks are one of the potential marine resources which can be exploited for marine tourism. Liberty wreck in Tulamben, Bali has become a world-class tourist destination for divers. The local people have been protecting it with the customary law they made and obeyed, i.e. with a restriction on fishing activity around the shipwreck site. So then this site is very well maintained and became a central area for growth of marine life. Liberty wreck location is an example of a very beautiful blend and harmony among the remains of ancient human objects, very rich marine life, and a very high local community appreciation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Southeast Asia before History Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Peter Bellwood Nicholas Tarling Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Peter Bellwood Editor Nicholas Tarling Item Type Book Section Book Title The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Vol. 1, pt. 1, From Early Times to c. 1500 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Title A name given to the resource Southeast Asia before History Volume 1 Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f1bbfa91c33b182af4c141d94f514c34.pdf b8a309bc6facd2b653da75d3347e91f8 PDF Text Text PRIISMH project: A Case Study of Community Involvement and Museum Collaboration on Maritime Cultural Heritage around Rottnest Island (Perth, Western Australia) Nicolas Bigourdan Western Australian Museum Kevin Edwards Tempus Archaeology Abstract The Program for the Rottnest Island Interpretation of Shipwrecks and Maritime Heritage (PRIISMH) project is a community-based initiative conducted under the aegis of the Maritime Archaeology Association of Western Australia (MAAWA), in collaboration with the Western Australian Museum (WAM), the Rottnest Island Authority (RIA), Tempus Archaeology, and Shipwreck Data, with sponsorship provided by the Maritime Museums of Australia Project Support Scheme (MMAPSS 20162017) from the Australian National Maritime Museum. The main objective of the PRIISMH project was to enhance the presentation of Rottnest Island maritime cultural heritage through the use of new and innovative forms of interpretation involving terrestrial and underwater 3D Photogrammetry as a key element in for public engagement. Specifically, the project was initially developed to address issues identified in a recent condition report on the Rottnest Onshore Shipwreck Plaques (MAAWA, 2015), relating to existing interpretive signage on the island. As a consequence, MAAWA and RIA identified as a priority the need to update existing land-based shipwreck signage (currently over thirty years old) in order to address potential health and safety issues, to improve overall visitor experience, and to improve public accessibility to the Rottnest Island underwater shipwreck heritage. The project represents a new stage in an on-going long-term program of site documentation, management and interpretation within the broad Perth region, initiated by MAAWA in 2014 under the aegis of the ThreeDimensional (3D) Maritime Archaeology Project – Perth Region (3DMAPRR, Edwards et al. 2016). The structure and nature of the project also allowed it to be connected to another MAAWA earlier initiative (2013), namely the ‘Shipwrecks WA’ website and app platform to expand the audience outreach. Key words: Outreach, Photogrammetry, Heritage, Australia �Introduction As a geographical reference, Rottnest Island is located 18 kilometres off the coast of Western Australia, and it encompasses an area of approximately 19 square kilometres. The island is administered by the Rottnest Island Authority and mainly used currently as a popular holiday destination. Known as Wadjemup to the local Noongar people, the island has a rich and diverse history including the early Aboriginal presence, and the European exploration and settlement. The coast surrounding Rottnest Island is composed of outlying reefs which have been the resting place of at least 12 vessels since 1842. Access to, and interpretation of, the maritime cultural and archaeological heritage of Rottnest Island is currently facilitated through a variety of means, among which is the Rottnest Wrecks Heritage Trail (RWHT), which currently encompasses 12 wreck sites, namely Transit (1842), Gem (1876), Macedon (1883), Janet (1887), Lady Elizabeth (1878), Raven (1891), Shark (1939), Uribes (1942), Mira Flores (1886), City of York (1899) and Kyrio Maru I (1984). Information on each of these wrecks is provided through on-site underwater and terrestrial plaques, links to websites, and information pamphlets. Visitors are also encouraged to view the wrecks using a land trail, snorkel dives, semi-submersible tour, boat trail and dives (Rottnest Island Wrecks Heritage Trail pamphlet, 1981). The RWHT has been rightly praised for its innovation since being established in 1981 by the Western Australian Museum in conjunction with the Rottnest Island Authority (and with the participation of MAAWA) as the first underwater heritage trail in the Southern Hemisphere (McCarthy 1981; McCarthy et al. 1982). Nevertheless, a number of issues have been identified, both in terms of on-going maintenance of interpretive signage (now almost 30 years old), and the interpretive content itself. These issues are outlined in more detail, below. Project Background The Maritime Archaeological Association of Western Australia or MAAWA is a not-for-profit association created in 1974 in order to promote and encourage maritime archaeology in Western Australia. Since the 1990’s MAAWA and its members have been very regularly traveling to Rottnest �Island in order to undertake basic maintenance and the cleaning of the underwater plaques. This annual task has put the association in a favourable situation to be able to visually inspect these plaques, but also to visit and inspect the terrestrial plaques at each opportunity. This observer viewpoint led in 2015, some MAAWA members on their own initiative, to conduct a formal and documented visual inspection about the state of the terrestrial plaques. The final observations gathered in a report were subsequently sent to the RIA (MAAWA 2015). The condition report highlighted the poor condition of many interpretive plaques, prompting the RIA to initiate a long-term renovation programme of terrestrial signages as part of a wider Rottnest Island interpretation plan. Based on the MAAWA long standing past experience as well as these more recent observations, another group of MAAWA members (including the authors) listed a series of inherent as well as structural limitations concerning the various means of interpretation accessible to the public about the maritime cultural heritage of Rottnest Island. As a consequence, this group identified a number of points to address about these pamphlet and plaques (with the aim to update and improve these means), including:  The lack of accurate and updated visual representation and geographical localization for each of the sites;  The basic nature of the interpretation format in comparison to the more immersive experience provided by the possibility of diving/snorkelling on those shipwreck sites;  The level of inconsistencies between the different supportive media proposed to visitors for the various sites, in term of content but also regarding the general layout;  The degradation of the on-land signage due to the choice of material and the impacts of the natural elements. In terms of interpretive issues, these observations are consistent with an earlier review of maritime heritage trails in Australia conducted by Cassandra Philippou and Mark Staniforth (2003). Part of the reason behind these observations resides in the lack of consistent professional �archaeological monitoring of these sites during the past 20 to 30 years, and hence the lack of updated information to enhance the interpretive content and means accessible to the RIA to improve the visitor experience. Nourished by the points listed above, MAAWA embarked in an internal consultation stage, which resulted in the decision to shape the contours of a project in order to address these points, and hence instigated the basis of the PRIISMH (Program for the Rottnest Island Interpretation of Shipwrecks and Maritime Heritage) project. Once agreed on the definition of the objectives, and after consultation with project partners (RIA, MADWAM, Shipwreck Data and Tempus) this initiative became a reality when MAAWA was officially notified of the success of its grant application to the Maritime Museums of Australia Project Support Scheme (MMAPSS) 2016-17 from the Australian National Maritime Museum (becoming as a result one of the project support). The project received strong additional backing with the in-kind support from the MADWAM and RIA. Finally, the fieldwork for the project was conducted in several phases between mid 2016 and mid 2017. Project Objectives Beyond the meaning of the acronym PRIISMH, the word ‘Prism’ has been chosen for its definition of a light refracting device. When applied in the context of this project, this word symbolises the project’s aim. Indeed, the idea developed as the basis of this project is to enlarge accessibility to the various components of the local knowledge on Western Australian maritime cultural heritage. Likewise, a prism enlarges the light beam to perceive all its colourful components. The PRIISMH project is inscribed in a wider strategy based on a continuity of projects established by MAAWA since 2011 in order re-invigorate the association as a crucial link and a central facilitator between the general public and its local maritime cultural heritage. Indeed, in addition to providing support for the RIAs Rottnest interpretation plan, the project aims to build upon several long-terms MAAWA initiatives, including the ‘Shipwrecks WA’ app and website, as well as the 3DMAPPR initiative. �As a consequence, and in order to fulfil its mission, the overall objectives of the PRIISMH Project can be summarised as follow: 1 To enhance the Rottnest Island content of the ‘Shipwrecks WA’ website and app; 2 To record three terrestrial features with maritime heritage values (specifically the anchors of the Kyrio Maru, City of York and Mira Flores); 3 To support the renovation of the terrestrial shipwreck trail on Rottnest Island as part of the wider Rottnest Interpretation Plan; and 4 To conduct 3D photogrammetric recording of six shipwreck sites around Rottnest Island (specifically the Lady Elisabeth, Miwok II, Uribes, Macedon, Mira Flores, City of York. Beyond building upon MAAWA’s existing skillset and projects, important aims of the PRIISMH project were also to address current documentation, management and interpretation priorities associated with the maritime and underwater cultural heritage in the Perth region and more particularly within and around the Rottnest Island. It was furthermore planned that this project would enhance the visitor experience and awareness (both in reality and virtually), as well as to increase to a wider audience the accessibility to the Rottnest Island shipwreck sites that are typically inaccessible to non-divers and people with reduced mobility. Finally, the project also provided an avenue for skill development among the MAAWA membership, with training being provided in respect of maritime archaeology best practices. Enhance ‘Shipwrecks WA’ The first objective of the PRIISMH project was to conduct a gap analysis in respect to the information content of MAAWAs ‘Shipwrecks WA’ app and website, specifically as it pertained to Rottnest Island content. The gap analysis was performed in July 2016, by two volunteers from the University of Western Australia (UWA) during their internship at the Maritime Archaeology Department of the Western Australian Museum (MADWAM). Having identified deficiencies in the ‘Shipwrecks WA’ content, additional research was carried out to identify suitable documentary and/or image-based content from the MADWAM archives. This research was also conducted by the same two volunteers in August �2016, and was focusing particularly in looking at the digital photos, the slides and the paper archives specifically for the Rottnest Island shipwrecks site files. The results of these first two steps were then combined into a single working document with the purpose to use the content data collected to fill in the gaps identified within the MAAWA’s ‘Shipwrecks WA’ app and website. This task consisted in the migration (with MADWAM authorization and credit) of all content data from the MADWAM archives (text and/or visuals) deemed appropriate to each relevant entry to the MAAWA’s ‘Shipwrecks WA’ app and website. This data was migrated to the various platforms supported by ‘Shipwrecks WA’ by project partner Shipwrecks Data in September 2016. This aspect of the project has benefited significantly from the long experience and expertise accumulated by several MAAWA members involved in the development of the MAAWA’s ‘Shipwrecks WA’ app and website, but also from the collaboration with MADWAM as the Western Australian custodian of the archives on the Rottnest Island shipwreck sites. Record maritime heritage terrestrial features The second objective was focused on the accurate recording of terrestrial maritime heritage features around Rottnest Island. As part of this component of the project, focus was placed on the recording of three anchors from local three different shipwrecks, namely the City of York (British three-masted ship, wrecked in 1899 after striking a reef), the Mira Flores (British built but German owned Barque, wrecked in 1886 after running around in poor visibility) and the Kiryo Maru (Japanese tuna boat, wrecked in 1984, in rough seas after its propeller shaft broke). These three anchors and their associated commemorative plaques are the only anchors installed terrestrially on Rottnest Island to mark (almost as reminders but also as urban decorations) the proximity of these three shipwreck sites. (Fig.1) �Fig 1: The measuring of the City of York anchor. (Nicolas Bigourdan) To fulfil this objective, it was decided that both manual and close-range 3D photogrammetric techniques would be employed. Here Photogrammetry was undertaken not only as a recording tool but also to provide additional data assets that could be used for interpretive purposes. The first recording technique used was based on the standards of the manual recording (coupled with detailed descriptions) developed by the Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) as part of their international ‘Big Anchor Project’ (BAP) online anchors typology database project. The second one was centred around the use of photogrammetry in order to create an accessible interactive 3D model for each anchor, while following the methodology developed as part of MAAWA’s 3DMAPPR initiative. This also allowed various MAAWA members to practice the simple but crucial skills needed to complete the recording of a 3D model (Fig. 2). Fig 2: 3D Model of the City of York anchor. (Kevin Edwards) This phase of the project has required three visits on Rottnest Island and involved up to eight different team members during various visits between �December 2016 and July 2017. The task consisted firstly in taking hundreds of digital images for each of the 3D models anchors reconstruction, and secondly to undertake the necessary measurements for each anchor as required by the BAP. In addition, some testing attempts were implemented on nearby maritime cultural heritage features such as the Rottnest Island pilot boat. However, a few problems emerged, involving access difficulties the poor lighting conditions. As a result in participating in the world-wide maritime cultural BAP initiative coordinated by the NAS, it allowed MAAWA to become the Western Australian representative of this NAS BAP initiative after uploading the three anchors forms with corresponding images, and secondly has also permitted MAAWA to create three interactive 3D models for each of these anchors that were made accessible to the wider public on the MAAWA Sketchfab account. (https://sketchfab.com/MAAWA). Upgrade the Rottnest Island terrestrial shipwrecks trail The third objective was focused on upgrading one element of the terrestrial component of the RWHT. This aspect of the project was carried out as part of RIAs longer-term Rottnest Island Interpretation plan. This task was centred on the creation of the signage’s design, its manufacturing as well as its installation. This new sign, concerned a site for which no previous sign existed mainly due to its isolated location in a less visited area of Rottnest Island. This site concerned the shipwreck of the Uribes (three-masted Schooner, wrecked in 1942, after drifted onto rocks) The design of the sign followed a recent and consistent new generation of sign template developed by RIA (similar to others on Rottnest Island. Made out of solid metal, the sign was composed of a square pole onto which was fixed an information plate. The content of the sign was composed of a brief text provided by one of the authors and a MAAWA member about the Uribes wreck, a few images of the ship sourced and the wreck from MADWAM’s and MAAWA’s archives; a map showing the location of the shipwreck site relative to the sig, and a QR code. The presence of this QR code make this sign unique in Rottnest Island, and at least in Australia for a maritime cultural heritage site. This QR code is a �link that provides direct and in situ access for any visitor with a mobile phone to the page of the MAAWA Sketchfab account showing an interactive 3D model of the Uribes (Fig. 3). Due to unexpected issues encountered at the data acquisition and processing phase of this site as well as at the sign conception stage, this objective was only completed at a much later stage (around December 2017). Fig. 3: Home page of the ‘Shipwrecks WA’ app and website. (MAAWA) The creation of this sign permitted a strong working collaboration between 3 partners (MAAWA for the 3D model and some visuals, MADWAM for the historic information and some visuals, and RIA for the design, manufacturing and installation) of the PRIISMH project. Once finalised and manufactured, the Uribes sign was installed, made operational and finally unveiled in February 2018. Record 3D models of six shipwrecks The fourth and final objective of the PRIISMH Project was to carry out detailed close-range 3D photogrammetric documentation of six wreck sites. This proved to be the most time consuming, challenging component of the PRIISMH project. The documentation of these sites was completed over the course of three visits between December 2016 and April 2017. Overall, fifteen MAAWA members and two MADWAM staff members have been involved. Weather and underwater conditions involving strong winds, surge as well as low underwater visibility have created numerous issues in term data acquisition and processing. These constraints forced the team to review the initial list of targeted sites, and replace two of the target sites with �fallback options; specifically, Denton Holmes (Irish built Barque, wrecked in 1890, after drifting inshore) and Shark (local Hopper Barge, wrecked in 1939, after going aground) were replaced by Miwok II (local flat top crane Barge, wreck in 1983, by explosives) and Lady Elizabeth (British threemasted Barque, wrecked in 1878, after running aground in a heavy gale) respectively. In addition to these two shipwrecks sites the list consisted in the Uribes, the Mira Flores, the City of York and the Macedon (British screw steamer rigged Barque, wrecked in 1883 after running aground on a reef). Several MAAWA divers recorded each site to ensure an optimal and maximum coverage of the area targeted. (Figs. 4 and 5). Gopro action cameras together with simple scale and orientation rig were used to implement the image recording methodology. In addition to the photogrammetric recording, basic length and width measurements together with surface GPS points were taken between pre-defined points across the site in order to ascertain the scale, orientation and geographic position of each site. Once captured, the images were processed using Agisoft Photoscan 3D Photogrammetry software through the contracted endeavour of the project partner Tempus Archaeology. After the processing phase, each 3D model was uploaded onto the MAAWA Sketchfab account (provided in kind as one of the project support), together with the 3D models of the terrestrial anchors. Fig. 4 (left): Shannon Reid recording the Macedon (Nicolas Bigourdan) Fig. 5 (right): Nick Sargeant and Shannon Reid undertaking measurement on the Lady Elisabeth (Nicolas Bigourdan) Because as a best practice in maritime archology, the collection and management of data should not be seen as an end in itself; it is important to remember as a principle that research becomes most valuable when it is effectively disseminated to a wider audience. This why as a tool to �respond to this principle, the MAAWA Sketchfab account facilitates a wider accessibility to and dissemination of information to the general public (Fig 6). These 3D models will also in due course be linked to the ‘Shipwrecks WA’ app and website, and as a consequence will become a touristic opportunity for the RIA to be used as promotional material of the underwater and maritime cultural heritage of Rottnest Fig. 6: Home page of the MAAWA Island (Figs. 7 and 8). Sketchfab account. (MAAWA) Fig. 7: 3D Model of the Lady Elisabeth (Kevin Edwards) Fig. 8: 3D Model of the Uribes (Kevin Edwards) The PRIISMH project was also designed as a capacity building exercise from the start, allowing MAAWA members to participate in several workshops (in October 2016) and training sessions on 3D �photogrammetric recording and processing in November 2016 as well as February and April 2017 (Fig. 9). The project also allowed further transmission of knowledge and skills, because it enabled MAAWA members to further engage in community education and outreach through a workshop to recreational divers from Perth Scuba dive club and shop in October 2017. This last action was pursued with the objective to further expand the accessibility for a wider audience to involvement opportunities in the preservation of the Perth region maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Fig. 9: MAAWA members teaching 3D photogrammetry (Perth Scuba) Conclusion The PRIISMH project represents the latest in a long-line of collaborative ventures between an institutional organisation and a community-base avocational group. In the context of ensuring a sustainable future for the local Perth Metropolitan maritime and underwater cultural heritage by actively involving and engaging the public into local, meaningful, useful and innovative projects, the PRIISMH initiative successfully responded in the most encompassing and proactive way to this complex but rewarding challenge. With the enhancement of the ‘Shipwrecks WA’ app and website, the recording of three anchors in 3D and in traditionally, the creation and installation of the Uribes interactive sign, and the processing of 3D model from 6 shipwreck sites around Rottnest Island, the PRIISMH has entirely fulfilled its 4 main objectives. MAAWA’s active role was central in the �PRIISMH project in initiating the condition report, but above all a number of its new assets can be accessed through its ‘WA Shipwrecks’ app and website or via Sketchfab where the majority of MAAWA 3D content has been made available to the public. The multiple facets of the PRIISMH project have highlighted the relationship between MAAWA and MADWAM (or in other words between a community group and a governmental institution), and will continue to be in the upcoming and even more inclusive SWAN RIVER project the beacon that will show the direction to follow for the connection between maritime heritage and local public. Acknowledgements Shannon Reid, Patrick Morrison, Michael McCarthy, Ian Warne, Colin Cockram, David Jackson, Rebecca Ryan, Rebecca Familton, John Cecchi, Nick Sargeant, Jacquie McGhie, Kosta Stamoulis. References Edwards, K., Bigourdan, N., McCann, I., Cooper, D. 2016 3DMAPPR: A Community-based underwater archaeological photogrammetry program in Perth, Western Australia. Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 40:1-16. McCarthy, M. 1981 ‘The Rottnest Experiment’. Skindiving in Australia and New Zealand 11(4). McCarthy, M., Barblett, P. and Humphries, V. 1982 ‘Follow the Rottnest Wreck Trail’. Information pamphlet published for the Rottnest Island Board. MAAWA 2015 ‘Report on the Rottnest Onshore Shipwreck Plaques’. Unpublished MAAWA Report. Philippou, C. and Staniforth, M. 2003 Maritime Heritage Trails in Australia: an overview and critique of the interpretive programs. In Spirek, J.D. and Scott-Ireton, D.A. (eds), Submerged Cultural Resource Management: Preserving and Interpreting our Maritime Heritage. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers: New York. pp. 135147. �Biography Nicolas Bigourdan graduated from the ParisSorbonne University in 2003 and from James Cook University in 2006 in nautical and maritime archaeology respectively. His research interests include 18th and 19th centuries French scientific sailing expeditions in the Southern Hemisphere, 3D visualisation of underwater maritime cultural heritage, Western Australian maritime Aboriginal rock art, Middle Eastern (Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf) early watercraft depictions, Indian Ocean French illegal slave trade, Citizen scientist’s involvement in maritime archaeology, and Ethnoarchaeological study of canoes traditions from Irian Jaya (Indonesia). He has an extensive fieldwork experience in multiple countries, and as worked over the last 10 years successively for Wessex Archaeology (UK) and the Western Australian Museum (Australia). Kevin Edwards graduated from the University of Western Australia in 1991 and is currently a post graduate student in the Maritime Archaeology program at Flinders University. His research interests include the archaeological potential of near and offshore disposals of military material in wartime and postbellum contexts, the application of social theory to shipwreck survivor camp studies, and the documentation of archaeological collections using a variety of 3D digitization technologies. He hopes to expand his study interests to include the social and material agencies involved in the creation of 19th century museum collections relating to maritime archaeology. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 4: Ensuring a Sustainable Future for UCH: Museums and Public Engagement Description An account of the resource Cultural heritage derives its value from societal contexts, and so public engagement plays an important role in growing support for, and interest in heritage. Engagement may take many forms, from awareness-raising to formal learning programmes to creating platforms for public participation in the process of heritage conservation, governance, and/or interpretation. Papers bridging theoretical and practical approaches to engagement with UCH are particularly welcome, as are papers which offer collaborative and/or participatory models, stakeholder engagement, capacity-building and development, approaches to the particular challenges of engagement with underwater cultural heritage vs other kinds of cultural heritage. Of course heritage exists in a variety of cultural frameworks, and ensuring sustainability requires approaches to engagement to be both responsive and sensitive to the overlapping cultural contexts in which UCH may exist. As a culturally diverse region, the treatment of heritage must be also tailored to cultural definitions, heritage management frameworks and conventions which may, in some cases, differ across jurisdictions/countries and their interests. The panel will also attempt to explore the ways in which UCH is managed within diverse cultural frameworks, and invites papers to examine topics including contested UCH, ownership, security, etc. The panel invites papers exploring significance within local, national and transnational historiographies and the implications for funding and management of UCH. UCH includes material that has been deposited on the seabed as a result of warfare and catastrophe, so papers which explore and/or engage with topics including loss, warfare, conflicted significance and contested heritage are particularly welcome. Other relevant sub-themes include: * Public engagement in the management of UCH * Interpreting maritime cultural heritage for non-specialist audiences * Significance, interpretative potential, stakeholders and support/sustainability * Museums, Education, Outreach and Conservation * Memory, memorials and memorialisation Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Raphael Igombo National Museums of Kenya, Kenya Michelle Damian Monmouth College (IL), USA Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource PRIISMH project: A Case Study of Community Involvement and Museum Collaboration on Maritime Cultural Heritage around Rottnest Island (Perth, Western Australia) Description An account of the resource The Program for the Rottnest Island Interpretation of Shipwrecks and Maritime Heritage (PRIISMH) project is a community-based initiative conducted under the aegis of the Maritime Archaeology Association of Western Australia (MAAWA), in collaboration with the Western Australian Museum (WAM), the Rottnest Island Authority (RIA), Tempus Archaeology, and Shipwreck Data, with sponsorship provided by the Maritime Museums of Australia Project Support Scheme (MMAPSS 2016-2017) from the Australian National Maritime Museum. The main objective of the PRIISMH project was to enhance the presentation of Rottnest Island maritime cultural heritage through the use of new and innovative forms of interpretation involving terrestrial and underwater 3D Photogrammetry as a key element in for public engagement. Specifically, the project was initially developed to address issues identified in a recent condition report on the Rottnest Onshore Shipwreck Plaques (MAAWA, 2015), relating to existing interpretive signage on the island. As a consequence, MAAWA and RIA identified as a priority the need to update existing land-based shipwreck signage (currently over thirty years old) in order to address potential health and safety issues, to improve overall visitor experience, and to improve public accessibility to the Rottnest Island underwater shipwreck heritage. The project represents a new stage in an on-going long-term program of site documentation, management and interpretation within the broad Perth region, initiated by MAAWA in 2014 under the aegis of the Three-Dimensional (3D) Maritime Archaeology Project – Perth Region (3DMAPRR, Edwards et al. 2016). The structure and nature of the project also allowed it to be connected to another MAAWA earlier initiative (2013), namely the ‘Shipwrecks WA’ website and app platform to expand the audience outreach. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nicolas Bigourdan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Nicolas Bigourdan Date Created Date of creation of the resource. November 2017 Asia-Pac Session 4 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1ecea3592374a51f29816ce8e0f7b1c3.pdf ecd5524873976891781c72e2c92eaf5d PDF Text Text From safe haven to island abandonment - impacts of the growth of Pacific shipping on the Pitcairn Island community during the 19th century Dr. Nigel Erskine Head of Research Australian National Maritime Museum Abstract The story of the Bounty mutiny is one of the great sagas of Pacific history and has inspired a rich literature for more than two centuries. By contrast, our knowledge of the community founded by Fletcher Christian at Pitcairn Island has remained enigmatic and obscured by evangelical and Eurocentric interpretations of the survival and development of the settlement. Founded by a small, culturally-divided group of settlers on one of the most remote islands in the Pacific and completely cut off from the world for the first 18 years of its existence - the establishment of the settlement may be seen as a remarkable success. Fifty years after the arrival of the Bounty settler-group, the island had become a regular port-of-call in the expanding network of Pacific shipping and the Pitcairn community, now approaching 200 people, had established important relationships with the Royal Navy, the American whaling fleet and Pacific communities in Tahiti, Valparaiso and Sydney. Just a few years later however, the resources of the island could no longer cope with the increasing demands and the entire population of Pitcairn was removed to Norfolk Island. Based on historical research and archaeological fieldwork conducted on Pitcairn, this paper examines the process of colonisation at Pitcairn to reveal the changing nature of an island environment in a period of rapid change in the Pacific. Key words: Mutiny, Pacific, Whaling, Royal Navy Mutiny and Pitcairn “Know then my own dear Betsy, I have lost the Bounty. …On the 28th April at daylight in the morning Christian having the morning �watch, he with several others came into my cabin while I was asleep, and seizing me, holding naked bayonets at my breast, tied my hands behind my back, and threatened instant destruction if I uttered a word.“ With these words to his wife, William Bligh (Brunton, 1989) described the event which would galvanize public opinion and haunt him for the rest of his life. Recounted repeatedly, dissected, weighed and scrutinized from every angle, the story of the mutiny on the Bounty has been the subject of numerous books and films and needs no further discussion here. By contrast, the subject of my paper – the settlement of Pitcairn Island by mutineers from the Bounty and their Polynesian partners - is a story which is far less known, and in the context of this conference’s theme, represents one of the earliest sources of data demonstrating the impact of European activities in the Pacific. Fig.1: Pitcairn Island. (Photographer Jon Carpenter, © Nigel Erskine) Pitcairn is a volcanic island situated in the Eastern Pacific, south and east of the southern end of the Tuamotu Islands. The first European record of the island was made by Philip Carteret in 1767 when his ship HMS Swallow sailed around it. His description of the island was published in John Hawkesworth’s Voyages in 1773. Carteret wrote: �“…it appeared like a great rock rising out of the sea: it was not more than five miles in circumference, and seemed to be uninhabited; it was, however, covered in trees, and we saw a small stream of water running down one side of it. I would have landed upon it, but the surf, which at this season broke upon it with great violence, rendered it impossible” Cook passed to the east of Pitcairn in 1769, and to the west in 1773, without sighting the island – suggesting the position of the island, calculated by Carteret and shown on Hawkesworth’s chart of the Pacific, was wrong. Indeed, while Carteret’s latitude for Pitcairn was relatively accurate, his longitude placed Pitcairn 320 kilometres too far west – a not unusual error in the period prior to the use of chronometers and one which the mutineer Fletcher Christian appears to have suspected. For, following an abortive attempt by the Bounty mutineers to settle on the island of Tubuai (300 km south of Tahiti), and after leaving 16 mutineers at Tahiti, Christian took the Bounty east against the prevailing wind, sailing along the latitude given by Carteret until finally sighting Pitcairn in January 1790. When the vessel finally anchored, it had 28 people aboard – 9 European mutineers, 6 Polynesian men, 12 Polynesian women and a baby girl. Once ashore the group soon found evidence of previous Polynesian occupation of the island in the form of rock carvings and a morai, and later they would discover a stone quarry on the southern side of the island littered with the discarded flakes from tool manufacturing.1 While this evidence of a Polynesian presence remained, the Bounty settlers soon realised they were alone on the island and totally reliant on a combination of their skills, the resources they brought with them, and what they found in their new home, to establish a viable community. Indeed Pitcairn offered Fletcher Christian and his fellow mutineers the perfect place to hide! Uninhabited, incorrectly charted and cliff-bound, the island was �effectively lost to Europeans in the vastness of the Pacific Ocean - a harbourless, uncontested 2.5 square mile speck of land where the next stage of the Bounty saga would be played out. Satisfied with their new home, the mutineers set about stripping the ship, and after a week, they set fire to it – destroying it completely. With the destruction of their vessel, the Bounty settlers became selfimposed exiles – a tiny community in the Pacific hiding from the Royal Navy and completely cut off from the world. Indeed, the mutineers had found a place so remote that the settlement remained undisturbed for the first 18 years of its existence and it was only as a network of Pacific trade gradually developed in the 19th century that Pitcairn’s isolation diminished. Violence and isolation The first years of settlement on the island were marked by violence as the mutineers divided the island’s resources amongst themselves and attempted to impose their control over the Polynesians who had accompanied them to Pitcairn. In the case of the women, each of the 9 mutineers had a partner from amongst the 12 women, leaving 3 women to partner with the 6 Polynesian men. This situation was initially tolerated by the Polynesian men who were now treated as servants to the mutineers, but following the deaths of two of the women (one falling off a cliff while collecting birds’ eggs, and the other dying of natural causes), the affected mutineers took new partners from those living with the Polynesian men. This produced immediate hostilities between the Polynesian men and the mutineers and resulted in the murder of two of the Polynesian men in 1791. Two years later a second wave of violence spread across the island, claiming the lives of Fletcher Christian and four other mutineers, quickly followed by the murder of the last remaining Polynesian men. �With these deaths the community settled into a period of relative peace for another six years until 1799 when William McCoy committed suicide. In that same year Matthew Quintal was killed by his shipmates in a preemptive strike after he threatened them. And finally in December 1800, John Adams emerged as the last mutineer standing when Edward Young died of natural causes. After a decade on the island, and with the population standing at 38 (consisting of 27 children, 10 women and 1 man), the community now entered a new era of peace and stability. In regard to viability of the settlement, the violence characterizing this early period highlights the fact that the main threat to the community was social rather than ecological. Like Pandora’s Box, the Bounty contained a volatile mix of racial, sexual and class tensions thrown together by the chance circumstances of the mutiny and which Polynesians happened to be sleeping aboard when the vessel left Tahiti for the last time. With the destruction of the Bounty, these forces were released and, as we have seen, played out to bloody resolution. However, despite this violence, a number of positive factors contributed to the initial survival of the community. Pitcairn was a relatively fertile island with natural resources of water, trees, plants, fish and birds – a Pacific environment with which the Polynesian women were familiar, where their skills in such things as sourcing food, thatching and producing tapa cloth, were immediately beneficial. Adding to the natural resources, were resources brought ashore from the Bounty. These included pigs, goats, chickens, plants, seeds and gardening tools, muskets, gunpowder, axes and saws, a forge and bellows, wheelbarrows, medical supplies, books and cooking pots as well as rope, canvas , iron and timber from the ship. �Also brought ashore were elements of maritime culture relating to the maintenance and allocation of provisions. An observer present in 1814 (the second contact with shipping) noted (Pipon, 1834) that John Adams maintained a journal system of ‘regular established allowance’, a practice paralleling the role of the purser on board naval vessels. On Pitcairn food was either stored communally to create a ‘food bank’ accessible throughout the seasons, or (in the case of perishables) divided equally using a system known as the ‘share out’. Aboard the Bounty this form of division was known as Who shall have this? Bligh (1790) described this method, which he used to divide a seabird amongst the men during his famous open boat voyage: “One person turns his back on the object that is to be divided; another then points separately to the portions, at each of them asking aloud, “Who shall have this?” to which the first answers by naming somebody. This impartial method of division gives every man an equal chance of the best share.” The settlers also lived communally in a single village. Very early on, the pigs and goats had gone feral and fences had been built around parts of the village to protect the vegetable gardens. Communal living also helped to harness the labour and skills of the settlers, efficiently sustaining the settlement through the years of total isolation. �Fig.2: Village at Pitcairn 1825, artist William Smyth. (State Library of NSW PXB55) First contact In 1808, that isolation was finally interrupted by the arrival of the sealer Topaz. It was an edifying occasion all round, with captain Folger as surprised to be hailed in English by the young ‘natives’ who paddled out to his ship, as indeed they were to see such a large and foreign object floating off their island. Mindful of his mutineer status, John Adams sensibly remained on Pitcairn, but despite this, goodwill was established by an exchange of objects. In itself, the impact of this visit was slight but it set an important precedent, as Adams later recalled (Bechervaise, 1839): “They got from this ship a great number of articles they stood in need of, after which no vessel came near the island without being visited.” �Six years later the islanders were again amazed, this time finding two Royal Navy ships laying off the island. It should have been the moment of truth for the old mutineer but his luck remained! For after touring the village and meeting Adams and his burgeoning flock, Sir Thomas Staines, the senior captain, declared that Adams was a reformed character whose arrest and removal from the island could only have a detrimental effect on the community. In an instant John Adams was transformed from villain to hero and thereafter the community at Pitcairn enjoyed both legitimacy and celebrity, becoming a popular port of call in a rapidly expanding network of Pacific sailing routes. Some measure of the relative isolation of the community at Pitcairn in the first half of the 19th century can be seen in the following charts. Fig.3: Principal Pacific Ocean sailing routes in 1800. (Erskine) Fig.4 Principal Pacific Ocean sailing routes in 1825. (Erskine) �Fig.5: Principal Pacific Ocean sailing routes in 1850. (Nigel Erskine) In 1788 a British settlement was established at Port Jackson on the east coast of Australia, which finding itself poorly supplied from Britain, soon initiated sailing routes to the more fertile Norfolk Island and to Tahiti for pork. Those ships which did arrive from Britain with supplies, returned there either by the southerly Cape Horn route or via one of the trading centres in Asia such as Calcutta, Canton and Batavia. At the same time a regular route was established between China and the Pacific North West by vessels trading in sea otter pelts, and routes along the west coasts of the Americas serviced Spanish supply lines. Some measure of the relative importance of particular trade centres in the Pacific is indicated by the growth of European populations. In 1820 Honolulu had a foreign population of about 90. By 1842 the town’s population had grown to 8000 people, of whom 500 were foreign. At the same time, Papeete had a foreign population of around 70, and the Bay of Islands in New Zealand over 600 Europeans. Both Levuka and Apia �developed later, and had foreign populations of around 50 by the 1850s (Ralston, 1979). Of these centres, the most important for Pacific trade before the discovery of gold in California was Honolulu. The location of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the North Pacific Ocean made them a natural centre linking trade routes between the North-West coast of America, California and China. After 1849 San Francisco assumed much greater importance in Pacific commerce, resulting in the development of sailing routes between Australia and San Francisco, and San Francisco, New England and Europe. Both the route from Australia and New Zealand to San Francisco, and the route from San Francisco to Europe via Cape Horn, passed close to Pitcairn and represented a significant change in the relative isolation of the island. Fig.6: Chinese Export Ware plate c.1816 – example of trade item excavated at Pitcairn land site. (Nigel Erskine) Development of Trade A total of 432 ships visited Pitcairn between 1808 and 1856, with the majority being whale ships. Some idea of the pattern of trade between �the Pitcairn community and the crews of these ships is apparent in surviving logbooks. One of the earliest accounts describing trading activities at Pitcairn is that of the American whaleship Russell that visited Pitcairn in 1822. Arriving off the island, the ship was met by a boat carrying seven of the islanders who “…brought us some bananas, plantains, coconuts and melons and informed us that there was a quantity more on the island”. The ship took on fresh water over a period of three days – allowing part of the crew ashore each day on liberty. When it came time to depart, the islanders2: “…stood around us with tears in their eyes and presented us with some little tokens of friendship and said that we were not to pay for them but send more ships there as they would be very lonesome when we were gone. They supplied us with such vegetables and fruit as the island produced without asking anything for them but seemed pleased to have us in their home.” It is clear from this account that trade at this time was largely unregulated and limited to the basic resources of water, vegetables and fruit. By 1825 the impact of shipping appears to have induced experiments with new crops and Captain Beechey (1968) listed English potatoes, peas, beans and onions amongst these. In 1830 Captain Waldegrave (1833) listed the supplies available to ships: “Ships may obtain fire-wood at Pitcairn’s Island in abundance, with a certain quantity of yams. Coconuts and plantains, but not a large supply; poultry and pigs they object to part with: it would be impossible to water a man-of-war, as the water is carried from Brown’s Well on the shoulders of the natives.” A significant change is evident by 1834 when a regular price for articles is listed in the Pitcairn Island Register. This indicates that ‘exotic’ produce �such as Irish potatoes, beans and onions had been successfully established and that chickens were available in quantity by this date. In effect, Pitcairn had joined the provisioning trade and over the next 20 years the demands on the island’s resources increased dramatically. For example in 1836 the whaleship Triton took3 two boatloads of wood, 54 chickens and a pig and in the following years there is consistent reference to the supply of potatoes, beans, pumpkins and wood in relatively large quantities. In 1843 the Charles took4 six boatloads of potatoes and four boatloads of wood. In 1847 the Three Brothers took5 130 barrels of water, 34 barrels of yams, 34 barrels of sweet potatoes, five barrels of Irish potatoes, 22 chickens, five pigs, a duck and two boatloads of wood and so on. At the same time as these foreign demands were taxing the island’s resources, the population of Pitcairn had been growing steadily, reaching 194 in 1856. Environmental impact of trade The evidence indicates that the growth in Pacific shipping had a negative impact on Pitcairn. For in addition to demands on the island’s limited water supplies, the provisioning trade significantly depleted the island’s timber resources and placed an increasing burden on the land as the Pitcairn islanders attempted to produce agricultural surpluses. Some indication of the environmental impact of such changes is suggested by an example of catastrophic erosion recorded in the Pitcairn Island Register for 1845 (Lucas, 1929): “…the place in question was situated at the head of a ravine which debouched into the sea; the rain mixing with the falling earth (which was of a clayey nature) brought it to the consistency of thick mud but sufficiently liquefied to glide very slowly down the inclined plane of the valley – nothing with which it came in contact could resist its �force – the large trees at the head of the ravine and immense pieces of rock, were borne slowly but unresistingly along and about three hundred coconut trees were torn up by the roots and swept into the sea.” Further evidence indicative of the community’s vulnerability and inability to sustain increasingly high levels of trade exists in the last years of the settlement. During the visit of HMS Portland in May 1853, Rear Admiral Fairfax Moresby found the island badly affected by drought and donated grain to sustain the community. Six months later, Captain Morshead of HMS Dido found the island still affected by drought and left more supplies. The crop failures of 1853 revealed the vulnerability of the community at Pitcairn and prompted application to the British Government to relocate the community to Norfolk Island. Supported by Rear Admiral Fairfax Moresby, the request was favourably received in England and Sir William Denison was instructed to make arrangements for the removal of the Pitcairn Islanders to Norfolk Island. The impact of human settlement on island ecologies is a major theme in Polynesian colonisation of the Pacific. In this context Fosberg (1963) noted the great variation between islands of the eastern Pacific and large continental islands of the western Pacific and emphasised the effects of isolation and limited size in creating insular and fragile ecological environments which were highly vulnerable to disturbance associated with human settlement. While Pitcairn does not fit into the extreme category with fragile environments such as atolls, the total impact of colonisation on the island was no less devastating – it simply took longer and was ultimately the result of both internal and external factors. �Conclusion Turner (1962) conceived of the frontier as a dynamic process of expansion, characterised by continuous movement into free land at the margins of the colonial area by a succession of industries comprising furtraders, miners, ranchers and farmers who were irresistibly attracted to the resource opportunities of the new area. European expansion into the Pacific was motivated by similar opportunities that were exploited by industries such as the pork trade, pearling, sandalwood, beche-de-mer and whaling. However, unlike the opening of vast new land areas of the American West, the expansion into the maritime frontier of the Pacific took place in a context of hundreds of small islands of which Pitcairn was but one. The history of Pitcairn Island provides a record of the ecological cost of such expansion. Endnotes In this context, Marshall Weisler’s work (1993) has shown that this Polynesian presence dates to a period starting about AD 850 and ending in about 1500. Weisler, M. 1993 Long-distance Interaction in Prehistoric Polynesia: Three case studies, unpublished thesis, University of California, Berkeley 2 Pacific Manuscript Bureau microfilm 890 3 Pacific Manuscript Bureau microfilm 671 4 Pacific Manuscript Bureau microfilm 318 5 Pacific Manuscript Bureau microfilm 386 1 References Bechervaise, J., 1839. Thirty-Six Years of a Seafaring Life, Woodward, Portsea: 176.Beechey, F.W., 1968 [1831]. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering’s Strait, Da Capo Press, New York, Vol.1. Bligh, W., 1961. The Mutiny On Board HMS Bounty, Signet Classics, New York: 164. �Paul Brunton (Ed.), 1989. Awake Bold Bligh – William Bligh’s letters describing the mutiny on HMS Bounty, Allen and Unwin, Sydney: 23. Fosberg, R., (Ed), 1963. Man’s Place in the Island Ecosystem, BP Bishop Museum, Honolulu. Hawkesworth, J., 1773. An Account of the Voyages by Commodore Byron, Captain Wallis, Captain Carteret and Captain Cook, Strahan and Cadell, London: 561. Lucas, C., (Ed.), 1929. The Pitcairn Island Register Book, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London. Pipon, P., 1834. The Descendants of the Bounty’s Crew. United Services Journal, Vol.63:191-199. Ralston, C., 1979. The pattern of Race Relations in 19th century Pacific port towns, Essays from the Journal of Pacific History, Massey University. Turner, F.J., 1962. The Frontier in American History, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York: 12. Waldegrave, W., 1833. Remarks of Captain William Waldegrave, HMS Seringapatam 1830, The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, London, Vol. III: 156-162. �Biography Nigel Erskine is Head of Research at the Australian National Maritime Museum. As a maritime archaeologist he has worked extensively in the South Pacific and was Director of the Norfolk Island Museum 2000 – 2003. As a maritime archaeologist he has worked on the sites of HMS Sirius, HMS Pandora, HMS Bounty, HMS Porpoise, Cato and Mermaid. Since 2005 he has been actively involved with the Rhode Island Maritime Archaeology Project in the search for Cook’s ship Endeavour. His recent work includes developing interpretive narratives for ANMM’s core galleries, building the museum’s international engagement in archaeological projects, and expanding the museum’s research profile. �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 1: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) spanning human history from the Stone Age to the atomic age. Since the first Pacific UCH Workshop held in Solomon Islands in 2009, the Pacific island nations have been progressing in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme by awareness raising, research and capacity building activities through inter-disciplinary cooperation and promoting synergy with the Pacific World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage Programmes. Notable progresses include, among others, the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Outcome Document of the 3rd UN International Cooperation on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Samoa, 2014) that contains references to the importance of UCH for sustainable development of SIDS and SIDS ratification of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), as well as the enhanced cooperation between universities in the Pacific islands and professional training institutions through UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN) for Underwater Archaeology. With this as its background, the session “Underwater and maritime archaeology and capacity building in the Pacific Islands” will be held with the aims to: i) share information on recent progress in awareness raising, research and capacity building activities in underwater and maritime archaeology in the Pacific Islands, ii) identify priority actions, iii) foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. The session especially welcomes presentations focusing on the protection and management of UCH belonging to indigenous community shared UCH in the Pacific, addressing challenges and opportunities facing Pacific SIDS in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme and the promotion of the UCH Convention, presenting good practice in ensuring the effective engagement of Pacific island countries and community in UCH management for their sustainable development, and proposing collaborative projects in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, Samoa Andrew Viduka, Maritime and Commonwealth Heritage, Australian Government, Nicolas Bigourdan, Western Australian Museum Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource From safe haven to island abandonment - impacts of the growth of Pacific shipping on the Pitcairn Island community during the 19th century Description An account of the resource The story of the Bounty mutiny is one of the great sagas of Pacific history and has inspired a rich literature for more than two centuries. By contrast, our knowledge of the community founded by Fletcher Christian at Pitcairn Island has remained enigmatic and obscured by evangelical and Eurocentric interpretations of the survival and development of the settlement. Founded by a small, culturally-divided group of settlers on one of the most remote islands in the Pacific and completely cut off from the world for the first 18 years of its existence - the establishment of the settlement may be seen as a remarkable success. Fifty years after the arrival of the Bounty settler-group, the island had become a regular port-of-call in the expanding network of Pacific shipping and the Pitcairn community, now approaching 200 people, had established important relationships with the Royal Navy, the American whaling fleet and Pacific communities in Tahiti, Valparaiso and Sydney. Just a few years later however, the resources of the island could no longer cope with the increasing demands and the entire population of Pitcairn was removed to Norfolk Island. Based on historical research and archaeological fieldwork conducted on Pitcairn, this paper examines the process of colonisation at Pitcairn to reveal the changing nature of an island environment in a period of rapid change in the Pacific. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nigel Erskine Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Nigel Erskine Asia-Pac Session 1 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kinsei Nihon No Kawabune Kenkyu: Kinsei Kasen Suiunshi Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Noboru Kawana Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Nihon Keizai Hyoronsha Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2003-2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Noboru Kawana Item Type Book ISBN 4818815454 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2003-2005 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Nihon Keizai Hyoronsha Short Title Kinsei Nihon No Kawabune Kenkyu Title A name given to the resource Kinsei Nihon No Kawabune Kenkyu: Kinsei Kasen Suiunshi Japan