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Title A name given to the resource The Sea Route of the Sunken Ancient Vessel on the Seabed off Sinan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mu-Byong Youn Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 1977 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Mu-Byong Youn Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 1977 Pages 18-23 Publication Title Korea Journal Title A name given to the resource The Sea Route of the Sunken Ancient Vessel on the Seabed off Sinan China Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a87f1193b14fef281f3e3e650c1098ba.pdf 7d8cff82cebfd83e801bac676cc583d4 PDF Text Text Nautical Terms as Gleaned from Ancient Tamil Literature N. Athiyaman1 Abstract During the beginning of the Common Era, the Maritime trade peaked in the regions of Southeast Asia, Peninsular India, Srilanka and the Red Sea coast. The Greek and Latin accounts clearly attest to the increased trade activities in this period. The use of large crafts for navigation is well recorded in these accounts. The early historic Tamil Sangam literature dated between 300 B.C.E. and 300 C.E. provide valuable data regarding the nautical knowledge of that period. Some researchers have attempted to collate and interpret the data on nautical terms available in this literature. However, a detailed contextual analysis based on the content of the poems has not been attempted so far. Many types of crafts such as naavaay, vangam, thimil, and punai, are found mentioned in the Sangam literature, and these terms are not in use at present. The field studies conducted by scholars have revealed the existence of many indigenous crafts having different names on the South Indian Coast. Due to modern development the usage of traditional crafts is fast vanishing. In this paper an attempt is made to analyse the names and structure of the crafts that occur in the Sangam literature based on their contextual information. For example, the term naavaay is mentioned in the context of deep-sea craft which carried goods of various types. The data pertaining to the boats and ships and other nautical terms are analysed in this paper. An attempt is also made to find out the possible reasons for the disappearance of the various crafts referred in the literature. I. Introduction During the beginning of the Common Era, the maritime trade peaked in the Indian Ocean rim as attested by the Greek, Latin and Tamil sources. The use of larger crafts for navigation is also well recorded. However, an in-depth analysis of the native Tamil literature of the Common Era which has evidence for nautical terms is yet to be done. Hence, this paper focuses on the nautical terms found in the ancient Tamil literature (3rd century B.C.E.- 4th century C.E.) and analyses the types of boats. The literature was created during early historic Tamilakam which had a single linguistic territorial entity in Peninsular India, between 8o5' N and 13o40' N latitudes. The literature forms the main source of this study as archaeological source is scanty. However, an attempt is also being made in this paper to corroborate the textual references with limited archaeological evidence. 1 Centre for Underwater Archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur 613010 , India rajachidam@gmail.com �Literary Sources The ancient Tamil Sangam literature and post-Sangam epics namely cilappathikaaram and manimeekalai dated to be ca. 4th century C.E. provide information on maritime activities of the Early Historic Tamilakam. A brief account of the content and character of these texts are discussed below. Sangam literature consists of anthologies of bardic corpus2 with accepted time span of ca. 3rd century B.C.E. and 3rd century C.E. based on archaeological, epigraphical, numismatic and literary parameters. This literature is classified as ettuththokai and paththuppaattu. The ettuththokai is the eight different collections of small poems of three lines to more than 50 lines. Based on the poetic analysis, kaliththokai and paripaatal are considered slightly late. The other six anthologies are earlier, though, some of the poems are considered to be later. The chronological order is as follows: kurunthokai, narrinai, akanaanuuru, puranaanuuru, aingkurunuuru and pathirrppaththu (Tamil Dictionary/Glossary on Historical Principle/TDHP 2001). The paththuppaattu collection has the ten songs, each one of which has more than a few hundred lines, where the poet describes about a hero or a chief or a king and his country. The chronological order is as follows: porunaraarruppatai, mathuraikkaanjci, netunalvaatai, malaipatukataam, perumpaanaarruppatai, pattinappaalai, cirupaanaarruppatai, mullaippaattu, kurinjcippaattu and tirumurukaarruppatai (TDHP 2001). These eight anthologies and ten songs were the poems of sentiments and exploits of the "noumenon" and the "phenomenon" in Tamil terminology of the akam and puram or somewhat simplified poems of erotic experience and heroism (Zevelebil 1975:80). In addition, the epics of Tamil literature namely cilappathikaaram and manimeekalai of 4th-5th century C.E. are included as they also provide information on maritime activities. The settings alluded to in the poetry provide ample information on various spheres of maritime activities. A documentation of nautical terms in the literature is found in Victor Rajamanickam and Samuel Arulraj (1994). A monograph on ships and shipping of the Tamil region has also been attempted (Ragavan 1968). However, the context analysis of such terms, size and functions of the vessels from the literature and their possible provenance have not been attempted. Among all the 20 texts, netunalvaatai, malaipatukataam, and tirumurukaarruppatai do not have nautical terms as they are unrelated to the maritime activities. Of paththuppaattu, mathuraikkaanjci accounts for four types of vessels. Of anthologies kaliththokai and paripaatal provide information of many terms, next to narrinai, akanaanuuru and puranaanuuru. The later period epics cilappathikaaram and manimeekalai give information on five types of crafts. 2 During the early historic period there lived the bards who moved place to place and sang in praise of the local King or cheif and received gifts for thier subsistence. They were called as paanar. �II. Watercrafts from Tamil Literature A thorough survey of the entire literature reveals ten terms for watercrafts. They are ambi, kalam, mithavai, naavaay, otam, pahri, punai, thimil, thoni and vangkam. The details and context are analysed for proper understanding of the probable size and function of each term. ambi ambi according to Tamil Lexicon (TL) is a small boat (TL 1982:96) found quoted in 14 instances. The context of vessel(s) with the sea is ten occurrences and with river(s) is four occurrences. It could be understood that this boat was used both in coastal fishing and river crossing. Regarding the appearance, the ambi which was tightly built alludes to horned buffalo floating in the pond (narrinai 315:3). This was also compared with the movement of elephant running after mirage to quench their thirst (akanaanuuru 29:18). Probably, these boats were black in colour and the shape could resemble that of an elephant. No reference to mast or sail is found. This was used for coastal fishing with net(s) (narrinai 74:3) and also for shark hunting by the fisherfolk (akanaanuuru 187:23). The boats lying ashore were used by the seagulls to lay eggs and incubate (aingkurunuuru 168:2). The ruined ambi lying on the coast (narrinai 315:3) is also accounted. In a poem this term was used along with other vessels namely thoni and kalam implying the variation in the function and appearance of other types (puranaanuuru 343:2). In the same poem it is found that this boat carried fish for selling and carried back the bartered paddy, while other crafts performed different functions. The reference of a damaged ambi along with marakkalam (wooden vessel) and vangkam (manimeekalai 29:6-10) imply a clear difference between ambi and other boats. Reference to ambi as a ferry service on the river is mentioned in the literature of later period(s), except on one occasion of an early period (puranaanuuru 381:24). The later literature mentions river crossing by ambi. The bows of ambi were decorated as horse, elephant and lion faces. This is quoted along with marappunai (wooden float) which was considered less luxurious (manimeekalai 13:178-179). From the above information it can be inferred that ambi was a small craft of not more than elephant size and was used in the coastal fishing and transport of goods, and also used for river crossing. As ambi is not mentioned with any sail and also used for river crossing it could have been propelled by paddles. kalam In Tamil the term kalam has many meanings. But the main meaning is vessel, a container made of wood, earth or any metal. The meaning related to the present study is a ship or a boat (TL 1982:778). In the literature of 17 occurrences one could discern that kalam was used for a ship with sails and it makes long voyages. However, in one instance the term was used for a littoral fishing boat (akanaanuuru 30:9). It is interesting to note that in most of the cases it is mentioned kalam was sailed by wind power �(puranaanuuru 26:12; puranaanuuru 30:12; puranaanuuru 386:14; kaliththokai 5:6). In many cases, it is accounted as a vessel which brought wealth in terms of wine and gold (akanaanuuru 149:9; puranaanuuru 56:18; puranaanuuru 343:15) and in turn left with pepper. This could be the ships from the Red sea region and there is direct evidence in the literature for yavanaa (the Greek, Romans) ships coming with gold and wine leaving with pepper and other articles (akanaanuuru 149; puranaanuuru 56:18; puranaanuuru 343:5). It is also mentioned that the kalams were navigated with the help of the light houses built in the coastal region (perumpaanarruppatai 350). There is an account that the poet amazes at the depth of the Kaveri river mouth that even the kalam did not roll down their sails and entered swiftly (puranaanuuru 30:12). In the epics the builders of kalam and their settlement are also mentioned (cilappathikaaram 5:31; manimeekalai 7:70). Hence, from the above evidence it can be inferred that kalam was a large deep sea vessel and sailed with the wind. mithavai The term mithavai which means a float (TL 1982:3199) is quoted only once as mithavaiayar (the people of the float) i.e. raft (paripaatal 6:35) with no additional details. naavaay This means a vessel or a ship (TL 1982:2109). It was a deep sea ship like kalam. These kind of ships were used by the Chera3 kings and they sailed in the Arabian Sea region and brought gold (puranaanuuru 126:15). The naavaay with full of goods from various countries is accounted (narrinai 295:6). This kind of ship went up to the river Ganges mouth loaded with products of the North and horses from the west (perumpaanarruppatai 320; mathuraikkaanjci 83; mathuraikkaanjci 321). From the evidence, it can be found that they sailed with wind power and reached the desired ports (narrinai 295:6; mathuraikkaanjci 83; paripaatal 10:39) and as they had visited many ports their masts were tied with flags which were viewed from the distance (puranaanuuru 13:5). The naavaay was caught in a cyclone, the scene of the rolling and pitching of the ship are also alluded (mathuraikkaanjci 379). Therefore, one can infer that the naavaays were indigenous deep sea ships, as this term is not used in context with foreigners (yavanaa). These ships might have plied between the Ganges and the Red sea region or at least in the coastal regions of the Indian sub-continent as it include a list of various goods loaded. However, in the later literature the term naavaay is also mentioned as a decked river boat (cilappathikaaram 14:74). The material with which the naavaay was built could not be discerned from the literature. 3 In the early Historic Tamilakam the south region was ruled by Pandyas, the north was ruled by Cholas and the west was by the Cheras and they were called as veendar (King). Other than them many local Chieftains also ruled small areas which were not governed by the vendars. �otam In Tamil otam means a Ferry boat or a raft (TL 1982:621). In the literature a solitary reference to otam is found (akanaanuuru 101:12). Here it is compared with the rising Sun in the sea implying a small sized vessel. pahri This means a boat (TL 1982:1494) and it occurs in one instance (pattinappaalai 30). This was a coastal boat which was used to barter salt with paddy. It can be compared with the ambi, as it was also used for exchange of paddy to fish (puranaanuuru 343). However, in poems the ambi for bartering is mentioned in the west coast context and pahri is accounted in the east coast. punai This means a raft or a float (TL 1982:1707). This term is used in the earlier literature such as kurunthokai, akanaanuuru and puranaanuuru. Hence this term was prevalent from the early period, but all in the context of river boats. These were made of European bamboo reeds sh. Arundo donax (akanaanuuru 6:8; akanaanuuru 180:9). The life-saving floating wood in the sea is accounted (kaliththokai 134:25), when the ships wrecked in a cyclone. On other occasions it is compared with the hero becoming the life-saver (punai) of a lover. The punai was a major craft used for water games in the river Vaigai near Madurai (kaliththokai 72:15). An account of punai being used in the river Periyar (puranaanuuru 192:9) is found. This was considered inferior to ambi as in the epic cilappathikaaram (13:179) the hero on one situation had to opt for marappunai instead of decorated horse, elephant, lion faced ambi boats. Sometimes in the literature the righteous life is compared with punai (kurinjcippattu 208; manimeekalai 11:77). In only one instance this term was found used for coastal fishing (akanaanuuru 280:9). From the above it can be inferred that punai was a river craft used as a raft for water games and life-saving floats and were made of bamboo reeds. thimil The term thimil means hump of a bull or fishing boat (TL 1982:1047). This term is found used only in the context of the Ocean. The fishermen in Tamil paratavar used this craft for hunting the sharks and other kind of fish. Going in thimil catching sharks with nets (narrinai 111:6; akanaanuuru 340:18) and many occasions with harpoons (narrinai 199:6; narrinai 388:4; kurunthokai 304:4) are referred to besides catching other kinds of fish and diving for conch shells (kurunthokai 123:5; akanaanuuru 240:3; akanaanuuru 350:11). The shape and size of the thimil could not be discerned, but they were used only in shallow waters. The robustness of thimil has been accounted as kotunthimil, the tight construction of thimil is mentioned as thinthimil and the long boats of this kind were called netunthimil. Reference to old boats with new nets and the nets with small openings also occurs (akanaanuuru 60:3; akanaanuuru 70:1). These boats were used for night as well as day fishing (akanaanuuru 65:11; narrinai 331:6-8). Lights were used in all the fishing boats of this kind (narrinai 199:6; narrinai �388:4). The scene from the shore of night fishing with thimil type of boats was compared to forest fires (akanaanuuru 65:11). These boats were owned by indiviuals and were not of single social group (narrinai 331:6-8). They also were helped in knowing their position by the light of of the light houses (pattinappaalai 111-112). From the above evidence it is clear that the term thimil was used only as fishing boats and they must have been small or medium sized coastal vessels. thoni This term means a boat (TL 1982:1236). This kind of boat was alluded to the horses moving in rows like the boats (thoni) floating on the sea (puranaanuuru 299:3). The thoni was brought ashore after fishing, is accounted in akanaanuuru (50:1). It is interesting to note that the people who fished in the boat thimil were mentioned as thoniar, implying the thimil was also called as thoni. vangkam The term vangkam means swiftly moving ship (TL 1982:3452). In the literature the term meant big ships that travel long distances. So the size of the ships could be fairly large. The vessel which went up to the river Ganges is accounted as vangkam (narrinai 189:5). The mast of the vangkam is also mentioned (narrinai 258:9). The captain navigated the vangkam with the help of light houses (akanaanuuru 255:1). They left for various places to obtain wealth (pathirrppaththu 52:4; cilappathikaaram 14:107). The vangkam was curveshaped (kaliththokai 92:48). Making series of ships to go up to Ganges is also mentioned (cilappathikaaram 26:165). The people from Java Island came in these vangkam type vessels (manimeekalai 14:73). And on many occasions the deep sea vessel vangkam is accounted in manimeekalai (14:73-85; 21:85; 25:126; 25:238; 26:85; 29:7). The vangkam that was wrecked is also accounted in manimeekalai (29:16). Other nautical terms Light houses The term lighthouse in Tamil is kalangkarai vilakkam (vessel>kalam, Shore>karai, light > vilakkam). There are instances mentioning the tall tower lights used as navigation markers. The akanaanuuru (255:1-6) mentions that from vangkam the sailors had located their vessels position based on the lights lit, on the high storied building rooftops. This is also attested by the pattinappaalai (111-112), but the vessel used for the fishing is mentioned as thimil. The perumpaanarruppatai (346-351) alludes to the lights lit in the night was for the boats, by climbing on the ladder on the building which almost touches the sky. However, the direct term kalangkarai vilakkam is found in cilappathikaaram (6:141). Anchors The stone anchor which damaged the ship due to cyclone in mathuraikkaanjci (375-379) is the solitary reference. Deleted: . �Ship building and repairing Though there is no direct evidence of ship building and their location, the term nankalam tarunarum (cilappathikaaram 5:31), kalampunar kammiyar refers to those who built ships in the seafront. The term kalamcey kammiyar (the ship builder) indirectly refers to the ship building activity during this period. The damaged ropes and joints of a ship were repaired with the help of a kind of resin by the captain (paripaatal 10:53-55). III. Discussion The literature clearly suggests that several varieties of crafts were used during early historic Tamilakam, and this proves the intensive nature of maritime activities. On the basis of data discussed above the crafts used could be divided in to three categories namely the size, function and provenance. The crafts ambi, mithavai, naavaay, pahri, punai, thimil and thoni were the medium or small sized crafts. thimil could have been well-designed because it served as a fishing craft. The crafts naavaay, vangkam and kalam were deepocean vessels. Not even a single clue to the shape of these crafts could be found. In terms of function punai was used in rivers and ambi was used in the coastal transport as well as river crossing. As mithavai and otam are not referred to often their function cannot be discerned. pahri and thoni were coastal crafts that plied as a lightering boats and were also used in the lagoons. As for provenance, it can be inferred that all the crafts mentioned in the literature were indigenous, except kalam that were associated with the yavanas. As reference to the ships builders is also available, it is clear that the various crafts were built by the local craftsmen. The author of Periplus4 mentions about the ship named sangara which travelled up to Malacca (Schoff 1912:46). This could be vangkam mentioned in the Tamil text. Archaeological excavations conducted at various port towns like Arikamedu (Begely 1991; Casal 1949; Wheeler, et al. 1946), Pumpuhar (Soundara Rajan and Raman 1994), Alagankulam (Abdual Majeed, et al. 1992), Korkai (Abdul Majeed 1987) on the east coast and Pattanam (Cherian, et al. 2007) on the west coast of Tamilakam prove beyond doubt that busy trade activities were undertaken in ancient Tamilakam. The volume of trade carried out with the Red Sea region was so huge (see Selvakumar this volume), that for exchange of various commodities there was a need to build various crafts. For which the early historic Tamilakam had indigenous knowledge on navigation and ship-building. Although these conclusions are based on the literary evidence, the terms of crafts must be studied in comparison with Greek, Sanskrit and other 4 The unknown author of the book The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea provides geographical information on ports of Red Sea, Arabian Seas and Bay of Bengal and the trade during 1st century C.E. �languages of Southeast Asia. The crafts in the literature of the early historic period were scantily referred to up to the medieval period (Rajamanickam and Arulraj 1994) and lost their names in the course of history. The study clearly highlights that several categories of watercrafts were used for different purposes and the indigenous crafts had an active role in the long distance trading. Bibliography Primary sources DuraisamyPillai, S. (ed.), 1995 DuraisamyPillai, S., (ed.), 2002 Ilavazhakan (ed.), 1999 Narayanasami Iyar, A. (ed.), 2001 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve. (ed.), 1985 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve. (ed.), 1985 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve. (ed.), 1985 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve. (ed.), 1980 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve., (ed.), 1980 SaminathaiyarU.Ve. (ed.), 1980 Sarangkapani, R. (ed.), 2003 ShanmugamPillai, M. (ed.), 1985 Somasudanranar, Po.Ve.,(ed.), 1983 Pathirruppattu muulamum vilakka uraiyum, The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai, (Reprint). Puranaanuuru,The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai (Reprint), Vol I &II. kaliththokai,The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai (3rd edition). Narrinai naanuuru muulamum uraiyum, The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai (Reprint). Puraa naanuru muulamum uraiyum, Tamil University, Thanjavur (7th Edition). paththuppattu,TamilUniversity, Thanjavur (Reprint). Cilappathikaaram muulamum arumpatha vuraiym atiyaarkkunallaar uraiyum, Tamil University, Thanjavur (10th Edition). Aingkurunuuru muulamum pazhaiya uraiyam, Dr.U.Ve. SaminathaiyarNoolnilayam, Chennai, (sixth edition). Pathirrppaththu muulamum pazhaiyauraiyum, Dr.U.Ve. SaminathaiyarNoolnilayam, Chennai (seventh edition). Paripaatal, Dr. U.Ve. SaminathaiyarNoolnilayam, Chennai, (sixth edition). Paripaatal, Kovilur Matalayam, Kovilur. Kuruntokai muulamum uraiyam, Tamil University, Thanjavur. akanaanuuru (manimitaipavalam, nittilakkoovai),The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai (Reprint). �VenkatasamiNattar,N.M. (ed.), 1985 VenkatasamiNattar, N.M. and DuraisamyPillai, S. (eds.), 1985 Cilappathikaaram, The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinneveli Limited, Chennai (Reprint). Ciiththalai caaththanaar iyarriya manimeekalai, The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinneveli Limited, Chennai (Reprint). Secondary sources Abdual Majeed, A., Thulasiraman. D., and Vasanthi.S., 1992 Abdul Majeed. A., 1987 Anonymous, 1982 Anonymous, 2001 Begley, V., 1991 Casal, J.M., 1949 Cherian, P. J., Selvakumar, V. and Shajan, K.P., 2007 Ragavan, A., 2005 Rajamanickam, G.V., and Arulraj, V., 1994 Schoff, W.H., 1912 Soundara Rajan, K.V. and Raman, K.V., 1994 Wheeler. R.E.M., Ghosh, A. and Krishna Deva, 1946 Alagankulam - A Preliminary Report, Dept. of Archaeology, Chennai. "A Note on Korkai Excavations", in Tamil Civilization, 5(1&2), Journal of Tamil University, Thanjavur pp.73-77. Tamil Lexicon, University of Madras. Madras. Vol. I-VI and Supplementary. Tamil Dictionary/Glossary on Historical Principles project, SANTI SADHANA, Chennai. Vol. I. "Ceramic Evidence for Pre-Periplus Trade from Arikamedu", in (eds.) Vimala .Begley and Richard Daniel De Puma, Rome and India Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp.157-196. Fouilles de Virampatnam-Arikamedu: Rapport de l’inde et de l’occident aux environs de l’ere chretienne, Imprimerie Nationale, Paris. "The Muziris Heritage Project Excavations at Pattanam", in Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology, Vol. 4, pp.1-10. namnaTTukappRkalai, amizhtampatippakam, (First edition 1968), Chennai. Maritime History of South India, Tamil University, Thanjavur. The Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, Longmans, Green and Co., New York. Kaveripattinam Excavations 1963-73, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India No.50, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. "ARIKAMEDU: An Indo-Roman Trading-station on the East Coast of India", in Ancient India, Vol 2, pp.17-124. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nautical Terms as Gleaned from Ancient Tamil Literature Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource During the beginning of the Common Era, the Maritime trade peaked in the regions of Southeast Asia, Peninsular India, Srilanka and the Red Sea coast. The Greek and Latin accounts clearly attest to the increased trade activities in this period. The use of large crafts for navigation is well recorded in these accounts. The early historic Tamil Sangam literature dated between 300 B.C.E. and 300 C.E. provide valuable data regarding the nautical knowledge of that period. Some researchers have attempted to collate and interpret the data on nautical terms available in this literature. However, a detailed contextual analysis based on the content of the poems has not been attempted so far. Many types of crafts such as naavaay, vangam, thimil, and punai, are found mentioned in the Sangam literature, and these terms are not in use at present. The field studies conducted by scholars have revealed the existence of many indigenous crafts having different names on the South Indian Coast. Due to modern development the usage of traditional crafts is fast vanishing. In this paper an attempt is made to analyse the names and structure of the crafts that occur in the Sangam literature based on their contextual information. For example, the term naavaay is mentioned in the context of deep-sea craft which carried goods of various types. The data pertaining to the boats and ships and other nautical terms are analysed in this paper. An attempt is also made to find out the possible reasons for the disappearance of the various crafts referred in the literature. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource N. Athiyaman Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ec58639175e5eaa5dfa1016f57575cd4.pdf 374f4b44ba42239bbb8cd94d4ff6d3c2 PDF Text Text Ancient and Medieval ports of the Gulf of Mannar Coast, East coast India and their Maritime Connections across Indian Ocean Countries N. Athiyaman Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology, Tamil University Thanjavur 613010, India Email: rajachidam@gmail.com Abstract The Gulf of Mannar lies in the south-eastern corner of India, bordered by Sri Lanka on the south east. It covers the coast of Tamil Nadu from the island of Rameswaram to Kanniyakumari. This region witnessed extensive long distance maritime activities from the Early Historic period; from 500 BCE to 500 CE. Like other ports of this region, Korkai was part of the Indo-Roman trade activities and literally mentioned in Greek sources. Evidence of Roman contact has been found at the ports of Korkai and Alagankulam. In the Medieval period, Kayal and Periyapattinam were important ports of this region, which is also rich in underwater marine resources and famous for their coral reefs. Stone anchors have been found in this region during surveys by the author. This region has one of the important marine resources venerated by Indians from the ancient period: Turbinella Pyrum. Pearl harvesting was very active in this region for several centuries. It was commercially exploited and exported to many regions in India and beyond. The proposed paper seeks to study the marine archaeological evidence and their importance from the Early Historic period to the medieval period; from 500 BCE to 1600 CE. Key words: Ancient ports, Gulf of Mannar, Korkai, Alagankulam, Pearl fishery, Trade network 1 �Introduction Even before the Christian era, a vibrant trade network between Southeast Asia and Mediterranean region was present in the Indian subcontinent as a transit marketplace. The Indian subcontinent, rich in resources, played a major commercial role between its double-sided counterparts of Southeast Asia and the Red Sea region. More studies are being attempted to view the trade dynamics of these regions from a holistic perspective as maritime contacts cross both cultural and political boundaries. This paper is an attempt to view the active role played by the Southeast Indian coast, a part of the maritime gateway extending between Cape Comorin and Rameswaram Island. Studying this 300 km stretch of land could be useful for understanding the maritime importance of this region (Fig. 1). Sources To understand the maritime trade process of this region for the study period, ancient Tamil Literature, specifically the two Sangam Epics, Silapatikaram and Manimekalai, foreign accounts and sporadic archaeological excavations carried out form the basic sources of the study. The temple inscriptions and foreigners' accounts of the medieval period are used for the later periods. Sources available from Southeast Asia and the Red Sea region Fig. 1 Map showing the Early Historic are also taken in to account. Marine and Medieval Ports of the study Area. archaeological studies by the author around (Athiyaman, 2014) the Rameswaram region as well as previous studies made by the author on pearl fishing were also used as sources for this article. The Hinterland and the resources for Maritime relations The inland region of the study area is a dry plain region shadowed by the Western Ghats of the subcontinent in the west. This region has many rivers; the Vaigai in the 2 �north and the Gundar, Vaippar and Tamraparani in the south. The main source of water flow in these rivers comes from the Southwest monsoon and to a lesser extent during the Northeast monsoon. All of these rivers except the Vaigai are not perennial. However the deltaic area is not as vast as compared to the river Kaveri which flows in central Tamil Nadu. Except for the regions near the river banks, all the regions are semi-arid in nature. Archaeological sites found in this region are few compared to sites found in the northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Those that are found are located along the river course (Rajan, 2011). As these regions were ruled by the Pandiya Kings, spices and forest products available in the Western Ghats could be traded through the ports of Bacare and Nelkynda situated south of Muziri on the west coast, a famous emporium. Only the pearl and Conch shells were the only local resources from this region contributing to trade. However, being situated centrally between the east and west, this coast played a lead role in trade activities. Ports The presence of ports indicates the maritime activities of the particular region and their possible connections with the hinterland. At the very least, resources should be available the region for ships to come and replenish their food stocks and water. Usually the river mouths were used as anchorages for the large boats and ships in the east coast of India. The available evidence suggests that no permanent port structure existed in the early historic period of the Tamizhakam. However, small boats were used to carry the goods from the ships to shore and vice versa. In the present study area the ports or the coastal habitations of considerable importance could be culled out from the foreigners’ accounts, literature and the inscriptions. During the early historic period, from the south, the Cape Comorin, the Korkai at the confluence of River Tamraparani and Alagankulam at the mouth of River Vaigai played a major role in maritime activities. During the early medieval period and medieval period the newly formed ports of Kayal and Periyapattinam played a significant role in the maritime activities. Smaller coastal settlements also were active during this period. The ports of the early historic and medieval period from the south to the north are briefly discussed here. Early Historic Ports 3 �Comorin This is the southernmost tip of the subcontinent which is the meeting point of three seas; the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Mannar. As the wave travels along these three seas in different seasons, for the most part the weather in this region could be rough. The possibility of the existence of a port for maritime trade is remote, since the place for anchorage and cargo transfer is not conducive. However, in foreigner accounts, one finds mention of this place invariably as it was considered a holy place well before the Christian era. Ptolemy mentions this place as Komaria, a cape and town (McCrindle, 1927). Periplus accounts for it as a cape and harbour and also mentions that “(T)here come those men who wish to consecrate themselves for the rest of their lives, and bathe and dwell in celibacy; and women also do the same; for it is told that a goddess once dwelt here and bathed” (Schoff, 1912). So far, no archaeological study around this region has been made. Korkai Korkai, now 6 km east of the coast, where the sea has receded, was one of the important emporia of the Pandiyan Kingdom during Christian era. It lies on the bank of the river Tamraparani. Adichanallur was another contemporary important early historic settlement lying 15 km west of Korkai. Adichanallur was excavated by Rea and ASI (Rea, 1915; Nambirajan et al., 2009). Ancient Tamil literature alludes to Korkai as the place of a fishing community that also dived for pearls and conch shells. One of the anthologies, akanaanuuRu (130:11), refers to it as a coastal town. Periplus (59) mentions, "from Comari toward the south this region extends to Colchi, where the pearlfisheries are; (they are worked by condemned criminals); and it belongs to the Pandian Kingdom..." (Schoff, 1912). Ptolemy accounts 'Kolkhoi' as an emporium (Renou, 1925). Korkai was famous for pearl fishing until very recently. The pearls obtained from this place acquired great trade importance. The importance of the pearl fishery is discussed elsewhere in this paper. 4 Fig. 2 Anchor salvaged off Rameswaram, Gulf of Mannar. (Athiyaman, 2001) �During the 1870's, Caldwell made an exploration and sporadic excavations at Korkai and Kayal (east of Korkai) and published an article in Indian Antiquary. He made a thorough survey and found only the pearl oysters and conch shells on the surface and beneath the soil (Caldwell, 1982). He also came across two Buddha images, two Singhalese coins and sepulchral urns. He discussed in detail about the sea receding to the east and the formation of a new port called Kayal during the medieval period. Based on the literary evidence, the State Department of Archaeology of Tamil Nadu excavated Korkai in the 1969 and found evidence for the cultural sequence of three periods ranging from the 3rd century BCE–4th centuries CE, the 4th–10th centuries CE and between the 10th–14th centuries CE (Sridhar, 2004). The excavations revealed indigenous pottery with early Tamil scripts, sawed conch shells, bangle pieces, and semi-precious stones of the early historic period. A brick structure was also found along with the ring well. The excavation revealed the uninterrupted activity of this place. Alagankulam This site is situated near the river mouth of Vaigai at the extreme north of the present study area. The place mentioned in Periplus as 'Argaru' could be identified with present Alagankulam rather than Uraiyur which is far inland as proposed by the scholars (Sastri, 1972; Athiyaman, 2013). As this port was situated in Palk Bay the transfer of cargo from ships coming from the south was made through a land crossing about twenty kilometres north. This site was excavated by the State Department of Archaeology of Tamil Nadu during 1990's in five seasons (Sridhar, 2005). It yielded a cultural sequence of four periods ranging from 500 BCE to 1200 CE after which the site lost its importance probably due to the emergence of the port Periyapattinam during this period. The site has yielded indigenous as well as western wares, particularly roulette wares. The site has yielded Terracotta dice, spindle whorls, and measuring weights. A Fig. 3 Anchor Salvaged at Gulf of Mannar. (Athiyaman, 2001) 5 �remarkable piece of Red Roulette ware dated to 1st-2nd centuries CE was unearthed with the symbol of ships with oars identified as the depiction of a Roman vessel by Lionel Casson (Sridhar, 2005). The Roman coins of 4th-5th centuries CE were also unearthed in this place. This signifies the active role of this port during early historic and early medieval period. Medieval Ports Kayal As the sea receded along the Gulf of Mannar, Korkai lost its importance around the 10th century. Another port settlement near the sea at the mouth of the River Tamraparani was established. This is due to the importance of the pearl and conch shell fishery and their related activities. This place was also explored by Caldwell during the 1870's. He reported Chinese porcelain wares of many varieties, broken pieces of Arabian ware and Arabian gold coins of 13th century implying the east-west contact in this region (Caldwell, 1982).The Chinese wares of the 13th century found during the exploration at old Kayal and the absence of them in later periods suggest that another settlement south of this place established in the later period since the Chinese ware found south of Kayal, at a site called Punnaikayal, yielded the wares of later periods (Karashima et al., 2004). So far no excavations have been made in this region. However, the Colonial records provide ample information regarding this place which implies that the area was busy with maritime activities. Periyapattinam Periyapattinam, one of the late medieval ports, lies in the Gulf of Mannar region 15 km south of Alagankulam. During excavations conducted by Tamil University with Noboru Karashima in 1987, many Chinese wares have been unearthed and studied for their provenance and possible dating (Karashima et al., 2004). It flourished during 13-14th century CE. It has been mentioned in a Chinese source as 'Dabadan' and Ibn Battuta described it as 'Fattan' (Karashima, 1989; Karashima, 2004). Other minor settlements and ports 6 �During the early historic period Ptolemy mentions some other places which were on the south east coast: Sosikourai, on the Mouth of the River Solen and Kory, also called Kalligikon (McCrindle, 1927). Of these, Kory could be identified with Rameswaram with some certainty. Other places are not as clearly understood. During the Medieval period Kulsekarapattinam, Virapandianpattinam were situated south of Kayal and Kilakkarai (alias Ninaithathumudittan pattinam), west of Periyapattinam has also been identified from the Tamil Inscriptions (Jayakumar, 2001). These places must also have played a considerable role in maritime trade. Marine Archaeological Studies Offshore and onshore explorations conducted in the Gulf of Mannar region of India, by the Centre for Underwater Archaeology of Tamil University have yielded two grapnel type (Indo-Arabian) stone anchors under the shallow waters in the Gulf of Mannar (Figs. 2 and 3). From the region where these two anchors were collected, two more were also found onshore, one a grapnel type and another trapezoidal type. These three grapneltype anchors are now exhibited in the Tamil University museum. Apart from this, a mooring stone, presumably a grapnel type anchor has also been noticed near Tuticorin coast, which even now is used for mooring the fishing boats (Athiyaman, 2001). Though they were dated to between 13th and 14th centuries CE a petrographic analysis may push the date further into the Christian era. Surveys conducted by National Institute of Oceanography around Manapad area, north of Kayalpattinam revealed single holed stone anchors indicating the continuance of indigenous navigation technology (Sundaresh, 2013). Ships and boats of this region The Tamil literature clearly suggests that several varieties of crafts were in use during the early historic Tamizhakam, which proves the extensive nature of its maritime activities. The crafts ambi, mithavai, naavaay, pahri, punai, thimil and toni were medium or small sized crafts. Thimil may have been well-designed since it served as a fishing craft. The crafts naavaay, vangkam and kalam were deep ocean vessels. Not a single clue into the shape of these crafts could be found. Pahri and toni were coastal crafts that plied between the big vessels anchored offshore and were also used in the lagoons. It can be inferred that all the crafts mentioned in the literature except kalam, 7 �which is associated with the Yavanas, were indigenous (Athiyaman, 2011a). Since references to the ship builders are also available, it is clear that the various crafts were built by local craftsmen. The author of Periplus mentions ships named sangara which travelled up to Malacca (Schoff, 1912). This could be the vangkam mentioned in the Tamil text. Archaeological excavations conducted at port towns of Alagankulam (Sridhar, 2005), Korkai (Sridhar, 2004) and Periyapattinam (Karashima et al., 2004) in Tamizhakam prove beyond doubt that busy trade activities were undertaken in ancient Tamizhakam. The volume of trade carried out with the Red Sea region was so huge (Selvakumar, 2011), that for the exchange of various commodities there was need to build various crafts. The early historic Tamizhakam had indigenous knowledge on navigation and shipbuilding. Although this idea is based on the literary evidence, the terms of crafts must be studied in comparison with Greek, Sanskrit and other languages of Southeast Asia. The crafts in the literature of the early historic period were scantily referred to up to the medieval period and lost their names over the course of history. The study clearly highlights that several categories of watercrafts were used for different purposes and the indigenous crafts too had an active role in the long distance trading (Athiyaman, 2011b). Pearl and conch shell fishery Rich in pearl oysters and conch shells the Gulf of Mannar was an attraction not only to traders but too many writers as well. A great deal of importance was given to the pearl and chank fishery and references to this industry off Korkai and Kayal are many. Throughout history, the Gulf of Mannar enjoyed busy trade activities due to the pearl industry (Table. 1). Besides conch shell diving also had its importance each year. A detailed study of this Industry has already been documented by scholars (Arunachalam, 2011; Stephen, 1998; Athiyaman, 2000; Decla, 2008). Table 1. Account of Pearl and Chank Fishery on Indian Coast of Gulf of Mannar Account of Period Reference Megasthenes 3rd century CE McCrindle, 2008 Strabo 21 CE McCrindle, 1979 8 �Periplus 60 CE Schoff, 1912 Pliny 77 CE McCrindle, 1979 Pan Kou end of the first century Sastri 1972 CE Cosmos 6th Century CE McCrindle, 1979 Ma Twan Lin 550 - 600 CE Sastri, 1972 Yuan Chwang 645 CE Sastri, 1972 Chau Ju-Kua 1225 CE Hirth and Rockhill, 1966 Marco Polo 1260 -1300 CE Yule and Cordier, 1993 Account of embassies 1279-1292 CE Sastri, 1972 between China and India John of Montecorvino 1292-1293 CE Sastri, 1972 Wang Ta Yuan 1330 CE Rockhill 1915 Friar Jordanus 1323-1330 CE Sastri, 1972 Ibn Battuta 1333-1345 CE Sastri, 1972 Duarte Barbosa 1516-1517 CE Dames, 1967 Caesar Frederic 1563-1581 CE Caldwell, 1982 Perdro Teixeira 1568 CE Sinclair and Ferguson, 1967 Van Linschoten 1576-1592 CE 9 Arunachalam, 2011 �This industry was worked by the local fishing community, namely Paratavar, from time immemorial as the conch shell collection is carried out even today by them without any intervention (Athiyaman, 2000). This industry around Korkai and then Kayal region has attracted many traders from east and west and this enhanced its influence in the socio-political environment of the inland region (Arunachalam, 2011; Stephen, 1998). Horse Trade Arabian horses were traded along the West and East Coast of South India in the early historic period. The horses making voyages along the Arabian Sea reached the South east coast of Tamil Fig. 4 Mosaic of Nadu and were much sought after up to the Thiruppudaimarudur painting of Vijayanagar period. The inscriptions recounting Horse Trade. (Athiyaman and horse trading and the sculptures and paintings on Rajavelu, 2011) maritime activities depicted in the medieval temples of Tamil Nadu are striking examples. The Nayak period painting depicting an Arab ship arrival with horses was found at Thiruppudaimarudur Temple, Thirunelveli District and sculptural representation of Arab merchants landing in a ship at Thirukkurungudi temple provide authentic evidence regarding the maritime activities of this region (Deloche, 2011; Athiyaman, 2011, Figs. 4-5). This trade was mainly carried out by the Arab merchants as the inscriptions and the art representations suggest (Jayakumar, 2001; Athiyaman, 2011; Rajavelu, 2011). Maritime Trade with Southeast Asia and China Since Sri Lanka is nearest the study region, the maritime trade contact was very frequent and almost uninterrupted from 3rd century BCE. The evidence of the existence of early contacts is covered in recently edited volumes (Manguin et al., 2011). The earliest Tamil inscription is found at Khuan Luk Pat of Thailand, a touch stone belonging to the goldsmith of the third century CE (Chaisuwan, 2011). Medieval Tamil Inscriptions 10 �at various places of Southeast Asia prove beyond doubt that the contact between Gulf Fig. 5 Sculptural representation of Horse Trade (Thirukkurungudi). (Athiyaman, 2011) of Mannar region and Southeast Asia was prolific (Subbarayalu, 1998; Karashima, 2002). It continued as one could glean from the accounts of pearl fishing in the Gulf of Mannar even during the Colonial period. Maritime Trade with Western world Many studies have been made by scholars on the Indo-Roman trade after Warmington (1974). The ports of India, trade goods, shipping and navigation have been studied in the light of the foreign accounts, archaeological excavations conducted at Indian ports of Pattanam, Pumpuhar, Arikamedu, Alagankulam and Korkai, pottery inscriptional evidences and the Vienna Papyrus as well. It is beyond the scope of this present paper. However, the western trade with this region was continued, without break and this region played an active role in it (Young, 2001; De Romanis, 2012). Potential region for Marine Archaeological Studies The Gulf of Mannar has more marine archaeological potential than the northern coast of Tamil Nadu of India. The Marine Archaeological studies carried out at various places of the Northern Tamil Coast like Pumpuhar, Arikamedu and Mamallapuram did not yield much evidence except for the 18th century shipwreck explored by CSIR-NIO, Goa, off Pumpuhar (Sila Tripati et al., 1996; and Sila Tripati et al., 2003). The excavation conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India, also did not yield any concrete 11 �evidence due to the nature of seabed. In northern Tamil Nadu a lot of sediments are carried by the rivers throughout the year and they are deposited in the littoral and shallow water region. The clay formation is so high that a fairly good marine archaeological exploration is not at all possible. However, the Gulf of Mannar is protected by Sri Lanka from the onslaught of huge waves and cyclones. Hence the shipwrecks and lost anchors could be found with more convenience. The sea is relatively calm for long periods. Moreover, the stone anchors found off Rameswaram can be taken as a precursor for marine archaeological studies. The busy trade activity throughout history allows one to presume that this region should be probed intensively in future. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Dr. M. Thirumalai, Vice-Chancellor, Tamil University for his constant support in research and giving permission to contribute the paper at the Asia Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Hawaii. Acknowledgement is also due to Drs. S. Rajavelu and V. Selvakumar of Tamil University for their suggestions in improving the paper. References Arunachalam, S., 2011. 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In Claude Guillot (Ed.), Histoire de Barus, Sumatra, Le Site de Lobu Tua I: Etudes et Documents, Cahiers d 'Archipel 30, Paris: 25-33. Sundaresh., 2013. Stone anchors of Manapad Region, Tamil Nadu. Paper Presented in the 8th National Conference on Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries, Dedicating to Dr. S. R. Rao 1st-2nd July 2013 Organized by Society for Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Oceanography Dona Paula, Goa. Warmington, E. H., 1974. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi. Young, G. K., 2001. Rome's Eastern Trade: International Commerce and imperial policy, 31 BC - AD 305. Routledge, London. Yule, H., and Cordier, H., 1993. The book of Ser Marco Polo. Munshiram Manoharlal publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Biography N. Athiyaman working as a Professor in the Department of Maritime History and Marine Archaeology of Tamil University, Thanjavur, India has about 30 years of service in research organisations at various levels. He has participated in marine archaeological investigation off Pumpuhar, in collaboration with National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai. He has salvaged four stone anchors and two metal anchors of medieval period in Gulf of Mannar. He has participated in excavations of early historic settlement sites conducted by Tamil University. He has authored four books and edited 13 volumes on Archaeology, History and Maritime History. He is the life member of Indian History congress, Society for Marine Archaeology and Tamil Nadu Archaeological Society. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ancient and Medieval ports of the Gulf of Mannar Coast, East coast India and their Maritime Connections across Indian Ocean Countries Description An account of the resource The Gulf of Mannar lies in the south-eastern corner of India, bordered by Sri Lanka on the south east. It covers the coast of Tamil Nadu from the island of Rameswaram to Kanniyakumari. This region witnessed extensive long distance maritime activities from the Early Historic period; from 500 BCE to 500 CE. Like other ports of this region, Korkai was part of the Indo-Roman trade activities and literally mentioned in Greek sources. Evidence of Roman contact has been found at the ports of Korkai and Alagankulam. In the Medieval period, Kayal and Periyapattinam were important ports of this region, which is also rich in underwater marine resources and famous for their coral reefs. Stone anchors have been found in this region during surveys by the author. This region has one of the important marine resources venerated by Indians from the ancient period: Turbinella Pyrum. Pearl harvesting was very active in this region for several centuries. It was commercially exploited and exported to many regions in India and beyond. The proposed paper seeks to study the marine archaeological evidence and their importance from the Early Historic period to the medieval period; from 500 BCE to 1600 CE. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource N. Athiyaman, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/bd39efe15d9c6b8eaa935deaeabcc53b.pdf af2e90eaf07e486b624549db95a1b185 PDF Text Text History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia Nady Phann Abstract Since early times, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. The first glimpses into the maritime past of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom of which there are various versions. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s maritime past can be seen submerged in its waterways. For example, a shipwreck loaded with artifacts was recently discovered in territory of the Cambodian sea. Many other wrecks have been reported along the various inland waterways of the country, and have yet to be examined. It is only now, however, that Cambodia is beginning to progress and build its capacity in maritime archaeology, after the country became the first, and only, Southeast Asian Country to ratify the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. This paper seeks to present a description of important recent works carried out in the whole country, particularly the survey, as well as define gaps relating to the preservation and management of maritime archaeological resources. Geographical Context Cambodia has a long history as a country with an important maritime background. It is situated in Southeast Asia, forms part of the south portion of the Indochinese peninsula. It is bounded on the north by Laos, on the east and southeast by Vietnam, and on the west and northwest by Thailand. In the southwest, Cambodia is bordered by the Gulf of Thailand with a coastline of 435 kilometres (km), which is occupied by four provinces namely Koh Kong, Sihanoukville, Kampot and Kep. To the southeast of the country lies the delta of the Mekong River. The capital and largest city of Cambodia is Phnom Penh, located at Chaktomuk, which means 'four faces' that relates to the geographical confluence of four rivers - the Upper and Lower Mekong, the Tonle Sap and the Bassac. The city traditionally has been a commercial centre for the Mekong Valley with facilities for transportation by air, rail, river, and highway. It is a major river port, with an outlet to the South China Sea through the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Cambodia’s most important river and waterway is the Mekong, the longest river in Southeast Asia and the tenth largest in the world. The Mekong runs southward through Cambodia for 486 km that passes through Phnom Penh, where it divides into the geographical confluence of four rivers. Both the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River remain the hub of Cambodia's economy, transportation, and supports fisheries, agricultural irrigation (particularly important for rice production), in addition to cultural activities. There are several other important river networks in Cambodia including the Battambang rivers (centre of the Sangke River), the Stung Treng group (the Sesan, Sekong and Srepok Rivers), and the Sen River (Kompong Thom). Historical Review of Waterways in Cambodia In the past, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation, providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. Maritime relations were established early between India, China, and the Arabs and then firmed between various parts of the coast of the Indochinese peninsula, the Malay Peninsula and Sunda Islands in Indonesia (Molyvann 2003:6). 1 �However, well before the arrival of foreign navigators, the local populations living along the rivers had established their own fleet of ships and had built cross-community relationships, thanks to continual exchanges along the coasts. The river networks provided the grid along which settlements were established and the Mekong remains the most important natural resource in Cambodia. The first glimpses into the maritime and waterways of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom. There are various versions of this tale which are beyond the scope of this paper. The ancient city of Angkor Borei, located in the south of Cambodia, was one of the major population centres of Funan (Pelliot 1903:295). As a result of recent archaeological excavations at Angkor Borei, we now know that a significant population had already settled here prior to the 1st century Common Era (CE)1 and that the deepest layers excavated dates back to the Bronze Age and thus well before the Age of Funan2. Further to the southeast, another city contemporary to Angkor Borei was built on the coast, previously known as the Gulf of Siam. This city called Oc-Eo (in present day Vietnam) was also a Funan site, and also an important port where foreign merchants came to settle since sea routes from India and the Malay Peninsula probably ended here. The exterior wall of the Oc-Eo site consisted of four embankments with five moats. The principal axis of the site was probably a canal, and the site lay at the heart of a regional network of waterways. Aerial photographs reveal a large network of manmade waterways, which served as drainage channels and irrigation canals. This network of canals, interconnected with each other and to other rivers, was also used for water traffic between population centres found along the Bassac and Mekong Rivers. In areas close to the sea, this system of waterways helped to regulate the degree of salinization from the sea. Waterways in the Oc-Eo region seem to have run from north-northeast to south-southwest, following the general gentle slope of the terrain (Molyvann 2003:8-9). The system of water management established in Funan became characteristic of Khmer settlements and still persists in many rural areas up to the present. During the 6th and 7th centuries CE, maritime traffic between China, Southeast Asia and India began to shift from existing routes skirting the coasts to more direct routes across the South China Sea from Indonesia to North Vietnam and China. Since Funan depended heavily on maritime trade, its fortunes began to wane and power shifted to a new entity called 'Chenla' in Chinese accounts (Molyvann 2003:42). The territory of Chenla probably extended far to the east and included the Mekong and Tonle Sap River valleys. When Funan was still a prosperous maritime power, the rulers of Chenla probably were still integrated with the ruling class of Funan. However, they were not completely dependent on maritime commerce and increasingly their sources of power stemmed from the inland control of territory and people3. During the Angkor period from the 9th to the 14th centuries, Khmer kings left the Mekong River and migrated inland (Molyvann 2003:13).However, the glory and prosperity of the Angkor civilization was, no doubt, based on its complex hydrography and also on trade that assisted the development of the country into a great riverine power. Numerous images on Khmer temple bas-reliefs illustrate a life settled along 1 A Georgian Calendar designation that starts at the year 1 from the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth, with additional years since added one by one. 2 see Stark, M. “Some Preliminary Results of the 1999-2000 Archaeological Field Investigation at Angkor Borei, Takeo Province” in Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies, (2); 2001 3 - Funan was so called by the Chinese envoys early in the third century that may be a transcription of a local name bhnam (phnom), which means "mountain" or "Kingdom of the Mountain".Chenla (Land and Water) are often referred to by these Chinese derived names. With the development of early Khmer civilization these terms can be replaced by the more accurate classification of Pre-Angkorian period 2 �navigable water-courses, fishing activities and a lifestyle attesting to a long tradition of skilled boat construction and watercraft technology. The three major river systems flowing across the Angkor region today are known as the Puok, the Siem Reap, and the Roluos. The Puok River, which is the furthest west, has a contemporary catchment area measuring 670 square kilometers. The main river is joined in its northernmost sector by a number of tributaries, and flows southwest into the marshes of the Tonle Sap. It is probable that the Puok River supplied water to one of the earliest known historical cities of the region (Choulean, ,et al. 1996:6). Early in the Angkor period the river was partially diverted just below the northern tributaries into an artificial canal known as Royal (Water) fill, to join what is now the Siem Reap river north of the Angkorian urban complex in a village known today. Recent evidence suggests the Siem Reap River was in fact a canal flowing through the urban complex with its water feeding temple moats and smaller canal systems within the city, as well as artificial reservoirs (Choulean, Prenowitz, and Thompson 1996: 8). This waterway was the principal water course of the capital. Today, as in ancient times, the river continues south of the Angkorian urban complex to flow through the modern town of Siem Reap before discharging into the Tonle Sap near Phnom Krom. The easternmost of the three main rivers on the plain is the Roluos. This river was exploited to supply an early urban complex known during the Angkorian period (see below) as Hariharalaya, and located just north of the modern town of Roluos. The Roluos River also feeds into the marshes of the Tonle Sap. Many other streams in the area have been modified and channeled to control the flow of water for irrigating sloping agricultural land to the south (Choulean, Prenowitz, and Thompson 1996: 8). The Tonle Sap flows south from the Kulen mountain range and north from its junction with the Mekong at Cambodia's modern-day capital Phnom Penh. The river flow naturally changes direction twice a year, alternately filling and draining the lake, this is extremely rare if not unique in the world. The same can be said of the complex social practices and technologies that have developed around the Tonle Sap with a particular form of agricultural land use and 'floating' settlement having evolved along the lake in response to this unique hydrology (Choulean, et al. 1996:10). Historical Background The Mekong and Tonle Sap River are not only important sources for Cambodia's economy such as transportation, fishing, agricultural irrigation system, but are also essential waterways that play an important role like a door toward the world. This essentially means that these waterways are related to cultural activities. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s past can also be seen submerged in its waterways. The southern coastal riverine and maritime port of Kampot (including the town of Kep) was an important staging point for goods and visitors to Cambodia from the early through middle period to the French colonial era that immediately preceded the establishment of a new maritime centre at Sihanoukville in the 1950s (Molyvann 2003:193). Cities were developed primarily on the plain of Siem Reap-Angkor, which lies in the basin of the Tonle Sap Great Lake. The Angkorian dynasties began in 802 CE, when the first King of Angkor, Jayavarman II was invested with power on Phnom Kulen. After Angkor was definitively abandoned as the royal capital in the 15th century CE, the area today known as Cambodia became a battlefield as a result of numerous foreign invasions. The political capital shifted frequently and the population remained primarily rural and scattered throughout areas of the Mekong River valley. 3 �Phnom Penh was founded in 1431 CE, immediately after the Khmer kings abandoned Angkor (Coedès 1989:22-24). The site adopted for the new capital stretched along the Tonle Sap River. By the end of the 16th century, Phnom Penh was a flourishing mercantile centre populated by Khmer, Chinese, Japanese, Arabs, Spanish, Indonesians and Portuguese. In the 17th century, it had a small river port which received ocean-faring ships owned by Malay and Batavian trade companies (Blancot and Hetreau-Pottier 1997:29). In the Middle Period (16th -18th century CE), the royal palace was located at Oudong the capital during the 17th century with a river port at Kompong Luong or 'royal port' - the term 'kompong' adopted from the Malay word meaning 'landing-place'. The French Protectorate (1863-1953 CE) was established by a treaty signed with France in 1863. This treaty allowed Cambodia to re-establish commerce in the China Sea via the Mekong River and use the port of Saigon (formerly, the ancient Khmer city of Prei Nokor, present-day Ho Chi Minh City) in Vietnam. Under the French Protectorate, the royal palace moved to Phnom Penh that had become a transit point for goods imported from Thailand and Cochinchine attracting Chinese merchants and gradually developing into an urban centre combining business with the centre of royal power (Blancot and Hetreau-Pottier 1997:30). The port of Sihanoukville (also known as Kompong Som) is located about 225 kilometres south of the capital Phnom Penh on the extreme south of the bay of Kompong Som where it opens onto the Gulf of Thailand. Sihanoukville continues to fulfil an essential role in the integration of Cambodia into the world economy. At present this teeming sea-port hosts vessels of all types in the harbour, including colourful local fishing boats (Molyvann 2003:192-193). The main road from Sihanoukville to Phnom Penh has become the economic lifeline of Cambodia, as it carries seafood, salt and a variety of imported goods to the capital city and beyond. The Situation of Underwater Cultural Heritage The beginning of underwater archaeology in Cambodia In 2006, fishermen discovered a shipwreck at a depth of 20 meters in Koh Kong province, some 210 km southwest of the capital Phnom Penh. Looting of shipwreck artifacts occurred before the news got out. The ship, approximately 30 meters long and 8 meters wide, has not been closely examined in terms of boat-building technology. However, Chinese characters were found on some of recovered 900 pieces of pottery that were initially dated to the 15th or 16th century CE (Cambodia Daily, February 10th 2006). This event led Cambodia to begin efforts in underwater archaeology. The Cambodian government has asked foreign partners to help salvage and bring up the centuries-old vessel (Cambodia Daily, February 10th 2006). In 2007, the 2001 Convention was ratified by the Cambodian government. Over the next two years two Cambodian staff were sent to attend an intensive program on Underwater Cultural Heritage Management in Australia organized by Flinders University. Four others participated in three successive workshops: Foundation Courses on Underwater Cultural Heritage organized by UNESCO Bangkok and the Thai Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD). In 2010, the Cambodian Underwater Cultural Heritage Unit was created under the General Department of Heritage. After the unit establishment, survey started at the coastline and along the rivers. This program was supported by UNESCO Phnom Penh. Some data collected from the coastline survey is still doubtful because the exact location of the shipwrecks were not located. The verification of all data will be 4 �conducted in the next program when we will have a larger budget and can entail more technical experts. Other Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites We have underwater sites which are not shipwrecks but possess artifacts or sculptures, such as Voeun Kong and Koh Bay Samnom in Stoeng Treng province and Thma Krae in Kratie province. These sites are submerged, near the bottom of the Mekong Rivers. The sites are visible only one month a year during the dry season. Voeun Kong is a relief of sculpture on rock which consists of two crocodiles, one turtle, sun disk and full moon. In a nearby area, there is an ancient brick mound at the bank of the rivers. Koh Bay Samnom is a small island containing some bricks and a stone inscription. At Thma Krae there is also a stone inscription. Training and Survey General training on underwater archaeology research methodology is held at the office of Cultural Heritage. The preliminary training focused on the definition of underwater cultural heritage (UCH), its importance, the kinds of UCH, the research and survey methodology4.The activity work plan and bibliography references were listed and distributed to all members to conduct research on documentation and a questionnaire was formulated for the survey in related provinces. Moreover, administrative letters have been sent to all Departments of Culture and Fine Arts in provinces to cooperate and collect data concerning this subject. Data collection is gathered in three ways, research documentation, collection from provinces and the actual survey. The preliminary survey was directed at the coast in Koh Kong province where a shipwreck was discovered by fishermen. The mission’s objective was to train research team members on data collection methodology. Interviews with fishermen at different places were held. A fishermen community was assembled at a Bak Khlang commune for information dissemination purposes that resulted in data collection. Table 1. List of underwater sites Site Site Name UTM UTM Province District Location Number (s) Easting Northing 1 Shipwreck Preah Mithapheap Near Koh Russei (GPS Boat Sihanuk 230.70 - 26.27) 2 Boat Preah Stoeng Hav Around 4.5 km West of Preah Sihanuk Sihanuk city and 1 km in front of La Toek Trei of Koh Rung. 3 Craft Prah Stoeng Have 5 km West from Praek Traeng ( Sihanuk Praek Traeng is 9 km North East of Preah Sihanuk City). 4 Boat Preah Between Koh Rung and Thma Sa. Sihanuk 1 hour by boat from the coast. 5 Shipwreck Koh Kong Kirisakor 20 km from Koh Sdach Coast. 6 Ship Koh Kong 2 km from the coast of Pak Khlong. Koh Kong Monduol Seima Srae Ambil 7 Ship 8 Shipwreck Kratie Kratie in Mekong River, 2 km North of Kratie Town. 4 This project is supported by Unesco Phnom Penh and the training is taken place at Ministry of culture and Fine Arts in Phnom Penh, in June 2010. 5 �Site Site Name UTM UTM Province District Number (s) Easting Northing 9 Ship Kampot Kampot 10 Wreck 12 Wreck Phnom Penh Preah Sihanuk Koh Kong 13 boat Koh Kong 14 Kor (T.) Kampong Cham Bateay 15 Ship Kampong Cham Kampong Siem 11 Ship Russei Keo Location 3 or 4 km from the coast. In front of Vat Pothi Proek Near Koh Tang. Ship left from Bangkok to Signapor Botum Sakor Between Poy Lam Thean and Island. Botum Sakor 200m from the path of Ta ok. Near Road national 6, located at flood plain of Mekong main stream. Legislative Framework and Institution Cambodia has no specific laws for the protection of UCH. The law on cultural heritage protection, which was adopted by the National Assembly in 1996, focused on general cultural heritage that states a cultural property is, “considered to be any work produced by human agency and any natural phenomenon of a scientific, historic or religious nature which bear witness to a certain stage in the development of a civilization or of the natural world and whose protection is in the public interest” (Article 4). In 2002, a Sub Decree on enforcement of Cultural Heritage Protection, focused specially on cultural property including underwater artefacts. The decree states that cultural property is all kinds of movable and immovable Cultural Property came from terrestrial and underwater excavation, legal or clandestine and archaeological discoveries (Article 4 (a)). The General Department of Heritage has existed since 2008 and is responsible for all tangible evidence of human activity. One of the four Departments, the Department of Archaeology, under the General Department is responsible for archaeological activities on land and at sea. Prior to 2008 underwater activities were unknown. The Heritage Police was recently created under the Ministry of Interior in close cooperation with the Ministry of Culture. They are in charge to, “investigate criminal actions, arrest, hold in custody and search those involved with the destruction, theft, harboring, armed robbery, buying, selling and transport of cultural and historical heritage. Prepare reports and send the arrested party, along with supporting evidence, to the tribunal”. However, these forces work only on terrestrial archaeological sites. The data gathered from the surveys related to underwater archaeology along the coastal villages and islands help us gather information about site locations and sea travel. Much of the information collected have not been verified thus far. We do not know exactly either the kinds of sites Cambodia entails nor their condition? The collected data in this paper is only preliminary5. We need the technical expertise and equipment to verify these submerged cultural data. 5 Report is in progress of publishing 6 �Abbreviations APSARA EFEO BEFEO Autorité pour la Protection du Site et l’Aménagement de la région d’Angkor Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient Bulletin de l’Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient Bibliography Choulean, A., Prenowitz, E., and Thompson, A., 1996 Blancot, C., and Hetreau-Pottier, A., 1997 Cœdès, G., 1989 Dagens, B., 1995 Delaporte, L., 1880 Pélliot, P., 1903 Stark, M., 2001 Molyvann, V., 1999 Molyvann, V., .2003 Da, y., 1995 Angkor: A manual for the Past, Present, and Future, APSARA, Royal Government of Cambodia, Phnom Penh. "1863-1953, une ville neuve dans un site d’occupation ancienne" in Phnom Penh, developpement urbain et patrimonie, Ministère de la Culture, Département des Affaires Internationales, Paris. pp. 29-43 Articles sur le Pays Khmer, EFEO, Paris. Angkor: Heart of an Asian Empire, Thames and Hudson and Harry N. Abrahams, London & New York, Voyage au Cambodge, Delagrave, Paris, "Le Fou-nan", BEFEO, tome III, Paris, "Some Preliminary Results of the 1999-2000 Archaeological Field Investigations at Angkor Borei, Takeo Province", Udaya: Journal of Khmer Studies, n 2, Phnom Penh Les cités khmères anciennes, Toyota Foundation, Phnom Penh, Modern Khmer Cities, Reyum, Phnom Penh, Khmer Boat-racing, Diploma in Archaeology, Faculty of Archaeology, Royal University of Fine Arts, Phnom Penh, 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia Subject The topic of the resource Session 12 Some Challenges and Issues in Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Since early times, waterways have been important elements for communication and the most reliable form of transportation providing passage for the movement of people, trade and culture. The first glimpses into the maritime past of Cambodia begin from the legend of the founding of the Khmer Kingdom of which there are various versions. Archaeological evidence of Cambodia’s maritime past can be seen submerged in its waterways. For example, a shipwreck loaded with artifacts was recently discovered in territory of the Cambodian sea. Many other wrecks have been reported along the various inland waterways of the country, and have yet to be examined. It is only now, however, that Cambodia is beginning to progress and build its capacity in maritime archaeology, after the country became the first, and only, Southeast Asian Country to ratify the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. This paper seeks to present a description of important recent works carried out in the whole country, particularly the survey, as well as define gaps relating to the preservation and management of maritime archaeological resources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nady Phann Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 12 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/346e893b23bdfe7241e4cb16b4c49dc5.pdf 74c9e8dce5178cff8829f0646a84a1c5 PDF Text Text Study of the corrosion of copper coins from the wreck of “The South China Sea No.1” Xing-ling Tian, Nai-sheng Li, and Zhi-guo Zhang Department of Conservation Science and Technology for Underwater Cultural Relics, Center for Cultural Relic Restoration and Training Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing, 100029 China E-mail: Tiantian1278[at]sina.com Hengyang University of Science and Technology Beijing, 100029 China Abstract. The South China Sea No.1 is the wreck of the longest, largest and most preserved shipwreck site in China. It is a classic example of bireme construction and navigational technology. The artefacts located on the site may provide many secrets of the Silk Road on the sea. Therefore, the archaeological value is greater than its economic value. In order to know more about the craftwork and the state of the coppers in this wreck, this paper will examine the concretion and corrosion on the surface of copper samples obtained from the upper layer of South China Sea No. 1. The samples were analysed with metallographic microscopy, 3D video microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD),X-ray fluorescence（XRF) and scanning microscopy (SEM-EDS). The results show that the copper coin is tin-lead bronze, and the content of Cu is about 94%. The corrosion is mainly Cu2(OH)3Cl, Cu2O, Cu(OH)2, Cu(OH)Cl and Cu(SO4)2. The concretion on the surface of the copper coin is rich, but the matrix becomes thinner. Lead (Pb) is scattered freely in the matrix. Tin (Sn) is high in the corrosion layer, which shows that some Cu has corroded. The electrochemistry of the corrosion was controlled by oxygen depolarization. Selective corrosion occurred between Cu and Sn, and the effect of Clsped up the rate of corrosion in the electrochemical reaction. The results of the study can provide a reference for the protection of the copper artefacts excavated from South China Sea. Key words: The South China Sea No.1, copper coin, archaeology 1 �Introduction Due to being in an underwater environment, undersea bronze has its own corrosion characteristics and corrosion products, which vary from bronze relics found on the land. With the high-speed development of underwater archaeology abroad, more and more resources have been put into the study of undersea relics in China. Internationally, several research projects studying the characteristics, composition, theory of corrosion and composition of the corrosion products in undersea bronzes have been conducted (Beccaria et al., 1982; Gettens, 1933; MacLeod, 1991;MacLeod, 1982;Scott, 2002). Gettens (1964), for example, identified cuprous sulphide (Cu2S) and digenite (Cu18S)in the corrosion products on copper nails recovered from a shipwreck in the Mediterranean. Copper (II) sulphate (CuS)was identified by XRD on a fragile black-blue bar from the wreckage of Herminie. According to studies of the corrosion products on undersea bronze by MacLeod (1985), North(1987) and Nord(1993),copper oxide(Cu2O), cuprous chloride (CuCl), chalcanthite (CuSO4·5H2O), brochatite (Cu4SO4(OH)6), lead carbonate (PbCO3), lead sulfate (PbSO4), stannic oxide (SnO2), and CuS are also common corrosion products. Currently, research on the conservation of bronze artefacts in China is still lacking. Despite the development of underwater archaeology internationally, more and more bronze artefacts are being recovered but domestically, the question of how to protect them is still a problem. Researchers are therefore using The South China Sea No.1 as a case study to research the conservation of bronze relics. This site provides a typical sample for the study of ancient Chinese shipbuilding technology and marine technology. The associated artefacts can also potentially unlock the key to many secrets of the marine Silk Road. The archaeological value of the cultural relics at the South China Sea No.1 site is much greater than the economic value. At present, the excavation of the South China Sea No. 1 and the protection of the bronze relics housed at the Marine Silk Museum not only provide valuable historical information about wreck protection but also provide a strong reference for the study of marine water relics. It will provide reliable support forthe protection of our marine cultural resources. 2 �Analytical instruments The methods utilised to analyse the concretion on the bronze surface and the corrosion products included: an Olympus metallurgical microscope from Japan; the KSTAR Company’s HIROX KH-3000 3D video microscopy; Japan the Science RINT2000 X-ray diffractometer (copper target, slit DS = SS = 1 °, RS = 0.15mm, voltage 40kV, current 40mA); scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy; Hitachi S3600N scanning electronic microscope (SEM) and the EDAX Genesis 2000XMS Xray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) (SEM-EDS); and XPS. Results and analysis Fig.1a: copper coins from The South China Sea No.1.: (X. Tian). Coins surface morphology analysis Representative samples were taken from the concreted copper coins (Fig. 1a). 3D video microscopy was used to observe the surface morphology of the copper coins and the results are shown in Fig.1b.A metallographic microscope was used to observe the cross-section of the sample coins with the results shown in Fig.1c. Fig.1b demonstrates that the coin has an Fig.1b: The 3D video microscopic image of the concretion and corrosion on the surface of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). uneven distribution of black, brown and green coloured material on the surface. There are also varying degrees of spots, salt crystallization and a dark texture on the surface. 3 �Results of the metallographic microscopy (Fig.1c) identifies that the outside of the coins are corroded. The results also establish that a uniform phase is formed within the coins. This includes the yellow area interspersed with many black spots located inside the coin matrix, also seen in Fig.1c. The grey concretion can only be Fig.1c: The metallographic dark field image of the cross section of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). found on the edge of the thin layer and the corrosion products are located between the concretion and the metal matrix. Additionally, the coin is thin. Chemical composition of corrosion products The corrosion products on the coins from the South China Sea No. 1were analysed by XRD. The results are shown in Table 1. The major corrosion products include basic cupric chloride Fig.2a: SEM image of the metal matrix of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). [Cu2(OH)3Cl], cuprite (Cu2O), copper hydroxide [Cu (OH)2], cupric hydroxyl chloride[Cu(OH)Cl], and cuprous sulfate [Cu 2 (SO4)]. The composition and structure of the matrix of the coins The metal matrixes of the coins were analysed by SEM and EDS to investigate the composition and structure of the substrate shown in Fig.2. Fig.2a shows the SEM images of a sample coin’s metal matrix. Figs 2b, 2c, and 2d provide an example of Fig.2b: distribution image of Cu.: (X. Tian). the distribution of Cu, Pb and Snin the metal matrix, respectively. The SEM image of the copper coin metal matrix shows uneven grey spots, 4 �which are Pb-rich pockets distributed across the coin. Except for these Pb areas, Cu and Sn are evenly distributed throughout the matrix. EDS results show that the composition of the coins is as follows: Cu is about 94%, Pb is approximately 4%and Sn is only about 2%. Fig.2c:The distribution image of Pb.: (X. Tian). Analysis of the corrosion process While cutting the edge of the coins, only a little metal matrix was observed. The first step was to observe the outside of a cross-section of the coins through SEM and then analyse the elements of the different colour regions identified. The analysis results are shown in Fig.3 and Table 2. Fig.3 shows that Zone 1 is a black, loose surface layer along the outside of the coin. This is the concretion layer, which contains a small amount of Cu, but no Pb and Sn. Zone 2 is a white layer of uneven thickness, which contains S and Pb, and therefore may be PbSO4. Zone 3 is a greyish-black, banded structure, containing S, Pb, Cl and Cu, which may be PbSO4 and copper chlorides. Lastly, Zone 4 is Fig.2d: distribution image of Sn.: (X. Tian). grey and the largest area. This section contains Cu, Pb, Sn, Si and Cl, which corresponds closest to the coin metal matrix. Table 2 shows that the main elements in the corrosion products are Cl and S. After comparison of the results, Zone 2 contains the greatest amount of Pb, Zone 3 contains the greatest amount of Cu and Zone 4 contains the most Sn. Therefore, the Cu in the coin has preferentially corroded. 5 �In order to observe the change in the content of each element from the outer surface to the inner regions of the coin, SEM analysis was conducted. The results are shown in Fig.4. Fig.4 shows that the content of Cu, Sn and Ca change significantly in the white area, while the content of Si, Pb and Cl change only slightly. Pb is mainly found in Zone 2, while Sn occurs Fig.3: SEM image of the cross section of the outer layers of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). mainly in Zone4. Overall, the Cu content Cu changes in most zones and in the greyish black zone, Cu is greater, which maybe the residual Cu metal matrix. Discussions The corrosion layer found on thebronze artefacts from The South China Sea No.1 shipwreck was mainly turquoise in colour. The typical powdery rust coloured corrosion that falls Fig.4: The content line of different elements in the cross section of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). off when touched was uncommon on the copper coins. The corrosion products identified were Cu2(OH)3Cl, Cu2O, Cu(OH)2, Cu(OH)Cl, Cu(SO4)2. Copper chloride was one of the main corrosion products (e.g.Cu2(OH)3Cl and Cu(OH)Cl) identified. Chlorine easily induces bronze corrosion, so it is important to take the proper measures to remove as much chloride as possible, via proper desalination to effectively stabilise the metal. The analysis of the corrosion products provides data that will assist in deriving better methods for later desalination work. From the presence of copper chlorides (i.e. Cu(OH) Cl and Cu2(OH)3Cl) and cuprite (Cu2O) corrosion products, it can be deduced that the bronze in the South China Sea No.1 was primarily in anaerobic marine environment, which included Cl- and SO42- in solution. Where oxygen was more 6 �abundant loose concretion formed on the outside of the coins. There are, however, some instances when oxygen was sealed in the space between the original metal surface of the coins and the loose concretion. Thus, the oxygen depolarization controlled the electrochemical corrosion of the bronze. In this type of environment, Sn has a lower electrode potential than Cu, so it corrodes first, with the effect of Clspeeding up the rate of corrosion by combining with Cu and Sn ions to form new corrosion products. Conclusion. 1.The copper metal matrix contains mainly Cu, Sn and Pb at a ratio of 47:1:2, respectively. 2.The copper corrosion products mainly include: Cu2(OH)3Cl, Cu(OH) Cl, Cu2O, Cu(OH)2 and Cu(SO4)2。 3. Selective corrosion occurred between Cu and Sn in the bronze coin and the presence of Cl-increases the rate of corrosion in the electrochemical corrosion reaction. Table 1 sample NHTQ-1-a NHTQ-1-b NHTQ-1-c NHTQ-1-d NHTQ-2-b NHTQ-2-a Main composition Cu2（0H）3Cl、Cu2O Cu2（0H）3Cl、Cu2O Cu（0H）2 、Cu（0H）Cl、Cu2O Cu（0H）2、Cu（0H）Cl、Cu2O Cu（0H）2、Cu（0H）Cl、Cu2O、 Cu（SO4）2 Cu（0H）2、Cu（0H）Cl、Cu2O、 Cu（SO4）2 Table1:The XRD results from the analysis of the corrosion products from the copper coin from the South China Sea No. 1 shipwreck.: (X. Tian). 7 �Table 2 No. Elements（Wt%） Mg Al Si S Cl K Ca Fe Cu Pb Sn 1 3.0 17.4 36.8 7.7 1.8 3.9 2.6 21.7 5.1 — — 2 — — — 3.6 — — — — — 96.4 — 3 — — — 40.5 1.7 — — — 43.1 14.7 — 4 — — 1.8 — 0.7 — — — 5.7 23.1 67.7 Table 2:The elemental distribution of the cross section of the outer layers of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). Bibliography Beccaria, A. M., Mor, E. D., Bruno, G., Poggi, G.,1982. Corrosion of lead in sea water. British Corrosion Journal,Vol.17(2): 87-91. Gettens, R. J., 1964. The corrosion products of metal antiquities. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1963, Vol. 1963: 547-568. Gettens, R. J., 1933. Mineralization, electrolytic treatment, and radiographic examination of copper and bronze objects from Nuzi. Zerox from Technical Studies 1: 118-142. MacLeod, I. D.,1991. Identification of corrosion products on non-ferrous metal artefacts recovered from shipwrecks. Studies in Conservation, Vol. 36(4): 222-234. MacLeod,I.D., 1985.The effects of concretion on the corrosion ofnon-ferrous metals. Corrosion Australasia, Vol. 10:10-13. MacLeod,I. D., 1982.Formation of marine concretions on copper and its alloys. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 11(4): 267-275. 8 �Nord, A. G., Lindahl, K., &Tronner, K., 1993. A note on spionkopite as a corrosion product on a marine copper find. Studies in Conservation, Vol. 38(2): 133-135. North,N.A.,1987.Conservation of Metals, In C. Pearson (Ed.),Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects. Butterworths, Sydney:207-252 Scott, D. A.,2002. Copper and Bronze in Art: Corrosion, Colorants and Conservation. Getty Publications, USA. Biography. Xing-ling Tian is a conservation researcher who holds a doctor’s degree of Materials Science and Engineering from Beijing University of Chemical Technology. In 2003, Xing-ling Tian joined the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage (State Administration of Cultural Heritage Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage).In 2006, became a research associate. Past research interests have been predominantly concerned with the conservation of metal and wood, developing and applying research to new materials and techniques and currently I am focused on the conservation of underwater cultural heritage. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 7: Preservation and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials and Site Management Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 7 chairs Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from freshwater, marine and wet terrestrial sites. The main purposes of this session are to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as the development of conservation networks throughout the region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas: • In situ preservation of marine archaeological materials, including reburial practices • Conservation management of shipwreck sites, including on-site monitoring • Conservation treatment case studies • Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials • Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region • Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs Suggestions for additional topics are welcomed by the session organizers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Study of the corrosion of copper coins from the wreck of 'The South China Sea No.' Description An account of the resource The South China Sea No.1 is the wreck of the longest, largest and most preserved shipwreck site in China. It is a classic example of bireme construction and navigational technology. The artefacts located on the site may provide many secrets of the Silk Road on the sea. Therefore, the archaeological value is greater than its economic value. In order to know more about the craftwork and the state of the coppers in this wreck, this paper will examine the concretion and corrosion on the surface of copper samples obtained from the upper layer of South China Sea No. 1. The samples were analysed with metallographic microscopy, 3D video microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD),X-ray fluorescence （ XRF) and scanning microscopy (SEM-EDS). The results show that the copper coin is tin-lead bronze, and the content of Cu is about 94%. The corrosion is mainly Cu2(OH)3Cl, Cu2O, Cu(OH)2, Cu(OH)Cl and Cu(SO4)2. The concretion on the surface of the copper coin is rich, but the matrix becomes thinner. Lead (Pb) is scattered freely in the matrix. Tin (Sn) is high in the corrosion layer, which shows that some Cu has corroded. The electrochemistry of the corrosion was controlled by oxygen depolarization. Selective corrosion occurred between Cu and Sn, and the effect of Cl- sped up the rate of corrosion in the electrochemical reaction. The results of the study can provide a reference for the protection of the copper artefacts excavated from South China Sea. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xing-ling Tian Nai-sheng Li Zhi-guo Zhang, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 7 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e8283281db42da3c0b3898c48550e33c.pdf ad8910bc010314434243720d02d3e0d6 PDF Text Text The Centenary Impact Since RMS Titanic Sank upon Universal Regulation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in International Waters, and the Necessity of New Law-Making in Japan NAKADA, Tatsuya1 Abstract 2012 is Centennial since Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic sunk. The Titanic was found in 1985, as early as 1986 United States of America (USA) enacted the RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act. It aimed at the conclusion of international agreement for the conservation of the Titanic by states concerned. The agreement was started drafting in 1997 and adopted in 2000. It was USA, France, England and Canada that adopted Agreement concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic (the Agreement). On the other hand United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) was made through four diplomatic conferences since 1998, and entered into force in 2010. Thanks to 2001 Convention, the term “Underwater Cultural Heritage” (UCH) has been well-known to people around the world. Be that as it may, to be an UCH needs passage of 100 years; the Titanic will be an UCH next year. Although the importance of 2001 Convention has recently attracted considerable attention, its new trend toward universal regulation has just started emerging from international society. It is the Article 9.2 of the Agreement that attention should be paid. It provides, “If a general multilateral Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage enters into force for all Parties, they shall consult to discuss the relationship between this Agreement and that Convention.” Assuming an appropriate coordination of them gives rise to a new trend, it appears more desirable to foresee the near future and timely accede to 2001 Convention after the preparation of domestic laws in Japan referring to 2001 Convention. Introduction Next year is Centennial since RMS Titanic sank. According to the definition of Article 1.1.a of Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural heritage (2001 Convention) the Titanic will be an Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH). While large projects at Southampton (Bates 2009) are being prepared toward the day, a wide variety of plans are also being pondered all the world. Since 1985 United States of America (USA) and France joint-party, led by Robert Ballard, found the Titanic and, some 6,000 artifacts have been raised (Murphy 2002). As early as 1985, Nancy 1 Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, picono@kaiyodai.ac.jp 1 �Foster, former assistant administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Ocean Service, testified before Congress on a house Resolution to protect the Titanic. Ballard also stated that the most desirable option for the conservation of the Titanic be to take separate measures among cooperating states as it was located in international waters. R.M.S. Titanic Maritime Memorial Act （ ） of 1986 1986 Act was enacted. The Agreement concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic (the ） Agreement drawn up by USA, United Kingdom (UK), France and Canada states, “the agreement shall enter into force on the date on which two states have indicated their consent to be bound” (Art. 11.2). Signing the Agreement and enacting new legislation in November 2003, the UK set up the legal institution no. 2496 Merchant Shipping, Casualties, Wreck and Salvage, The Protection of Wrecks (RMS Titanic) Order 2003, [Dft 13155], (no.2496), which entails summary conviction to a fine not exceeding the statutory maximum (£5,000) or conviction to an limited fine to the salvage in unconformity with the criteria in the Agreement (Art. 6.1 and 6.2). On April 12th 2001 NOAA published the Guidelines for Research, Exploration and Salvage of RMS Titanic, 66 Fed.Reg. 18905, 18908-09 (Fed.Reg. 18905) according to 1986 Act. Moreover a Draft Charter for a Titanic Preservation Alliance (the Alliance) was drawn up to make it clear the standard of explorations of the Titanic. In 2003 and 2004, NOAA conducted scientific research with various partners. On June 2004, Ballard with NOAA carried out research which surveyed how the Titanic has deteriorated since its discovery. This progress of research resulted in the Return to Titanic (directed by Tracy Barry and Peter Schnall, 7th June 2004) and was put on publicly accessible media throughout the world. This campaign induced the USA to sign the Agreement on 18th June 2004. RMS Titanic Inc. (RMST) has exclusively explored the Titanic, recovering and conserving some 5,500 artifacts. RMST has fascinated more than 25 million people through many exhibitions. In 2010, RMST carried out the latest survey in conjunction with NOAA, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the USA National Park Service (http://www.rmstitanic.net/about-us.html). How the entry into force of the Agreement impacts upon a series of the Titanic litigations in USA admiralty courts will be examined. In fact, the USA movement toward the entry into force has made steady progress. Taking universal publicity into account, it seems the Agreement will be approved by Congress which was transmitted Bill titled R.M.S. Titanic Maritime Memorial Preservation Act of 2009 (re-amendment of 1986 Act) around 15th April 2012, the Titanic’s 100th anniversary. The day has two implications, the fact that the Titanic becomes UCH in 2012, and the turning point of shifting salvage law to cultural heritage law. 2 �Two Trends in USA: 1986 Act and Admiralty Court The Trend of 1986 Act Ballard has not raised artifacts that he found on the Titanic as it is considered a non commercial and scientific research (Ballard and Sweeney 2004: 72-73). The location was not precisely proclaimed so as not to be plundered (Ballard and Michael 1985: 704). 1986 Act attempted to make the Agreement among states concerned, to enact national law in accordance with the Agreement. 1986 Act directed the Department of State to enter into negotiations with interested nations to establish an international agreement to designate the wreck as a maritime memorial and protect it from looting and unscientific salvage. UK is a flag state, France is the joint finding state and has Cherbourg port of call on her route, and Canada is the nearest coastal state from the shipwrecked point. USA continuously offered a consultation to other states. Also Russia and Japan are expected to participate in the Agreement to make it more Ⅰ Ⅱ effective (Dromgoole 2003:7). The Russian submersibles Mir and built in 1987 are able to explore efficiently in cooperation with each other, having researched the Titanic 41 times from 1991 to 2003. Japan Marine Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) upgraded the Shinkai 2000 built in 1981 to the Shinkai 6500 built in 1990, which exceeded the 1000th dive in 2007. While 1986 Act was not in support of others, French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER) which knew the location of the shipwreck site undertook an independent exploration. Taking advantage of the circumstance, RMST (since 1987) set up with a view to profiting from artifacts. IFREMER raised more than 800 artifacts since the first 1987 exploration. The USA promptly enacted the Abandoned Shipwreck Act against such actions, which stated, “it would prohibit the import with a view to the proceeds through the recovering from the Titanic and further, such measures would be maintained until the Agreement comes into force”. On the contrary, RMST has continuously carried out the explorations chartering the Nautile and raised some 4,000 artifacts over seven expeditions. Since 1997 the draft of the Agreement has the purpose of controlling non-regulated salvage and other harmful activities over the Titanic. The Fed.Reg. 18905 is essentially almost the same as the annexes attached to both the Agreement and 2001 Convention based mainly on the 1996 Charter on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (for details see Craig 2008:3). The Annex attached to 2001 Convention is established as the international criteria of underwater research (Oppenheimer and Varmer 2006:15). However there is room for flexible interpretation of salvage law, while continuing to observe strict scientific, cultural and historical significance. The Agreement generally does not conceive RMST to be the sole 3 �salvor-in-possession. Implementing the Agreement, the sole salvor-in-possession will be obliged to collaborate with the admiralty court and/or NOAA. USA Admiralty Court The shipwreck is located at high seas, RMST raised a number of artifacts and brought a part of them to the USA admiralty court; maritime affairs belong to the jurisdiction of the federal court. While the court upheld RMST as the legal salvor-in-possession, Ballard was not legally supposed to be the finder of the Titanic (Garabello and Scovazzi 2003:73-75). Even though the court actually awarded RMST the exclusive rights of the Titanic, USA courts can only enforce their law on USA nationals, France has carried artifacts back to its territory since 1987. British Deep Ocean Expeditions (DOE) carried tourists to the Titanic in 1988. RMST notified DOE of its unauthorized underwater cruising. One of the tourists with DOE filed an action suit to USA district court for declaration of access and photograph rights to the site. The court had already issued an injunction barring all visitation to the Titanic including photographing it without permit by RMST in 1998. DOE had planned an expedition to view and photograph the Titanic in the late summer of 1998, and Christopher Haver had planned to be a passenger. Haver filed a declaratory judgment action in the district court to challenge the 1998 judgment. The court held that the right of divers and tourists aiming at visiting and photographing the Titanic belonged solely to RMST (April 28th 1999: 171 F.3d 942-943, 958-959, 970). DOE filed an intervention as co-party with Haver in response to the judgment. During the lawsuit, DOE ignored the order of USA court and continued underwater cruising (Nafziger 1999: 315). The appeal court held that while RMST has the exclusive right of raising artifacts, the exclusive rights do not involve visiting, viewing and photographing the site. In a series of the Titanic litigations, RMST represented its intention to raise funds through artifact exhibitions (selling tickets, replica licenses, and product rental fees, etc.). These actions were a way of recovering costs and keeping the share prices up because the USA courts would only uphold RMST as sole salvor-in-possession as long as they did not sell artifacts. In the following year, the appeal and supreme courts held that RMST had not ever directly owned artifacts only the trustees (Murphy 2002). 1989 Salvage Convention and Four States International Convention on Salvage, 1989 (1989 Convention) was concluded in London on 28th April 1989 and came into force on 14th July 1996. It has 62 State 4 �parties (as of July 2011). USA, France, UK and Canada are all State parties (for details on definition see Browne this volume) to 1989 Convention. It indirectly provides the salvage of historic wreck in the form of reservation provision. Nothing is referred to the relationship between law of salvage and UCH law in 1989 Convention. The provision simply allows a State to reserve the right not to apply 1989 Convention, “when the property involved is maritime cultural property of pre-historic, archaeological or historic interest and is situated on the sea-bed.” (Art. 30.1.d). Since USA and France did not make reservations to this provision, they are able to salvage UCH. Negotiations commenced. In the process of drawing up the 1989 Convention France attempted to exclude UCH. The attempt resulted partially in Article 30.1.d. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and 2001 Convention: Coastal Jurisdiction Apart from two trends in USA mentioned above, the movement of regulating underwater antiquities was in rapid progress in the late 1970’s. UNCLOS (Art. 149 and 303) only provided lex lata (existing law) including maritime law and international agreements regarding the protection of objects of an archaeological and historical nature in parallel outside the Contiguous Zones (24 nautical miles from the shoreline) except in deep sea bed, the Area (outside Continental Shelf, at 350 nautical miles to the maximum from the shoreline, of every country). The European Council drew up the Draft of European Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage in 1984 based upon Recommendation 848 in 1978 (Roper 1978), the draft did not enter into force. However International Law Association deliberated “the draft of Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage” in 1994 based on the draft of the European Convention. From 1996, through the governmental experts meeting (1998-2001), 2001 Convention was adopted by UNESCO’s 31st General Assembly on the 2nd November 2001. Be that as it may, the international regulation of actions directed at underwater cultural heritage, at present, is mixed with Law of the Sea, Maritime Law and Cultural Heritage Law. As 2001 Convention coherently emphasizes UCH, “shall not be subject to the law of salvage or law of finds” (Art. 4), and “shall not be commercially exploited" (Art. 2.7). On the other hand 2001 Convention grants the competence to coastal states to make 2001 Convention effective as an aspect of UNCLOS (Art. 9 and 10). USA, France and UK are in favor of the aspect of cultural heritage law, while in disfavor of the aspect of UNCLOS. USA proposed that a certain commercial action is permitted subject to the scientific criteria of 2001 Convention (Nafziger 2000: 88). The universality and effectiveness of 2001 Convention in international society 5 �remains to be clear since, amongst others, the USA, France and UK’s salvage laws do not comply. On the other hand Rules concerning Activities Directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage (Annex) embodies the protection and conservation of UCH in accordance with the regime provided in the 2001 Convention. This shows that the universality of international norms concerning standards of underwater archaeology is shifting to the establishment of Standard Practice. For example, Fed.Reg. 18905 and the annex attached to the Agreement are almost alike. The Adoption of Titanic Agreement and Its Effect Consulting from 1997 to 2000, the Agreement was adopted on 5th January 2000. While the Agreement regulates the shipwrecked site and prefers in situ preservation. The Agreement forbids illegal exploration and selling of recovered artifacts. However the Agreement does not apply to some 6,000 already recovered artifacts. The Agreement regards the shipwrecked site as scientific, cultural and historical memorial. In breach of articles of the Agreement and its annex (Rules), each party is given enforcement jurisdiction including civil and/or criminal sanction. A glance on the Agreement tells us how each provision were drawn up in an effort to be reconciled with 2001 Convention, and how the Agreement carefully paid attention to 2001 Convention. This means how USA, France, UK and Canada consent to the aspect of cultural heritage law (Dromgoole 2003: 8). Article 3 of the Agreement states that each party shall take all reasonable measures to conserve and curate artifacts in recognition of Rules, specifically for them to be kept together and intact as project collections. Article 4 of the Agreement states that each party shall take the necessary measures, to regulate through a system of project authorizations of entry into the hull sections of the Titanic so that they, other artifacts and any human remains are not disturbed. It is noteworthy that the Agreement refers to salvage law. The draft of article 4.3 is the product which USA negotiation team tried to insert the fact that USA admiralty court granted RMST the salvor-in-possession into the Agreement. However the attempt resulted in the provision so as to secure non-intrusive access to the site. It seems counteractive against judgments of USA admiralty court which kept granting salvors the exclusive right. The Agreement does not so much exclude application of salvage law as permits salvage activities in conformity with Rules. In a series of Titanic litigations concerning RMST’s salvage, RMST instituted a lawsuit to the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Commerce and NOAA in September 2000 so as not to adopt the Agreement because it was unconstitutional. The subject matter is that (1) an effort to promote making the Agreement deprives 6 �USA admiralty court of the jurisdiction, (2) Implementing the Agreement, the right of recovery or ownership of RMST will not be compensated by USA. The court rescinded the claim since RMST was able to appeal again when the Agreement enters into force. In the public hearing of district court over the Titanic, it is interesting that the court states the exclusive status of RMST must be appraised even though the Agreement comes into force (2004: 323F. Supp.2d 724, 741). Finally Article 9.2 of the Agreement provides, “If a general multilateral Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage enters into force for all Parties, they shall consult to discuss the relationship between this Agreement and that Convention.” Canada is most likely to join 2001 Convention compared with USA, France and UK. A general multilateral convention probably suggests 2001 Convention. If all four states join it in the future, Canada will be favorably presumed its ownership including the Titanic in the context of relationship between the Agreement and 2001 Convention. The fact that the paradigm shift from salvage law to cultural heritage law in Canada might also induce USA, France and UK to shift the similar paradigm through consultation. Prospect Annex, Rules, Fed.Reg. 18905 and the Alliance will be replaced with salvage law in principle. It seems to me that these instruments are highly appraised as code of conducts taken away provisions of so-called creeping jurisdiction of 2001 Convention, therefore such norms are also acceptable to USA, France, UK and Canada. While the system of 2001Convention has been gradually pervaded to international society, the rigid application of underwater archaeology to UCH in the Agreement, prior to the issue of coastal jurisdiction, will make it possible to prevent loss of artifacts and promote the dissemination of knowledge gained from UCH to people around the world. The approval of USA Congress is expected during the anniversary events of the Titanic around 15th April 2012. The time might be a symbol of shifting from salvage law to cultural heritage law. On reflection, from a series of research of Lake Biwa and so forth, the forerunner of underwater archaeologist in Japan, OE Yoshio had insisted on the necessity of underwater archaeology since 1960’s (OE 1971: 266-269; OE 1982: 236-238). Although the tendency of underwater archaeology actually rose up in the early of 1980’s (OE et al. 1980: 23-87), symbolically as seen in A Special Issue written by the leading person including OE at that time, the systematic mapping method of UCH subsidized by Nippon Foundation (from 1st April 2009 to 31st March 2012) has just started by Non Profit Organization, Asian Research Institute of Underwater 7 �Archaeology (ARIUA) established in 12th August 2005, the former Kyushu-Okinawa Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology established in 1991. Every product of research divided into four coastal regions will be gradually opened on the web (http://www.ariua.org/database/). Nevertheless Agency for Cultural Affairs is not necessarily positive for the strenuous and steady effort of ARIUA in both legal and financial aspects. The report attached to a tentative translation of 2001 Convention in July 2002 by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology reads; “Whereas it seems that the purposes and effects of the Convention is generally valid, our political decision making system will be reconsidered” because the Convention addresses primarily legal systems of extra-territorial waters (Report Technology 2002). The circumstance simply leads to lacuna of underwater cultural heritage related laws in Japan. The basic standard that OE sought is almost the same as provisions in the Rules. OE states; It is deeply hoped that the necessity of archaeological research of sea-bed be understood by underwater archaeologists as well as ordinary people, the research system demands much closer cooperation internationally and mobilize to each site in any case (OE 1977: 337). Utilizing Centenary of the Titanic to great extent as the best chance that the paradigm shift of regulations of UCH is certain to arise in international waters, Japan should promptly establish its own national underwater cultural legal system as the first step of international cooperation. Using the Sinkai 6500 effectively enable Japan to contribute to underwater archaeology even in international waters. Bibliography Ballard, R., and “How We Found Titanic”, in National Geographic, vol. 168, pp. Michael, J.-L., 696-718. 1985 Ballard, R., and Return to Titanic: A New Look at the World’s Most Famous Lost Sweeney, M., Ship, National Geographic Society, Washington. 2004 Bates, Stephen., 2009 “Titanic museum to open in Southampton by 2012”, in The Guardian, Tuesday 31st March, 2009. Accessed 8th 2011 at http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2009/mar/31/titanic-south ampton-exhibition Craig, J., Multilateral Approaches 8 to an International Convention, �2008 conference paper for International Council of Monuments and of Sites (ICOMOS) 16th General Assembly proceedings. Dromgoole, S., 2003 “Treasure Salvage in International Waters: Two Alternative Methods of Control”, in Maritime Law Subject Section, Society of Legal Scholars, Oxford, pp. 1-12. Accessed 8th 2011 at http://www.le.ac.uk/law/staff/skd2.html Garabello, and R., THE PROTECTION OF THE UNDERWATER CULTURAL Scovazzi, HERITAGE: BEFORE AND AFTER THE 2001 UNESCO T., (eds)., 2003 CONVENTION, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Leiden / Boston. Murphy, G., 2002 “RMS Titanic: A Legal Update 1”, in encyclopedia titanic, 15th March 2002, Accessed 8th 2011 at http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/item/1503/ Nafziger, R., 1999 J.A. “The Titanic Revisited”, in Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce, vol. 30, pp. 311-329. Nafziger, R., 2000 J.A. “Historic Salvage Law Revisited”, in Ocean Development and International Law, vol. 31, pp. 81-96. OE, Yoshio., 1971 Marine Archaeology: History and Culture Searched on Sea-bed, Shinjinbutsu Oraisha, Tokyo. OE, Yoshio., 1977 “Underwater Archaeology”, an essay attached in Japanese translation of George F. Bass, 1975, Archaeology beneath the Sea, Walker and Company, New York. OE, Yoshio., 1982 An Introduction to Underwater Archaeology, NHK Books, Tokyo. OE, Yoshio et “A Secial Issue: Challenging Sunken Ships” written by ARAKI, al., Shinsuke (the Kaiyo-Maru), MOZAI, Torao (Mongol Invasion), 1980 YAMADA, Michio (RMS Titanic), TANAKA Ko (the Admiral Nakhimov), TSUMAKI, Eijirou (the Yamato), HASEBE, Gakuji (Shinan offshore at Korea), KUDOU, Masao (SS Andrea Doria), HUJII, Yuto (The Mutsu), KATAOKA, Koukichi (the Yasaka-Maru) and OE Yoshio (Lake Biwa-Ko) , in Le Mer, Vol. 25, pp. 24-87. Oppenheimer, P., and Varmer, O., 2006 “Implementing the International Agreement to Protect RMS Titanic”, International Environmental Law Committee Newsletter, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 14-16. Accessed 8th 2011 at http://apps.americanbar.org/environ/committees/intenviron/newsl etter/dec06/IELC1206.pdf 9 �Report Technology Report of the convention and recommendation adopted at 31st General Assembly of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, BZ-8-28, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, National Diet Library, 2002. Roper, J., 1978 The Underwater Cultural Heritage: Report of the Committee on Culture and Education, Council of Europe, Strasbourg. Doc. 4200. 10 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e7dfa149dd3792aa39568d017df38d49.jpg 53627ec6558796c99a5ccff5e924cd40 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 472 Height 445 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Centenary Impact Since RMS Titanic Sank upon Universal Regulation of Underwater Cultural Heritage in International Waters, and the Necessity of New Law-Making in Japan Subject The topic of the resource Session 3 History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource 2012 is Centennial since Royal Mail Ship (RMS) Titanic sunk. The Titanic was found in 1985, as early as 1986 United States of America (USA) enacted the RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act. It aimed at the conclusion of international agreement for the conservation of the Titanic by states concerned. The agreement was started drafting in 1997 and adopted in 2000. It was USA, France, England and Canada that adopted Agreement concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel RMS Titanic (the Agreement). On the other hand United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) was made through four diplomatic conferences since 1998, and entered into force in 2010. Thanks to 2001 Convention, the term “Underwater Cultural Heritage” (UCH) has been well-known to people around the world. Be that as it may, to be an UCH needs passage of 100 years; the Titanic will be an UCH next year. Although the importance of 2001 Convention has recently attracted considerable attention, its new trend toward universal regulation has just started emerging from international society. It is the Article 9.2 of the Agreement that attention should be paid. It provides, “If a general multilateral Convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage enters into force for all Parties, they shall consult to discuss the relationship between this Agreement and that Convention.” Assuming an appropriate coordination of them gives rise to a new trend, it appears more desirable to foresee the near future and timely accede to 2001 Convention after the preparation of domestic laws in Japan referring to 2001 Convention. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nakada, Tatsuya Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Fukugen Sareta Higaki Kaisen "Naniwa Maru." Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Naniwa no Umi no Jikukan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naniwa no Umi no Jikukan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Naniwa no Umi no Jikukan Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Extra External Resources: Find this item at Biblio (Bookseller) Cite This Item Advanced options ... Edition: Dai 2-han. Language: Japanese (Show non-Roman characters) Named Corp: Naniwa Maru (Ship) -- Design and construction -- Pictorial works. Class Descriptors: LC: VM395.N36 Entry: 20080116 Update: 20080117 Provider: OCLC Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 101 Place Osaka-shi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naniwa no Umi no Jikukan Title A name given to the resource Fukugen Sareta Higaki Kaisen "Naniwa Maru." Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b7d2bcb398eb8f1e870c846e7d27df50.pdf 4e8852abbc53cfdaedca4650a3f964d9 PDF Text Text Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia Mr. Napat Piromrak (Underwater Archaeology Division, Thailand) ABSTRACT Lashed-lug boat-building techniques played a significant role in Southeast Asian trading networks. The previous studies reported that approximately 20 boats in this category have been found. Indeed, an archaeological survey in Thailand during the 1990s had reported the existence of several boats of this type, but the information was scarce and no excavation had been conducted. Not until 2019, a team of Thai underwater archaeologists carried out a survey along the Andaman Coast, the resources available to conduct the work including the discovery of boat remnants which were assumed to be lashed-lug type. The first was a boat plank found at Khlong Thom, the early port site in Krabi province, likely dating back to c. 1st – 5th century CE. The second was a boat plank found at Pak-Klong Kluai beach, Ranong province, located in the area of Phukao-Thong archaeological site. Therefore, research on the boat planks is needed in order to find out the technique of the boat-building and its age. The main purpose of the research is to present an insightful analysis of the boat remnants. The analysis of boat-building techniques, a sample collection for AMS dating, and a comparative studmanguiny were carried on. The result of the study reveals a significant aspect of an early phase lashed-lug boats: planks were carved into protruding lugs with hollowed holes, the hull was secured using a palm rope and wooden wedge, and no trace of a dowel hole are found. The AMS dating of a wooden sample from both sites provided a date of 1,856 ±25 BP and 2,303 ±29 BP. Comparatively, the boat structure is similar to the lashed-lug boat of Pontian (3rd – 5th century CE). However, the hull of these boats bears a different technique of making from other boats (e.g. Butuan and Ban Khlong Yuan boats, 9 th century CE). The discovery of the boat remnants in Thailand has shed new light on the early technique of constructing lashed-lug boats in Southeast Asia, confirmed by the AMS dating. Furthermore, information on boat-building development is provided. Keywords: Lashed-lug Boat, Mortise and Tenon Boat, Shell-based Boat, Sewn Plank Boat List of figures Figure 1. Map showing the shipwreck remains of Pak Khlong Kluai site between 2016-2019 : Courtesy of Decha Pornthai. Figure 2. Evidence of lashed lug plank no. 20 from Test Pit three. Figure 3. Lashed lug plank no. 4 (on top) and no. 5 (long piece) with ropes residue attached to each lug. Figure 4. Lashed lug plank with a frame piece attached to it by ligature. INTRODUCTION “Lashed lug” is specifically used to describe a traditional boat-building technique that spread and was used throughout Southeast Asia’s region. The technique consisted of a shell-based construction, in which the hull planking is constructed first to create an outer shell by edge joining method using wooden dowels and lacing ligatures to the pre-drill holes on the plank, sometimes only dowels are used. After the hull is assembled, frames are added to strengthen the overall construction by lashing to the lugs carved on the interior of the hull. Undoubtedly, the name “lashed lug” comes from the last procedure. Recent studies showed over 20 vessels that were identified as lashed lug boats (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001), all of them were discovered both underwater and inland near the waterway of Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, and also Thailand. As a result, all have been dated between the fifth to the sixteenth centuries CE (Lacsina 2019, 40). Previous studies by several scholars have suggested a similar theory that early Southeast Asian boats might have been joined exclusively by lacing (Horridge 1982, 1, 32–33, 56-58), or at least lacing as a primary fastening and supplement with doweling (Manguin 1993, 260; McGrail 2001, 297). As Horridge (1982) asserted the need for metal technology in order to drill the dowel holes on the plank edge, which the lacing holes on the lug did not. Furthermore, Manguin (2019, 5) suggested the chronology of the development of plank fastening vessels, he stated that lashed lug boats in the early first millennium relied more on lacing than doweling. Then, during the second half of the first millennium, boatbuilders began to rely on dowelling than lacing, and toward the end of the millennium lacing were completely disappear. However, it is uncertain to conclude whether lashed lug plank fastening is evolving from exclusive lacing to exclusive doweling, without additional evidence on a much earlier plank-built boat (Lacsina 2016, 38). 1 �The earliest well-known evidence of watercraft assembled with lashed lug is the remains of Pontian boat found in Peninsular Malaysia, dating between 260 – 430 CE (Manguin 1993, 256). Traces on the plank show sign of lacing with a small number of doweling. Moreover, in 1985, Pierre-Yves Manguin (1993, 257) investigated a similar boat’s plank construction to the one at Pontian, which had been recovered and displayed at Wat Khlong Thom Museum, Krabi, Thailand. The planks are badly damaged and had no radiocarbon dating, however, relative dating suggested the age of the planks is between the fifth to the seventh centuries CE. Interestingly, the plank showed an identical lug design to its relative, the Pontian boat. Although, there is no sign of supplementing dowels, as the planks are badly degraded and were found in such a small length. The discovery of the Pontian boat and its relative, Khlong Thom plank could represent, what assume to be an early-stage lashed lug boat. However, the available evidence is scarce and incomplete. Nonetheless, a recent survey along the coastal port sites of Khlong Thom, Krabi and Phukao Thong, Ranong, located in the Southwestern coast of Thailand had discovered a few boat remnants that can reveal a new example of an early-stage lashed lug boat. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF LASHED-LUG BOATS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Archaeological evidence of vessels that were built using lashed lug technique number more than 20 throughout the region (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001; Lacsina 2019). Despite the main concept of lashed lug construction, there is a distinctive difference in each construction. The major difference is the way planks are fastened, lashed lug vessels in the early period showed that plank stitching or lacing was a primary fastening method and supplemented with a dowel, this included the archaeological evidence of the Pontian Boat(3rd-5th CE), the Kolam Pinisi Boat (5th-7th CE), the Sambirejo Boat (7th-8th CE), the Punjulharjo Boat (7th-8th CE), and Ban Khlong Yuan Boat(early 9th CE). Later period vessels such as the five Butuan Boats (8th-10th CE), the Chau Tan shipwreck(9th CE), the Cirebon shipwreck(10th CE), the Paya Pasir timbers (12th-14th CE), the Sha Tsui Boat (13th-15th CE), the Gujangang shipwreck (15th-16th CE), and the San Isidro shipwreck (16th CE), only show evidence of doweling, discarded the practice of lacing (Manguin 1993; McGrail 2001; Liebner 2014; Lacsina 2016, 2019; Mochtar 2020). Archaeological finds supported that lashed lug technique evolved from primary plank lacing and gradually adapted to doweling (Manguin 2019; McGrail 2001). HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS There are very few historical accounts describing boats in Southeast Asia. As Southeast Asian most likely pass their knowledge through oral tradition (Lacsina 2016: 23). Most of the accounts are written by nonSoutheast Asian. Indeed, only a few describe insight detail of ship construction. A fourth-century Chinese book on Southeast Asian floral describes that sugar palm bark (Arenga pinnata) can be made into rope, which is used by Southeast Asian boatbuilders to bind timber together (Manguin 1993, 261). Another Chinese record from an eighth-century source describes the large ship of kunlun people (people beyond the barrier which refer to Southeast Asians) which they called “bo”. The source stated that this ship can reach 60 meters and can transport up to 1,000 passengers. The ship is bound together using the bark of coconut trees with no use of iron nails or clamps. There are several planks and sails (Manguin 1993, 262). A smaller size vessel was recorded by Wang Ta Yuan, a Chinese traveler that visit Madura during the fourteenth century. He stated that the boat was made using split rattan and plug the seam with cotton wadding (Scott 1982, 340, as cited in Lacsina 2016). 2 �More detailed accounts were produced during the arrival of the Europeans in the region beginning in the sixteenth century CE. The first Portuguese source described the Sumatra trading ship as junco, the word is derived from the Malay and Javanese word jong (Manguin 1993, 266), which appeared in Javanese inscription as early as the eleventh century (Manguin 1993, 266; Brandes 1889). The jong is large ship comparable in size to the Portuguese, which can carry between 350-500 tons deadweight (Manguin 1993, 266). The plank and frame were exclusively fastened with dowels and assembled multiple layers of planking. The jong used at least two masts and used two lateral rudders (Manguin 1993, 266–267). Another Portuguese account written by Gabriel Rebello described a boat building in Moluccas Sea in 1569. He described that the planks are drilled at the seam and were assembled using a mallet. The construction is so tight that the seam is barely visible. Then, the boatbuilders tied the interior (component) to the lug or cleat with ropes made from root (Manguin 2019). Indeed, the first-hand account of lashed-lug boat building is the record by Francisco Alcina, a Spanish priest who recorded step-by-step boat-building techniques in the Philippines during the seventeenth century CE. He wrote that after the keel was attached to the stem and stern post, the suitable length of wood was chosen for the planks. Only two planks can be produced from a single tree, the boat-builders reduces the thickness of the plank using adzes and left a series of lug or tambuku (Alcina 2005 [1668], 169, as cited in Lacsina 2016; 2019). STUDY OF EARLY LASHED LUG BOATS IN THAILAND Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site In 2016, a local fisherman discovered a large scale of wood remnants and pottery on the beach of Pak Khlong Kluai, Ranong province (Figure 1). The site is exposed during low tide, fortunately after the found he contact the authorities, which finally led to the Thai Fine Art Department conducting a slow process of unearthing and conserving the remains. The Fine Arts Department including the 15th Regional Archaeology Office (Phuket) and the Underwater Archaeology Division (UAD) conducted several archaeological surveys and site mappings from August to November of 2016. The remnant was identified as a shipwreck, due to a large amount of what was assumed to be wooden planks with a mortise and tenon fastening technique, the evidence also showed many scarf joints. The individual plank has an estimated dimension of 500 centimeters in length, 30-40 centimeters in width, and 10 cm in thickness. The overall structure was 20 meters long and eight meters wide. The plank analysis from the laboratory reveals that it is Terminalia nigrovenulosa Pierre which is commonly found in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand. The tenon was made of Dialium cochinchinese Pierre and the dowel was made of Cassia sp. AMS dating of the plank sample came out between BC 170-180 (Cal BP 2120±30, BP 2140±30) (The FAD 2017) The site location is near Bang Kluai Canal which is linked to an early coastal archaeological site of Phukao Thong, a site that play an important role as a port, stone, and glass ornament production dating around 2,000 years ago. Unfortunately, the wooden structure was in poor condition, and an attempt to reduce the deterioration using Geotextiles and sandbags did not work. As a re-examination show the structures couldn’t withstand the wave. So, the recovery excavation was planned in order to recover the main part of the wreck. 3 �Figure 1. Map showing the shipwreck remains of Pak Khlong Kluai site between 2016-2019: Courtesy of Decha Pornthai. The excavation was conducted in 2019, and the GPR (ground penetrating radar) was used in order to detect underground anomalies across 800 m². Test pits and trenches were planned based on this information to cover the study area. Due to the condition of the site as the wreck is exposed during low tide, the excavation process needs to be finished in one day. So, the trenches were divided into 17 long, narrow trenches and five test pits. As a result, the main wooden structure of 60m² (the volume of the structure reduced significantly based on the 2016 report) is identified as a ship plank, the length varies, the width is between 30-40 cm, and has 10 cm thickness. It was joined edge to edge and used mortise and tenon fastening techniques and supplemented with dowels to lock the joint. Wood identification was carried out for the second time, planks were made from Terminalia nigrovenulosa Pierre, tenons were made of Dialium cochinchinese Pierre and dowels were made of Tectona grandis L.f. (the fifteenth Regional Office of Archaeology 2016) Traces on the plank show at least six scarf joints and two rectangular shape holes. During the recovery process, various sizes of logs are found under the structure, some showed signs of rough-cut marks and were assumed not relevant to the ship’s parts, which could suggest the wrecks were likely abandoned. 80 percent of the pottery excavated from the site are orange-brown jar-shaped earthenware, decorated with cord marks. The rest of the potteries are bowl-shaped and has a variety of decoration such as impressing and polishing inside with black ash. All of them have a similar style to pottery found in Phukao Thong early historic site nearby. The AMS dating of the plank came out to be 200-140 BCE (Ploymukda 2020, 54), which is relative to artifacts found at Phukao Thong site. The remnant of mortise and tenon planks found at Pak Khlong Kluai site represent a few of these techniques that are found in Southeast Asia. However, it still remains unclear if it is part of a hull or other part, since, no further evidence of a keel or frame is found. Surprisingly, the excavation on test pit three (including the adjoined area of trench one, and trench three) revealed different ship construction to the main wreck. The test pit is 10 meters Southwest of the wreck. Timbers lying on test pit three show clear evidence of lashed lug construction, in addition, the lug design is relatively similar to the Khlong Thom boat plank and Pontian Boat which will be discussed more in detail. A total of three distinctive timbers were found in test pit three. They were all identified as a hull plank of a lashed lug-type vessel, as the timber is carved to create a protruding lug (Figure 2). Even though they were 4 �Figure 2. Evidence of lashed-lug plank no. 20 from Test Pit thee. found in the same area, planks were lying separated from one another. It was hard to consider if they were an adjacent plank or even came from the same vessel. The most complete one is plank number 20, which is 230 cm in length, and 40 cm in width, it has six cm of plank thickness and the same lug thickness. The lug shape is relative to Pontian and Khlong Thom Boat as it shows favorable use of a rectangular design, in which lugs are almost wide as a plank and are aligned to one side, leaving an edge protruding out about three cm, hence overlapping with the adjacent plank, overlapped part is made slightly slope down to the edge. However, there are some distinctive features that appear on this broken plank, there seems to be no sign of doweling or lacing hole on the seam as appeared on other plank-lacing vessels and the lug pattern is also quite different, the evidence on this plank shows only one rectangle-shaped hole on each lug and a combination of wide and narrow lugs with a continuous ridge connected between them, though, there are some holes on the seam of this ridge, but it seems not enough. AMS dating of this plank (D-AMS 034770) was dated to 2,303 BP ±29 or 408-357 cal BCE (Piromrak 2020, 41). This is considered the oldest lashed lug-type vessel in Thailand and probably in Southeast Asia. The longest piece is plank number 19, which is 320 cm in length, and 60 cm in width, the thickness of the plank is four cm, the same as the lug. The condition of this piece was badly degraded; however, the evidence showed the favorable design of a rectangular lug with a single hole. On the other hand, wide lugs (dimension of 60 cm) only appear with a spacing of 60 cm, and no traces of continuous ridge, doweling holes, or plank lacing holes were found. The last piece is plank number 17, which is the smallest 120 cm in length, 25 cm in width, and eight cm in thickness. The plank showed evidence of a center ridge lug with two holes bored through the width, however, one end has a slightly protruded lug roughly the width of the plank with six holes bored to the 5 �surface of the lug, these holes were not drilled through the plank but bored one and a half cm deep. There was also no sign of plank-fastening methods. This timber part was unidentified which part of the vessel it was, as no evidence of this kind has ever been found before. Evidence found at Pak Khlong Kluai site is rare and significant. The wreck’s identification suggested that at least two vessels were found, one favored a mortise and tenon technique, and another favored a lashed lug technique. The dating of both wrecks suggests that both boat-building techniques existed in the same period and also related to Phukao Thong site, which played a major role as an early port site, artifacts found at this site were Indo-Roman merchandise such as granulated gold beads, precious stone carved to a lionshape, ring carved into Roman figure and rouletted wares. The wood identification also indicated the use of Southeast Asia region woods, both vessels could be built in the region. Furthermore, sediment analysis from test pits one and four indicates that the geology of the site might be a shore instead of a sea bed (Ploymukda and Piromrak 2019, 197). Khlong Thom Archaeological Site In 1985, Pierre Manguin investigated boat planks displayed at Wat Khlong Thom Museum, the planks were found by a local and had been given to the museum. It was identified as lashed lug type, and features on the plank are relatively similar to Pontian boat, though no traces of dowel holes are found. The planks were relatively dated between the fifth to the seventh century CE as it is associated with the early port and beads production site of Khlong Thom (Manguin 1993, 257). Although Khlong Thom’s timbers are remarkably rare, they have been overlooked for decades. In 2019, Thai UAD conducted a survey along the canal where the plank was found in order to find more evidence about this vessel. The area along the canal is known as Khlong Thom Site (Kuan Luk-pad), an early port site on the Andaman coast that indicates an intensive overseas connection. The survey focused mainly on the canal where they were reported. As a result, the survey team found 12 damaged planks slightly buried under the sediment, the alignment was scattered and presumed not in situ. However, several planks were also found intact on the canal bank, they were assumed to have more archaeological context, however, no excavation had been conducted, but it is highly recommended in the future. Timbers recovered from the site are identified as lashed lug type. As it was submerged in a water-logged condition, which helps preserve the organic material very well, all still have ropes residue intact (Figures 3 and 4). All of the planks were classified into two main parts, hull plank, and keel plank (Piromrak 2020, 35–41). The hull plank The longest piece that was recovered is 150 centimeters in length, the width is around 25 centimeters, and ten centimeters in thickness (including the plank body and the lug). Features on the plank consist of rectangle lugs measured around 40x20 centimeters, each lug has two sets of trapezoid holes (five centimeters wide) bore through the edge. These holes are lashing points for the frame as one sample of plank still has what assume to be a broken piece of frame intact and several pieces still have rope residues loosely bonded. Each lug is 40 centimeters apart, though, one sample has a ridge connected to the others. The design of the lugs shows the intention for plank overlapping as one edge of the lug protrudes out from the plank body. In addition, the cross-section view of the lug also indicates inclination from the overlapped section to the other, which is assumed to follow the curvature of the hull. Furthermore, each corner of the lug appears to have two sets of L-shaped holes drilled through the seam of the plank, these holes acted as a plank fastening 6 �Figure 3. Lashed lug plank no. 4 (on top) and no. 5 (long piece) with ropes residue attached to each lug. point with ligatures, as ligature is passed through each hole on the adjacent plank to create a tensioned knot, and then supplemented with a wooden wedge bored into the knot space to create a tighter fit. However, no traces of plank doweling are found, which puts into question the strength of this vessel. The keel planks Two planks were identified as keel planks, as the design of the lug is distinct from the others. Lugs are placed in a fairly central position as opposed to hull planks that are adjacent to one edge. Evidence on plank #004 indicates a center ridge lug with large two holes bored through, on one end of the lug also showed Lshape lacing holes. The dimension of the fragment is 53 cm long, 28 cm wide, and 10 cm thick. This design is similar to Pontian’s keel plank (Gibson-Hill 1952, 114) and Butuan 5 keel plank which were referred as carinate or ridged keel (Green et al. 1995, 185–186; Lacsina 2016, 116–117). Another one is plank #003, the fragment piece is 49 cm long, 27 cm wide, and nine cm thick. The feature on this plank has a rectangle lug with a continued ridge. Unlike other planks, this one has L-shaped holes drilled through one side of the lug and a large hole bored through the ridge. Though the piece is very small in dimension and wasn’t showed continuous evidence, the lug pattern is relatively similar to Ban Khlong Yuan Boat and Butuan Boat 4 (Lacsina 2016, 190). Unlike the Pontian Boat, an investigation showed that the Khlong Thom plank has no evidence of doweling, the only method used for plank fastening is lacing the plank through L-shaped holes along the edge and supplementing with a wooden wedge. The use of wooden wedges is common in this vessel, as it is found in all spots that consisted of knot tightening, the relatively similar evidence of wedges was also found at Punjulharjo Boat, Indonesia. 7 �Figure 4. Lashed-lug plank with a frame piece attached to it by ligature. AMS dating by Direct AMS, USA, was conducted not long after the recovery of the plank. A sample of the wooden wedge (D-AMS 034772) was dated to 1,856 BP or 85-229 cal CE (calibrated with Oxcal 4.3) (Piromrak 2020, 41). Timbers used in building Khlong Thom boat were identified into three species. The hull plank is made from Hopea species, the frame and wedge are made from Mesua ferrea L., and the seam wadding was identified as Payena acuminate (Blume) Pierre. Moreover, ropes used for frame lashing and plank lacing were identified as Arenga Pinnata. As a result, all identified timbers are commonly grown in a wet tropical area and are of Southeast Asia origin. Other sites Previous reports between the 1990s-2000s recorded the discovery of several lashed lug vessels found in the Southern and up to the Central part of Thailand, unfortunately, most of them were brief and lost their archaeological context due to the unwitting recovery of the locals. The first one is remnants of boat timbers discovered at Ban Kok Yang, Trang province. The evidence showed a well-preserved early lashed lug boat recovered from an alluvial deposit. The report noted the existence of planks with integrated rectangle lugs, frames, and bulkheads, with the practice of plank lacing by ropes. No dating was ever conducted, the examination from photographs shows the relation to the Pontian boat and Khlong Thom timbers. Unfortunately, the remnants were demolished (Vatcharangkul 2001, 47). The second one is lashed lug planks found in Khlong Ta-Noo canal, Ban Koh-Takien, Chanthaburi. The report by Thai UAD in 1997 recorded that two planks were found buried under the canal bed, and being covered by bamboo branches. Due to the bad visibility, the diver found only two planks with no associated artifacts (Parnfuk 1997, 3-5). No radiocarbon dating or wood identification was conducted, however, planks are relatively similar to the Panjulharjo and Ban Khlong Yuan Boat, with evidence of laced holes and dowel 8 �holes. The plank is 250 cm in length, 30 cm in width, and 10 cm in thickness. It was identified as a hull plank of a lashed lug boat and shows the uses of a scarf joint. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Recent studies of early watercraft in Thailand have revealed interesting evidence of lashed lug vessels with their planks exclusively laced together and with no traces of dowel holes. They support the theory which suggested that lashed lug boats in the early period are primarily laced together. These features are associated with the absolute dating of the plank which came out to be earlier than the Pontian Boat, lashed lug watercraft which represent a transitional phase between exclusively lacing to a combination of both methods. Indeed, the site of Pak Khlong Kluai indicated an association between mortise and tenon ship construction and lashed lug vessels, a more intensive study should address this relation. Therefore, the discovery of exclusive plank-laced vessels has inspired more curiosity about their appearance and construction, whether they are raft-type vessels or hull-plank vessels. BIBLIOGRAPHY Evan, Ivor Hugh Norman. “Notes on the Remains of an Old Boat Found at Pontian.” Journal of the Federated Malay States Museum 12, (1927): 93-96. Fine Arts Department. Rai Ngan Kan Samruat Ruea Boran Hat Pak Khlong Kluai Mu 4 Ban Phukao Thong Tambon Kumpuan Amphoe Suk Samran Changwat Ranong. Samnak Silppakorn thi Sipsong, Nakorn Si Thammarat, (The Archaeological Survey of Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site Ranong Province), In Thai, 2017. Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander. “Further Notes on the Old Boat from Pontian.” Journal of the Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 25, no. 1, (1952): 111-133. Green, Jeremy, Tom Vosmer, Paul Clark, Ray A. Santiago and Mauro Alvarez. “Interim Report on the Joint Australian -Philippines Butuan Boat Project, October 1992. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 24, no. 3 (1995): 177-188. Green, Jeremy, Tom Vosmer, Paul Clark, Ray A. Santiago and Mauro Alvarez. “Interim Report on the Joint Australian -Philippines Butuan Boat Project, October 1992.” Western Australian Musuem. Horridge, Adrian. The lashed-lug boat of the Eastern Archipelagoes, the Alcina MS and the Lomblen Whaling Boat. Maritime Monographs and Reports. Trustees of the National Maritime Museum, 1982. Lacsina, Ligaya. “The Butuan Boats of the Philippines: Southeast Asian Edge-Joined and Lashed-Lug the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 39, (2015): 126-132. Watercraft.” Bulletin of Lacsina, Ligaya. “The Same-Same Boatbuilding Tradition? Looking at the Different Examples of Lashed-lug Boats from the Southeast Asian Region.” In Past Present and Future of ASEAN Maritime Heritage, Proceeding of International Symposium 15 th16th June 2017, 38-53. The Underwater Archaeology Division, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, 2019. Lacsina, Ligaya. Examining Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian Boatbuilding: An Archaeological Study of the Butuan Boats and the Use of Edge-Joined Planking in Local and Regional Construction Techniques, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, Adelaide, 2016. Liebner, Horst. The Siren of Cirebon, University of Leeds, 2014. 9 �Manguin Y. Pierre. “Asian Ship-Building Tradition in the Indian Ocean at the Dawn of European Expansion.” In The Trading World of the Indian Ocean 1500-1800, Volume 3 Part 7, edited by Om Prakash, 597-629. Delhi: Pearson India, 2001. Manguin, Y. Pierre. “The Southeast Asian Ship: An Historical Approach.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 5, no. 2 (1980): 266276. Manguin, Y. Pierre. “Trading Ship of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of the Trade Networks.” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 36, no. 3 (1993): 253-280. Manguin, P.‐Y. “Sewn Boats of Southeast Asia: The stitched‐plank and lashed‐lug tradition.” International Journal of Nautical Aarchaeology 48 (2019): 400–415. McGrail, Sean. Boats of the World From the Stone Age to the Medieval Time. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Mochtar, S. Agni. “Recommendations on Cultural Heritage Site Management Plan for the Punjulharjo Boat in Rembang, Central Java.” Berkala Arkeologi, Volume 40, no. 2, (2020):243-266. Parnfuk, Veera. Rai Ngan Kan Samruat Bueang Ton Ruea Koh Khwang, Klum Ngan Boranna Khadi Tai Nam, Prachinburi, (The Archaeological Survey of Koh Khwang Wreck Site), Prachinburi, The Underwater Archaeology Office, 1997, In Thai. Piromrak, Napat. “Sak Ruea Jom Khlong Thom: Lak Than Ruea Phuk Yuk Raek Roem Thi Phop Nai Prathet Thai.” (Khlong Thom Wreck: Evidence of Early Lashed-Lug Boat Found in Thailand). Silpakorn Journal 63, no. 5 (2020): 30-41, In Thai. Ploymukda, Sira and Piromrak Napat. Rai Ngan Kan Kud Khon Tang Boranna Khadi Laeng Ruea Jom Pak Khlong Kluai Amphoe Suk Samran Jangwad Ranong, (The Excavation of Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site), The Underwater Archaeology Office, 2019, In Thai. Ploymukda, Sira. “Laeng Ruea Jom Pak Khlong Kluai Lak Than Choeng Prachak Dan Theknoloyi Kan To Ruea Lae Patisamphan Thang Thale Chai Fang Samai Raek Roem Prawat Sat. ” (Pak Khlong Kluai Shipwreck Site: Evidence-Based Shipbuilding Technology and Marine Interaction Across the Andaman Coast in Early History Period). Silpakorn Journal 63, no. 5 (2020): 4257, In Thai. Vatcharangkul, Erbprem. Prawat Sat Kan Panitnavy Thai Samnak Boranna Khadi Lae Phiphittaphantha Sathan Haeng Chat, Krom Silpakorn, (History of Thai Maritime Trading), The Fine Arts Department, 2001, In Thai. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 6: Lashed-lug boats: Emerging research from Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 6 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Lashed-lug boat-building techniques played a significant role in Southeast Asian trading networks. The previous studies reported that approximately 20 boats in this category have been found. Indeed, an archaeological survey in Thailand during the 1990s had reported the existence of several boats of this type, but the information was scarce and no excavation had been conducted. Not until 2019, a team of Thai underwater archaeologists carried out a survey along the Andaman Coast, the resources available to conduct the work including the discovery of boat remnants which were assumed to be lashed-lug type. The first was a boat plank found at Khlong Thom, the early port site in Krabi province, likely dating back to c. 1st – 5 th century CE. The second was a boat plank found at Pak-Klong Kluai beach, Ranong province, located in the area of Phukao-Thong archaeological site. Therefore, research on the boat planks is needed in order to find out the technique of the boat-building and its age. The main purpose of the research is to present an insightful analysis of the boat remnants. The analysis of boat-building techniques, a sample collection for AMS dating, and a comparative studmanguiny were carried on. The result of the study reveals a significant aspect of an early phase lashed-lug boats: planks were carved into protruding lugs with hollowed holes, the hull was secured using a palm rope and wooden wedge, and no trace of a dowel hole are found. The AMS dating of a wooden sample from both sites provided a date of 1,856 ±25 BP and 2,303 ±29 BP. Comparatively, the boat structure is similar to the lashed-lug boat of Pontian (3rd – 5 th century CE). However, the hull of these boats bears a different technique of making from other boats (e.g. Butuan and Ban Khlong Yuan boats, 9th century CE). The discovery of the boat remnants in Thailand has shed new light on the early technique of constructing lashed Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Napat Piromrak Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Piromrak, Napat . 2023. “Discussion on the Traces of an Early Phase Lashed-Lug Boats of Southeast Asia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Ligaya Lacsina, Agni Mochtar, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1943 Asia-Pac Session 6 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0d935f7fc006c58551f50567cd2269a7.pdf ce91a690bcf6dd87950e1c9c0ab7501f PDF Text Text CAPACITY BUILDING IN THE TIME OF COVID: THE CASE OF HMAS PERTH (I) Dr Natali Pearson (The University of Sydney, Curriculum Coordinator) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract best fits within Session 4, ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the AsiaPacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges’ because of the latter’s focus on World War II heritage in the Asia-Pacific. The case study under consideration in this paper is that of HMAS Perth (I), an Australian warship sunk in Indonesian waters in 1942. The focus of this paper is Australia’s maritime capacity building initiative for the wreck of Perth (I), and the challenges and opportunities of advancing this project in the time of COVID-19. While some projects lent themselves to being conducted online, many others were forced to reevaluate their feasibility entirely. This paper considers the changes wrought by COVID-19 on conventional heritage capacity building and management models, and the extent to which these models still apply. As it proposes, the limitations posed by the pandemic on capacity building projects created space for more inclusive and enduring knowledge building approaches, which elevated local stakeholders and, arguably, contributed to more sustainable outcomes in the long-term. At the same time, however, broader questions remain about the uses of digital heritage in a connected world. * A detailed publication on this topic is available. Pearson, Natali. “Too Little, Too Late? Redefining the Legacy of HMAS Perth (I), an Australian Warship Sunk in Indonesian Waters.” Historical Archaeology (2023). KEYWORDS World War II, naval shipwrecks, capacity building, heritage post-COVID INTRODUCTION International capacity building projects were seriously affected by the combination of travel restrictions, reduced budgets, and health considerations associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. While some projects lent themselves to being conducted online, many others were forced to reevaluate their feasibility entirely. For Australia and Indonesia, the limitations imposed by COVID–19 prompted a re-evaluation of what constitutes capacity building, and the extent to which maritime heritage collaboration and cooperation can be advanced in the absence of face-to-face engagement. Australia and Indonesia share one of the longest maritime boundaries in the world and have expressed their commitment to working together to build and strengthen cooperation in the area of maritime cultural heritage. This commitment is articulated in the Plan of Action for the Indonesia-Australia Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (2020–2024), which places a priority on intensified maritime cooperation and posits cooperation as critical to both country’s shared strategic interests (Australian Government, 2018). In recent years, bilateral maritime heritage cooperation has centred around HMAS Perth (I), an Australian warship that sunk in Indonesian territorial waters. As the final resting place for hundreds of sailors, Perth represents both a complex and sensitive example of the challenges of protecting and preserving shared maritime heritage. In many ways, COVID exacerbated these challenges. At the same time, however, and as this paper argues, the limitations imposed by COVID have presented unexpected opportunities to imagine a more sustainable model for future maritime engagement between the two countries. 1 �CASE STUDY: HMAS PERTH (I) HMAS Perth (I) was a modified Leander class cruiser that began life as HMS Amphion before being purchased by the Royal Australian Navy, prior to the outbreak of WWII. Perth and her crew saw action all over the world, including in the Caribbean and the Mediterranean. In 1942, Perth joined American, British, and Dutch forces to guard Java from Japanese occupation in the Battle of the Java Sea (27–28 February 1942). The Allies were decisively defeated, and Perth, together with USS Houston, was fortunate to escape (Perryman, 2017). The two vessels fled west, arriving in Tanjung Priok (Jakarta) on 28 February to re-fuel and re-load. Almost immediately, they received orders to sail through the Sunda Strait and towards Cilacap on the southern coast of Java. Although they had been told the coast was clear, Perth and Houston encountered the Japanese Western Invasion Convoy in waters near Banten Bay, just west of Jakarta. The intense battle that ensued has come to be known as the Battle of the Sunda Strait (28 February–1 March 1942). Both Perth and Houston were destroyed by Japanese torpedoes and gun fire, with Perth sinking just after midnight and Houston shortly thereafter. Japan also suffered losses. HMAS Perth (I) had 681 men aboard, including naval personnel, air force personnel, and civilian staff. Of these, 353 died when Perth went down. Of the 1061 aboard USS Houston, 693 lives were lost. Most of the survivors were taken as prisoners of war and endured years of suffering on the Thai-Burma railway. HMAS Perth (I) sank, largely intact, on her port side in Banten Bay. The wreck lay undisturbed until 1967 when it was rediscovered by Australian diver David Burchell. His intention was to recover touchstone objects from the vessel before it was ravaged by what he called ‘diving pirates,’ who, he feared, were salvaging non-ferrous metal from the many sunken warships scattered across the region (Burchell 1971, 26). After twenty-five years in the warm waters of Banten Bay, both Perth and nearby Houston had become thriving marine ecosystems, alive with colour. Then as now, local fishermen have relied on these wrecks for their livelihoods and, due to the birds they attracted, as navigational aids. Burchell’s efforts to find and recover objects from HMAS Perth (I) heralded the first of many human interactions with the wreck. Many of these interactions were motivated by a desire to pay respect to Perth and her crew. Some visitors placed floral wreaths into the water above the site, while others descended below the waves to the wreck itself. These divers, some of whom visited the site on a semiregular basis, were the first to sound the alarm in 2013 that Perth was being salvaged on an industrial scale due to the re-sale value of its scrap metal (Besser, Oakes, & Hermant 2013). The salvaging of Perth for scrap metal has destroyed marine habitats, deprived local communities of sustainable livelihoods from tourism and fishing, and desecrated the final resting place of Australian war dead. Besides the concern over human remains, the presence of unexploded ordnance and fuel oils add a further complication. Despite the imminent threat of destruction by looting, bilateral collaboration to protect and preserve Perth was—for reasons outlined elsewhere in the literature (Pearson 2023)—slow. In May 2017, the Australian National Maritime Museum (ANMM) and the National Centre for Archaeological Research (Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, or Arkenas) conducted a technical survey of the site, which revealed that just 40 per cent of the wreck remained in situ (Hosty, Hunter, & Adhityatama 2017). The 2017 survey, together with petitioning by the Banten provincial government, played a critical role in supporting efforts to advocate for the establishment of a protected zone around the wreck. RESOURCES For Australia and Indonesia, the salvage of Perth placed maritime heritage cooperation in the spotlight, prompting greater bilateral engagement and collaboration to manage the wreck for the 2 �future. In February 2018, then-Minister for Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Susi Pudjiastuti, issued a Ministerial Decree designating HMAS Perth (I) and surrounding waters as Indonesia’s first Maritime Conservation Zone (Kawasan Konservasi Maritim) (Republic of Indonesia 2018). The Maritime Conservation Zone establishes a core zone around the wreck, surrounded by a zone of limited utilisation. The Decree provides a legal basis for site protection, and, in accordance with Indonesian law, was introduced at the national level but must be implemented at the provincial level. Since the establishment of the Maritime Conservation Zone around Perth in 2018, key stakeholders on both sides have worked hard to develop and refine a comprehensive management plan for the site that incorporates the technical requirements of wreck conservation with the historical, administrative, and economic considerations of managing a tourism site of Perth’s significance. Some of these efforts have taken place under a project funded by the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade’s Maritime Capacity Building Initiative (MCBI) and managed by the ANMM with support from the Australian Embassy in Jakarta and the Sydney Southeast Asia Centre at the University of Sydney. The MCBI, as initially conceived, was aimed at promoting greater awareness of the challenges and opportunities of managing HMAS Perth (I). In particular, it recognised the need to balance preservation interests with economic benefits for local communities. One of the first activities conducted under the auspices of the MCBI Perth project was a follow-up survey of the wreck by ANMM and Arkenas in May 2019 (Hosty, Hunter, Adhityatama, & Malliaros 2020). Results suggested that the wreck had been damaged further by a tsunami in Banten Bay in late 2018. Community consultations and capacity building were also considered to be essential components of the MCBI in its original incarnation, due to the value of Perth not only as a grave site and a historic site, but also as a source of tourism opportunities and sustenance for the local fishing economy in Banten Bay. These consultations, involving Australian and Indonesian stakeholders, were due to take place in Banten in 2020, and were intended to contribute towards the development of an overall management plan for the wreck. FRAMEWORK Plans to undertake community consultations and capacity building were, however, temporarily, and then permanently, disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The challenges posed by COVID had a severe impact on the project, with travel (both international and domestic), budgets, timelines, and expectations all affected. In the absence of face-to-face activities, were the capacity building aspects of the project still feasible? Initially, consideration was given to engaging local enumerators to conduct community consultations, but it was agreed that this would pose an unacceptable health risk to the enumerators themselves. Instead, adapting the project required the development of methodological alternatives. This included engaging more directly with key Indonesian collaborators to facilitate access within and beyond the national level of government. In some respects, this approach serves the capacity building objectives better, in that it allowed for deep and extended engagement with specific individuals. At the same time, however, this reliance on certain stakeholders placed a significant imposition on their time and commitments. This was a delicate balance and one that had to be negotiated with care. Another consequence was a greater reliance on existing networks. This has served as a valuable reminder of the importance of investing in relationships prior to any capacity building project. Strong relationships don’t come about because of capacity building projects; successful capacity building projects are the result of such relationships. RESULTS Due to the pandemic, and in lieu of face-to-face activities, the MCBI pivoted to support a range of other events and programs. This was a complete reframing of what constitutes capacity building in a travel- and budget-constrained environment, requiring a reconsideration of the purpose of such 3 �activities within the context of the MCBI project. The activities conducted as part of this pivot were led by the author in her capacity as project consultant to the ANMM. To guide the re-design, the project objectives–to balance Perth’s preservation requirements with its tourism potential–were front of mind. The first pivot activity was the Historic Shipwrecks Workshop Series, which ran online across five modules in November 2020. The Series was designed to promote understanding among Indonesian government stakeholders, academics, and diving practitioners about the significance of HMAS Perth (I) and the necessity of working together to develop a plan to protect and preserve the wreck. It attracted key representatives from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the Ministry of Education and Culture; the Coordinating Ministry for Political, Legal and Security Affairs; the Indonesian Navy; Indonesian Universities; and representatives from local diving associations. Australian, Indonesian, and international experts presented on themes relating to maritime heritage in Indonesia, sustainable management of WWII wrecks, and public education and engagement. The Historic Shipwrecks Workshop Series helped identify areas for further collaboration. Subsequently, representatives from the University of Sydney and the ANMM met with representatives from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (national level) and the Marine Affairs and Fisheries Service in Banten (provincial level) to review and refine the draft management and zoning plan (Rencana Pengelolaan dan Zonasi) for HMAS Perth (I). To ensure access to knowledge for ongoing capacity building, Australia also supported the creation of digital content that can be accessed online. This includes a limited podcast series called Perth’s Stories (https://soundcloud.com/hmasperthi_asharedhistory). Produced and hosted by Australian and Indonesian partners at the University of Sydney and the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, the podcast features survivors, descendants, historians, advocates, officials, scholars, students, archaeologists and Banten Bay locals. The podcast series is readily accessible via major streaming platforms including Spotify and Soundcloud. The project team also developed a bilingual digital museum via an online portal, with the intention that it would be made publicly available. The portal seeks to do justice to HMAS Perth (I) and its communities by broadening the scope of our understanding of underwater cultural heritage management beyond a conflict-centred approach to one that instead creates space for multiple viewpoints, including not only survivors and descendants but also those who have lived with the wreck in their waters for close to eighty years. It provides an entry point for members of the public interested in learning more about both HMAS Perth (I) and Banten province, and features themes including ‘The Battle of the Sunda Strait,’ ‘The Ship’s Bells,’ ‘Waters of Banten Bay,’ ‘View from the Shore,’ ‘Sites of Pilgrimage, ‘The Pepper Sultans of Banten,’ and ‘Preserving a Wreck.’ A key feature of the website is an option for members of the public to submit their own stories and photos of Perth. The portal also provides links to Perth and Banten-related resources and websites. Many of these activities and achievements have resulted from a project-based approach to maritime heritage collaboration between Australia and Indonesia. However, Australia has also taken steps to establish a more strategic and sustainable model of maritime heritage engagement. It has done so by embedding bilateral collaboration within a revitalised whole-of-government approach, building on previous ad hoc arrangements and ensuring ongoing future collaboration between Australia and Indonesia on maritime archaeology research and underwater cultural heritage management. CONCLUSION As project managers, researchers, and educators reconsider what bilateral engagement looks like in a post-pandemic world, this project also offers an opportunity to reassess what heritage will look like. 4 �First, COVID has forced us to face the problems of extractive research. We now rely on local partnerships more than ever and must recognise the shared responsibility of these research partnerships. This prompts the question of why we haven’t been doing this all along, and how we can embed this as part of collaborative research practices in the future. Second, given the healthcare and economic crises across the world, it is increasingly important to be aware of why we are choosing to give time and resources to heritage. We need to not only have a keen sense of why heritage matters at a time when there are so many competing priorities, but to be able to communicate the value of heritage meaningfully and effectively. As the dismantling of confederate and other pro-slavery statues in the United States in 2020 demonstrated, heritage is a flashpoint for the biggest issues of our times. It is where these debates–about identity, inequality, privilege, opportunity, modernity, colonialism, national ambition–come together, where the ideas and legacies of the past intersect with the present and create both friction and opportunity. Finally, COVID has accelerated the push toward digitisation and access for all. With museums closed and travel banned, the need to digitise the past and make it accessible seemed to become more pressing. At the same time, however, the embrace of digitisation raises many important questions that we are yet to fully reckon with, such as the value we ascribe to authenticity (Lixinski 2022), and the potential for open access data to be exploited for purposes other than those intended. Although many decades have passed, the sinking of warships and the catastrophic loss of life that accompanied their destruction continues to reverberate today as nations grapple with the complexities arising from the presence of naval shipwrecks in foreign territorial waters. Cooperation and collaboration are essential if this maritime heritage is to be managed for the future. HMAS Perth (I) is a significant shipwreck for both Australia and Indonesia, and there is strong interest from both sides in working together to ensure that we can do justice to its communities and continue to tell its stories for the future. COVID forced us to think more creatively and more expansively about heritage and about bilateral cooperation. Even as we continue to prioritise the protection and preservation of sites such as HMAS Perth (I), we must also be cognisant of the broader questions about how heritage is being used, and the opportunities, for better and for worse, it presents. BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Government. (2018). Plan of Action for the Indonesia-Australia Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (20202024). https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/indonesia/Pages/plan-of-action-for-the-indonesia-australia-comprehensivestrategic-partnership-2020-2024 Besser, L., Oakes, D., et al. (2013). HMAS Perth: WWII Warship Grave Stripped by Salvagers. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-12-13/outrage-as-warship-grave-stripped-by-salvagers/5156320. Burchell, D. The Bells of Sunda Strait. Adelaide: Rigby, 1971. Hosty, K., Hunter, J., et al. (2017). Maritime Archaeological Investigation of HMAS Perth (1942) (THE HMAS PERTH PROJECT 2017). Retrieved from Sydney; Jakarta: http://www.hmasperth.asn.au/drh0507/Perth_2017_Report.pdf Hosty, K., Hunter, J., et al. (2020). Maritime Archaeological Investigation of HMAS Perth (1942) (THE HMAS PERTH PROJECT 2019). Manuscript, Australian National Maritime Museum and Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, Sydney, Australia. Lixinski, L. (2022). Against Authenticity. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 28(11-12), 1213-1227. Pearson, N. (2023). Too Little, Too Late? Redefining the legacy of HMAS Perth (I), an Australian shipwreck in Indonesian waters. Historical Archaeology, 57(1). Perryman, D. J. (2017). HMAS Perth (I). Retrieved from http://www.navy.gov.au/hmas-perth-i. Keputusan Menteri Kelautan dan Perikanan No.21 Tahun 2018 tentang Kawasan Konservasi Maritim HMAS Perth di Perairan Provinsi Banten (Ministerial Decree from the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries No.21/2018 regarding HMAS Perth Maritime Conservation Zone in the waters of Banten Province), (2018). 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Capacity Building in the Time of COVID: The Case of HMAS Perth (I) Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract best fits within Session 4, ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the AsiaPacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges’ because of the latter’s focus on World War II heritage in the Asia-Pacific. The case study under consideration in this paper is that of HMAS Perth (I), an Australian warship sunk in Indonesian waters in 1942. The focus of this paper is Australia’s maritime capacity building initiative for the wreck of Perth (I), and the challenges and opportunities of advancing this project in the time of COVID-19. While some projects lent themselves to being conducted online, many others were forced to reevaluate their feasibility entirely. This paper considers the changes wrought by COVID-19 on conventional heritage capacity building and management models, and the extent to which these models still apply. As it proposes, the limitations posed by the pandemic on capacity building projects created space for more inclusive and enduring knowledge building approaches, which elevated local stakeholders and, arguably, contributed to more sustainable outcomes in the long-term. At the same time, however, broader questions remain about the uses of digital heritage in a connected world. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Natali Pearson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pearson, Natali. 2023. “Capacity Building in the Time of COVID-19: The case of HMAS Perth (I).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1900 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0360e971ac74b77dcc466348b9e4824f.pdf c15fdc94be37a269470b756649233bc8 PDF Text Text Forgotten Past? Alternative Forms for Museological Approach to interpret Egypt's Maritime Heritage Nevine Nizar Zakaria Abstract In the past decades, Ministry of Antiquities (MA) has invested many efforts in excavating underwater archeological sites, and mapping them to reveal the navigation routes during ancient times. Remarkable discoveries have been made by the European Institute of Underwater Archeology (IEASM) as well as others archeological projects on Egypt's coasts. Despite this wealth of Egypt's maritime history and intellectual resources, it lacks a Maritime Museum till present or even an exhibition gallery dedicated to elucidate maritime' legacies to the local community. It also lacks a special legal placement for Maritime cultural heritage with scientific management principles oriented towards interconnects the society, local governing authorities and museums professionals with cultural purposes to promote and preserve Maritime History of Egypt. Maximizing awareness is the key element to preserve and publish the Maritime Heritage. So, How to make it accessible to the public? How to foster this richness past in the minds of young generations? This paper presents approachable alternative forms to ensure effective engagement with the public and develop new strategies for sustainable future of Egypt's UCH. Key words: Egypt, UCH, public engagement Introduction Maritime history of Egypt dates back to thousands of years where Egypt was at the center of the global commerce and at the axis of trade routes linking Asia, Europe, and Africa. It's blessed with a rich maritime history and diversity of underwater archeology holds the memories of our nation's past and the legacy of Egypt's history that still preserved beneath the sea. Hence, this paper is rooted in several interconnected purposes and concerns contribute to developing understanding of maritime Egypt which is crucial for preserving and promoting the tangible and intangible of �maritime cultural of Egypt as living heritage. The central aim of this paper is to propose new alternative approaches to go beyond to raise interest among the public with maritime cultural, and foster the involvement of local community in an awareness-raising process lead to major endearment towards shaping the national identity of Egypt maritime. The framework is consisting of three main sections 1) elucidate the historical value and cultural significance of Egypt maritime; 2) define how maritime cultural interpreted in the Egyptian antiquities museums; 3) setting up new effective solutions for imparting knowledge and information of Egypt's maritime and encourage interaction and engagement among the public. 1) The Cultural Setting The cultural setting of maritime Egypt is commitment to two main factors; a) maritime material cultural that's derived from the human interaction with the seas, Nile river, lakes, etc (which is known today as maritime archeology); b) underwater archeology that is relate to the archeological sites submerged beneath the water in old times (Bass, 2013), taken into consideration that most of Egypt' underwater archeological sites of the Mediterranean Sea were originally maritime sites ( served as trading ports) before disappearance in the waters due to seismic factors and geological subsidence (Stanley, et al., 2007). A) Cultural significance of Maritime Egypt 'When the Nile covers the land, only the towns are visible above the water, and they look like nothing so much as the Aegean islands. The rest of Egypt becomes open sea, with only the towns rising up out of it'. (Herodotus II.97). On the geography of the country, the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484425 BC) called Egypt 'the gift of the Nile' (Herodotus, 1998). Egypt's �landscape is determined by the presence of the Nile River, the largest river in the world, stretching from Africa to the Mediterranean Sea, and unquestionably most important element for the geography of both ancient and modern Egypt (Rice, 2003, Shaw and Nicholson, 1995). In addition to the riverine environment of Egypt, it has a special geographical location overlooking the Mediterranean Sea by the north and Red Sea by the east. With this unique nature, Egypt is considered in its role as seafaring nation influencing and interaction with others through well-established shipbuilding technology that permitted the Egyptians to sail round-trip journeys as early as ancient times. (Ward, 2012). The wealth of maritime Egypt materials (textual, iconographic, and archeological) comes from the ancient Egyptian cultural, which is called 'Pharaonic Egypt' [ Fig. 1] with many historical and archeological evidences provide significance data on the ancient Egyptian maritime activities and tasks; diversity of ships and boats representations, seafaring, sea power and naval forces operations, nautical expeditions, shipbuilding technology, models of boats left in tombs, full-size boats buried in the ground, mariners with their nautical titles, nautical themes within religious practices and much more meaningful resources reveals to what extent and variety the maritime influences on all levels of the ancient Egyptian civilization and penetrated in every aspect of its culture. �Fig. 1: Chronological Periods of Egypt. An asterisk (*) used to refers the periods mentioned in text. This has been formulated with references to: Shaw. G. J., The Pharaoh. Life on court and on Campain, London, 2012. Shaw, I., the Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford, 2000. The petri Museum's Digital Egypt for Universities: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/chronology/index.html accessed on 10th of July 2017 �It is worth mentioning that Egypt maritime had direct impact on the formation of the Egyptian state in Pharaonic times, as the earliest kings used maritime forces not only to facilitate communication and trade within Egypt and its neighbors, but also to conquer their enemies, threaten their rivals, and to consolidate their power (Gilbert, 2008). Egypt's shipbuilding technology was well-developed by late Naqadah II period (Vinson, 2009) indicate considerable navigation linked Egypt with Asia to the east and Sudan to the south. Great innovation in nautical technology was promoted by Predynastic period, in which Egyptian kings sent mining expeditions involving maritime forces along the Nile and cross the Red Sea to the south of Sinai (Gilbert, 2008). [Fig. 2] Fig. 2: Major trade routes used by Egyptian seafarers for mining and trade missions cross the Nile and the Red Sea's coastline during the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods. (Gilbert, 2008) The seafaring activities is documented since old Kingdom and continued throughout ancient Egyptian History referring to maritime Egypt contact with the Late Bronze Age civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean and �Aegean (Vinson, 2009). The Egyptians seafarers used both the Red and the Mediterranean seas for military expeditions to protect Sea Power ashore, as well as tribute and trade expeditions to obtain valuable products (Gilbert, 2008). [Fig. 2] Broad seagoing ships are seen in Queen Hatshepsut's expedition to Punt (probably the Horn of Africa) [Fig 3] provides clear evidences of seagoing ships arriving at Punt through the Red Sea. (Ward, 2012, Vinson, 1994, Landström, 1970). Fig. 3: Queen Hatshepsut's expedition to Punt commemorated in reliefs on her Funerary temple at Deir el Bahri, it is portray eight seagoing ships arriving at Punt loading with products. (Vinson, 1994) Close relationship between both Egyptian and Greek Civilizations initiated in the Saite period through maritime trade cross the Mediterranean Sea admitted Greek and Phoenician traders into Egypt (Goddio. and MassonBerghoff, 2016) up to the trading point of Naukratis at the east Delta. (Vinson, 2009) [Fig. 4] .After Alexander death 332 BC, the New city of Alexandria turned into one of the most important commercial port and �cultural centers of the Hellenistic Mediterranean (Vinson, 2009, Vinson, 1994). Fig. 4: Map of Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean illustrate the Greek cities and Island involved in the foundation of Naukratis according to Herodotus. (Goddio and Masson-Berghoff. 2016) The eastern trade was facilitated by the construction of a canal linking the Nile to the Red sea. subsequently, an open-water trade route between Egypt and India has been established by the Roman period "the Red SeaIndian Ocean route" turning Egypt into nexus of a far-flung international maritime system that tied the Mediterranean to distant ports in East Africa, Arabia, and India (Vinson, 2009, Meyer, 1992). (A) Underwater Heritage Beyond the evidences offered by the representations and epigraphy of ancient Egypt maritime, enormous numbers of archeological remains �submerged beneath the waters of the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea, contribute information on new archeological sites with all its harbours, temples and towns that still preserved under the sea. In addition to large number of shipwrecks that's still lie on the seabed of both Mediterranean Sea and Red Seas. Hence, Egypt's Underwater cultural Heritage (UCH) have been stepped in the beginning of the twentieth century with individual amateur efforts reflect the growing interest in Egypt's underwater archeology especially in Alexandria (Khalil and Moustafa 2002). In late 1996, the foundation of the Department for Underwater Antiquities (DUA) supervised by Ministry of Antiquities (MoA) to survey and carry out topographical study for the submerged landscape in collaboration with international institutions (Abdel-Maguid, 2012). This has been resulted in the discovery of many new underwater archeological sites in the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Nile, and Lake Qarun, spans the history of different periods including the Pharaonic, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods (Abdel-Maguid, 2012, Khalil and Moustafa 2002 ). Major efforts are promoted by the Institut European d’Archeologie SousMarine (IEASM) in co-operation with MoA to allocate, identify and excavate the major ancient sites that vanished into the Mediterranean, specifically in the Eastern Harbours of Alexandria. It led to the rediscovery of two ancient sunken cities; Thonis-Heracleion and Canopus. (Goddio and Masson-Berghoff, 2016). Excavations uncovered monumental building, heads of Pharaohs, sphinxes, basins, columns, stelae, sizable assemblage of pottery and coins, and other significant colossal artifacts (Goddio and Masson-Berghoff, 2016, Goddio, 2007). �Archeological remains submerged in Red Sea indicate the wealth of UCH of the Red Sea with considerable efforts invested by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA-Egypt) and In Situ Institute working alongside with DUA to revealing and surveying Red Sea underwater heritage (Abdel-Maguid, 2012). 2) Define and assess the presentation of maritime materials in the Egyptian Antiquities Museums This approach is largely depends on How maritime Egypt exists within the narrative structure and communication styles of the Egyptian Antiquities museums? And how the social interaction formulation exists both within and beyond the museums walls? In fact, the answers to these questions have direct impact on the content, context and consequences of interpreting maritime heritage of Egypt. Accordingly, we need first to examine the current museums setup that provides any context relate to maritime aspects of Egypt and obtain baseline information upon which we could define the missing aspects, subsequently generate creative solutions to messages communication and interpretation for the maritime heritage of Egypt. Egypt has different types of museums, ranging in size and activity from main national museums to small provincial museums. They vary too in their purpose, their collections, the ways of display, and the public they seek to serve. According to the programme set by the Ministry of Cultural and the Supreme Council of Antiquities (later MoA) in 2005, the Egyptian museums subdivided into five main categories; (1) Regional civilization museums (2) Site museums (3) Specialized museums (4) Graeco-roman, Coptic and Islamic museums (5) Main national museums (Hawass, 2005). �However, this classification did not support the national identity of the Egyptian heritage. Doyon classify the full range of Egyptian museums by subject- type using the five basic distinction of archeology (from prehistoric to Islamic), history, art, ethnography, and natural history (Doyon, 2008). Compared with the classification and types of museums that are seen nowadays around the world, there is a specific type for maritime history and nautical activities specialized in displaying ships, navies, military use of the sea and all that is related to any human activity at the sea. (Bass, 2013, Neill and Krohn, 1991). In this view, and despite the wealth of Egypt's maritime history and the massively intellectual resources, it lacks that type of maritime museum or even a comprehensive gallery disseminates the cultural identity of Egypt maritime and its legacies to the local community with well-constructed interpretive model. Although that a wide range of archeological objects of ships, boats, and other related materials can be seen broadly in many galleries at the Egyptian museums, but the composition of the archeological displays does not elucidate the maritime heritage of Egypt at any level or reflect the historical and geographical significance of the Egyptian civilization that rely heavily on the development of the maritime and the utilization of the sea power (see Gilbert, 2008). In researching the presentation of permanent displays for boats and ships among the Egyptian museums, two main museums become evident. One is Solar Boat Museum (Cheops) at Giza that displaying full-size vessel from ancient Egypt used for religious purposes. The other is that the local regional museum of Suez; the Suez National Museum which tells the �history of Suez Canal at ancient times, and displaying a round 1500 archeological artifacts span the full order of Egyptian history from prehistoric period till modern times with themes highlight on the Suez as an important port and navigational link at ancient Egypt, in addition to remarkable collection for boats accompanied with with maps and illustrations. Both museums are classified as Archeological museums (Doyon), and the thematic archeological exhibits are avoiding constructing narrative that would inform the public about the existence of distinctive maritime cultural in Egypt, moreover they have yet to produce any educational programmes communicate the maritime pasts to the public. Hence, it should be mentioning that, there is a series of exquisite touring exhibitions for Egypt's sunken treasures occurred throughout the last decade till present on loans to different destinations; France, United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, United states of America, Japan, presenting objects of underwater excavations of IESAM in collaboration with MoA (Goddio and Masson-Berghoff. 2016, Goddio and Clauss 2004). A variety of remarkable collections ranging between 250-500 underwater objects on displays in diverse venues all over the world attracting millions of visitors with focused scope on the lost world of the pharaohs beneath the sea and the relevant aspects of maritime Egypt. A good example is the Sunken Cities Exhibition at the British Museum in 2016. The Exhibition's narrative aimed to explain the encounter between ancient Egypt and Greek with understanding of the deep and meaningful interconnection between both Greek and Egyptian Communities through many themes highlighting on the cultural integration between Egypt and Greek world through the Sea, religion aspects interaction, trade and exchange cross the open water of Mediterranean Sea, Thonis- Heraclean �and Naukratis as international ports, long history entanglement between Egypt and Rome, Navigation of Osiris boats (Goddio and MassonBerghoff. 2016). The narrative is conveyed through a variety of explanation materials help communicate the information to the audience. In comparison with the local underwater venues of Egypt, there are number of permanent exhibitions in Alexandria' museums dedicated to display the recent excavations of underwater archeology, but without constructive narrative for neither Egypt maritime, nor intended messages rendering cultural/historical interpretation for the displayed objects. The concept is focusing only on presenting the recovered objects from the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria and Aboukir Bay and put them on display with textual description (artifacts labels) in different venues; the renovated Alexandria National Museum gallery presenting underwater artifacts, thematic section at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina Antiquities Museum demonstrate the submerged Antiquities, and part of the open –air landscape of the Roman Theater at Kom Al-Dikka display a number of underwater sculptures. Noticeably, the absence of maritime identity in the exhibitions context is related to the narrative content which avoiding the maritime scope and subsequently affect all levels of presented information and related public programmes. The main intention is to display the archeological materials of maritime form archeological point of view without considering any conjunction with the distinctive cultural of maritime Egypt. In general, the original formulation and fundamental structure of the display at all the Egyptian Antiquities museums derives from Egyptological and archeological prospective (Doyon, 2008). The methods of presentation the archeological collections rely on the repetition of certain �themes within the multiple periods of the ancient Egyptian history following the chorological order. Within a larger framework of presentation maritime materials, there is an ambitious plan to establish Underwater Museum in Alexandria's bay supported by the Egyptian authorities and UNESCO to preserve and exhibit the underwater heritage of Alexandria in sit (.Abd-el-Maguid, 2012). 3) Proposing innovative ways for interpreting maritime Egypt Maximizing awareness is the key element to preserve and publish the maritime heritage of Egypt and foster this richness past in the minds of young generations. Thus, this section aims to present approachable alternative forms to ensure effective engagement with the public and develop new strategies for sustainable future for Egypt's maritime and UCH through the following:  Formulating an illustrative and modern shape web-site for maritime It is now an uncontested fact that technology is pervasive throughout our lives; technology has become an integral part of the way that we communicate with each another and has increasingly taken the place of face-to-face communication (Kotler et al., 2008). We need to use these modern technologies advancement to communicate that level of engagement with the public and lead them gradually to embrace their maritime cultural heritage virtually. This approach will provide comprehensive information and broader and more cohesive picture on the overall maritime heritage of Egypt; subsequently will open up new opportunities for public to learn about varied aspects of maritime and UCH in an engaging way. In fact, it will fill �the gap for the absence of maritime museum in Egypt and will serve as a powerful engine for regeneration both tangible and intangible maritime heritage of Egypt. Keeping up with what the global museums offers nowadays for their users, and by adopting the current use of technologies and digital media particularly the revolutionary use of both AR and VR application and 3D modeling technology (Gutiérrez et al. 2016), this trend can take many forms; from building a virtual maritime museum with interactive stories arranged in chorological order (INDICAT, 2012), to diversity of meaningful visual narratives reveal the maritime legacies and the submerged heritage underwater arranged thematically, or virtual field trips to maritime cultural landscape and long coastlines of Egypt, or diving virtually into the depths of seas and encounter the treasures of the sunken cities, or using the visualization technology to reconstruct the UCH and maritime sites and get glimpse of lifestyles of the people in the past. In this concern, it should referring to the remarkable efforts of IEASM in create reconstruction for the discovered underwater cities ThonisHeracleion and Canopus, also the international harbour town of Naukratis with its Egyptian and Greek temples (Goddio and Masson-Berghoff, 2016) [Fig. 5]. �Fig. 5: Reconstruction of the international harbour town of Naukratis features the Egyptian and Greek temples. (Goddio and MassonBerghoff, 2016) These virtual experiences will promote the UCH and make it accessible to the public. On another hand, implementing interactive visualization technology and 3D modeling/mapping on underwater archeology will safeguard and preserve this endangered heritage under the seas. This approach can be achieved through active collaboration between MoA and Center for Documentation of Cultural Heritage at Egypt (CULTNAT), with support from IEASM and together with other local and international cultural authorities that concerned with maritime cultural and underwater archeology.  Online Exhibitions for Maritime Series Indeed, online viewing of maritime cultural heritage whether movable (museums) or immovable (underwater archeological sites) will attract visitors and encourage them to make actual visits, but what if the visitors themselves share their maritime memories online? �Online Exhibition is online display of collections with the aim of engaging an audience that is not necessarily expert (Museum Association, 2011). It's a new approach allow to share the museum collection through build online exhibits with objects, and invite visitors to share their memories (INDICAT, 2012, Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, 2011). This online experience is relatively affordable in comparison to other techniques of display and considered to be interactive digital experience allows to use social media and search to build audiences, thus, it is two – way conversation process with the audience provide immersive engagement to the maritime cultural (Museum Association , 2011). In fact, these online maritime series can serve as social media platforms help in building maritime memories and promote two- ways communication with the local community through offering them the opportunity to share their maritime stories and other related memories. Hence, it can used broadly to preserve the intangible heritage and oral history of Egyptian maritime identity and linked the public with their maritime history as living heritage.  Visitor Center as interpretive tool for maritime cultural heritage of Egypt Visitor center is a powerful tool can be used effectively in the raising awareness process to stimulate the public towards understating their history of both maritime and the underwater archeology. visitor center has been identified as physical buildings located in a city or in historical and natural sites to provide visitors with services and information, it vary from a small building with modest services to great one with entertainment center and even a museum. (Mohamed, 2015, Pearce, 2004). �One of the main aspects of the visitor center is adopting interpretation content and technological components to communicate the provided information and related context to users (visitors, staff, and local community) (Pearce, 2004). Due to the International Conference organized by the Getty Conservation Institute and Paul Getty Museum in May1995, the main role of visitor center is to prepare the visitor to enjoy and understand the history behind the archeological site using different interpretive tools accompanied with walking tours whether guided or independent. (Mohamed, 2015). Bibliotheca Alexandrina(semi-governmental institution), one of the main cultural institute in Egypt has publish a book stressing the importance of visitor center in Egyptian community as a crucial tool for the preservation of archeological sites as well as participate in the community development (Hassan and Youssef 2008). In this light, considering a visitor center at the coasts of both Mediterranean and Red seas will emphasis particular interest for the local community and enabling them to understand the precious maritime heritage of Egypt. In the same context, it should be referring to the ambitious project that carried out in 2008 with the purpose of creating a network of visitors centers in the southern region of the Red Sea, entitled; ' Visitor Center Information Distribution Network –VCIDN' from Marsa Allam to Shalateen within a distance of 200 km. among the overall objective of this project, it aim to provide a deeper understanding of the cultural and marine history environment of the Red Sea region. Despite the construction of these networks of visitors' centers, it didn't open to the public till present. (USAID 2008). �Another project in the Red Sea region funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) regarding the restoration and transformation of historical ottoman fort dates back to 1571 at the Quseir ( located on the Red Sea ashore) into heritage visitor center with the involvement of the local communities. It served as learning center teaching the history of the Red Sea' legacy to the local by using creative interpretive methods ( e.g. they were able to revive the oldest fishing boat used in the port called the Gatira and create an identical replica based on the local’s memories). Unfortunately, after shifting this center under the jurisdiction of MoA, it loses many of its authenticity as heritage building due to lack of training for the staff. (Mohamed, 2015) However, the proposed venues for creating visitor center for interpreting the context of Egypt maritime and UCH can be located in different places; in the Red sea coastline; underwater archeological sites of Mediterranean Sea coastline particularly at Alexandria as a unique attraction point for both tourists and locals; the Bibliotheca Alexandrina or Qaitbay fort -the top-visited cultural site in Alexandria- since they both overlooking the Mediterranean Sea; or we might consider using one of the historical buildings in the Alexandria and transformed into a visitor center. This visitor center of maritime cultural and UCH could enrich both locals and tourists with a wide variety of maritime topics and encourage them to visits museums, thus will lead them to deeper engagement with the displays of sunken treasures collections and other related exhibitions in the Alexandria museums.  Cultural Network Egypt lacks a special legal placement for Maritime cultural heritage with scientific management principles oriented towards interconnects the �society, local governing authorities and museums professionals with cultural purposes to promote and preserve maritime history of Egypt. In this regard, we need to fostering cooperation on international scale between MoA, Alexandria Centre for Maritime Archaeology, IEASM, together with UNESCO and ICOM committee for Maritime ICMM, and all relevant stakeholders to build up a "cultural network" tasked with developing sustainable strategies for preserving and communicating maritime cultural heritage of Egypt. The focused actions should be 1) Create thorough databank compiles all the UCH sites and maritime resources of Egypt both tangible and intangible; 2) create cultural map for all UCH sites and maritime sites of Egypt ; 3) develop methodology with standards and guidelines for promoting social and cultural programmes to the local community education; 4) set up implementation strategies for disseminating explanation materials and information, as well as collaborative projects with community participation.  Heritage Tours and Water Adventures By recognizing the vast submerged landscape that facing the Mediterranean and Red Seas, daily nature cruises and heritage tours with interpretive storytelling and explanatory materials can help the audiences to unlock the historic past beneath the water and had immersive engagement with maritime legacy. This might be led by museums staff, DUA staff, trained docents. In conclusion Egypt's maritime cultural is rich and diverse; its tangible and intangible aspects exerted a dominating influences on the formation and consolidation of the Egyptian civilization and its interconnection with the neighbors. Maritime Egypt still not defined, it is in need to identified, �explained and interpreted as powerful tool for the Egyptian history linked the public with their maritime national identity, and affect on their perception to the riverine and maritime nature of modern Egypt through developing and delivering meaningful and engagement offerings. Bibliography: .Abd-el-Maguid. M. M., 2012. Underwater Archaeology in Egypt and the Protection of its Underwater Cultural Heritage. Journal of Maritime Archeology, Vol. 7:193–207. Bass. G. F., 2013. The Development of Maritime Archeology. The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archeology. Oxford University Press. Oxford. Doyon, W., 2008, The Poetics of Egyptian Museum Practice. British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan, Vol. 10:1-37. Gilbert, G.P., 2008. Ancient Egyptian Sea Power and the origin of Maritime Forces. National Library of Australian Cataloguing. Australia. Goddio, F. and Masson-Berghoff, A., 2016. Sunken Cities. Egypt's lost worlds. Thames & Hudson. UK. Goddio, F. 2007. The Topography and Excavation of Heracleion-Thonis and Eaast Canopus (1996-2006), Underwater Archeology in the Canopic Region in Egypt, Oxford Centre for Maritime Archeology 1, Oxford. Goddio, F and Clauss, M., 2004. Egypt’s sunken treasures. American University in Cairo Press, Cairo. Gutiérrez, J. M. et al. 2016. Virtual Technologies Trends in Education. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics Science and Technology Education. Spain. Hassan, F. and Youssef, M., 2008, Introduction, Cultural Heritage and Development in the Arab World. Cairo; 1-11. �Hawass, Z. 2005, A New Era for Museums in Egypt. Museum International 225/226. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization;7-23. Herodotus, 1998. The Histories. translated by Robin Waterfield. Oxford University Press. Oxford. INDICAT , 2012. International Network for Digital heritage E- Infrastructure. Handbook on Virtual Exhibitions and Virtual Performances. Khalil E. and Moustafa. M., 2002. Underwater Archaeology in Egypt. In: Ruppe C, Barstad J (eds) International handbook of underwater archaeology. Plenum Series in Underwater Archaeology, New York; 519– 539. Kotler et al., 2008. Museum Marketing and Strategy. Jossy-Bass. San Francisco. Landström, B., 1970. Ships of the pharaohs: 4000 years of Egyptian shipbuilding. Doubleday & Company. New York. Meyer, C., 1992. Glass from Quseir al-Qadim and the Indian Ocean trade. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization , Vol. 53. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago .Chicago. Mohamed. M. 2015. The Role of Visitors Center to Enrich the Visitor Experience and to support the Community Development, Master of Arts Thesis-unpublished. Brandenburg Technology University Cottbus, German. Helwan University, Cairo. Museum Association, 2011. Practical tips for Creating Online Exhibitions. Neill. P and Krohn B., 1991. Great Maritime Museums of the world. Balsam Press in association with H.N. Abrams. New York. �Pearce, Ph. L., 2004. The functions and planning of visitor centres in regional tourism. Journal of Tourism Studies, Vol. 15 (1); 8-17. Rice, M., 2003. Egypt's Making. The origins of Ancient Egypt 5000-2000 BC. London. Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, 2011. User Guide for Museum Professionals Instructions for Building a Website in Omeka.net for Sharing Museum Collections and Creating Digital Exhibits. Shaw. I and Nicholson. P., 1995. The British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press. Cairo. Stanley, J. D., Schnepp, G., and Jorstad T. F., 2007. Submergence of archeological sites in Aboukir Bay, the result of gradual long-term processes plus catastrophic events. In J. D. Stanley (Eds.), Geoarchaeology, Underwater Archeology in the Canopic Region in Egypt, Oxford Centre for Maritime Archeology 2, Oxford: 23-57. USAID, 2008. Egypt, Life red Sea Project, Enhancing Sustainable Tourism in the Southern Red Sea Region of Egypt, Vol. 6: Action Plan for Sustainable Tourism in the Southern Red Sea Region of Egypt, Cairo. Vinson. S., 2009. Seafaring. In Elizabeth Frood and Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Los Angeles. Vinson, S., 1994. Egyptian boats and ships. Shire Egyptology 20. Shire Publications. UK. Ward. C., 2012. Building pharaoh’s ships: Cedar, incense and sailing the Great Green. British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan, Vol. 18: 217–32. �Biography Nevine Nizar Zakria, has PH.D in Egyptology (2016), member staff of Ministry of Antiquities since (2001) till present. She has 15 years' experience of curatorial work and museological practices, involved in the process of developing the exhibition content of the Grand Egyptian Museum (2004-2015). She promotes her experience in Museology professionally by joining the international training programme of the British Museum (2012), and extra training in 2015. She has exposed to the best practices in the field of museums at UK, USA, Germany and India. Since (2015) She joining Helwan University as Lecturer in Museum Studies. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 4: Ensuring a Sustainable Future for UCH: Museums and Public Engagement Description An account of the resource Cultural heritage derives its value from societal contexts, and so public engagement plays an important role in growing support for, and interest in heritage. Engagement may take many forms, from awareness-raising to formal learning programmes to creating platforms for public participation in the process of heritage conservation, governance, and/or interpretation. Papers bridging theoretical and practical approaches to engagement with UCH are particularly welcome, as are papers which offer collaborative and/or participatory models, stakeholder engagement, capacity-building and development, approaches to the particular challenges of engagement with underwater cultural heritage vs other kinds of cultural heritage. Of course heritage exists in a variety of cultural frameworks, and ensuring sustainability requires approaches to engagement to be both responsive and sensitive to the overlapping cultural contexts in which UCH may exist. As a culturally diverse region, the treatment of heritage must be also tailored to cultural definitions, heritage management frameworks and conventions which may, in some cases, differ across jurisdictions/countries and their interests. The panel will also attempt to explore the ways in which UCH is managed within diverse cultural frameworks, and invites papers to examine topics including contested UCH, ownership, security, etc. The panel invites papers exploring significance within local, national and transnational historiographies and the implications for funding and management of UCH. UCH includes material that has been deposited on the seabed as a result of warfare and catastrophe, so papers which explore and/or engage with topics including loss, warfare, conflicted significance and contested heritage are particularly welcome. Other relevant sub-themes include: * Public engagement in the management of UCH * Interpreting maritime cultural heritage for non-specialist audiences * Significance, interpretative potential, stakeholders and support/sustainability * Museums, Education, Outreach and Conservation * Memory, memorials and memorialisation Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Raphael Igombo National Museums of Kenya, Kenya Michelle Damian Monmouth College (IL), USA Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Forgotten Past? Alternative Forms for Museological Approach to interpret Egypt's Maritime Heritage Description An account of the resource In the past decades, Ministry of Antiquities (MA) has invested many efforts in excavating underwater archeological sites, and mapping them to reveal the navigation routes during ancient times. Remarkable discoveries have been made by the European Institute of Underwater Archeology (IEASM) as well as others archeological projects on Egypt's coasts. Despite this wealth of Egypt's maritime history and intellectual resources, it lacks a Maritime Museum till present or even an exhibition gallery dedicated to elucidate maritime' legacies to the local community. It also lacks a special legal placement for Maritime cultural heritage with scientific management principles oriented towards interconnects the society, local governing authorities and museums professionals with cultural purposes to promote and preserve Maritime History of Egypt. Maximizing awareness is the key element to preserve and publish the Maritime Heritage. So, How to make it accessible to the public? How to foster this richness past in the minds of young generations? This paper presents approachable alternative forms to ensure effective engagement with the public and develop new strategies for sustainable future of Egypt's UCH. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nevine Nizar Zakaria Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Nevine Nizar Zakaria Asia-Pac Session 4 2017