50 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Affair of the Madre De Deus; a Chapter in the History of the Portuguese in Japan. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource C. R. 1904- (Charles Ralph) Boxer Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1929 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author C. R. 1904- (Charles Ralph) Boxer Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1929 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 94 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner Title A name given to the resource The Affair of the Madre De Deus; a Chapter in the History of the Portuguese in Japan. Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Anabasis of Alexander and Indica Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arrian P.A. Brunt Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-00-83 1976-83 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Arrian Translator P.A. Brunt Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1976-00-83 1976-83 Number of Volumes 2 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Title A name given to the resource The Anabasis of Alexander and Indica Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Confucius Chichuang Huang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Confucius Translator Chichuang Huang Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Title A name given to the resource The Analects of Confucius (Lun Yu) China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7062be1e10a33b21a436fa48583d28f0.pdf d7b554f1ee475142c7c78319a9bf60ff PDF Text Text The Application of Photogrammetry for Recording Indonesian Vernacular and Historical Boats and Boat Miniatures in Museum Collections Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa1,2 Chiara Zazzaro1 Agni Mochtar1,3 1 Università di Napoli “L’Orientale”, Italy Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, Indonesia 3 National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Indonesia 2 ABSTRACT This paper fits best within Session 27 New Technology and Interdisciplinary Strategies as it focuses on the status and preservation of vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures within Indonesian museum collections. The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording these museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific research. The resources available to conduct the work include the full-size and miniature Indonesian boats kept in the Museum Nasional and Kebaharian Museum in Jakarta and other collections in Indonesia. The research questions of this project are: what is the suitable method, and what are the challenges in the 3D documentation of full-sized boats and miniatures in museums using the photogrammetry technique? The results of this project are comprehensive data regarding the photogrammetry workflow for museum collections and sets of digital boat models suitable for disseminating information and for scientific publication. This project is part of the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project, an ongoing collaboration among Indonesian and Italian scholars. Keywords: boats, miniatures, museum collections, photogrammetry List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: The comparison of photos sequences between miniature and full-sized boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 2: Detailed result on miniature boat Janggolan Madura. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 3: Defects on models shown on two sides of the boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. Figure 4: Imperfections due to reflection on sail material. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro, 2023. INTRODUCTION In the last decades, the application of photogrammetry in the cultural heritage field has dramatically increased. Photogrammetry is easily accessible to everyone, and it provides a permanent record of heritage materials and data for accurate measurement and analysis (Yilmaz, Yakar, and Yildiz 2008, 9), which benefit the documentation and reconstruction process, and research dissemination (Forlin, Valente, and Kázmér 2018, 2). The digital data recorded by this method benefit researchers from different fields, including archaeologists, who can better manage the time spent on the field (Puspita et al. 2021, 343). For Indonesian museums, photogrammetry has become more popular with the rise of demands for digital access to museum collections. The need for digital access to entertainment and education spiked, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic (Bramantyo and Ismail 2021, 185; Soraya and Sigit Martyastiadi 2021, 26). However, only a few museums can cope with the demands, and most collections still need to be digitally represented nowadays—especially endangered maritime heritage in the form of historical and vernacular boats. In fact, in nautical archaeology, photogrammetry is especially useful for reverse engineering processes, extrapolating naval lines from 3D models and creating a permanent record P A G 1 �of boat architectures. Unlike other types of applications, photogrammetry measurements and tolerances are much less restrictive, and the accuracy obtained is sufficient at this scope (Martorelli, Pensa, and Speranza 2014). Vernacular boats and boatbuilding in many places in Indonesia faced a rapid decline with the introduction of modern shipbuilding, accompanied by a high demand for manufactured ships. The lack of knowledge transfer within the boatbuilder communities exacerbates the decline. As observed in the boatyards in Pasuruan, East Java, the skills and knowledge of boatbuilding are only taught from fathers to sons, without any guarantee that today’s generation wants to continue working on building boats (Mochtar, Taniardi and Purnawibawa 2021). A similar situation is found in Tana Beru, a village in South Sulawesi, where there is probably the largest cluster of wooden boatyards in the world, especially for building a type of boat known as pinisi. Here, most of the production concerns large boats, and only a few builders master the skills to make boats using traditional tools and processes and with the mandatory accompanying ceremonies (Zazzaro et al. 2022). The Endangered Indonesian Boat Building Heritage Project focuses on documenting the endangered boatbuilding traditions in Indonesia while also building up a digital archive of boats and boat miniatures collections, which are often overlooked. The digital copy of these collections could be used as educational tools and for conservation purposes. This latter use, for example, would have helped preserve boats of the Jakarta Maritime Museum, which lost around 100 collection items to a fire in 2018, including a Balinese outrigger boat and other important vernacular and historical boats (Nizar 2018). While the museum has now finished its reconstruction and is operating normally, the loss of part of the collection is severe. Even though digital archives will not replace the actual collections, their absence prevents the museum from creating replicas or integrating the exhibit with the digital collection. The Endangered Indonesian Boat Building Heritage Project campaigns to avoid a similar scenario from happening again using photogrammetry for documenting the boats and boat miniatures collections. CASE STUDIES The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording historical and vernacular boats and boat miniatures in museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific publication. In the form of boats and their depiction, the maritime heritage is critically underrepresented in virtual platforms. The only present collections are the pinisi boat and the janggolan boat. Both miniatures are collections of the National Museum and are featured in the National Museum virtual tour (Virtual Tour 2023). Another boat type is the alut pasak dayak, a full-sized boat from the Jakarta Maritime Museum collection featured in the Tetangga Exhibition web-based online platform (Tetangga Exhibition 2023). Usually, the museum works together with third parties to provide all models used in these virtual or online exhibitions. The lack of proper equipment and necessary skills is mentioned as the cause of the museum's inability to support its own need for a virtual museum. Hence, there is a need to address this issue. Despite some ambiguous information on the provenance of some boats and boat models, every object has been carefully documented, just like an archaeological artefact. The recording is performed with a nautical archaeology approach, meaning that the documentation attempts to record all details in the object in opposition to merely recording the general form. Besides 3D photogrammetry of the boats and boat models, the project also aims to produce more detailed information, such as the hull lines and the description of the boat's components. Therefore, the results of this project would be helpful for the general public who only wish to see the collection and the specific public, such as researchers and conservators, who need to observe the detail of the objects. Another aim of the project is to train museum conservators P A G 2 �in photogrammetry documentation so that they will systematically produce digital copies of the new collection acquisitions in the future. RESOURCES The boats and boat miniatures recorded in this research are collections of various museums in Indonesia, namely the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta Maritime Museum, Museum of Indonesia, and Transportation Museum. The chosen boats and miniatures represent different regions in Indonesia and represent traditional workmanship for actual-sized boats, while the miniatures, to some degree, provide accuracy and similarities to the actual boats they represent. Miniature boats are usually made by artisans who know the boats' architecture very well because they usually live in the area or they were former boatbuilders. So far, data have been gathered from 2019 to 2023 through a series of fieldwork by research members. The documentation processes are conducted using different mirrorless digital cameras, Sony RX 100II, Sony Alpha 7C, Canon M100, and Canon M50. In order to reconstruct the objects using the photogrammetry technique, this research uses the program Agisoft Metashape. To support the purpose of disseminating the project results, Sketchfab is chosen as an online platform. Sketchfab offers dedicated categories for cultural heritage and historical objects and has been used by institutions as well as amateurs to display their collections. Sketchfab also provides editing tools and supports virtual reality devices (Statham 2019). FRAMEWORK Considering the urgency of photogrammetry documentation and its benefits for the public and scientific field, there is a need for rapidly, yet properly, documenting the collection of boats in Indonesian museums. This article explores the suitable method and challenges in documenting full-sized boats and miniature boats in museums using photogrammetry. RESULTS Photogrammetry Processes The principle of photogrammetry is to reconstruct the three-dimensional form of an object in digital form through a series of photographs. Ideally, the photographs cover 360 degree angles of the object from different elevations. Considering the complicated shape of the boats, the photos easily surpassed hundreds to generate desirable results. There are several steps to execute the work efficiently in a photogrammetry workflow. The basic workflow includes the digitization processes, which can be broken down into several steps, including preparations, recording, pre-processing, measurement analysis, finishing, exporting (Puspita et al. 2021, 344), and continued with interpretation and visualization processes to make the models accessible through different means (Condorelli and Bonetto 2022). Following those steps should help us to produce optimal results for photogrammetry. However, the shape of the objects, space, and light limitations inside the museum challenged the workflow. Most of the fullsized boats in the museums cannot be moved from the display room due to their weight and space P A G 3 �limitations inside the museum. For example, the Papua Canoe kept in the Jakarta Maritime Museum is 'trapped' by the museum building's structural pillars due to its large size. Another challenge was the lighting conditions in the museum: some 'immovable' collections are hard to be photographed with even lighting due to their positions and the proximity to structural obstacles such as walls and pillars, which also create shadows. Finally, the museum's lighting level, which was kept dim between 50-100 lux, proved challenging to work with. Digitisation proceeded in such conditions and limitations. The first step was the selection of the full-sized boats based on their authenticity, historical information provided by the museum, and visual observation in the museum. Only historical and vernacular boats were documented, and modern boats were excluded since they did not provide value to this project. Otherwise the miniature boats were selected based on their accuracy in representing the actual boat type, museum information, team observation, and craftsmanship. Miniatures of modern boats and 'strange-looking' vernacular boats deemed proportionally or architecturally inaccurate, were excluded. The project recorded two full-sized / eight miniature boats at the National Museum, eight full-sized / five miniature boats at Jakarta Maritime Museum, four full-sized / four miniature boats at the Transportation Museum, and two miniature boats at the Museum of Indonesia. The next step was recording or taking photographs of the boats. Miniature boats were more manageable compared to full-sized boats due to their size. They were usually displayed in a glass vitrine which can be easily transported to more open areas and placed on top of a table or pedestal helpful for the photogrammetry workflow. In order to document the miniatures, the object was photographed from all directions or 360 degrees with different elevations to capture details. For example, the higher elevation angles captured the mast, sail, and deck, and the lower angles captured the hull, keel, and rudder. A detailed photograph can be obtained while maintaining adequate overlap pictures capturing the whole dimension of the miniature boats. P A G 4 �Figure 1: The comparison of photos sequences between miniature and full-sized boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. On the other hand, recording a full-sized boat in museum collections requires a different approach. Space and light limitations and the size of the boat made shooting more complicated. A full-sized boat cannot be treated as a single object due to its size and obstacle in the working area. The team documented parts of the boats individually, and then tried to connect to these parts digitally. The focus of the documentation is on parts that contain essential detail. Since it was almost impossible to photograph the complete shape of the boat, continuity and overlap from one photo to the next were essential. With this approach, photos taken on full-sized boats have a clear direction and retain detail from all parts of the boat. The consequence of this technique was that the number of pictures taken was greater than the photos in the miniature collection, as shown in Figure 1. This process was also directly followed by museum staff, who participated in documenting their collection. Photos from each boat collection were then archived digitally, then processed using Agisoft Metashape software to produce a three-dimensional model. The processing included aligning the photos, building a dense cloud, building a mesh, texturing, calibrating, and simplifying the mesh for smaller file-size models. The final result was then exported in .obj and .mtl format, and texture map files were uploaded to Sketchfab. Photogrammetry Results The results of this project provided us with various data sets of historical and vernacular boats and miniatures in the form of three-dimensional models and detailed pictures. The photogrammetry method yielded satisfactory results, with the three-dimensional models successfully preserving the detail and texture of the boat and miniature boats, as shown in Figure 2. The detail allowed us to access more data for future research, including the iconography of the boats, decoration, and pattern used by different P A G 5 �vernacular boats. The calibrated model also preserved the detailed measurement of the boat parts. This record will provide invaluable data for studying boat characteristics, reverse engineering, and understanding the nature of the boats, especially in full-sized boats. Figure 2: Detailed result on miniature boat Janggolan Madura. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. However, on a few models, there are defects in the final results due to imperfections in capturing the image of the boat. Three factors usually contribute to the quality of the model produced from the photogrammetry: image quality, scene complexity, and environmental condition (O'Connor 2018). In this project, two noticeable imperfections can be observed in the final models: the different coloration of the boat parts and the holes usually in the lower parts of the boat models. The difference in coloration (as shown in Figure 3) could be observed in two different parts of the models due to the difference in light exposure. Figure 3 shows that the A side of the boat is correctly exposed to the light, while the B side is underexposed. Figure 3 shows that if the image records a shadow, the shadow will also be introduced to the final models (Kreimer 2020). This defect is often shown on full-sized boats, especially those positioned in the limited space of display rooms, which prohibit the introduction of additional lights or a tripod for long-exposure photographs. This defect could be reversed using Agisoft Delighter, with the expense of losing texture and detail on the model's surface, which is not ideal for the purpose of this project. P A G 6 �Figure 3: Defects on models shown on two sides of the boats. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. Another visible defect is the presence of holes in less textured and plain materials. In this case, holes occurred in the sail of miniature boats (see Figure 4). Single-colored materials lacking physical texture are difficult to reconstruct in photogrammetry (Kreimer 2020, 7). However, Figure 4 shows that Model A preserves the sail's detail and shape much better due to exposure to adequate light than Model B. The underexposed Model B also shows the cast of shadows in several parts, including the sail, mast, deck, and hull. While this defect is less likely to impact measurement data and its potential for scientific purposes (except the study of iconography, which is affected by the loss of details due to shadows), these models are less desirable to use for public benefit, considering their appearance. Figure 4: Imperfections due to reflection on sail material. Reconstruction on Agisoft Metashape by C. Zazzaro 2023. P A G 7 �The photogrammetry results from this project show that practical methods for documenting the objects needs to be adapted to the complexity of the objects. The shape and size of full-sized boats provide challenges for the documentation team, which need to be overcome with a slightly different approach from the usual photogrammetry method. This project also shows the importance of proper lighting and location setup for object documentation. Considering the high complexity of the vernacular boats and miniatures, the details need to be preserved properly to allow their digital copies to benefit scientists and the public. In the case of Indonesian museums, these challenges are relatively common in many museums since only a handful of museums are equipped with proper working areas and needed equipment. This condition could change our mindset for displaying collections or storing collections, especially full-sized boats, in a more proper location, with access from multiple angles. CONCLUSION The results obtained from this project show that the photogrammetric method is an effective method for making three-dimensional collections models and has succeeded in giving a satisfactory output. However, due to technical challenges, planning and strategy are needed in collecting data for each collection. The technical challenges found were the position of the collection in the exhibition space or display room. In some cases the display space could be more conducive to photogrammetry by removing obstruction of building structures, and more space to place the camera. Another challenge is ensuring enough light in the photograph process. The position of the collection and the lighting conditions often make the collection underexposed, or in some cases, cause the material in the collection to reflect light, which makes the 3D model imperfect. For this reason, a different approach is needed to record the different types of collections in the form of full-sized boats and miniature boats. Documentation of full-sized boats can be done in several sections and focuses on boat attributes, compared to miniature boats that can be documented as whole objects. As a result, a three-dimensional model can be obtained with accuracy and detail and can be used for educational, academic, and public purposes. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the International Association for Mediterranean and Oriental Studies (ISMEO) for supporting the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project. We are also thankful to the Museum Nasional Indonesia (Indonesia National Museum), Museum Kebaharian Jakarta (Jakarta Maritime Museum), Museum Indonesia (Museum of Indonesia), and Museum Transportasi (Transportation Museum) for providing access needed for the documentation of the museum collections. P A G 8 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Bramantyo, B. D., and P. Ismail. “Digital Tourism Museum Nasional Indonesia Melalui Virtual Tour Di Masa Pandemi COVID19.” WACANA: Jurnal Ilmiah Ilmu Komunikasi 20, no. 2 (2021): 184–196. https://doi.org/10.32509/wacana.v20i2.1616. Condorelli, F., and J. Bonetto. “3D Digitalization and Visualization of Archaeological Artifacts with the Use of Photogrammetry and Virtual Reality System.” In International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 48 (2022): 51–57. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLVIII-2-W1-2022-51-2022. Forlin, P., R. Valente, and M. Kázmér. “Assessing Earthquake Effects on Archaeological Sites Using Photogrammetry and 3D Model Analysis.” Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 9, no. 6 (2018): 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2018.e00073. Kreimer, B. “Guide to Photogrammetry Photography.” Washington, D.C: Online News Association, 2020. Martorelli, M., C. Pensa, and D. Speranza. “Digital Photogrammetry for Documentation of Maritime Heritage.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 9, no. 1 (2014): 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-014-9124-x. Mochtar, A., P. Taniardi, and A. G. Purnawibawa. “As my father said Traditional boatbuilding in Pasuruan.” The SEAMEO SPAFA International Conference on Southeast Asian Archaeology and Fine Arts, December, (2021): 234–240. Nizar, H. Interview on JPNN, 17 January 2018. https://www.jpnn.com/news/kerugian-akibat-kebakaran-museum-bahari-takternilai, accessed 19 April 2023. Puspita, A. A., M. Triharini, M. Risfan, and B. Salam. “A Study on Museum Artifact Digitization Using Photogrammetry Method for Preservation and Design Education.” Advances in Social Sciences, Education and Humanities Research 65 (2021): 343350. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.211228.045. Soraya, A., and Y. Sigit Martyastiadi. “Aesthetics of Virtual: The Development Opportunities of Virtual Museums in Indonesia.” International Journal of Creative And Arts Studies 8 no. 1 (2021): 25-33. https://doi.org/10.24821/ijcas.v8i1.5346. Statham, N. “Scientific Rigour of Online Platforms for 3D Visualisation of Heritage.” Virtual Archaeology Review 10, 20 (2019): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4995/var.2019.9715. Tetangga Exhibition. Jakarta Maritime Museum. https://tetanggaexhibition.com/en/node/3, accessed 19 April 2023. Virtual Tour. Badan Layanan Umum Museum Nasional Indonesia. https://www.museumnasional.or.id/virtual-tour, accessed 19 April 2023. Yilmaz, H. M., M. Yakar, and F. Yildiz. “Documentation of Historical Caravansaries by Digital Close Range Photogrammetry.” Automation in Construction 17, 4 (2008): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2007.09.003. Zazzaro, C., H. Liebner, A. Soriente, G. Ferraioli, and A. G. Purnawibawa. “The Construction of an Historical Boat in South Sulawesi (Indonesia): The Padewakang.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 17, 4 (2022): 507–557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-022-09332-5. P A G 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 21: New Technologies and Interdisciplinary Strategies for the Promotion and Protection of Maritime Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 21 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 21 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Application of Photogrammetry for Recording Indonesian Vernacular and Historical Boats and Boat Miniatures in Museum Collections Description An account of the resource This paper fits best within Session 27 New Technology and Interdisciplinary Strategies as it focuses on the status and preservation of vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures within Indonesian museum collections. The case study under consideration concerns challenges and strategies of using photogrammetry for recording these museum collections and for preservation, dissemination, and scientific research. The resources available to conduct the work include the full-size and miniature Indonesian boats kept in the Museum Nasional and Kebaharian Museum in Jakarta and other collections in Indonesia. The research questions of this project are: what is the suitable method, and what are the challenges in the 3D documentation of full-sized boats and miniatures in museums using the photogrammetry technique? The results of this project are comprehensive data regarding the photogrammetry workflow for museum collections and sets of digital boat models suitable for disseminating information and for scientific publication. This project is part of the Indonesian Boatbuilding Endangered Heritage Project, an ongoing collaboration among Indonesian and Italian scholars. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ahmad Ginanjar Purnawibawa Chiara Zazzaro Agni Mochtar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Purnawibawa, Ahmad Ginanjar, Chiara Zazzaro, and Agni Mochtar. 2023. “The application of photogrammetry for recording Indonesian vernacular and historical boats and boat miniatures in museum collections.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Hans van Tilburg. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1915 Asia-Pac Session 21 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9652f256e2ccf3b2e4055c61e1eb9e5c.pdf d140b64485067aee39e14464a5c8bfb2 PDF Text Text The Archaeobotanical Analysis of Flora Samples from the Phanom Surin Shipwreck, Central Thailand Preeyanuch Jumprom ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 7 Trade goods in shipwrecks – sources, routes and markets, including glass on the Maritime Silk Road because this paper is about the analysis of the archaeological evidenc es, especially the flora remains from the Phanom Surin shipwreck site, Lower Central of Thailand. The 2013-20 15 and 2021 excavations at Phanom Surin Shipwreck at Phanthainorasing Sub-district in Samut Sakhon Provinc e revealed a number of archaeological finds in the Arab-style ship dating back to 9th century CE. The organic m atters were dominantly counted. This paper aims to give an interpretation on flora found in the ship by archaeob otanical classification and identification methods. Some specimens of flora artefacts, woods, ropes, and seeds we re sent to a laboratory for doing scientific tests. The plant seeds were found in the stern. The analysis suggests th at most commons are betel nuts and lucky bean seeds which were trade items. Rare items include rice grains, cor iander, calabash (bottle gourd) and jujube. Some seeds are not clear to be identified. The macrobotanical remain s were likely consumed by ship’s crews; i.e. nourishment, medicine, ship repairing and sailing. Some species ha ve been known to the Arab manuscripts dating back to 9th century CE. The analyses provide further information of tools made of domestic plants that were applied for ship building, sailing, and using on board that facilitate se afarers’ way of life during their journey across the ocean. The significant finds show the relationship between th e locals and the overseas seafarers. List of Figure: Figure 1. Location of the shipwreck site in Samut Sakhon Province, Thailand. INTRODUCTION In 2013, the discovery of a shipwreck site in the muddy shrimp pond at Phanthai Norasing sub-district in Samut Sakhon Province, Lower Central Thailand revealed the buried ship and associated finds in si tu. The 2013 - 2015 and 2021 excavations at Phanom Surin Shipwreck at Phanthainorasing Sub-distric t in Samut Sakhon Province revealed a lot of archaeological finds in the Arab-style ship dating back to 9th century CE. The organic matters were dominantly counted. This paper discusses the result of the s tudy of botanical artefacts from excavation of the wetland shipwreck site, which includes scientific an alysis of the following topics: (i) location and excavation projects of the shipwreck site, (ii) classificati on and identification of flora objects found from the site and (iii) interpretation of the origin and usabil ity of flora samples. Background In September 2013, the 1st Regional Office of Fine Arts Department at Ratchaburi was informed abou t the discovery of an ancient shipwreck. Officials in charge were sent for site investigation. After the i nitial investigation, the shipwreck was found to be lying in the shrimp pond of Mr. Surin and Mrs. Pha nom Sri Ngamdee where it had been discovered during rehabilitation of the pond. A huge square timb er was discovered sitting in N-S orientation, having one end under the thick ground. Seams of fibre ro pe lashings on the fragments of recovered planks were still visible. There was also an assemblage of c eramic sherds that were recovered. The definition of “Archaeobotany” Archaeobotany is the study of ancient plant remains. By studying archaeobotanical remains we can fin d out how people used plants in the past: for food, fuel, medicine, symbolic or ritual purposes, or for b uilding and crafts. We can also use plant remains to reconstruct past vegetation and the ways humans i nteracted with their environment. 1 �Location and excavation projects The location of the shipwreck site is in Phanthai Norasing sub-district in Samut Sakhon Province, Low er Central Thailand. The geographical feature of this area is the coastal plain, with the site located onl y 8 kilometres from the Gulf of Thailand to the south. The discovery of a shipwreck site in the muddy shrimp pond revealed the buried ship and associated finds in situ. Archaeologists of Fine Arts Departm ent conducted excavation and conservation at the wetland site between 2013 - 2015 and 2021.The exc avation was conducted in 2 periods: First period was between December 2013 - June 2014 and Februa ry – July 2015 to mark the scope of site and study of ship construction and associated artefacts. The se cond period was excavated in January – September 2021 that uncovered the entire ship structure and n umerous archaeological finds. Figure 1. Location of the shipwreck site in Samut Sakhon Province, Thailand. The ship structures have an approximate length of 25 metres and width of 8 metres. Upon closer inspe ction, the south end is presumably the bow of the ship. The hull on the west side was still standing upr ight. Some planks have fallen down as the sewn fastenings were too decayed to support the structures. On the port side, the ship hull obviously collapsed and flat down to the east. The planks are made fro m hardwood with holes drilled along the edges and assembled with black fibre ropes. ‘Wadding’ was l ashed along the ship length to seal space between planks. This shipwreck appears to have double wadd ing. The keelson is one of the main structures of the shipwreck. It was found in the middle of the ship, havi ng features of a square timber measured length of 17.65 metres. On the larger end, the cross section is 70 cm wide and 60 cm thick. The other end of the shipwreck is not visible. The assumption can be tha t it was severely damaged causing the artefacts to spread far out from where the ship end should be fo und. There were two poles found at the site so far. One was found outside of the western side of the sh ipwreck. Its total length was 17.37 metres with a circumference of 53 cm on the small end and 101 cm on the other. On the small end, there is a groove. It is possible for a sheave fitting. The second spar w as found perpendicular to the shipwreck on the eastern side. At the large end, it was cut off semicircul ar making one side flat with the other side still round. Rattan ropes were found associated with this spa r as well. Considering the size, the second one is a bit bigger than the first spar and has a length of 17. 40 metres. The end of the second spar was also found with a square tenon of 17 x 53 centimeters. It mi ght be a joining part with another spar. From a comparative study, the ship assembled in such was com monly known among ancient Arab shipbuilding techniques. 2 �According to Area 1, the work was extended from where the ship structure was first exposed. The exc avation of the shipwreck unearths the skeleton of an ancient shipwreck that will slowly and subsequen tly reveal its characteristics and construction techniques of sewn-plank methods used for shipbuilding. Area 2, this area was extended to the north of Area 1, separated by the earthen dike of approximately two metres width in the middle. The result of excavation shows fragments of ship structure such as fra mes, planks, and artefacts such as ceramic sherds, fibre ropes, rattan ropes, betel nuts, and plenty of cu t wood and set forth, were spread out all over the area. The excavation in 2021 was undertaken by using the non-intrusive archaeological excavation techniqu e in both areas. Most importantly, this non-intrusive method was adopted to prevent stepping on the o bjects and a number of small artefacts were found using this technique. Moreover, the new technologi es were also applied for more efficient and effective results such as Geo-Information System (GIS), 3 D scanning, total station and photos by drone. CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF FLORA OBJECTS There are diverse kinds of organic materials discovered at the Phnom-Surin Shipwreck that are classifi ed based on their physical characteristics. These categorizations include coconut shells with holes, bas ketry, black ropes, rattan-braided ropes, and various sizes of brown ropes. Some specimens, such as w oods, ropes, and seeds, were sent to a laboratory for further scientific tests. The scientific study was op erated at Synchrotron Research Institute, Nakhon Ratchasima Province by Dr. Paul Joseph Grote and Dr.Wipanu Rakmai, researchers from Northeastern Research Institute of Petrified Wood and Mineral Resources. To avoid destroying some samples, the macro and micro organic remains were identified b y Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and X-ray microtomography technique. 1. Timbers Northeast of Area 2 was found with a distribution of timbers, crudely worked, with average length of 133-150 cm and diameter of 1-5 cm. It was found that some timbers were assembled together with rop es. During excavation, the timbers were intact but rapidly decayed after being exposed. Area 1 also ha s rounded timbers but all are damaged. Moreover, many wood samples were found. Some wood utensils were modified from coconut shell, a nd bamboo. For example, the bamboo pole that is used for carrying heavy things on both sides. A ladl e that was made from a half coconut shell was attached to a bamboo handle. 2. Basketry There are many baskets found from the site, most of them seem to be made from bamboo strips. 3. Cordages There are three kinds of rope found in this site as follows. ● The first is Black rope, it was being used for ship’s structure assemblage, and for hand ling pottery. The diameter ranges from 0.1-0.2 cm. SEM technique demonstrated the r esult of the black rope that it was made from the Arenga Pinnata fiber (sugar palm tre e). Arenga pinnata is an economically important feather palm native to tropical Asia, f rom eastern India east to Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines in the east. Commo n names include sugar palm, black sugar palm, and kaong palm, among other names. The dark fibrous bark is manufactured into cordage, brushes, brooms, thatch roofing, or filters. ● Besides, brown ropes were also found, they have larger diameter. The construction of the rope indicated a Z twist, consisting of small strands. These brown ropes can be use 3 �● d for rigging as it was found coiled. The scientific analysis indicated that the Brown r ope was made from palm or coconut fiber. Rattan braided ropes were set on board perhaps for navigational function. There are 2 0 – 26 rattan strands twined together to make a circular pattern that increases the dura bility. Rattan strands were made from Rattan or calamus rotang, also known as comm on rattan, is a plant species native to India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. The important fe ature of calamus is it being cohesive and waterproof. 4. Seeds From the number of seeds or fruits. There are more than 20 types of seed found from the excavation a nd floatation technique – as to whether they were loaded as cargo or for other purposes. The most common seed found in this shipwreck is Betel nuts, Areca catechu. Measuring from the com plete pieces shows an average size of 2-3 cm diameter in circular or oval shape. They can be found all over the shipwreck. Interestingly, a number of them were found in one of the Chinese jars in its origin al place at the time the ship was wrecked. Betel nuts contain a large quantity of tannin and are used for dying fabric like fishing nets. Tannin extracted from betel nuts makes fabric softer and stronger, helpi ng to extend the lifetime of the fibre and used as an adhesive in woodwork. The areca nut is also popul ar for chewing throughout some Asian countries. Areca palms are grown in Bangladesh, India, Indone sia, Malaysia, Taiwan and many other Asian countries for their seeds. Another seed that is also found a lot is Lucky Bean seed or Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. The seeds are oval in shape pointed on both ends, their size is 1-1.5 cm diameter in common. The hard shell colours range from dark yellow to dark brown. Lucky Bean is commonly found in tropical regions. It is a most popular medicinal plant which is referred in Ayurvedic texts as an antirheumatic, this plant contains many active phytochemicals in seeds which shows its protectant capacity against various diseases. The non-intrusive archaeological excavation technique in 2021 has revealed the large amounts of smal l grains that found from the floatation technique. Coriander fruits (Coriandrum sativum) is the dry see ds that used as a spice and herb. Most of them are in globular form, have a diameter of 3-5 mm. Coria nder also called cilantro or Chinese parsley. Native to the Mediterranean and Middle East regions, the  plant is widely cultivated in many places worldwide for its culinary uses. All parts of this plant are edi ble, the fresh leaves and the dried seeds are the parts most traditionally used in cooking. Seeds of Wild jujube (Ziziphus oenoplia Rhamnaceae) were also found. Wild jujube is a flowering pla nt with a broad distribution through tropical and subtropical Asia and Australia. The plant produces zi ziphines and has a long history of use as an herbal medicine. In India the root is used in Ayurvedic me dicine. A few seeds was considered to be the Bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria), also called white-flowered g ourd or calabash gourd, running or climbing vine of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae), native to tropica l Africa but cultivated in warm climates around the world for its ornamental and useful hard-shelled fr uits. It was one of the world's first cultivated plants grown not primarily for food, but for use as contai ners. Rice grains were found resembling the stains on the interior walls of torpedo jars. The analysis from th eir appearance was assumed to be Oryza sativa. Rice is the main food of Asian people, the archaeologi cal evidence shows that the early rice cultivation came from China dating to 5000 BCE. Rice is also th e main food of the crew of Phanom-Surin shipwreck. 4 �5. Bitumen The interior of the torpedo jar is coated with a black substance. Presumably, this can be evidence of a coating technique for waterproof function or of the substance that was once contained in the jar. Besid es a black stain, also found is a dark brown substance. The scientific analysis determined that black su bstance is bitumen from the Middle East (Irag or Iran). INTERPRETATION Archaeological finds discovered in this shipwreck are varied. There are countless archaeobotanical re mains found in the shipwreck. Some specimens of flora artefacts, woods, ropes, and seeds were sent to a laboratory for doing scientific tests. The plant seeds were mainly found in the stern. The analysis su ggests that most common archaeobotanical remains are betel nuts and lucky bean seeds which were co nsidered trade items. Rare items include rice grains, coriander, calabash (bottle gourd) and wild jujube are found as well. Some seeds are not clearly identified. The macrobotanical remains were likely cons umed by ship’s crews; for example, self-nourishment, medicine, ship repairing and sailing. Some spec ies have been known to the Arab manuscripts dating back to 9th century CE. The analyses provide furt her information of tools made of domestic plants that were applied for ship building, sailing, and using on board that facilitate seafarers’ way of life during their journey across the ocean. These finds signifi es the relationship between the locals and the overseas seafarers through their uses of cross-regional pl ants on the ship. CONCLUSION Dating of the Phanom-Surin sunken ship had been known by means of Relative and scientific dating m ethods. The carbon-14 dating (AMS) of the shipwreck site by using the three samples of organic matte r, that is to say, betel nut, rattan, and rope, suggests that the site dates back to 1,200 – 1,300 years ago which is consistent with the Chinese Tang wares and torpedo jar found in the ship. Judging from objec ts in its cargo, especially the torpedo jar, container of bitumen, the ship sailed from the Persian Gulf to the Southeast Asia and embarked to some seaports in Southern Peninsula and/or Indian archipelagos ( Kota kapur, Muang Thong, Laem Pho, for examples) for collecting local products such as betel nuts, r attan, ivory and antler as well as Chinese jars used as containers of some local products. Afterwards, t he ship sailed to the Gulf of Thailand and used a waterway connecting to encounters with local comm unities seeking local products and/or selling goods. It is likely that goods from the ship that was sold t o the local here were torpedo jars containing bitumen and Chinese jars containing betel nuts, for two p roducts were rare to find in this area. Local goods that the dhow’s merchants and sailors needed were r ice grains, basketry, meats as food that contained in the local carinated-potteries. Most of them were u sed as cooking vessels which had smoke residue on their bottom. This ship and the objects whether lo ading on board for voyage’s supplying or being commodities give a new insight into the sailing trade r outes between the Middle-East and the Far East (China) via the Southeast Asia and the trading interact ion between the Arabian merchants and/or the Persian merchants and the local communities of the Dv aravati culture in central Thailand. To conclude, the paper first discussed the background information of the shipwreck. The paper then ex plained the types of archaeobotanical finds discovered in the shipwreck and how they were being anal yzed. The results of the analysis were then systematically listed here and supplement our understandin g of the lives and trading network of the crews. (Insert your synthesized discovery here – e.g. it is beli eved that this shipwreck is X because we have found many Y, etc) 5 �Bibliography Chaimanee, Nirand. The Academic Report volume no. 15/2014. The Geological survey of the Location of Phanom-Surin Shipwreck, Samut Sakhon Province. Bangkok, Mineral resources division, Department of Mineral Resources, 2014. Fine Arts Department, Minister of Culture. Ancient Maritime Cross-cultural Exchanges: Archaeological Research in Tha iland. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 2019. Jumprom Preeyanuch. Recovery of a Lost Arab-style Ship at Phano m-Surin, the Wetland Excavation Site in Central Thailand. Pp 226 – 247. Fuller, D.Q., Lucas, L.. Archaeobotany. In: Smith, C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. Springer, New York, 2014 Grote, P. J., Rugmai, W., Ploymukda, S. et al. Use of in situ silica bodies in identification of rope fibers from the Phanom-Sur in shipwreck, Samut Sakhon, Thailand. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 13, 183 (2021). Connan Jacques, Priestman Seth, Vosmer Tom, Komoot Abhirada, Tofighian Hossein, Ghorbani Buyuk, Engel Michael H., Z umberge Alex, Van De Velde Thomas. “Geochemical analysis of bitumen from West Asian torpedo jars from the c. 8th century Phanom-Surin shipwreck in Thailand”, Journal of Archaeological Science 117, 2020, p. 1-18. Srisuchat, Amara. Srivijaya in Suvarnadvipa. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 2014. Srisuchat, Tharapong. “Thailand and Maritime Silk Routes: The Role of the Ancient Ports and Harbour Cities in Thailand” in The Silpakorn Journal Vol. 33 No. 6 January-February 1990. Pp. 4-12. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1990 . The 1st Regional Office of Fine Arts. Study of Phanom Surin Shipwreck, Phanthai Norasing Sub-district, Meuang Distri ct, Samut Sakhon Province (2013-2015). Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 2016. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeobotanical Analysis of Flora Samples from the Phanom Surin Shipwreck, Central Thailand Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 7 Trade goods in shipwrecks – sources, routes and markets, including glass on the Maritime Silk Road because this paper is about the analysis of the archaeological evidenc es, especially the flora remains from the Phanom Surin shipwreck site, Lower Central of Thailand. The 2013-20 15 and 2021 excavations at Phanom Surin Shipwreck at Phanthainorasing Sub-district in Samut Sakhon Provinc e revealed a number of archaeological finds in the Arab-style ship dating back to 9th century CE. The organic m atters were dominantly counted. This paper aims to give an interpretation on flora found in the ship by archaeob otanical classification and identification methods. Some specimens of flora artefacts, woods, ropes, and seeds we re sent to a laboratory for doing scientific tests. The plant seeds were found in the stern. The analysis suggests th at most commons are betel nuts and lucky bean seeds which were trade items. Rare items include rice grains, cor iander, calabash (bottle gourd) and jujube. Some seeds are not clear to be identified. The macrobotanical remain s were likely consumed by ship’s crews; i.e. nourishment, medicine, ship repairing and sailing. Some species ha ve been known to the Arab manuscripts dating back to 9th century CE. The analyses provide further information of tools made of domestic plants that were applied for ship building, sailing, and using on board that facilitate se afarers’ way of life during their journey across the ocean. The significant finds show the relationship between th e locals and the overseas seafarers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Preeyanuch Jumprom Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jumprom, Preeyanuch. 2023. “The Archaeobotanical Analysis of Flora Samples from the Phanom Surin Shipwreck Site, Central Thailand Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1985 Asia-Pac Session 7 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c5ada19fc0e04fa4bd18c3a9c29c2d3d.pdf 97e9e325fc493d2ce6ebaaf45b222552 PDF Text Text The Archaeological Investigation of “Kamikaze” The Mongol Invasion of Japan Randall J. Sasaki Abstract The historical event that produced the term “Kamikaze,” the Mongol Invasion of Japan led by Kubilai Khan in 1281 Common Era (C.E.), was shrouded in mystery until a chance discovery off Takashima Island in Japan revealed the remains of his fleet. It is said that more than three thousand Chinese and Korean ships met catastrophic ends as a result of the powerful storm. Scholars have asked why such a large number of ships perished; their answers range from the effects of a typhoon to ill-prepared ships to the skills of Japan’s Samurai defenders. Despite detailed research efforts, no conclusion has been reached due to the lack of substantial evidence. The archaeological remains discovered at the Takashima underwater site may change how we view this significant battle that changed Japan’s history. Based on his own research, the author discusses various reasons why the invasion may have failed and whether the analysis of archaeological remains can add new evidence for understanding the fate of Kahn’s fleet. In particular, the author focuses on the construction and outfitting of the vessels used for the invasion. Ships are arguably the most complex “artifacts” that humans have created and thus reflect the environment, society, and people that were involved in building the vessel. Furthermore, ships were the essential component for the invasion of Japan. Anchors, degraded timbers, possible repairs, artifacts such as personal effects and weaponry, as well as timber species analysis and the study of fleet organization all tell a story about what took place in the past. Close examination of information from Takashima sheds new light on the cause of the largest naval disaster in the pre-modern era. Introduction Legends tell us that a catastrophic storm obliterated Kublai Khan’s fleet of more than 4,000 ships off Takashima Island in Southwestern Japan during his second invasion in 1281 C.E. (Figure 1). However, many have doubted the storm was the only cause and proposed several reasons for the failure of the invasion (Conlan 2001; Saeki 2003; Turnbull 2010). This paper tries to answer whether it was human or environmental factors that caused the invasion to fail. A Japanese archaeological team has successfully located fragments of hull timbers from this ill-fated fleet along the southern shores of the island of Takashima (Matsuura Board of Education 2008). This is not a typical archaeological excavation because the entire bay may be considered an archaeological site; perhaps only 1 % of the “site” has been properly excavated. Several excavation projects were conducted intermittently for the past 20 years at Takashima (Matsuura Board of Education 2008). In 2004, the author initiated a project funded by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University and RPM Nautical Foundation to analyze over 500 pieces of timber excavated at Takashima underwater site. The data gathered from subsequent analysis provide hints of the organization of the fleet, as well as signs of poorly constructed ships and evidence of possible Japanese defense (Sasaki 2008). This research has provided evidence for various factors that played a significant role in an event that changed the course of Japanese history. �Figure 1. A Map of Southwestern Japan and Takashima Island Takashima Underwater Site A unique characteristic of the Takashima underwater site is that there is no discernable distribution pattern of artifacts and the large majority of the artifacts appear to be small broken fragments. A brief analysis showed that 90% of the timbers were less than 1 meter (m) in length. In addition, close to 70% of the timbers were simply too degraded to provide any useful information. The author believes their degraded state to be attributable to a series of post depositional events. All excavations conducted at Takashima were rescue projects and mainly areas close to the shoreline were excavated. The near shore zones are usually directly affected by current and have been heavily churned up. The visual inspection of the timber fragments exhibited shipworm damage typical of such conditions. Although the majority of areas excavated were heavily disturbed zones, clear signs of an undisturbed layer were found when a small but slightly deeper location was excavated; the discovery of well preserved anchors described below �evidenced such condition. Four wooden anchors were found in situ as if these were cast overboard during the legendary storm (Figure 2). These anchors, all aligned in the same direction, were set to prevent the ships from striking against the shore and their directions indicate that the wind was blowing from south - a typical typhoon wind direction in the area (Takashima Board of Education 1996: 31-33). The estimated original length of the largest anchor’s shank may be 5 m or more. Based on his study of a military treatise, Kinya Yamagata (1996:128130) estimates that the vessel may have been about 40 m in length. There appears to be no need for further proof that there was a storm other than the four anchors in the same direction trying to prevent the ships from being blown against the shore. The Takashima underwater site has the potential for retaining a number of intact and well-preserved vessels. Until this breakthrough discovery takes place we must rely on broken isolated fragments to tell us the story of this historic event. Figure 2. The Four Anchors Found at Takashima in situ. (After Takashima Board of Education 1996: fig.13) Organization of the Fleet The first invasion of Japan in 1274 C.E. provides excellent insights into how the second invasion may have been organized. Historical accounts mention three types of vessels being prepared; one-thousand-Liao ships, Baator fast-boats, and water transport boats). The Liao ship can be considered a large vessel that �is 300 tons or more, the Baator ship is most likely a slender landing craft, and the water transports can be considered as miscellaneous small boats (Yamagata 2004: 48-49). Any invasion across the sea requires a large amount of grain, thus large cargo vessels were a necessary asset of the Kublai Khan fleet. Such vessels, however, must be accompanied by smaller craft to carry supplies between ships and shore. A large vessel, although excellent at keeping a straight course in deep water, cannot navigate in shallow water because of its deep draft. In addition to V-shaped deep draft cargo vessels, it was necessary to bring shallow draft watercraft capable of beaching to quickly disembark troops. The composition of the first invasion fleet makes perfect sense. The author assumes that the second invasion was organized with a similar strategy in mind. Written sources note two separate fleets organized for the second invasion; one set out from Korea and another from the Yangtze River mouth. Historian Kōki Ōta (1997) suggests that the fleet from Korea carried the main fighting force, while the ships from China were to support the operation and to carry supplies to the front. He based this hypothesis on differences in circumstances and physical environment. The number of ships and troops, and the amount of grain that each fleet carried appears to support this claim. It also appears that Kublai may have organized the two fleets using different ships knowing the types of vessels built in the area and the types of vessels best suited for a specific task. Ōta (1997:46) notes a remark in Koryo Sah made by Kublai stating “ships from the Song are big but not strong; Korean ships are small but strong.”This implies that he was aware of different ships available for his use and the characteristics of those ships. Besides the 900 ships built in Korea, Kublai ordered the provinces and towns of Yangzhou, Hunan, Kanzhou, and Quanzhou to build 600 vessels. Korean flat-bottom vessels were constructed to navigate in shallow waters and withstand the harsh sea environment (Sasaki 2010; Kim 1994). Vessels built in Yangzhou were suited for both estuaries and coastal waterways while Hunan and Kanzhou are known for excellent river-craft that they built (Worcester 1971). These vessels were made with flat, to rounded-bottom, structure hull shape best for miscellaneous functions including reconnaissance and transporting supplies and soldiers between ships and near shore. Quanzhou is a famous shipbuilding town in Fujian province where large ocean going ships with V-shaped hulls were built (Kimura 2010). Based on the evidence discussed above, it can be suggested that the fleet from Korea was composed of shallow draft vessels capable of landing troops, while the fleet from China was composed of large deep draft vessels that could carry large cargo as well as miscellaneous ships suited for various tasks including reconnaissance and transporting goods for short distances. Based on the discussion above, the ship timbers from Takashima should include fragments from large vessels built in Fujian province and smaller watercraft built along the Yangtze River. First, the size of timbers from Takashima is a good indication of the general composition of the fleet. Only a handful of planks from Takashima were thicker than 8 cm, suggesting that many of the timbers belonged to small vessels, most likely from the Yangtze River. �Most of these timbers were beams, railings, supporting timbers, and broken planks. A possible hull frame was found and this artifact may suggest a gentle curving hull typical of the Yangtze estuary ships. Many of the complete timbers were also from smaller ships. While not representing a significant portion of the remains, at least one large vessel with a V-shaped hull built in Fujian province was present (). The 6 m wide bulkhead plank is from a large ship, based on its size and construction features similar to those observed in other excavated vessels, including the Shinan and Quanzhou shipwrecks (Green, et al. 1998; National Maritime Museum of Korea 2006) (Figure 3). The estimated length of the vessel may be beyond 30 m and its capacity may have been 300 tons or more. In my research, I realized that what seems to be a minor construction feature, such as differences in joinery methods, can be used to identify the original port of a vessel. Korean shipwrights built ships without using a single iron nail, while the Chinese built their vessels with the liberal use of iron nails (Kimura 2010). One area of possible hull remains was isolated from other timbers at the Takashima site, and close to two thirds of its timbers contained at least one nail. Furthermore, none of the timbers from this site could be confirmed with certainty as having originated from Korea. It must be noted that other types of artifacts, such as ceramics, suggest a similar scenario; almost all artifacts were from China, and only a small percentage were Korean made. This evidence seems to correspond to the historical records. According to historical accounts it is known that most of the Korean ships were saved (Ōta 1997:71-76). Overall, the archaeological evidence gleaned from Takashima seems to correspond well with the organization of the fleets derived from historical documents. Figure 3. The 6 m wide V-shaped Bulkhead Planks of a Cargo Vessel Discovered at Takashima Sign of Poorly Constructed Ships It is difficult to imagine how Kublai amassed more than 4,000 ships and thus it is often argued that it was not the storm but rather poorly constructed ships that ultimately caused the invasion to fail. Analysis of historical documents tells us that the use of merchant and pirate ships for naval use was a common practice �at the time (Lo 1969). One important artifact, a wooden tag with lacquer inscription, was uncovered at Takashima. This tag reads, “in the first year of …., [name of an official] inspected, repaired, and approved [this item]” (Yokkaichi 2002). It is logical to assume that the item repaired was something important, perhaps a ship. If this was indeed the case, it implies that not all ships were newly constructed. From Takashima, no less than twenty timbers exhibit evidence of possible repair and recycling. More than a dozen timbers had multiple nails of different sizes from various angles placed in close proximity--often less than 2 cm--which can be taken as a sign of recycled wood. It is not logical to place so many nails in such a close proximity and I believe these are signs of repairs. The presence of such signs indicates some repairs took place, but does not shed light on how many vessels were repaired or how extensive these repairs were. Considering the nature of the site, it is difficult to know exactly what percentage of the ships were repaired. Many timbers, including a possible mast step and 6 m long bulkhead planks, exhibit what seems to be a sign of poor craftsmanship. However, a deeper understanding of East Asian shipbuilding tradition may alter such ideas. For instance, a mast step from Takashima has been noted as an example of poor craftsmanship (Man 2006; Turnball 2010) However, mast steps in East Asian ships played a minor role in the hull’s overall integrity, compared to Western ships and should not be used as a clear evidence for the ship being built in a poor manner. A mast step played an important role in supporting a mast in Western built ships (Steffy 1994). On the other hand, in Chinese shipbuilding tradition, the stress from the mast is distributed to the hull through tabernacles, carlings, and bulkheads. A mast step is only a small component in supporting the weight of the mast. Thus, a poorly constructed mast step alone may not indicate that the ship itself was constructed in a hasty manner. At the same time, some timbers exhibit evidence of excellent craftsmanship and attention to detail. A representation of one or two example(s) of poorly constructed or well-crafted components does not tell us about the relative strength of a vessel. Nonetheless, it is clear that not all ships in the invasion fleet were new. The species identification of wooden artifacts from Takashima may hold the key to the riddle, and these analytical results may be essential to understanding the strategy for preparing the invasion. Historical accounts as well as archaeological evidence from some shipwrecks reveal that traditional shipwrights had a preference in choosing the types of wood they used to build vessels. In general, Chinese shipwrights used camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) or China fir (Cunninhamia lanceolata) to construct ship hulls (Xi 1999). It can be assumed that if the shipwrights were constructing vessels in a hasty manner and were subject to environmental pressures, the species that shipwrights used to build vessels would vary. The species identification of 475 samples of wood from Takashima was conducted and the results published (Matsuura Board of Education 2008: 193230). The author isolated 174 samples of hull components from the rest of the timbers, and 32.8% are camphor wood, while pine accounted for 22.4% and China fir accounted for 14.9% of the sample group. Fifteen timbers were �identified as possible bulkheads and twelve of these were manufactured from camphor wood. Also, fifteen timbers thought to be hull planks included nine samples of camphor. Smaller components and thin planks showed more variety in wood species while larger and thicker components showed less variety of wood types. The analysis of firewood, perhaps the most overlooked item in the archaeological record, was also important in determining the potential environmental pressure that China experienced at the time of the invasion. A total of 80 timbers from Takashima were identified as firewood (Figure 4). One important use for firewood was for communication between ships. The use of signal fires to keep the fleet intact and guide its vessels (many of which had few navigators), was a well known practice in East Asia (Batten 2006:83; Ōba 2001:1). The result of the species identification revealed that 80% of these logs were softwood, with 63% of them pine. Softwood, such as pine, does not require much time to season and can be used when slightly damp, which makes an excellent choice for use on board a vessel. Softwood also produces more smoke than hardwood. The analysis of the wood species indicates that preparation for the invasion was not based on the strategy of, “using whatever wood they could get their hands on”, but was based on, “using the wood types that best fit the purposes”. It appears that when constructing these vessels shipwrights were not forced to use alternative less desirable timber. Figure 4. A Large Number of These Firewood were Found at Takashima. �Evidence of Possible Japanese Defense Thomas Conlan (2001) claims that the Japanese did not need a great typhoon to win the war; the Samurai’s bravery and fighting skills combined with the defensive walls that the Japanese built, were effective in keeping the Mongols from landing. The timbers found at Takashima contain clues to the actions of the Japanese defenders. Charred ship timbers may be one such clue. Close to forty timbers appear to have been scorched and many more timbers showed traces of fire damage. These charred timbers may be parts of vessels consumed by Japanese fire attacks. Furthermore, remnants of heavily burnt upper hull structures add credence to the argument that the samurai set fire to the enemy’s ships (Man 2006; Turnball 2010). Another clue is an elongated plank the surface of which was covered with numerous nails. Various sizes of nail holes were found and no order was found in the placement of nails. It might have been part of a spiked gunwale that prevented the enemy from boarding the vessel; when enemies tried to board the vessel, their hands would be caught on these nails. Yamagata (2004:88) mentions a Chinese treatise stating the use of such a defensive device. The presence of the spiked gunwale, if indeed that is what this artifact represents, implies that the Mongols were prepared for the possibility of Japanese attacks on their vessels. Conclusions The archaeological evidence from Takashima contributes new data to the ongoing discussion of what really took place during the second Mongol invasion of Japan. Although the site’s environment would appear to prevent its meaningful interpretation, careful analysis has revealed a variety of potential research directions. Although it is clear that there was indeed a powerful storm at the time of the invasion, there was no single cause that led to the invading fleet’s destruction. When discussing whether human or environmental factors caused the failure of a particular event in history, we forget that the environment often shapes human decisions. First, Kublai Khan decided upon an invasion across an open sea, which can be considered an “environmental barrier”. A large number of troops had to be gathered with enough provisions to sustain them during and after the battle, and the invasion ships had to be built to withstand open sea conditions. The presence of shallow water along the Japanese coastline made it necessary to bring smaller, shallow-draft vessels. These would necessarily include vessels not suited for open ocean sailing or the ability to withstand a storm, but the plan to bring such vessels was part of Khan’s larger military strategy. The wood species analysis and interpretation implies the vessels were constructed using preferred timbers. From historical documents, it is known that the Mongols could not take control of the land and were kept at bay by Japanese fighters for a prolonged period of time. The Japanese defending forces that prevented the Mongols from landing contributed significantly to the outcome of the invasion event. Considering that the invasion took place during the typhoon season, the chances of the Mongol forces being struck by a storm increased day by day as long as they remained in their ships. �Discovery of a complete vessel in the near future may or may not confirm this interpretation of the Mongol invasion event. The research presented here is based on actual remains of participating vessels and their associated artifacts, but is still far from complete. Historians and archaeologists must actively debate these analyses in order to clarify what really took place, and it is hoped such discussion persists for the foreseeable future. Bibliography Conlan, T., 2001 Green, J., N. Burningham., and Museum of Overseas Communication History 1998 Kimura, J., 2010 Kim, Z.G., 1994 Lo, J. P., 1969 Man, J., 2006 Matsuura Board of Education., 2008 Nahm, A., 1988 Ōba O., 2001 Ōta K., 1997 National Maritime Museum of Korea 2006 Saeki, K., 2003 Sasaki, R., 2010 In Little Need of Divine Intervention, East Asia Program, Ithaca. "The Ship from Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27,4, pp. 277-301. “Historical Development of Shipbuilding Technologies in East Asia”, in (ed.) Jun Kimura, Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 1-25. Hangug eu Bae. Seoul: Seoul University Press. “Maritime Commerce and its Relation to the Sung Navy”, in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 12, 1, pp. 57-101. Kublai Khan: From Xanadu to Superpower, Bantam Pess, London. Matsuura-shi Takashima Kaitei Iseki: Matsuura-shi Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Matsuura Board of Education, Nagasaki. Korea:Tradition and Transformation, Hollym, New Jersey. Hyōchakusen Monogatari, Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo. Mōko Shūrai: Sono Gunjishiteki Kenkyū, Kinseisha, Tokyo. The Shinan Wreck I. Mokpo, National Maritime Museum of Korea. Mongol Shūrai no Shyōgeki: Nihon no Chūsei 9, Chūō kōron shinsha, Tokyo. “Goryeo Dynasty Shipwrecks in Korea”, in (ed.) Jun Kimura, Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime �Sasaki, R., 2008 Sasaki, R., 2005 Steffy, R., 1994 Takashima Board of Education., 1996 Turnbull, S., 2010 Worcester, G.R.G., 1971 Xi, L. F., 1999 Yamagata K., 2004 Yamagata K., 1996 Yokkaichi Y., 2002 Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology Program, Adelaide, pp. 56-73. The Origin of the Lost Fleet of the Mongol Empire, M.A. Thesis, Texas A&M University. “The Legend of Kamikaze: Nautical Archaeology in Japan”, in The INA Quarterly, 32,1, pp. 3-8. Wooden Shipbuilding and Interpretation of Shipwrecks, College Station, Texas A&M University Press. Takashima Kaitei Isek III – Takashima-chō Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Takashima Board of Education, Nagasaki. The Mongol Invasion of Japan: 1274 and 1281, Osprey, Oxford. The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis. Zhong Guo Zao Chuan Shi, Jiayu Shanxi Chuban She, Hubei. Rekishi No Umi Wo Hashiru, Nōbunkyō, Tokyo. “Bunken kara Mita Gendai Senpaku to Sōbi ni Tsuite”, in Takashima Kaitei Isek III – Takashima-chō Bunkazai Chōsa Hōkokushyo Dai 2 Shyū, Takashima Board of Education, Nagasaki, pp. 128-130. “Takashima Kaitei Iseki Ni Miru Genkō Kenkyū No KanōSei”, in Shiteki, 24, pp. 111-124. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/93d6fa932d54f9ca6a51dc6dfe8e44fb.jpg 9e53fe84cdc1d80a5af0c281a98bfe05 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeological Investigation of "Kamikaze" The Mongol Invasion of Japan Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource The historical event that produced the term “Kamikaze,” the Mongol Invasion of Japan led by Kubilai Khan in 1281 Common Era (C.E.), was shrouded in mystery until a chance discovery off Takashima Island in Japan revealed the remains of his fleet. It is said that more than three thousand Chinese and Korean ships met catastrophic ends as a result of the powerful storm. Scholars have asked why such a large number of ships perished; their answers range from the effects of a typhoon to ill-prepared ships to the skills of Japan’s Samurai defenders. Despite detailed research efforts, no conclusion has been reached due to the lack of substantial evidence. The archaeological remains discovered at the Takashima underwater site may change how we view this significant battle that changed Japan’s history. Based on his own research, the author discusses various reasons why the invasion may have failed and whether the analysis of archaeological remains can add new evidence for understanding the fate of Kahn’s fleet. In particular, the author focuses on the construction and outfitting of the vessels used for the invasion. Ships are arguably the most complex “artifacts” that humans have created and thus reflect the environment, society, and people that were involved in building the vessel. Furthermore, ships were the essential component for the invasion of Japan. Anchors, degraded timbers, possible repairs, artifacts such as personal effects and weaponry, as well as timber species analysis and the study of fleet organization all tell a story about what took place in the past. Close examination of information from Takashima sheds new light on the cause of the largest naval disaster in the pre-modern era. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randall J. Sasaki Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/72cba9dcfbfeb9d7f77dab178f74d97f.pdf e0cbae6d9af160455a5c6fb4a1900d6d PDF Text Text The Archaeological Type of Sambyeolcho and Maritime Route of Korean Peninsula in the Goryeo Dynasty Yun Hyeung-won (Director, National Museum of Korea in Buyeo and Previous Chairman of the Korean Association for Central Asian Studies) ABSTRACT Sambyeolcho, Goryeo Dynasty in Korean Peninsula, the events that took place at Gaegyeong-Ganghwa IslandJindo Island-Jeju Island-Ryukyu take on the aspect of an international war. This subject is proceeding for long time on archeological excavation and historical resesrch in Korea. What is a real shape of Goryeo, according to interpretate Sambyeolcho and Maritime route of Korean peninsula. Anaysis archaeological artifacts and historical records. Synthsis archaeological-historical perspective. This research is necessary that it reveals hidden Goryeo culture and new medieval Korean Maritime route. And it is related with Mongol-Goryeo-Japan military force.The archaeological remains that show the Mongol (Yuan Dynasty)’s active maritime route is the Sinan shipwreck 700 years before. It was a trading ship going from Ningbo, in 1323. Keyword: Goryeo Dynasty, Sambyeolcho, Mongols (Yuan Dynasty), Sinan shipwreck 700years INTRODUCTION Mongol Empire (Chinese branch Yuan Dynasty) in the time of Genghis Khan, the steppe nomadic society was unified. Political and military obstacles to land transportation have been removed. A turning point in trade based on peace covering the north, south, east, and west called ‘PAX MONGOLICANA’ was prepared. The emergence of the Mongol Legion, which boasts fast cavalry and excellent tactics, can be compared to the emergence of ‘Total Soccer’ in modern football. There was a perception that the appearance of the Mongol Corps was 'the world's strongest on land, but not so much on the sea...’. During the Goryeo Dynasty, the military authority moved the capital to Ganghwa Island, The Sambyeolcho fought in Jindo Island and Jeju Island. There are also traces of movement from Jeju Island to Ryukyu (now Okinawa). Kublai Khan (元世祖) encompassed the continent and conquered the Southern Song; he was well aware of the economic benefits of maritime trade, and had great interest in maritime management. Kublai Khan sent edicts to Asian countries encouraging them to trade. He carried out maritime military expeditions to Japan and Southeast Asia (Annam, Champa <now Vietnam> ․ Java <now Indonesia>). As a result, Yuan's trading spheres were greatly expanded. He supports the Saekmok people (色目人), who were well versed in finance and trade during the Southern Song Dynasty, to continue their maritime activities, A state-owned ranch (one of 14 in the Mongol Empire) was established in Jeju Island and used as a bridgehead for maritime expansion. THE EXPEDITION OF MONGOL ARMY SAMBYEOLCHO AND THE MARITIME ROUTE OF Historical background Mongol Expedition to Goryeo was in 1215, when the Mongols entered Goryeo for the first time. In 1225, the Mongol envoy Jeo Go-yeo was murdered. From 1231 to 1259, there were major six invasions in Goryeo. In 1255, the Mongolian army organized a naval force and fought in Aphae Island with about 70 warships. After the Sambyeolcho's resistance in 1273, Jeju Island became a direct Mongol territory. The Sambyeolcho In 1270, they led about 1,000 ships from Ganghwa Island and moved south, focusing on Jindo Island. In 1271, when the Jindo Island front line was collapsed, they moved the centre to Jeju and worked there. In 1273, part of the Sambyeolcho moved from Jeju to Ryukyu (now Okinawa). The Goryeocheopjangbulsimjojo (高麗牒狀不審條條; Tokyo University Historical Archives), which contains notes on the contents of the correspondence sent to Japan from the Sambyeolcho, Jindo Island, remains. It did not get any help. After conquering the stronghold of Sambyeolcho in 1273, the Yuan 1 �Dynasty changed the name of the island to Jeju, meaning ‘a place where everything is perfect’. They installed the Tamra General Headquarters and dispatched Darughachi directly to station troops and set up army agriculture, called dunjeon (屯田). The Mongols’ direct administration of Jeju Island played a role in raising horses, building ships, preparing for the Japanese expedition, and monitoring the Goryeo court and troops. The Mongols’ dominance over Jeju Island had lasted for 98 years until the ‘Mok-ho Rebellion’ broke out in 1374 in the 23rd year of King Gongmin’s reign and was suppressed by General Choe Yeong. Archaeological types of Goryeo Sambyeolcho Ganghwa Island Fortress Ganghwa Island in the Ganghwa period had an outer and a middle structure, and although there was no record of construction, it was a triple structure with an inner structure. The Ganghwa Jungseong (Middle Structure) Fortress was first excavated in 2009, and the construction process is largely based on foundation formation and inner waterway formation → stylobate stone churn formation → center plinth mound formation after lumber facility installation → cladding formation → inner and outer mound embankment → outer skin. It can be classified according to the composition of the soil. Thirteen building sites were identified in the Okrim-ri area, and a large number of roof tiles and celadon were jointly excavated. Jindo Yongjangseong Fortress It was designated as Historic Site No. 126 in 1964. In the 1980s, it was known that it is a double castle structure of gungseong (palace) or naeseong (inner wall castle), and naseong (outer wall castle); additionally, in 1989, the central part was investigated. In 2004, a survey of the city walls, gates, and ancestral rites was conducted. Full-scale excavations had been conducted from 2009 to 2015. In 1270, Sambyeolcho appointed Seunghwahu ‘On’ as king and established a new government. Yongjangseong Fortress was operated with the concept of a capital city, and its shape resembles the structure of Manwoldae in Gaeseong. Yongjangsanseong Fortress as naseong, is 13 km long and is a stone-built structure built by the Hyeopchukbeop-a method of building the inner and outer walls with stone. Excavated artifacts include celadon incense burners, celadon chair (don), bronze utensils, Gwangmyeongdae, and various roof tiles. In particular, roof tiles from 「癸卯三月大匠蕙印」 have been excavated from Sadang-ri, Gangjin, Cheonghaejin·Beophwasa Temple Site, Wando Island, and building sites in Sinyong-ri, Apahae Island, Sinan. It is understood that Yongjangseong Fortress was built before entering Jindo Island. In the underwater excavation at Oryu-ri in the Myeongnyangdaecheop Sea area of Jindo Island, pottery and bottles (‘蒙古甁’, 褐釉四長耳壺) from the Yuan Dynasty were also found. Jeju Island Hangpadu Fortress In 1271, when Jindo Island was captured by the Ryeo-Mon (Goryeo-Mongol) allied forces, the Sambyeolcho led the remaining forces to enter Jeju Island and build it. Until 1273, it was a fierce battleground of the Great Mongolian Rebellion. In 1978, the restoration work of Hangpaduseong was carried out, and in 1997, it was designated as a historic site. In 1993, an excavation of the presumable southern gate was excavated, and in 2012, an earthen fortress was excavated. A survey of the inside of the fortress was conducted from 2010 to 2015, and more than 250 materials from 20 building features were secured. As a result, it was revealed that a three-layered defence system was being built, including the Hwanhae Great Wall (first line of defence), intermediate defence facilities (second line of defence), and it was found that they were building a triple defence system, including Hangpadu Fortress and inner wall castle. As for excavated artifacts, inlaid celadon (cover, chair, and pillow) from the end of the 13th century was found, and ceramics from the Yuan Dynasty was also confirmed. The relic that draws attention is the roof tile inscribed 「敦眉瓦草造辛丑2月日高內村徒上吳」, which is dated to the year of 1241. 2 �Ryukyu (now Okinawa, 流求) A large roof tile from 「癸酉年高麗瓦匠造」 is excavated from a terraced defence facility called ‘Gusk’. There are several theories... The position that the date is set in 1273 suggests that Sambyeolcho's activities were carried out in Ryukyu after Jeju Island based on the similarity with the roof-end tile of Yongjangsanseong Fortress in Jindo Island. GORYEO-MONGOL ALLIED EXPEDITION TO JAPAN Historical Background First round (October 1274) it was Kamakura bakufu (鎌倉幕府) shogun (將軍). Monggoseuprae (蒙古襲來). A total of 40,000 expeditions, with Kim Bang-gyeong’s 8,000 combat soldiers, 6,700 noncombatants, 25,000 Heundo (Hundun) and Hong Da-gu‘s combatants, were organized. 900 battle ships were mobilized, including the Cheonryoju (front vessel), the Baldorogyeongjilju (landing vessel), and the Geupsuju (supply/connection vessel). They returned with the loss of one third of their troops. Second round (1281): conquered the Southern Song in 1279. Kublai Khan prepared for the conquest of Japan in earnest, Beom Mun-ho, a native of Southern Song, sent a personal letter to Japan recommending surrender. In 1280, an order was issued to build 3,500 warships, and Arahant and King Chungryeol took responsibility for the Jeongdonghaengseong. In May 3, 1281, 42,000 Dongro Troops and 100,000 Gangnam Troops mobilized, and in July 30, they were hit by a typhoon (Kamigajae). The court of Yuan Dynasty tried to launch the third expedition to Japan; but the expedition was stopped due to the death of Kublai Khan, who prompted the 3rd expedition to Vietnam. Archaeological data In Japan, an underwater archaeological investigation was started in the Takashima area in 1980 to investigate the Mongol invasion. In 1981, the area of 7.5 km along the southern coast of Takashima and 200 m in the sea area was designated as a cultural property distribution area. Four wooden anchors equipped with anchor stones were unearthed during the excavation of Kanzaki Port embankment construction in 1994-95, and they can be classified as large or small. About 1,000 artifacts were recovered during the port construction of Kanzaki Port in 2001-02. Artifacts such as jars, pottery, knives, bows, no (crossbow), arrows, lacquerware for armor, decorative hardware, and coins were found. In particular, the figurative product made of earthenware seems to be an explosive bomb marked as iron cannon in the ‘Monggoseupraehoesa (蒙古襲來繪詞)’, a documentary painting of the Kamakura period. In 2006, Matsuura City (松浦市) showed interest and conducted an investigation, and in 2012, the area was designated as a national historic site. Professor Yoshifumi Ikeda (池田榮史) of the University of the Ryukyus has been involved in underwater archaeological excavation since 1992, and in 2005 independently conducted sonar surveys and made submarine topographical and geological maps. Based on these achievements, the 'Takashima sunken ship 1' in 2011-12 and the 'Takashima sunken ship 2' were excavated and investigated in 2014-15. Judging from the structure of the hull and the excavated artifacts, it was identified as a ship sunk during the Mongol expedition to Japan in the thirteenth century. CONCOLUDING REMARKS: CELEBRATING THE 700TH ANNIVERSITY OF THE SINAN SHIP’S DEPARTURE The Mongols, a nomadic empire, was aware of the importance of the sea, and the Mongols organized the manpower of the occupied territories into the Mongolian army. The government actively supported Saekmok people so that they could engage in trade with preferential treatment, and maximized their efforts to become a maritime power by making Jeju Island their direct jurisdiction in marine management. In the 60 years of war between the Mongols and the Goryeo, from the military regime of Goryeo to the resistance of Sambyeolcho, the events that took place on the stage from Gaegyeong-Ganghwa IslandJindo Island-Jeju Island-Ryukyu take on the aspect of an international war. The material that shows the 3 �Mongols (Yuan Dynasty)’ active maritime activities is the Sinan Ship. It was a trading ship going from Ningbo, China to Japan via Goryeo in 1323. A vessel with a length of 34 m, a width of 11 m and a total weight of 200 tons, 20,000 pieces of ceramics, 8 million coins, and 1,000 pieces of rosewood were revealed. In October 2016, a special exhibition was held at the National Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (40 years of underwater excavation in Korea). There is a great need to recognize the Sinan Ship as a ship of the Mongol Empire, not a ship of China. This year, 2023, marks the 700th anniversary of the departure of the Mongol Empire ship Sinan from the Yuan Dynasty. Bibliography Kwon, O-young, Maritime Silkroad and Ancient Kingdoms in East Asia, ACC, 2019 (In Korean). Inha University Museum, Excavation Report-Ganghwa Jungsung site, Inha University Museum Report, 89, 2011 (In Korean). Ganghwa National Institute of Cultural Properties, Basic Study of Ganghwa palace in Goryeo, Academic Study of Ganghwa palace in Goryeo, 1, 2017 (In Korean). Ganghwa National Institute of Cultural Properties, Archaeological Research of Ganghwa palace in Goryeo, Academic Study of Ganghwa palace in Goryeo, 2, 2017 (In Korean). Mokpo University Museum, Excavation Report-Palace sitr in Jindo Yongjangsung (珍島 龍藏城 王宮址), Mokpo University Museum Academic Series, 180, 2019 (In Korean). 4 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeological Type of Sambyeolcho and Maritime Route of Korean Peninsula in the Goryeo Dynasty Description An account of the resource Sambyeolcho, Goryeo Dynasty in Korean Peninsula, the events that took place at Gaegyeong-Ganghwa IslandJindo Island-Jeju Island-Ryukyu take on the aspect of an international war. This subject is proceeding for long time on archeological excavation and historical resesrch in Korea. What is a real shape of Goryeo, according to interpretate Sambyeolcho and Maritime route of Korean peninsula. Anaysis archaeological artifacts and historical records. Synthsis archaeological-historical perspective. This research is necessary that it reveals hidden Goryeo culture and new medieval Korean Maritime route. And it is related with Mongol-Goryeo-Japan military force.The archaeological remains that show the Mongol (Yuan Dynasty)’s active maritime route is the Sinan shipwreck 700 years before. It was a trading ship going from Ningbo, in 1323. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yun Hyeung-won Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Hyeung-won, Yun. 2023. “The Archaeological Type of Sambyeolcho And Maritime route of Korean peninsula in Goryeo.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1930 Asia-Pac Session 2 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeology of Early Maritime Polities of Southeast Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Pierre-Yves Manguin Ian Glover Peter Bellwood Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available RoutledgeCurzon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Pierre-Yves Manguin Editor Ian Glover Peter Bellwood Item Type Book Section Book Title Southeast Asia from Prehistory to History Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Pages 282-313 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available RoutledgeCurzon Title A name given to the resource The Archaeology of Early Maritime Polities of Southeast Asia Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f4e3f25c3756016979b4a999d699662c.pdf c047547b745b81fb9c7241aad748b69c PDF Text Text The Archaeology of Manila Galleons Roberto Junco Abstract Manila Galleons are the stuff of legend. Active for 250 years they were the vehicle for people, products and ideas between Asia and the Spanish World. Among the biggest ships of their time, they were built to endure one of the most difficult navigations, the crossing of the Pacific Ocean which sometimes lasted half a year on the way to New Spain. As a topic of archaeological research, little has been done regarding these important ships. This paper deals with the known Manila Galleons found to date. Unfortunately treasure hunters have salvaged most of them and little information if any is accessible to researchers. However, archaeological projects are currently active on sites regarding such ships. The Archaeology of Manila Galleons has the potential to understand diverse aspects of the exchange and interaction that took place between Asia and the Spanish Empire, as well as to shed light on the ships themselves, which were built in the Philippines to Spanish shipwright traditions and remain a mystery in many ways. Introduction This paper presents a brief recount of the Manila Galleon sites investigated to date. It also proposes, some ideas of what the archaeology of Manila Galleons could consider in its research objectives. The Manila Galleons, loaded with their rich cargos of oriental goods are still a great mystery to researchers, especially those belonging to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Furthermore, studies of Asian ceramics and other products of exchange in New Spain and beyond are scarce. While the work of historians and art historians has contributed significantly to the topic, archaeological studies are rare given the few sites located. In this paper, I shall mention the Manila Galleon sites that have come to my attention, and then present some ideas that I deem relevant in the pursuit of what can be termed the archaeology of Manila Galleons. The San Agustín (1595) By the end of the sixteenth century, the route between New Spain and the Philippines had been firmly established. The piratical endeavours of Drake in 1579 and Cavendish in 1587 alerted the Spanish authorities of the need to explore the northern Pacific coast (Gerhard 2003). Thus, Viceroy Luis de Velasco commissioned the skilful Portuguese sailor Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño to explore those latitudes on his return voyage from the Philippines (Bancroft 1886:96). Cermeño´s San Agustín, was a 200 ton ship carrying considerable volumes of porcelain and other goods. It left Manila in July 1595 and on early November, reached California (Junco and Fournier 2008:70). The shipwreck occurred during a storm in what is today known as Drakes Bay (Bancroft 1886:88). The surviving crew built a craft that made the trip south in an almost fictional account (Wagner 1924): the crew starving to death ate the accompanying dog and even the rotting corpse of a beached whale. None the less, they survived the ordeal and finally arrived at the port of La Navidad. Years later, in 1603 Sebastian Vizcaino's expedition entered the Bay with some of these sailors, and found no trace of the ship. It was not until 1940, when archaeologist Robert Heizer (1941) excavated a dozen Indian sites in the vicinity �and found traces of iron and Chinese porcelain. In 1982 the Submerged Cultural Resource Unit (SCRU) of the National Park Service (NPS) carried out a survey with a magnetometer in the bay, possibly identifying the wreck site (Delgado 1998:357). A few years later, Robert Marx got a license to exploit commercially the wreck, but the strong position of NPS officials stopped the treasure hunter who planed to sell some of the artefacts found (Ibid.). Some of the porcelain picked up by beachcombers has been studied and compared to other collections such as the Drake cargo, helping to establish a chronology (Shangraw and Von der Porten 1981; Shangraw and Von der Porten 1997; Von der Porten 1972). Nuestra Señora de la Concepción (1638) In 1990, the popular magazine National Geographic published an article about the salvage operation of the Manila Galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, which sank on route to Acapulco in 1638 (Mathers 1990). Pacific Sea Resources undertook the salvage operation between 1988 and 1999 with the intention to sell the entire collection to a Japanese hotel chain with plans to create a touristic project on the island of Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands (Delgado 1998:277). The wreck site was known since 1674, when a Spanish recovery expedition secured most of the 36 cannons on board (Mathers 1993:33). This type of salvage operation was very common throughout the Spanish empire and not just by the Crown, but also by commercial contracts (Serrano 1991). Thus, thanks to the historic document and the Chinese porcelain washed out in the beach, treasure hunters located the archaeological site (Galvan 1998:88). The ship sank while the crew brewed a mutiny in the midst of a great storm that destroyed the masts, and left the ship at the mercy of wind and currents (Mathers 1993:29). On September 1638, the Concepción broke up on a southern reef of the island of Saipan (Mathers 1990:45). The Chamorro Indians (given this name by Magallanes) attacked the castaways and only 28 survived of which only six finally arrived to the Philippines starved and thirsty to tell the story (Schurtz 1992:236). Several years later, priests visiting the islands found gold chains hanging from the trees and iron tools being used by the natives (Fish 2011:14). Among the many objects recovered by the operation, is a collection of gold objects such as rings, chains, and other objects, some Chinese coins of the Wan Li period (1573-1620), and a sixteenth-century Spanish silver coin. Among the highlights of the collection are the 156 glazed Southeast Asian ceramic containers used to transport supplies, with interesting markings in Spanish, Tagalog and Chinese, as well as fragments of porcelain and glass, and a number of objects related to the construction and operation of the ship (Mathers, et al. 1990). Santa Margarita (1601) In 1995, the Seattle based company IOTA Partners got a permit to salvage the Santa Margarita wrecked off the island of Rota in the Northern Mariana Islands. It is not entirely clear what their work has been - although there is a report that I have not been able to consult (IOTA Partners 1996). What can be said is that they have had legal problems, because of violations of contract with the local �government involving the destruction of part of the reef where the galleon is located (Deposa 2006). Several pieces of ivory, porcelain and gemstones have been recovered (Shen 2007). An anchor from the ship has been located and rests in the ocean (Galvan 1998:93). The ship sank in 1601 with a crew of over 300, however only a few survived the incident (Driver 1983:200). The following year, a galleon that carried the missionary Fray Juan Pobre de Zamora, came into contact with a survivor of the Santa Margarita, that shared information with him about the Chamorro Indians (Ibid.). Nuestra Señora del Pilar (1690) The Manila Galleon, Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zaragoza, sank off the island of Guam in 1690 on route to the Philippines. It has a history that resembles the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción in that it was also salvaged at the time and has been pursued by several treasure hunters such as the Australian company Maritime Archaeological Investments, Pilar Proyect Ltd. (related to the former) (Surry 2001). In 1989, they located in the Archivo General de Indias in Seville the record of 5000 silver coins recuperated from the wreck. According to this document (Cruzat 1700), the three hundred ton galleon lost the majority of the crew in the event. Supposedly, Tresure hunters have only found 36 silver coins minted in Mexico City, Lima and Potosi, several sheets of lead belonging to the hull, timber, iron nails, cannon balls and musket shot, and five tons of stone ballast (Surry 2001). Further more, iron fasteners, hundreds of fragments of olive jars and three claws from Mexican black bears have been recovered in continuos operations (Showronek 2009:497). According to The New York Times (Richardson 2001), in 2001 they went on the hunt for investors in Australia to raise half a million dollars to finance their operations The San Diego (1600) The San Diego, built on the island of Cebu, sank in battle against the Dutch near Manila in 1600 and is often cited as a Manila Galleon (Brown 2009:178). The wreck was located by Franck Goddio of the Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology in partnership with archaeologists of the National Museum of the Philippines (1994; see Orillaneda and Ronquillo this volume), who recovered more than a thousand pieces of blue and white Wan Li porcelain, Japanese sword guards, 570 storage jars (the largest collection found to date), a gold and ivory crucifix, a brass astrolabe (only six known prior to 1600), a glass and bronze compass (one of the few in those days), gold rings, cannons, anchors and other artefacts (Harper 2010). It is true that the San Diego shares common features with the ships that are the subject of this work, however it should not be considered as such, because the ship was on a combat mission and in that sense, at the time of sinking it was not fulfilling the functions of a Manila Galleon if ever it was intended to. The Manila Galleon in Oregon Archaeological evidence of a Manila Galleon has been located on the west coast of the United States in Nehalem, Oregon. Preliminary investigations point to a �ship of the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century, and two candidates are already proposed, the Santo Cristo de Burgos (lost in 1693), or the San Francisco Xavier (lost in 1705), whose contemporary testimony is as follows, Nothing has been heard from it, nor a plank, or object of any kind, big or small, has served as clue to speculation that it crashed into an unknown rock or that it was swallowed up by the waves with all that was on board [….] The Ocean kept the secret of this horrific tragedy (Fernandez 1898). The on going project, called "Beeswax Wreck" is currently headed by Scott Williams, a specialist in the area of Cultural Resources at the Service of Natural Resources in Washington State, and has the support of volunteers and researchers who have analyzed the archaeological material collected to date (Williams 2006). Since the nineteenth century, wax blocks have been documented in the area, some with interesting markings engraved on them. The marks have been compared with those recorded in ceramics from the shipwrecks of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción and the San Diego already mentioned, finding some similarities (Rogers 2008). In addition, work has been done on the porcelain recovered from the site, concluding that it dates to the early Kangshi period (1662-1722) (Lally 2009). Also, studies have been done on wooden nautical items recovered in the coastal dunes confirming an oriental origin, teak (Williams 2009). Interestingly, oral histories have been recorded that testimony Indians in the area who claim to be descendants of shipwrecked sailors, some with European features (Williams 2010). The Manila Galleon in Baja California For 12 years now, there have been several field seasons by American researchers and the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Histoira (INAH) in the Pacific coast of Baja California, where thousands of pieces of Chinese porcelain dating to the sixteenth century, as well as coins, blocks of wax, and other objects, whose origin no doubt, is a Manila Galleon shipwreck have been documented (INAH 2005; INAH 2007; INAH 2009; INAH 2010). The porcelain collection is one of the most important in Mexico and opens a window into the early trade of the New Spain and Asia. In July 1751, the tireless Jesuit missionary Father Consag, in his explorations of Baja California records the site: By mid morning those who went to survey the spit of sand brought a bowl, a cup, a big cup, a plate of Chinaware and a good portion of white wax paste. They informed that the area is full of vases, large plates and the like, nails and pieces of iron that disintegrate into powder with contact, even the nails that are still tucked into the broken timbers; lead pieces can be found, several medium and small pieces of bronze, but what is more abundant and easily found is the wax. For lack of water they cannot stop for much time, because the nearest is very salty, and if it does not give thirst, it does not quench it. All these things, clearly indicate that in this sandy beach or contours, a vessel sank, which can even happen without a big storm, or because the coast is unknown (Ortega 1887:524). �Although there are historical records of the site, as the one above, it was ultimately the archaeological material found by beachcombers that led to the investigations by Maritime Historian Edward Von der Porter -who had analyzed the porcelain of the San Agustín- and organized the first site visit with Jack Hunter in the year 1999. So far, it has been concluded that the porcelain collection of 1500 sherds corresponds to a period between 1574 and 1576, placing it in the early part of the route (Von der Porten 2008). This led to the possibility that it could be one of the galleons lost in that period: Espiritu Santo, San Juanillo, San Felipe or San Antonio, making it very likely that it is the San Felipe of 1576 (Von der Porten 2010). Beside the rich porcelain and stoneware collection, other materials such as sheets of lead used to cover the hull have been documented - some with the remains of iron nails that testify to the spanish construction of galleons of the period (Von der Porten 2008:4). Also, wax blocks of up to nine kilograms, some analyzed in the laboratory to confirm that it is beeswax. These blocks contain important information in the form of three centimeter diameter holes made by worms. They give a clue as to the formation of the archaeological context as they would have needed to be submerged in the sea at least a year for the worms to eat the wax (Von der Porten 2010). Thus, the galleon in Baja with all the crew dead ran aground and remained stranded at least one year in the water until it broke and dispersed the materials on the beach (Von der Porten 2010). Furthermore, other interesting objects have been collected such as a plate of Chinese cloisonné, a compass gimbal, a sounding lead and a bronze figure of a Fu dog. Some thoughts to go forward The future study of Manila Galleons is promising in several aspects. First, the plausible chance of locating the physical remains of a galleon would open an interesting line of research in the investigation of shipbuilding of these famous ships, especially those of the sixteenth or seventeenth century of which there are few references. Let us remember, that these ships were built mostly in the Philippines, and although their design adhered to the canon of Iberian naval architecture, their large size and local solutions may show substantial differences with Atlantic ships of the time. Secondly, although there are currently two projects investigating Manila Galleon sites today – Baja California and Oregon, other sites might be discovered in the future, especially in the Philippines, giving more information to compare between sites. As new technology to explore deep waters becomes widely available and surveys carried out, sites will be located. All Manila Galleons found to date are by the coast. An important research objective should deal with the impact that these shipwrecks might have had on the indigenous populations (see Nayati this volume). Already the historical references provide clues, such as the gold chains hung in trees by the Chamorro Indians already mentioned, but archaeological materials, like reused porcelains to make arrowheads for example, at the San Agustín and Baja California wreck sites, will shed more light on this topic. Furthermore, the possibility that some of the wreck survivors might have mixed with the local population makes an �interesting case for the archaeology of contact, as these shipwrecks happened in many cases before the “official” contact period (Mathes 2010:63). Interesting questions could center upon aspects of life on board - given that most of the studies center on the cargo; what was it like to spend up to six months on board a galleon amidst the uncertainty of arriving to safe port in between the storms of the north Pacific? Historical references can help in this matter, but often leave out the mundane daily activities, material culture might be in a position to shed light on this topic, as well as to the ethnic nature of the crew. Furthermore, what navigational equipment did these ships carry? And did it change at the same pace as it did in Atlantic navigation? Although ceramic studies might have been more abundant than those of other materials – such as typology and interpretation of motifs, what other ways can be devised to study the materials (see Craig this volume)? As is the case of other products; what was the perception of these objects for the people that produce them in China, the people that exchange them in the Philippines, and the people that consumed them in New Spain and beyond? This kind of studies could unveil a richer understanding of the societies involved. Furthermore, what changes in the choice of transported products can we infer in our research (Showronek 2009:498)? Silk and porcelain were always transported in galleons but do percentages shift through time? How were products transported? The questions are endless, but they should be posed before going out to the field. Another line of enquiry, resides in those archaeological sites and materials that are related to the trade and route of the galleon and which serve as comparative evidence to the materials found in shipwrecks. For example, a recorded site in the coast - north of Acapulco, where Chinese porcelain of the sixteenth century suggests a smuggling point on the trade of the Manila Galleon (Junco 2006). Likewise, documentation of Chinese porcelain within the territory of New Spain has yielded significant insight into the distribution of oriental products that arrived in the galleon (Junco and Fournier 2008) which can be used for comparative purposes as well as to show, for example, the impact of oriental products on local ceramic traditions (Kuwayama 1997). To conclude, there are few archaeological studies of Manila Galleon to date, as can be seen from those presented in this paper, in which I have also stated some of the research questions that can help us move forward in the study of Manila Galleons. Bibliography Bancroft, H. H., 1886 The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft. Volume XVIII. History of California, Vol. I. 1542-1800, The History Company, San Francisco. The Ming Gap and Shipwreck Ceramics in South East Asia, Brown, R. M., 2009 The Siam Society, Bangkok. Cruzat, F., “Carta de Fausto Cruzat sobre excesos en Filipinas”, Archivo General de Indias (AGI), Filipinas, 123, N.2. 1700 Delgado, J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, 1998 Yale University Press, New Haven. “Shipwreck salvage company destroys coral reef off Rota”. Deposa, M., �2006 Driver, M. C., 1983 Fernández Duro, C., 1898 Fish, S., 2011 Fournier, P., 1990 Galvan, J., 1998 Gerhard P., 2003 Goddio, F., 1994 Harper, B., 2010 Heizer, R. F., 1941 INHA 2005 INAH 2007 INAH 2009 INAH 2010 IOTA partners 1996 Junco, R., 2006 Junco, R. and P. Fournier, 2008 http://www.cdnn.info/news/eco/e061111.html (Sep. 2010) “Fray Juan Pobre de Zamora and his account of the Mariana Islands”, The Journal of Pacific History, 18:3, pp. 198-216. Armada Española T. VI, Sucesores de Ribadeneira, Madrid. The Manila-Acapulco Galleons: The Treasure ships of the Pacific, Author House, UK. Evidencias arqeuológicas de la importación de ceramica en Mexico, con base en los materiales del ex-convento de San Jerónimo, INAH, México. Islas del Pacífico: El legado Español, Ministerio de Educación Cultura y Deporte, Madrid. Pirates of New Spain 1575-1742, Dover Publications, New York. Le Mystére du San Diego, Éditions Robert Laffon, Paris. “The romance of the galleons”, Gaceta de Intramuros, Rivera C. (Ed.) Vol.2, Num. 4, Manila. “Archaeological Evidence of Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño’s California Visit in 1595”, California Historical Society Quarterly, Vol 20, No. 4, pp. 315-328. Informe del Proyecto Galeón de Manila México Reconocimiento Fase III, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. Informe del Proyecto Galeón de Manila México Reconocimiento Fase IV, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. Informe del Proyecto Galeón de Manila México Reconocimiento Fase V, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. Informe del Proyecto Galeón de Manila México Reconocimiento Fase VI, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. 1996 Annual report regarding the recovery of the Manila Galleon Santa Magarita, Bellevue, Washington & Rota, CNMI. Periplo de la Porcelana China en Nueva España. Arqueometría y Arqueología Histórica en la Costa Grande de Guerrero, MA thesis, Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México. “Del celeste imperio a la Nueva España. Importación, distribución y consumo de la loza de la china en el period Ming tardío en el México virreinal”, La Nueva Nao: De Formosa a América Latina, Chen et al. (Ed.) Kaun Tang Int. �Kuwayama, G., 1997 Lally, J., 2009 Mathers, W., 1990 Mathers, W., H. Parker and K. Copus (Eds.) 1990 Mathers, W. and N. Shaw, 1993 Ortega, J. de, 1887 Phillips, C. R., 2006 Richardson, M., 2001 Serrano Mangas, F., 1991 Shangraw, C. and E. Von der Porten, 1981 Shangraw, C. and E. Von der Porten 1997 Shen, M., 2007 Surry, M., 2001 Showronek R.K., 2009 Schurtz, W. L., 1992 Von der Porten, E., Publication, Taipei. Chinese Ceramics in Colonial Mexico, University of Hawaii Press, Los Angeles. Analysis of Chinese Porcelain associated with the Beeswax Wreck, Nahalem, Oregon, Naga Research Group, Honolulu. “Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion”, National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 178. No. 3. “Archaeological Report: The recovery of the Manila Galleon Nuestra Señora de la Concepcion” For the Government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Pacific Sea Resources. Treasure of the Concepcion. The archaeological recovery of a Spanish Galleon, Apa Publications, Hong Kong. Historia del Nayarit, Sonora, Sinaloa y ambas Californias, Tipografía de E. Abadiano, México. “Spain and the Pacific. Voyaging into Vastness”, Spain’s Legacy in the Pacific, Mains’l Haul, Vol. 41:4 & 42:1. “Can the Pilar be found?”, The New York Times, June 14th. http://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/14/style/14ihtspang_ed3_.html?pagewanted=all (Sep. 2010) Naufragios y Rescates en el tráfico indiano durante el siglo XVII, Siruela, Madrid. The Drake and Cermeño Expeditions’ Chinese Porcelains at Drakes Bay, California, 1579 and 1595, Santa Rosa Junior College and Drake Navigators Guild, Santa Rosa and Palo Alto, California. Kraak Plate Design Sequence, 1550-1665, Drake Navigators Guild, San Francisco. “It’s hard for me to believe”, In Katu News, Oct 18th 2007. http://www.katu.com/news/local/10577646.html (Aug. 2011) “Titanic fortune remains shipwrecked”, In Cargonewsasia, Feb 1st 2001. http://www.cargonewsasia.com/timesnet/data/ab/docs/ab27 35.html “On the fringes of New Spain: The Borderlands and the Pacific”, International Handbook of Historical Archaeology, Majewski and Gaimster (Eds.), Springer, New York, pp. 471-505. El galeón de Manila, Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica, Madrid. “Drake and Cermeno in California: Sixteenth century Chinese Ceramics”, Historical archaeology, Vol. 6, pp.1-22. �1972 Von der Porten, E., 2008 Von der Porten, E., 2010 Wagner, H. R., 1924 Williams, S., 2006 Williams, S., 2009 Williams, S., 2010 Identifying the Sixteenth-Century Ship on a Beach in Baja California, Manuscript. “Treasures from the lost galleon San Felipe, 1573-1576”, Mains’ L Haul, Vol. 46: 1 & 2, Maritime Museum of San Diego, San Diego. “The Voyage to California of Sebastian Rodriguez Cermeño in 1595”, California Historical Society Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 1. A Research Design to Conduct Archaeological Investigations at the site of the “Bees Wax Wreck” of Nehalem Bay, Tillamook County, Oregon. http://www.nagagroup.org/BeesWax/proposal/proposal.htm (Sep.2010) Team Beeswax News Letter 2009. http://www.nagagroup.org/BeesWax/about/about.htm (Sep.2010) History of the Beeswax Wreck site. http://www.nagagroup.org/BeesWax/about/about.htm (Sep.2010) � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeology of Manila Galleons Subject The topic of the resource Session 9 Spain and the Asia-Pacific region Description An account of the resource Manila Galleons are the stuff of legend. Active for 250 years they were the vehicle for people, products and ideas between Asia and the Spanish World. Among the biggest ships of their time, they were built to endure one of the most difficult navigations, the crossing of the Pacific Ocean -which sometimes lasted half a year on the way to New Spain. As a topic of archaeological research, little has been done regarding these important ships. This paper deals with the known Manila Galleons found to date. Unfortunately treasure hunters have salvaged most of them and little information if any is accessible to researchers. However, archaeological projects are currently active on sites regarding such ships. The Archaeology of Manila Galleons has the potential to understand diverse aspects of the exchange and interaction that took place between Asia and the Spanish Empire, as well as to shed light on the ships themselves, which were built in the Philippines to Spanish shipwright traditions and remain a mystery in many ways. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roberto Junco Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 9 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4cf2b58603bf86f427b21b59e20ba4eb.JPG 7ac83af9f210b21a7f4f6e634adc365c Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 3072 Height 2170 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Archaeology of Manila Galleons - Poster Description An account of the resource This poster deals with the known Manila Galleons found to date. Unfortunately treasure hunters have salvaged most of them and little information if any is accessible to researchers. However, archaeological projects are currently active on sites regarding such ships. The Archaeology of Manila Galleons has the potential to understand diverse aspects of the exchange and interaction that took place between Asia and the Spanish Empire, as well as to shed light on the ships themselves, which were built in the Philippines to Spanish shipwright traditions and remain a mystery in many ways. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roberto Junco Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Poster