5 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c0ad6b5f6dcd7ceca973467b768d82f3.pdf 1af71639c6dffb615eb99711239f3cc7 PDF Text Text Underwater Survey at the Ruins of Nan Madol, Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia Tomo Ishimura Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara 630-8577, Japan Email: tomoishi@nabunken.go.jp Kyushu Institute for Technology, Fukuoka 804-8550, Japan E-mail: ura@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp Akira Asada University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan Email: asada@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp Fumitaka Maeda Toyo Corporation, Tokyo 103-8284, Japan Email: maedaf@toyo.co.jp Ken’ichi Sugimoto Windy Network, Tokyo 108-0073, Japan Email: sugimoto@windy-net.co.jp Toshihiro Ogawa, Akio Hikoyama, Yoshinori Matsumoto, Yusuke Sugimoto Windy Network, Tokyo 108-0073, Japan Email: ogawa@windy-net.co.jp; Email: hikoyama@windy-net.co.jp Email: y-matsumoto@windy-net.co.jp; Email: y-sugimoto@windy-net.co.jp Charles Brennan R2 SONIC, Austin, Texas 78735, USA Email: cbrennan@r2sonic.com Tomomi Haramoto TokyoNational Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo 110-8713, Japan Email: haramoto@tobunken.go.jp Augustine Kohler Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government, Pohnpei, The Federated States of Micronesia, FM 96941 Email: kusgoose@hotmail.com Abstract In this paper we demonstrate the results of underwater survey at Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol are the ruins of a megalithic civilization composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made mostly of basalt, situated on a shallow water of Pohnpei Island. The site is now on the Tentative List of the UNESCO World Heritage Site submitted by Federated States of Micronesia. Protection of the site is comprised of both these basaltic islets and the water surrounding them. In addition, there is an oral tradition that a sunken city named Kahnihmweiso is located underwater near the site. The goal of our investigation is to make a map of underwater topography that is 1 �expected to be utilized for the site documentation and the setting of core and buffer zones. The investigation was carried out by using multi-beam sonar and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), as well as manual survey by scuba diving gears. Research has revealed that there is no clear evidence of artificial constructions under the water; however, a detailed map of underwater topography around the site was obtained. Our research also stresses the significance of the sea area as a resource of legends and a component of the intangible cultural heritage of Nan Madol. Key words: Oceania; Federated States of Micronesia; Nan Madol; Multi-beam sonar; Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) Background Heritage Management and Underwater Cultural Heritage in Federated States of Micronesia The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a grouping of 607 small islands in the Western Pacific just north of the equator. They are spread over an area of 2,700 km 2. They consist of four States: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae (from west to east). Their land area is quite small, amounting to approximately 700 km 2. The capital is Palikir, and the largest city is Kolonia; both are located on the island of Pohnpei. All land area is the result of volcanic activity occurred millions of years ago resulting in islands and atolls of incredible variety. Each of the four States constitute one or more main high islands, and all but Kosrae include numerous outlying atolls. Each of them has its own culture and traditions, nevertheless, common cultural and economic bonds are centuries old. Together with the Republic of Palau, the FSM forms the group known as the Caroline Islands and in association with the Mariana Islands, the Marshall Islands and Kiribati they form the group today known as Micronesia. The maritime history of Micronesia spans nearly 4,000 years and is inextricably linked with the wider cultural region. Initial settlement of the area is approximated at 3,500 years based on linguistic, archaeological, and anthropological evidence (Rainbird, 2004). It suggests that the area was first inhabited by groups of Austronesian-speakers who arrived in ocean-going canoes. The inhabitants of each island group developed their own variations of watercraft based on their needs for procuring food and inter-island travel. The people of Micronesia are known to have been some of the most knowledgeable and skilled navigators of the Pacific, a tradition which continues today. 2 �The people of the FSM have a strong bond with their land, sea and reefs. This is evident through the wealth of heritage sites that entail a spiritual association with the sea, which encompasses stories and the determined ownership of the land and water. Many sea and landscape features provide deep-seated connections to history, mythology and settlement of the islands, submerged heritage sites being a powerful and tangible part of society. The variety of submerged cultural heritage also reflects the broad range of activity which occurred in these island states. Shipwrecks from many time periods are known to lie in its waters, as do the remains of maritime infrastructure such as piers, wharves and landings. To date only a few submerged sites have been investigated historically and archaeologically such as the Yap fish weirs (aech) and the World War II relics of Chuuk Lagoon. Among the most exciting and culturally significant partially submerged sites are the indigenous ruins of Nan Madol in Pohnpei (Mckinnon, 2010: 37-42). The ruins of Nan Madol, which belong to a megalithic culture, are composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made of basalt and spread over a rectangular area approximately 1.5 km by 0.7 km. Its construction is said to have begun around 500 AD and continued to around 1600 AD, with royal palaces, temples, royal tombs, and residential districts integrally forming a city complex (Fig. 1). As the largest cultural heritage site in FSM, it is also a precious tourist resource. However, notwithstanding its extremely high significance in terms of academic value and as a tourism resource, no full-scale initiatives have been implemented to date to protect the ruins. Within the Pacific island countries (except New Zealand), there are only five UNESCO cultural heritage sites as of 2013. Even among the countries in the region, FSM is particularly eager to have Nan Madol inscribed on the World Heritage List, as it Fig. 1 Artificial islets of Nan Madol. (T. Ishimura) has no sites on the list at present. The UNESCO Office for the Pacific Region (Apia, Samoa), acknowledging that international support is needed to protect and inscribe the site on the World Heritage List, approached the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural 3 �Heritage (henceforth JCIC-Heritage) regarding the possibility of its cooperation in sending a Japanese survey team to assess the present state of the Nan Madol, as no surveys have so far been conducted regarding its condition and the framework required for its protection. In response to this request, JCIC-Heritage sent a survey team to Micronesia to conduct a survey of Nan Madol in 2011. The team of JCIC-Heritage carried out a survey to assess the present state of Nan Madol, including its preservation condition and the status of policy framework in February 2011 (Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012). Based on this survey, we have presented an overview of the present state of the Nan Madol ruins, and have discussed the framework of the FSM for preserving the site, as well as the results of interviews with relevant stakeholders. When considering the ruins as cultural heritage that is intimately associated with the history and traditional culture of the island of Pohnpei, it is extremely important to avoid development for the sake of tourism, but to promote measures for maintaining this heritage in a sustainable manner while respecting the living culture of the local residents. At JCIC-Heritage, we have continued our cooperation in response to the request of FSM, based on proposals derived from the results of this survey. As a result, certain achievements have been made, and local initiatives for protection of Nan Madol have made steady progress. As a supplement, we introduce the cooperation we have extended based on the results of the 2011 survey. As proposed in light of the survey results, the formulation of a management plan based on a consensus of all local stakeholders is of foremost importance in the effort to protect Nan Madol. To help the stakeholders achieve consensus, a workshop was held in November, 2011 in Kolonia, Pohnpei (Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012: 41). It focused on three main objectives: (1) to gather all stakeholders; (2) to share information on the present state of protection of Nan Madol among all stakeholders, and (3) to provide an understanding of future efforts that need to be made by each stakeholder. In addition to JCIC-Heritage, a Japanese experts team (funded by the Japan Foundation), the FSM HPO and UNESCO (UNESCO/Japan Funds-in-Trust) cosponsored the workshop and fulfilled their respective tasks. The workshop was extremely meaningful in the sense that by bringing together all stakeholders, it allowed 4 �everyone to share information, gain proper understanding of proposals put forth by experts from in and outside FSM as well as tasks needed in future activities, and to mutually verify their concurrent commitment to move forward their initiatives for protection of Nan Madol. However, now that a consensus has been achieved, activities for protection of the ruins and inscription of the site on the World Heritage List are expected to advance steadily. Subsequently, the State Party of FSM submitted a Tentative List including the ruins of Nan Madol to the World Heritage Centre in February 2012, and launched its nomination process for its inscription on the List of UNESCO World Heritage. Through the survey and workshop above, it has been stressed that the establishment of zoning (core/buffer zones) based upon an accurate site map is needed in order to protect the site and implement site management. Following this recommendation, the Japanese team organized a technical consultation workshop for capacity building on site documentation of Nan Madol in Kolonia, Pohnpei in September, 2012, funded by the Japan Foundation (Ishimura, 2013). In this consultation meeting, it has been pointed out that the sea area around the site of Nan Madol should be protected properly and the potential of neglected underwater cultural heritage existence must be scientifically confirmed. Since the artificial islets of Nan Madol were constructed in the inter-tidal zone of a reef flat along the shores of Temwen Island located in the southeastern part of Pohnpei, the gradually submerging monuments, the sea and its landscape are essential components to the sites’ protected heritage. In addition, there is a legend of an underwater city named Kahnihmweiso, sunken in the harbor of Nahkapw, a deep area approximately 50m in depth Fig. 2 Aerial photo of Nan Madol and surrounding area. (T. Ishimura, based on the images from GoogleEarth). in the northeast of Nan Madol (Fig. 2). 5 �Legendary Underwater City in Nan Madol According to the local legend, below Nahkapw Harbor there is the secret “City of the Gods” built before the people of Pohnpei arrived. Nan Madol, the city above water, is actually quite recent, built by two legendary brothers that came from across the sea from the southeast region. One day, “the brothers climbed the mountain to get a view of the country to find a suitable site for their capital city. When they looked into Madolenihmw Bay, they saw the ancient city of the gods, Kahnihmweiso. Here was an important sign to the two brothers.” The brothers then decided to build the city nearest to the one below the harbor in order to be nearer to the gods. Ancient Pohnpeian legend says the builders of Nan Madol selected the site because they saw the submerged ruins of Kahnihmweiso from a high cliff above Madolenihmw Bay, which is between Temwen Island and Nakapw Island. To the east of Nahkapw Island, in about 60m of water, are the ruins of the castle of KahnihmwNankhet, well known to the natives of Pohnpei, but none of the submerged ruins are talked about for fear of spirits who would punish them. For decades divers have reported submerged megalithic ruins of the legendary cities Kahnihmweiso and KahnihmwNankhet, such as some of the megalithic columns and pillars which still stand erect, rising up to 9 m above the sloping sea floor. The possibility of underwater construction at Nahkapw Harbor was first explored by the team of Dr. Arthur Saxe in 1978 (Saxe et al., 1980). Conducting a series of diving surveys, they reported that there were a number of tall stone pillars covered in coral growth which stand some 6 m tall, 0.9-1.2 m wide, at depths of over 25 m and one that even supposedly stood on a "pedestal." The presence of stone pillars is a style of construction which only appears below water surrounding the city in the harbor, and not within any part of the city above. Saxe also wrote about the many legends on the island of two sacred underwater cities believed to exist in the harbor, one called Kahnihmweiso, and the other KahnihmwNamkhet which exists somewhere further east of the reef (Saxe et al., 1980: 47-55). In this report Saxe also explained the mechanism why the city of Kahnihmweiso had been sunken in the sea, referring to the “Blue Hole” hypothesis (Saxe et al., 1980: 126-129). A “Blue Hole” is basically a limestone cavern whose roof has fallen in. The name comes from the fact that deep tropical waters 6 �appear as a darker blue than the shallower waters. In the Atlantic, where they have been studied, such as in the coral reef off Belize, the processes which result in their formation are as follows: A coral reef forms along a shore. During a glacial advance the sea levels drop due to the great amount of fresh water locked up in glaciers. The coral reef, now above sea level, becomes subject to the same processes of erosion and redeposition by fresh water that any land deposit of calcium carbonate is subject to. Rain, falling on the surface, runs underground and gradually dissolves away pockets of calcium carbonate, which is soluble in water. If this goes on long enough, huge limestone caverns can be formed. Water dripping from the roof of the cavern, containing the lime in solution, evaporates forming stalactites. The same water falling to the floor of the cavern evaporates forming stalagmites. Sometimes these meet forming continuous columns from floor to roof, sometimes not. If the process continues long enough, the roof of the cavern may collapse because of inadequate support or the deposition of added weight above the roof of the cavern. This collapse may occur before or after the sea levels rise at the end of the glacial maximum. In any case, once the sea levels are once more above the level of the coral reef, the collapsed limestone cavern appears as a “Blue Hole” from the surface. Blue holes are also characterized by numerous passages or tunnels which tended to link the various “rooms” of the cave when it was a cave. These, when re-submerged, can be subjected to strong current flows when tides are going in or out. Saxe (1980) pointed out the possibility that an earlier Nan Madol Central was built on the reef on what is now Nahkapw Harbor and that its weight caused the cavern roof to collapse. This explanation allows for both a blue hole and underwater columns. It suggests the “first city” as perhaps being Kahnihmweiso. In 1988 and 1989, the team of the University of Oregon conducted underwater investigations around Nan Madol (Ayres, 1993). They carried out an underwater survey at the location in front of Nan Mwoluhsei, a massive wall approximately 275 m long, 8 m wide and 4 to 6 m high that forms an L-shaped configuration south and east of Nan Douwas tomb. They observed that a number of basalt columns were located seaward of the standing portion of the wall. It is likely that these are lost, discarded or fallen building materials, now underwater, of the artificial islets. They also examined underwater pillars reported by Saxe. While no complex features were discovered during this survey, two 7 �clusters of columns were located. They reported that directly east of Nan Mwoluhsei the reef drops off twice, the first at approximately 2 m below the surface and the second at 7 to 10 m below the surface. After the second shelf the bottom falls away rapidly to the depths of Nahkapw Harbor which reach as much as 50 m. The first level of the reef is generally covered with columnar basalt and coral; however, this is replaced on the deeper shelf by a sandier bottom with a much sparser growth of coral. It is on this second shelf that the first of the upright columnar objects was encountered, at approximately 19 m from the north side of Nan Mwoluhsei. This object is roughly rectangular, stands 2.2 m high, and its sides 1.5 m by 0.8 m. Two other columns were located nearby. These appear to be solid coral and lie between six and nine meters below the surface. The second column, 0.9 m high with sides 0.2 m by 0.75 m, was 3.7 m from the first. The third column, 2.3 m high with sides 1 m by 1 m, was 20.3 m from the first. None of the objects had any obvious prismatic shape as would be expected from the basalt building materials of Nan Madol; however, it was possible that this feature was hidden by extensive coral growth. They used a steel bar to drill into the first and second columns in hopes of going through any coral encrustation covering stone. A penetration, approximately 20 cm deep, was made in both without striking stone. Finally, it was decided to raise the small column to the surface for detail inspection. The object was entirely of coral and therefore was not a purposefully positioned stone column. They implied that coral growth and submerged columnar basalt building material may have been interpreted and incorporated into Pohnpeian mythology, and these may have been perceived by the Pohnpeians as evidence for the presence of underwater structures inhabited by spirits. However, the surveyed areas by the team of University of Oregon were limited and their results have not fully refuted the hypothesis of “Blue Hole” proposed by Saxe. Since the legendary underwater city of Kahnihmweiso is believed to be located in the center of Nahkapw Harbor, a detail underwater topography map covering entire part of the harbor must be needed to evaluate the existence of potential underwater cultural heritage, as recommended in the 2012 technical consultation workshop. Following the recommendation, in cooperation with the Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government, we at JCIC-Heritage experts’ team conducted an underwater survey at 8 �Nahkapw Harbor for reconnaissance of potential underwater cultural heritage in February 2013. Research Objective The main objective of our research is to produce the entire map of underwater topography in Nahkapw Harbor, in order to assess the possibility of existence of underwater cultural heritage in this location. In addition, to examine the possible anthropogenic underwater features is also an important task. Research Method First, we used multi-beam sonar (Sonic 2024) to produce an underwater topography map. The multi-beam sonar was equipped to a 25’ boat (Fig. 3). Second, we used a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) (Mini ROV LBV300-5) to investigate underwater features and to carry out video recording. The ROV was controlled and monitored by another 23’ boat (Fig. 4). Third, we conducted a scuba diving survey to examine underwater features by eye observation. Fig. 3 (left) Multibeam sonar (SeaBat 8125) equipped with boat. (Y. Matsumoto) Fig. 4 (right) ROV (Mini ROV LBV300-5) in the sea. (Y. Matsumoto) Research Team Field survey was conducted by Tomo Ishimura (Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties), Tamaki Ura (University of Tokyo, at the time of field survey), Fumitaka Maeda (University of Tokyo, at the time of field survey), Ken’ichi Sugimoto, Toshihiro Ogawa, Akio Hikoyama, Yoshinori Matsumoto, Yusuke Sugimoto (Windy Network), Charles Brennan (R2 SONIC) and Tomomi Haramoto (National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo). Akira Asada (University of Tokyo) and 9 �Augustine Kohler (Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, FSM National Government) contributed to the arrangement and logistics for the survey. The data obtained was processed in a laboratory by Ura, Asada, Maeda, and the team of Windy Network. The multibeam sonar was provided by Brennan and the ROV was provided by the team of Windy Network. The boats, their operators and the scuba diving gear was arranged by the Village Hotel. Period of Research The field research was carried out in the period from 12th to 16th February, 2013. Results By using the multi-beam sonar, we produced an underwater topography map in the entire part of Nahkapw Harbor, except just in front of the Nan Mwoluhsei, the massive wall and entrance to the inside of the Nan Madol complex, due to strong winds and waves. The map indicates that the bottom of the harbor is flat in a depth of approximately 40 to 50 m, and there is no noteworthy complex topography such as stalagmites, passages or tunnels, as the “Blue Hole” hypothesis had expected. In the meanwhile, occasional distributions of block-shaped features are observed along the drop-off between the reef flat and the bottom, in the depth of 20 to 30 m (Fig. 5). Afterward we used the ROV to examine the features of the block-shaped features. Monitoring by the video camera equipped with the ROV, it was clarified that most of these objects are columnar in shape, a couple of meters high with sides of approximately 1m, covered by coral encrustation. By the observation using the ROV, it was not clear whether these columns were coral or basalt, and whether anthropogenic or natural. Then we selected some locations of the clusters of the columnar objects, and carried out scuba diving survey to examine them in detail by eye observation (Fig. 6). We observed that the columnar objects were fully covered by coral encrustation and no exposed surface of basalt was noted. In this survey, no evidence of anthropogenic pillar made by basalt column was obtained. It seems that these objects are equal to the counterparts investigated by the team of the University of Oregon (Ayres, 1993). 10 �Fig. 5 (left) A part of the underwater topography map in Nahkapw Harbor, showing some clusters of features along the drop-off. (University of Tokyo and Windy Network) Fig. 6 (right) An erect, columnar object at a depth of approximately 30m. (T. Ogawa) Conclusion The results of our research do not support the “Blue Hole” hypothesis proposed by Saxe, so it is not probable that the “first city” was built on the former cavern in Nahkapw Harbor and which then sunk in the sea due to the collapse of the cavern roof by its weight. Neither does our research provide any evidence that the underwater columns are man-made structures. However, the results of our research do not necessarily deny the possibility of the existence of the legendary sunken city. The people of Pohnpei may have seen the bizarre feature under the sea and interpreted it as remains of a sunken city, and created a legend of the “City of Gods” inhabited by spirits. As a cultural heritage, the value of Nan Madol is not only limited to its tangible aspects such as architecture and archaeological remains but also in its intangible aspects such as legends and oral traditions associated with it (Hadley, 1987). The legend of Kahnihmweiso, including the story of the establishment of Nan Madol, is also an important component of the cultural heritage of Nan Madol, and the site of Nahkapw Harbor is closely associated with the legend. Therefore, the legendary site of Kahnihmweiso must also be protected as a component of intangible heritage of Nan Madol. We recommend that the sea area of Nahkapw Harbor should be included in the 11 �zoning (core/buffer zones) plans for protection and management of the ruins of Nan Madol. Acknowledgements The field research was funded by the Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage. Ken’ichi Sugimoto, the president of Windy Network and his team, and Charles Brennan from R2 SONIC, voluntarily participated the research and kindly provided their equipment. The Embassy of Japan in FSM, JICA Micronesia Office, H.E. Dr. Rufino Mauricio (Secretary, Ministry of Education, FSM National Government), and His Majesty WasalapalapaIsipahuKerpetHebel (NahnmwarkiMadolenihmw) kindly understood and supported our research. References Ayres, W. S., 1993. Nan Madol Archaeological Fieldwork. Final Report. A Research and Historic Preservation Project 1987-1990: 1-108. Mckinnon, J., 2010. Federated States of Micronesia. In U. Guérin, B. Egger and V. Penalva (Eds.), Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania, UNESCO, Paris: 37-42. Hadley, M., 1987. Nan Madol: Spaces on the Reef of Heaven. (Ed. & Tr.), Paul M. Ehrich.Nan Madol Foundation, Pohnpei: 1-126. Ishimura, T., 2013. Report of the Technical Consultation Workshop for Capacity Building on Site Documentation of Nan Madol (in Japanese). Unpublished Report, The Japan Foundation: Tokyo. 1-12. Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, 2012. Survey Report on the Present State of Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. 2010 Survey for International Cooperation Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, Tokyo: 1-50. Rainbird, P., 2004. The Archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1-314. Saxe, A. A., Allenson, R. A., and Loughridge, S. R., 1980. The Nan Madol Area of Ponape: Researches into Bounding and Stabilizing an Ancient Administrative Center. The Trust Territory Historic Preservation Office, Saipan: 1-145. Tomo Ishimura, the first author, is a Researcher at the Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Japan. His specialty is archaeology in Oceania. He graduated from the Department of Archaeology, the Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto 12 �University in 2004. He completed Ph.D. degree in 2009. He has been in his present position since 2006 and is engaged in international cooperation projects for cultural properties in several countries including Afghanistan, Cambodia, Federated States of Micronesia, Myanmar, and Viet Nam. Tamaki Ura is a Professor of Kyushu Institute for Technology and an Emeritus Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering, especially remotely operated vehicle (ROV). He graduated from the Graduate School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo and completed doctoral degree in 1977. He held a position in the University of Tokyo from 1977 to 2013, and was a former Director of Underwater Technology Research Centre, the University of Tokyo. He moved toKyushu Institute for Technology in 2013. Akira Asada is a Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering and marine acoustics. He graduated from the Faculty of Engineering, Waseda University in 1977 and had worked for Japan Coast Guard as an Investigator from 1979 to 2000. He completed doctoral degree in the University of Tokyo in 1995. He has been in his present position in the University of Tokyo since 2000. Fumitaka Maeda is a Sales Engineer of Marine and Ocean Measurement Department, Toyo Corporation, and former Assistant Professor of the Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo. His specialty is marine engineering and marine acoustics. He completed MA degree in the Graduate School of Science, Osaka University in 2004, and completed doctoral degree in the University of Tokyo in 2010. He was in a position of the University of Tokyo from 2006 to 2014, then moved to present position in 2014. Ken’ichi Sugimoto is the President of Windy Network; a private company specialized in surveying, 3D scanning and underwater topography. He graduated from the Faculty of Law, Aoyama Gakuin University in 1971. His company has been engaged in a variety of UCH research, including surveys on a sunken transport craft of stones for the Edo citadel in the 17th century in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan, and on underwater aircraft in WW2 at the Towada Lake in Akita Prefecture, Japan. Toshihiro Ogawa is a Senior Managing Director and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from Hamamatsu Technical Institute for Civil Engineering in 1974. His specialty is marine engineering, especially hydrography, underwater photography and ultrasonic wave analysis. Akio Hikoyama is an Executive Director and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from Shimoda-Kita High School in 1982. His specialty is information and communication technology. Yoshinori Matsumoto is a Manager and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Chuo Kogakko Institute in 1994. His specialty is marine engineering, hydrography and technical diving. 13 �Yusuke Sugimoto is a Manager and an engineer of Windy Network. He graduated from the Faculty of International Information, Shizuoka University in 2002. His specialty is marine engineering and hydrography. Charles Brennan is a Chief Hydrographic Engineer of R2 SONIC, a production company of equipment for marine engineering. His specialty is hydrography, especially a creation and development of hydrographic equipment such as multi-beam sonar. He graduated from the Department of Geology, the University of South Florida, and has worked for several companies as a surveyor and hydrographic engineer since 1972. Tomomi Haramoto is a Research Fellow, Center for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage, Tokyo National Research Institute for Cultural Properties. Her specialty is international relations and safeguarding cultural heritage. She completed MA degree of the Graduated School of International Public Policy, Osaka University in 2004. She has been in her present position since 2009. Augustine Kohler is a National FSM Historic Preservation Officer at the Office of the National Archive, Culture, and Historic Preservation, National Government of the Federated States of Micronesia. His specialty is archaeology. He completed BA of Anthropology and Pacific Studies, the University of Auckland in 2005. He formerly worked for the Pohnpei State Historic Preservation Office, then shifted to the present position in 2011. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Survey at the Ruins of Nan Madol, Pohnpei State, Federated States of Micronesia Description An account of the resource In this paper we demonstrate the results of underwater survey at Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia. Nan Madol are the ruins of a megalithic civilization composed of 95 small to large artificial islets made mostly of basalt, situated on a shallow water of Pohnpei Island. The site is now on the Tentative List of the UNESCO World Heritage Site submitted by Federated States of Micronesia. Protection of the site is comprised of both these basaltic islets and the water surrounding them. In addition, there is an oral tradition that a sunken city named Kahnihmweiso is located underwater near the site. The goal of our investigation is to make a map of underwater topography that is expected to be utilized for the site documentation and the setting of core and buffer zones. The investigation was carried out by using multi-beam sonar and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), as well as manual survey by scuba diving gears. Research has revealed that there is no clear evidence of artificial constructions under the water; however, a detailed map of underwater topography around the site was obtained. Our research also stresses the significance of the sea area as a resource of legends and a component of the intangible cultural heritage of Nan Madol. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tomo Ishimura Akira Asada Fumitaka Maeda Ken’ichi Sugimoto Toshihiro Ogawa Akio Hikoyama Yoshinori Matsumoto Yusuke Sugimoto Charles Brennan Tomomi Haramoto Augustine Kohler, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Account of India and China. In Arabic Classical Accounts of India and China Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource al=Tajir Sulayman S. Maqbul Ahmad Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Indian Institute of Advanced Study in association with Rddhi-India, Calcutta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author al=Tajir Sulayman Translator S. Maqbul Ahmad Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Place Shimla Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Indian Institute of Advanced Study in association with Rddhi-India, Calcutta Title A name given to the resource Account of India and China. In Arabic Classical Accounts of India and China China India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Manimekhalaï (The Dancer with the Magic Bowl) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Merchant-Prince Shattan Alain Danielou Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available New Directions Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Merchant-Prince Shattan Translator Alain Danielou Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available New Directions Title A name given to the resource Manimekhalaï (The Dancer with the Magic Bowl) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alan B. Lloyd Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1977 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Alan B. Lloyd Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1977 Pages 142-55 Publication Title Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Title A name given to the resource Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations Volume 63 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d7f56e9439d1fe281d6a5f349547cdc5.pdf 30a940b23170e5f01b66b5bf337e3637 PDF Text Text The Herakles project: Towards a minimum intervention methodology for the study of Underwater Cultural Heritage in harbour complex spaces. Felipe Cerezo Andreo1, Soledad Solana Rubio,2 Raúl González Gallero,3 Alberto Salas Romero,4 Nicolás C. Ciarlo,5 Carlota Pérez-Reverte Mañas,6 José Bettencourt,7 Elisa Fernández Tudela8 and Alicia Arévalo González9 1 (University of Cádiz, Associate Professor) 0000-0003-0025-1726 2 (University of Cádiz, Researcher) 0000-0001-5571-7453 3 (University of Cádiz, Technician) ORCID ID: 0000-0002-8862-0516 4 (University of Cádiz, Researcher) 0000-0002-2855-166X 5 (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) –University of Buenos Aires (IA, FFyL-UBA), Argentina, Researcher) 0000-0002-1995-6227 6 (University of Cádiz, Researcher) ORCID ID: 0000-0003-1833-815X 7 (Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Associate Professor) 0000-0002-7722-5115 8 (University of Cádiz, Technician) 0000-0003-4565-7690 9 (University of Cádiz, Professor) 0000-0001-8114-3385 ABSTRACT In recent years, several researchers are focusing their efforts on the development of documentation methods and techniques according to the principles of minimal and non-intrusive intervention on underwater cultural heritage (UCH), as advocated by the UNESCO 2001 Convention. These methods have been used successfully to locate and document some shipwrecks without excavation. However, few works have succeeded in investigating and extracting all available information from an underwater archaeological site with the minimum possible intervention. Within the framework of the Herakles project, we have developed a working methodology that aims to apply different non-intrusive techniques for the documentation and research of the UCH. We have developed a field workflow that has allowed us to document 35 shipwrecks in just one year, identify 151 archaeology sites and deepen our knowledge of a privileged nautical space such as the Strait of Gibraltar.We have used geophysical methods with USV survey, magnetometer, sub bottom profiler, photogrammetry either with ROV or scientific diving, underwater GPS survey and in situ archaeological monitoring and drawing. All data have been processed in a geographic information system for management and risk analysis of this UCH. Finally, this work methodology has been useful for generating virtual resources such as 3D models or 3600 videos. Keywords: non-intrusive techniques, monitoring UCH, geophysical survey, new technologies applied to UCH, Strait of Gibraltar. List of images Figure 1 – Location of the case study and surveyed areas. Figure 2 – Methodology workflow. Figure 3 – Some techniques applied during the fieldwork. A) Magnetometer; B) USV Multibeam; C) SBP; D) GPS survey results example; E) Archaeological drawing and Photogrammetry. Figure 4 –Map of results with identified underwater sites. 1 (University of Cádiz, Associate Professor) 0000-0003-0025-1726 (University of Cádiz, Researcher) 0000-0001-5571-7453 3 (University of Cádiz, Technician) ORCID ID: 0000-0002-8862-0516 4 (University of Cádiz, Researcher) 0000-0002-2855-166X 5 (Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) –University of Buenos Aires (IA, FFyL-UBA), Argentina, Researcher) 0000-0002-1995-6227 6 (University of Cádiz, Researcher) ORCID ID: 0000-0003-1833-815X 7 (Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Associate Professor) 0000-0002-7722-5115 8 (University of Cádiz, Technician) 0000-0003-4565-7690 9 (University of Cádiz, Professor) 0000-0001-8114-3385 2 1 �1. INTRODUCTION The research Project HERAKLES, led by Felipe Cerezo, aims to record and study the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) in the Bay of Algeciras (Figure 1). The results will allow us to analyse and document the maritime history of the Bay. 2. CASE STUDIES Figure 1 – Location of the case study and surveyed areas. The Strait of Gibraltar is a historical meeting point between the Europe and Africa, a significant maritime cross path connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and also a passage to America. Located at this strategic naval crossroads, the Bay of Algeciras is a privileged maritime space, being a wide, deep and safe bay, which allowed the development of an intense occupation with clear maritime links. However, considering the historical importance that the sea and nautical activities have played, the level of knowledge and documentation of the UCH in these waters was very low util 2019. Of the approximately 125 archaeological sites of different chronologies known in the area, only four were underwater, and of these only one could be considered a shipwreck, that of Ballenera. In addition, there are several factors that pose a great challenge to the study of the UCH in this area. - Port development: Algeciras is the largest industrial port in Spain and one of the most important in the world. The UCH is threatened by the works to handle the huge container traffic, the dredging for the ever-larger ships or the effect of the heavy anchors and chains of the merchant ships anchored in this Bay. 2 �- Industrial activity: Shipyards, oil refineries, shipbuilding and logistics are the main industries in the Bay. Their development and expansion into the sea since the 1990s has affected and continues to affect the shallow water UCH. - Climate Change and Ocean Dynamics: The effects of climate change are being felt in the area, particularly through changes in the dynamics of local ocean currents and sediment transport - Invasive species and environmental hazards: As a port of global importance, it is frequented by large merchant ships from different parts of the world. This has led to the arrival of various exogenous species, notably Rugulopteryx oukamurae, which in just five years has covered the seabed of the Bay, damaging local ecosystems and hiding archaeological sites. - Looting and ignorance: The risk of looting has always been present in an area with a rich UCH. Educational activities to raise awareness are therefore very necessary in this context. Finally, we must not forget that we are in a geopolitically complex area where underwater surveys are not permitted near the British colony of Gibraltar, even though the waters are under Spanish sovereignty. Therefore, to overcome this series of limitations, we have developed and applied a multidisciplinary methodology that combines known underwater survey techniques and developed low-cost applications in order to undertake a multi-proxy research with minimal impact on the UCH (see figure 2). The main objective of this methodology is to answer the initial questions about the chronology, typology and state of preservation of each underwater site surveyed. These answers are not always straightforward when dealing with geophysical data or seafloor information. Therefore, our methodology is developed with an individual approach for each site. This allows us to decide which technique is best suited to the questions we want to answer and to apply it effectively. In this way, the work methodology is divided into different actions to develop each of the specific goals of the project. Figure 2 – Methodology workflow. Consequently, our working method is defined by the principles promulgated in the 2001 UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Maarleveld, Guérin and Egger 2013, 20-59), mainly those of in situ conservation as a first option, impact limitation and prioritisation of non- 3 �destructive methods. Thus, in developing our methodology, we prioritise the documentation of UCH as a first step. In line with the above principles, we prioritise exploration over recovery and are therefore innovate in the use of geophysical techniques that allow us to map the seabed without altering it, identifying what is buried, what is anomalous and at what depth, as well as helping to monitor the degree of preservation of the UCH. Once found, our priority is to leave the underwater archaeological artefacts in their original location and to document it through interventions in which we establish a proportionate relationship between the impact caused and the scientific information obtained. Our specific action is therefore based on graphic documentation using various techniques (photogrammetry, video, 360º video, scanning, drawing, etc.). Once processed and studied, these results give rise to virtual models that we use to continue researching the UCH or to communicate it to society10. 3. RESOURCES For geophysical survey: Kongsberg SIMRAD EM2040 High resolution multibeam echo sounder. Variable frequency from 200 to 400 kHz and parametric frequency from 10 to 60 kHz. Equipment installed and operational on small hydrographic vessels of the Spanish Hydrographic Institute. Sub Bottom Profiler (SBP) model SES-2000 standard, manufactured by the German company INNOMAR. It is parametric in nature, which allows a high resolution in the detection of strata and sediment layers. Marine Magnetics Seaspy2 magnetometer. High-sensitivity, ship-towed magnetometer that measures the magnetic field using an Overhauser sensor. USV equipped with a high resolution Norbit iWBMSe multibeam echosounder. Variable frequency from 200 to 700 kHz, mounted on a USV Otter-Pro, an autonomous surface vehicle that allows high accuracy in shallow water environments. For satellite navigation: - Leica GS18 mobile RTK GNSS antenna, which provides position readings with millimetre accuracy. - Garmin 78s GPS with underwater housing and buoy antenna. For underwater photogrammetry: - 4 Go Pro Cameras (GP10, GP8 y GP7) Olympus EP-7 with underwater housing. For drawing and recording: - Monitoring templates/sheets printed on waterproof paper. Slate/board and Pencil Fiberglass metric scales For UCH Access: - The majority of the sites recorded or studied by photogrammetry or sketches were done by diving from the coast. 10 For an example, visit: https://bit.ly/3wXrCvy 4 �- In the cases where we have used vessel support, we have used the UCADIZ research vessel from the UCA; and the Tarpán, a small one from a collaborating dive centre. For data processing: - Agisoft Metashape Professional for Photogrammetry processing Adobe Illustrator for digitalising sketches and drawing planimetries. All geophysical survey equipment has its own software for signal acquisition and processing. ArcGIS Pro for data collecting and integrate processing. Regarding the human team, the works were performed by the team of underwater archaeologists and some students from the Master of Nautical and Underwater Archaeology at the UCA. 4. FRAMEWORK This study aims to identify potential UCH sites by applying surveying methods for future monitoring and preservation. Considering the diversity of the environment in the study area, we divided it in different sectors according to the harbour morphology, previous archaeological information, casual findings or accessibility. Given some time and financial constraints of this study, we had to plan the fieldwork in all areas simultaneously. The theory of our approach, from macro to micro, meant that in a first phase we had to work with geophysical data and, in addition, geo-reference historical information on finds and shipwrecks that might be known to divers and fishermen in the area. As a result, we obtained a first set of possible anomalies. Furthermore, before starting the fieldwork, a virtual survey of the shallower areas was conducted using aerial photographs and satellite images from 1954 to the present day. In this way, we were able to understand the processes of shoreline mobility caused by the impact of port works and climate change, and to identify several shipwrecks visible in the photographs. Once the areas of interest had been defined, the following surveys were undertaken: Multibeam survey: The bathymetry in our study area is very variable, ranging from shallow areas to depths of 400 metres. Two types of multibeam surveys were conducted. One in shallow areas (from the shoreline to -20 metres depth), to obtain a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for spatial analysis and to document various wooden shipwrecks of modern times that have been unearthed. This work was made using the USV Otter Pro and the Norbit echosounder (see figure 3.B). The other type of fieldwork was the mid-water survey, from -15 m to - 80 m depth, to document the seabed and to assess the impact of anchoring activities of large cargo ships in areas where UCH may be present. Magnetometer survey: The main result of using the magnetometer in this survey has been to obtain a large number of anomalies, the interpretation of which has allowed us to verify the existence of numerous underwater archaeological sites. In addition, and most useful of all, we have been able to locate shipwrecks that were previously known only from very isolated and difficult-to-interpret material (see figure 3.A). However, one must not forget the challenge of using such sensitive equipment in port areas, where rubbish, chains, lost anchors and other objects can cause interference Sub Bottom Profiler survey: The use of this equipment had as main objectives to determine the existence of anomalies buried under the sediment and to understand the stratigraphy of the area. Furthermore, we aimed to assess how successive dredging and harbour works altered the natural sedimentation processes (see figure 3.C). 5 �The data obtained with this equipment are very interesting but complex to interpret. For this reason, it is better to combine it with bathymetry results, to understand the presence of objects on the seabed, and with the magnetometer to know what kind of objects may be buried. Figure 3 – Some techniques applied during the fieldwork. A) Magnetometer; B) USV Multibeam; C) SBP; D) GPS survey results example; E) Archaeological drawing and Photogrammetry. GPS survey: Using the above techniques, a database of possible UCH anomalies was compiled, which was subsequently cross-checked with information obtained from the local community, museums or archives. Combining this information in a Geographical Information System (GIS) allowed us to define the areas to be surveyed using scientific diving techniques. For these tasks we used a Garmin 78s GPS with an underwater housing and a buoy with a surface antenna connected by a 20 m coaxial cable. By carrying the GPS pad underwater, the divers always knew their position, heading and distance to the points to be checked. In addition, the pad can be accessed via buttons and the exact position of underwater archaeological finds can be marked underwater. This low-cost technique was very efficient in providing a map of the points of underwater archaeological artefacts, the precise location of sites or, by recording the route, an estimate of the areas covered by the survey. It was also very useful for planning surveys, as predefined routes were entered into the device, so that scientific divers could follow them safety. Finally, the data uploaded to the GIS were used to produce density maps and other spatial analyses to define future research and site monitoring strategies (see figure 3.D). Detailed site recording drawings, sketches and underwater photogrammetry: Graphic documentation by means of drawings or photogrammetry is a simple and effective technique that has allowed us to obtain precise data of each site in a non-intrusive manner and with a high level of detail (see figure 3.E). Unlike geophysical techniques, drawing or photogrammetry provides a very precise spatial resolution, which is essential to understand certain types of sites. Once we had located a site using the techniques previously explained, we planned a fieldwork of graphic documentation that could be made in two or three working days, depending on the depth. 6 �The procedure was as follows: 1) A dive on the site was made to take general measurements, to get to know the marine environment (visibility, currents, sedimentation), to identify the elements that could be diagnostic in order to define the typology and chronology, as well as the degree of coverage by flora or sediments. 2) On the ground, the necessary resources were defined and the tasks of cleaning, marking and photogrammetry were planned. 3) In a second dive, one group manually cleaned the surfaces of the site, or at least the areas that could provide diagnostic information. Another group made detailed drawings, sketches and marked the main architectural features of the site with targets, scales or labels. 4) Once the site was prepared, and taking into account the tides, swell and visibility, the photographic and photogrammetric documentation was performed with as few people as possible in the water to avoid soiling the site. 5) Finally, on a last dive, control measurements were taken to scale the photogrammetric model using a GNNS antenna with RTK corrections. To protect the site, areas where more sediment had been removed were re-covered. Not all techniques were used in all case studies. The methods used were those considered most useful, economical and effective for each site, depending on the kind of questions to be answered. Moreover, the entire project has sought to identify the limitations of this non-intrusive methodology. Although there are aspects of a site that cannot be known without intrusive research, we have found that the methodology applied and the workflow developed are very useful and transferable to other complex sites. RESULTS This section summarises the results and the strengths and weaknesses of this methodology: - The integrated use of multibeam data, magnetometer, historical information and GPS surveys has yielded very positive results (see figure 4). - The multi-proxy use of these techniques has made it possible to identify, assess and diagnose UCH more accurately and quickly than with traditional methods. - The use of SBP in former harbour areas, together with historical mapping information, provides a clear understanding of the extent of the impact of dredging on stratigraphic levels containing archaeological remains. - Photogrammetry with divers on an annual or biannual basis is a very useful method to monitor the degradation of a site. - A large area has been covered in a short time and at very low cost with good results. - Sandy bottoms and shallow waters are excellent areas for the application of this methods. - This is a methodology developed specifically for UCH in coastal environments and shallow water contexts. Applying it without modification to UCH found in different geographical environments or at great depths is a challenge that we have yet to experiment with. - Finally, we consider it important to underline that this methodology is in line with the DNSH principle, which is particularly relevant in this Ocean’s Decade. F i g u r e S 7 �Figure 4 –Map of results with identified underwater sites. Underwater Cultural Heritage (shipwrecks, wrecks or harbours) is the evidence of a maritime past that is currently submerged and poorly known. The lack of mapping of this heritage is a threat to its preservation and is sometimes seen as an obstacle to maritime spatial planning and economic growth in coastal and port areas. The growth of port areas is one of the major challenges of the coming decades, linked to the industrial and economic development of certain coastal regions that depend to a large extent on their activity. In 8 �this context, UCH is one of the forgotten issues in maritime strategies, although it represents an opportunity for development in the field of the Blue Economy. The digitisation and dissemination of UCH through the application of new technologies, using nonintrusive, geophysical and virtual methods, must be a priority. Otherwise, we risk losing the memory of our maritime past. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work has been co-financed by the 2014-2020 ERDF Project reference: FEDER-UCA18-107327. We thank this conference for accepting us and for providing a methodological session, in which we can share our experience with the whole scientific community. Thanks to the HERAKLES team and all collaborators, researchers, professors and students. To Félix Rodríguez Lloret, pioneer in the surveying of the UCH in the Bay of Algeciras. To all those who are curious about maritime culture. BIBLIOGRAPHY Maarleveld, Thijs, Guérin, Ulrike and Egger, Barbara. Manual para actividades dirigidas al patrimonio cultural subacuático: directrices para el Anexo de la Convención de la UNESCO de 2001. Paris: UNESCO, 2013. Available in: <https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000220716>. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Herakles project: Towards a minimum intervention methodology for the of Underwater Cultural Heritage in harbour complex spaces Description An account of the resource In recent years, several researchers are focusing their efforts on the development of documentation methods and techniques according to the principles of minimal and non-intrusive intervention on underwater cultural heritage (UCH), as advocated by the UNESCO 2001 Convention. These methods have been used successfully to locate and document some shipwrecks without excavation. However, few works have succeeded in investigating and extracting all available information from an underwater archaeological site with the minimum possible intervention. Within the framework of the Herakles project, we have developed a working methodology that aims to apply different non-intrusive techniques for the documentation and research of the UCH. We have developed a field workflow that has allowed us to document 35 shipwrecks in just one year, identify 151 archaeology sites and deepen our knowledge of a privileged nautical space such as the Strait of Gibraltar.We have used geophysical methods with USV survey, magnetometer, sub bottom profiler, photogrammetry either with ROV or scientific diving, underwater GPS survey and in situ archaeological monitoring and drawing. All data have been processed in a geographic information system for management and risk analysis of this UCH. Finally, this work methodology has been useful for generating virtual resources such as 3D models or 3600 videos. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Felipe Cerezo Andreo Soledad Solana Rubio Raúl González Gallero Alberto Salas Romero Nicolás C. Ciarlo Carlota Pérez-Reverte Mañas José Bettencourt Elisa Fernández Tudela Alicia Arévalo González Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Andreo, Felipe Cerezo, Soledad Solana Rubio, Raúl González Gallero, Alberto Salas Romero, Nicolás C. Ciarlo, Carlota Pérez-Reverte Mañas, José Bettencourt, Elisa Fernández Tudela, Alicia Arévalo González. 2023. “The Herakles project: Towards a minimum intervention methodology for the study of Underwater Cultural Heritage in harbour complex spaces.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Carlota Perez-Reverte. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1998 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/619fe2418e86ea65a168eee139661716.pdf 29441aae6f7b4b5112edae0d68b00115 PDF Text Text Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific 1 Jennifer F. McKinnon (East Carolina University, Professor; Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research Inc., Research Associate) 2 David Benavente (Tasi Research and Consulting, Owner/Operator) 3 Toni L. Carrell (Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research Inc., Vice President) 4 Erin Field (East Carolina University, Associate Professor) 5 Vicki Richards (Western Australian Museum, Manager Materials Conservation) 6 Della Scott-Ireton (University of West Florida, Interim Associate Dean) 7 Mark Stephens (Task Force Dagger Special Operations Foundation, Chair of the Board) 8 Aleck Tan (Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc., Research Associate) 9 Kota Yamafune (APPARATUS, Owner/Operator) ABSTRACT There are many opportunities, challenges, and competing interests related to the development of research on and preservation of submerged WWII heritage in the Pacific. This paper outlines an interdisciplinary, community inclusive project which brings together historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, GIS specialists, veterans and Micronesians to focus on the archaeological and biological research of WWII underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Mariana Islands, specifically Saipan. It is a continuation of research that has been underway since 2008 on WWII sites related to the battle for Saipan and includes a third set of data collection spanning 15 years. At the time of writing, the project is currently underway, and results will be reported at the conference. As such, this paper is an overview of the work being conducted with adjustments made as the field project progresses. KEY WORDS: WWII, Lidar, Photogrammetry, eDNA LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Project area indicating targets to be tested and sites to be investigated (Map by Aleck Tan). Figure 2. 3D model of Japanese auxiliary submarine chaser in Saipan Lagoon (Model by Kota Yamafune). Figure 3. Mariana Islands Nature Alliance rangers extracting eDNA samples on the project (Photo by Mike Thomin). Figure 4. Veterans preparing for dive inspection on a Japanese Daihatsu landing craft (Photo by Mike Thomin). INTRODUCTION Saipan is one of 15 islands in the Mariana Islands chain situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It is the capital of the U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The battle for Saipan in the Mariana Islands, code-named Operation TEARAWAY, was the largest U.S. amphibious invasion in the Pacific Theatre by June/July 1944. The operation involved thousands of troops from all branches of the military and an imposing number of vessels, vehicles, and weapons. In the lead up to D-Day, 15 June 1944, U.S. fleet commanders conducted staging operations approximately 1,000 yards off the western coast of Saipan. These operations included battleships, cruisers, destroyers, carriers, support craft, amphibious vehicles, and the very first offshore seadrome (a floating airdrome serving as an intermediate or emergency landing place for airplanes) in the Pacific theatre. The battle for Saipan marked the end of the drive through the Western Pacific and allowed the U.S. to access mainland Japan directly through a controlled airspace. After nearly a month of conflict, almost the entire Japanese garrison of over 29,000 soldiers were killed. Of the roughly 67,000 U.S. troops that landed, nearly 3,500 lost their lives with nearly 10,000 wounded. Hundreds of Japanese civilians were killed in crossfire or by suicide, and nearly 933 non-combatant Pacific Islanders of Chamorro and Carolinian heritage were killed (Cabrera 2015). The battle for Saipan is considered of such significance that large portions of the island including the World War II (WWII) landing beaches were listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places and designated a U.S. National Historical Landmark (NHL) in 1985. The NHL, designated based on 1 �the history of the area and the integrity of the landing beaches, encompasses 1,366 acres of land and water (Thompson 1984). Dozens of publications, official histories, biographies, memoirs, documentaries, films, and reports focus on the conflict on land, but there has been less focus on the offshore naval, amphibious, and aerial operations and the losses incurred. To date, no Pacific War offshore staging area or seadrome has been investigated archaeologically. Furthermore, no comprehensive, systematic geophysical or remote sensing survey for associated submerged heritage in the offshore staging areas and seadrome of the Saipan battlefield has been conducted. The staging and aerial invasions were critical areas of activities during the battle. The location and investigation of these areas is essential to holistically identifying, analysing, managing, and preserving the full battlefield. As such, a project was conceived to utilize emerging technologies to explore, locate, and characterize the UCH of the offshore deepwater battlefield including the first Pacific war seadrome, invasion staging area, and potential environmental hazards from post-war dumping. Shoreline development and reef clean-up have already altered the amount and type of WWII sites preserved in the shallow lagoon areas of Saipan. Additionally, a long-term research investigation and monitoring program has been focussed on the lagoon sites (McKinnon et al. 2011, 2014, 2018). The deeper areas offshore, however, remain relatively untouched by development and disturbance and no research has been conducted in this area (Figure 1). 2 �Figure 1. Project area indicating targets to be tested and sites to be investigated (Map by Aleck Tan). The project is an interdisciplinary collaboration between historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, and GIS specialists that focuses on the archaeological and biological aspects of WWII UCH. It contributes to the study of the naval, amphibious, and aerial staging in the offshore battlefield through the location, identification, and characterization of sites, as well as their function as artificial reefs and contributors to the local Blue Economy. Blue Economy is a term introduced by the United Nations and used by many world organizations to describe the ocean in economic terms with a particular focus on sustainable use. LIDAR, MACHINE LEARNING, AND Artificial Intelligence (AI) Funded by a NOAA Ocean Exploration Grant, the project leverages biophysical data products from a bathymetric and benthic mapping effort (FY20-22) that has been coordinated across multiple NOAA offices and has direct spatial and temporal overlap with the development of high-resolution benthic 3 �habitat maps for Saipan through Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center and National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science. This survey covers the land and nearshore waters (depths < 50 meters). Bathymetric data meet, and in some cases, exceed USGS Lidar base specifications for quality level two data, which supports the gridding of a one-meter resolution three-dimensional bathymetric model. Additionally, post-processing of the Lidar point clouds has included classes 43 (Submerged objects) and 44 (International Hydrographic Organization S-57 Objects). For this project the bathymetric data was reprocessed in ArcGIS Pro utilizing a machine learning approach by training a deep learning model to identify and predict UCH site locations based on known sites in Saipan. The output, however, did not successfully identify potential UCH sites as the model appeared to select natural features. Unknown wreckage may be partially buried under sand or may contain coral growth, making it difficult for the model to detect remains. Potential ways to improve the model include increasing the training sample size or utilizing a different machine learning model outside of ArcGIS Pro. In another visual analysis method, the bathymetry imagery was processed using the Relief Visualization Toolbox in order to obtain a visualization for archaeological topography, highlighting archaeological characteristics (Kokalj and Somrak 2019; Zakšek et al. 2011). By visual analysis of the archaeological topography for potential non-natural features, target anomalies were identified. Target anomalies were ranked based on discovery potential, and testing was conducted via veteran and archaeological divers on SCUBA and closed-circuit rebreather and through remote operated vehicles (ROV) investigations. While most targets appeared natural, cultural remains were still identified during target testing. When successful, the exploration and identification of WWII UCH sites using emerging technologies such as machine learning, AI, and Lidar can help develop a concept of operations (ConOps) for future cultural heritage surveys with the potential to decrease costs through reduction of in-field survey and increase accuracy in discovery and identification. The scientific impact of discovery of underwater cultural resources from new and re-processed bathymetric mapping has significant relevance for future location and management of such heritage in other areas where similar surveys have been conducted. Additionally, both sets of biophysical data and heritage data can contribute a better understanding of the scientific value of UCH more broadly. ROV AND PHOTOGRAMMETRY Once sites were confirmed to be cultural, further survey and characterization proceeded using 3D structure-from-motion photogrammetric diver survey consisting of underwater still and video cameras to capture 100+% coverage of sites and surroundings. Ground control points and scale markers were used to ensure accurate spatial reconstruction of the sites at the millimetre (mm)-scale. Wrecks located deeper than 40 m were recorded utilizing a Chasing Gladius ROV. Data is being processed with Agisoft Metashape modelling software to create a 3D reconstruction of each site. The resulting 3D models will be rendered with the original imagery to create the final digital surface model that provides high-resolution textured 3D models of the study sites. High-resolution ROV photogrammetric surveys are used in the exploration of sites and provide ground validation data that can be georeferenced for benthic environment and habitat models, archaeological site models that provide the first record of a site, as well as site formation data and public outreach materials. Few studies have been conducted utilizing high-resolution ROV photogrammetric surveys on underwater cultural heritage sites for understanding benthic environment and habitat models. The Mega Lab at University of Hawaii, Hilo has conducted some SCUBA photogrammetric survey of underwater cultural heritage in the Pacific, but the use of a ROV provides additional scientific methodologies that can be used in deep-water environments on underwater cultural heritage. These models also contribute to historical and archaeological research and understanding of the battle and resulting UCH resources (Figure 2). Models can be studied and reviewed in detail without having 4 �the limitations of diving at depths. They are analysed for cultural and natural features, modifications, battle scars, identifying marks, and any other details that may aid in the interpretation of the sites. These models can then be used to create traditional line drawing site plans. Models can also be used as longitudinal data for preservation initiatives using deviation analysis which can provide physical decay trajectories. Finally, photogrammetric recording is a permanent record that allows for the raw data of UCH to be stored for future use by archaeologists and biologists. Figure 2. 3D model of Japanese auxiliary submarine chaser in Saipan Lagoon (Model by Kota Yamafune). BLUE ECONOMY AND EDNA The project focusses on wrecks as habitat and Blue Economy in local and regional commercial and recreational fisheries and ecotourism industries. Sunken WWII shipwrecks, tanks, amphibious vehicles, and aircraft represent significant cultural remains in the Pacific for the US and Japan. They also have substantial socioeconomic value for local small Pacific Island communities. WWII UCH provides Blue Economy opportunities in diving and marine tourism and fisheries, significantly bolstering island economies. The use of eDNA sample collection and analyses allows for assessing biodiversity in an aquatic environment on UCH (Figure 3). The organisms associated with these wreck environments such as microorganisms, fish, and corals leave DNA traces (i.e., eDNA) through their attachment to wrecks, release in the nearby water column from skin cell shedding, release of waste products, and the persistence of this DNA in the nearby sediment over time. As each organism has a unique DNA signature, the same sample can be used to detect thousands of different organisms ultimately providing a snapshot of which organisms live in the current environment and where (Rees et al. 2014). Studies have shown that increased biodiversity led to a more productive environment (Lehman and Tilman 2000; Liang et al. 2016), which is important for monitoring the success of artificial reefs for supporting fisheries and other economic resources. Researchers can compare the biodiversity indices between locations to better understand which areas may be more productive as there is a direct correlation between biodiversity and ecosystem health. In addition to assessing overall biodiversity the project also focusses on specific taxa of importance to the wreck environment and Blue Economy of the region. This data combined can be leveraged with the other physical, biological, and biogeochemical data collected to begin answering questions about how we can better manage these environments long-term. 5 �Figure 3. Mariana Islands Nature Alliance rangers extracting eDNA samples on the project (Photo by Mike Thomin). Samples for eDNA were collected through biofilm surface sampling of the wrecks, filtration of nearby water, and sediment collection across the entire site. For each wreck environment, 10 biofilm surface samples were collected spaced evenly across the wreck for even coverage. Water column (surface and benthic) and sediment samples were collected. Samples will be processed to evaluate relative abundance and calculate diversity indices of the entire biological communities to assess overall biodiversity and health of the wreck ecosystem. The indices directly correlate to and can be used to visualize community differences and identify taxonomic members responsible for differences across the environments. These data will be compared within niche environments (i.e., across one wreck), as well as between areas, to identify areas that have high diversity vs. low diversity, as well as to compare the community structures (i.e., who’s there) in order to identify the organisms responsible for this diversity. Ultimately, this can be used to assess the ecosystem health of each sample area and develop recommendations for monitoring and preservation of these areas. The eDNA data will be leveraged to take a targeted organismal approach of those taxa that may play a particularly important role in the wreck environment and its connection to Blue Economy. Researchers will identify and quantify corrosion-causing microorganisms including known sulfatereducing bacteria (e.g. Deltaproteobacteria) and iron-oxidizing bacteria (e.g. Zetaproteobacteria), as well as waterborne pathogens such as Vibrio and Prevotella spp. which may have negative effects on fisheries, ecosystem health, and ultimately the productivity of these artificial reefs. Lastly, researchers will look for evidence of terrestrial or human-associated species that may represent contaminant species that have been brought in through boating, tourism, or other human activities. The relative abundances of any specific targeted taxonomic group such as those mentioned above can be identified. Researchers will also use the whole community extracted DNA to conduct quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies and quantifies taxa of interest as well as functional genes from the whole community extracted DNA involved in sulfate reduction (e.g. dsrAB) and iron oxidation (e.g. cyc2). The research will help capture taxonomic groups that may be rare but still play an important functional role, or taxa that are not currently associated with known sulfate reduction or iron oxidation functions. The data will also be analysed for contaminants (both biological and chemical) to identify the human impacts on wreck sites and the impacts of these wrecks on the nearby natural environments looking for taxonomic groups, such as freshwater or human-associated taxa, not typically found in the nearby environment and may have been carried in through human-based processes. Combined with archaeological integrity results, this approach allows for assessing the 6 �ecosystem health and current status of the wreck areas and for developing recommendations for improved monitoring and preservation methods. Difficult issues related to WWII UCH involve human remains and repatriation; unexploded ordnance; pollution through oil, metals, and ammunition; lack of legal protection; unintentional damage through anchoring and fishing; and looting and souveniring. eDNA sampling and analysis of biocorrosioncausing microbes, human health hazard and invasive species, and overall microbial and eukaryotic biodiversity indices using universal microbial and eukaryotic primers contributes more broadly to the difficult issues that plague WWII UCH. IN SITU CORROSION SURVEYS In situ corrosion surveys provide the decay mechanisms and rates of deterioration for in situ management and preservation with an eye towards sustainability. In situ corrosion surveys are critical to small island Pacific nations with limited funding and resources to conduct recovery and conservation of cultural heritage; management happens in situ, rather than the recovery and conservation that larger nations may undertake. As such, understanding the condition of the resources is an important step in this management process. Corrosion surveys explore sites for identification of decay mechanisms and corrosion rates that help managers make informed decisions about their management and preservation. Understanding corrosion status and rates contributes to broader scientific questions about climate change, as ferrous and non-ferrous metals are excellent materials for testing the impacts of acid acidification, temperature changes, and differences in oxygen levels that can be related to deterioration rates of all UCH. Conservation surveys primarily include the collection of data related to the environment (chemical and physical) that allows for a better understanding of the degradative forces affecting sites and artifacts and specific cultural information including data on material composition of objects, as well as modern cultural impacts to sites (MacLeod and Richards 2011, 2014). This data is vital to understanding the longevity of sites with relation to the material composition of metals and organics, how they react to and survive within the environment, and their overall structural integrity. Further, they record the modern cultural impacts on a site and produce a scientific, systematic record that can be used for managing sites. Conservation surveys will obtain a clearer understanding of the nature of the degradation forces operating on selected sites, determine the extent of degradation of materials onsite, and determine the overall stability of a site. This data adds to an existing set of baseline data for future measuring and monitoring of the sites whereby they can be assessed quantitatively (in contrast to qualitative visual surveys) for passive or active corrosion. As a result, this information can help to prioritize sites with regards to future loss and retention of historical information and to develop an appropriate monitoring and management program. COMMUNITY COLLABORATION, ENGAGEMENT AND CITIZEN SCIENCE Collaboration and engagement with the community is central to the project. It incorporates Micronesian researchers with local knowledge of the waters who contribute ideas to the development of the project, are involved in collecting data, and promote sustainable management programs after the project has ended. The project provides materials for an immersive learning activity for local schoolchildren who cannot otherwise access submerged shipwrecks. The activity involves the storytelling of science, technologies, and careers in science of discovery and utilizes 3D animations. 3D models also provide opportunities for sharing important ocean discoveries with a wider audience via webpages such as Sketchfab and on the existing WWII Maritime Heritage Trail website so that it is accessible after the project ends. 7 �Finally, partnerships and meetings with the local Historic Preservation Office, Division of Fish and Wildlife, Department of Coastal Resource Management, on island non-profit organizations, and Micronesian researchers provide opportunities for co-production of knowledge and hands-on training. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands agencies and researchers have been involved in all phases of project development and data collection to ensure that outputs are geared towards local management needs. Furthermore, engaging local heritage and natural resource practitioners and managers in developing techniques for identifying and recording UCH sites helps increase interdisciplinary management programs on island. This project takes a public archaeology and citizen science approach to community engagement. A citizen science veteran rehabilitative program and event was developed and involves Special Operation Forces and local veterans who are injured or have illnesses and are reintegrating into civilian society (Figure 4). The combination of citizen science and rehabilitative therapy in underwater archaeology is a recent development and suggests that there are psychological and physiological benefits of participation in outdoor activities, scuba diving, and connection with peer support groups for veterans. Participation in science projects allows veterans to use many of their professional skills and experiences, which also advanced overall goals of the research. This project utilizes veteran citizen scientists in all aspects of planning, data collection, and processing. Surveys of participants and the efficacy of the citizen science experience will be administered by archaeological trainers. Figure 4. Veterans preparing for dive inspection on a Japanese Daihatsu landing craft (Photo by Mike Thomin). CONCLUSION While the project is still underway at the time of writing, this paper has outlined the overall plan for an interdisciplinary, community inclusive, exploratory research agenda utilizing emerging technologies. The project leverages existing biophysical data products from bathymetric Lidar to conduct machine learning and AI to identify submerged sites in deeper waters up to 50 m below the surface. Archaeological and biological surveys of the sites include a focus on the wrecks as habitats and part of the Blue Economy in local and regional commercial and recreational fisheries and ecotourism industries. Samples of eDNA and corrosion data as well as 3D models using ROV will contribute to questions about the health of these sites, potential contamination, and their long-term preservation. Collaboration with veterans for an adaptive rehabilitative event trains off- and on-island veterans in citizen science archaeology and biology skills. Finally, engagement with local agencies, 8 �non-profits, and schools provide opportunities for knowledge creation and exchange. Results from the project will be presented in further detail at the conference. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cabrera, G. “A Historical Overview of the Battle for Saipan.” In Underwater Archaeology of Pacific Battlefield: The Battle of Saipan, edited by J. McKinnon and T. Carrell, 15-25. New York: Springer Press, 2015. Kokalj, Ž., Somrak, M. "Why Not a Single Image? Combining Visualizations to Facilitate Fieldwork and On-Screen Mapping." Remote Sensing 11, no. 7 (2019): 747. Lehman, C. L. and Tilman, D. “Biodiversity, stability, and productivity in competitive communities.” The American Naturalis 156, no. 5 (2000): 534-552. Liang, J., Crowther, T.W., Picard, N., Wiser, S., Zhou, M., Alberti, G., Schulze, E.D., McGuire, A.D., Bozzato, F., Pretzsch, H. and De-Miguel, S. “Positive biodiversity-productivity relationship predominant in global forests.” Science 354, (2016): 6309. MacLeod, I.D. and Richards, V.L. “In-situ corrosion studies of wrecked WWII aircraft in Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.” In ICOM-CC 17th Triennial Conference Preprints, Melbourne, 15–19 September 2014, ed. J. Bridgland, International Council of Museums, Paris, art. 0902, 2014. MacLeod, I.D. and Richards, V. “In-situ conservation surveys of iron shipwrecks in Chuuk Lagoon and the impact of human intervention” Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material Bulletin, 32 (2011): 106-122. McKinnon, J. F. and T. Carrell. “Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2011. McKinnon, J. F. and T. Carrell. “Management Plan and Public Outreach for WWII Submerged Resources in Saipan.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2014. McKinnon, J. F., T. Carrell and M. Roth. “Expanding Documentation and Research of WWII Maritime Heritage.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2018. Rees, H.C., Maddison, B.C., Middleditch, D.J., Patmore, J.R. and Gough, K.C. “The detection of aquatic animal species using environmental DNA–a review of eDNA as a survey tool in ecology.” Journal of Applied Ecology 51, no. 5 (2014): 1450-1459. Thompson, E. N. National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. Landing Beaches, Aslito/Isley Field, and Marpi Point, Saipan Island. National Park Service Denver Service Center, Lakewood, CO, 1984. Zakšek, K., Oštir, K., Kokalj, Ž. "Sky-View Factor as a Relief Visualization Technique”. Remote Sensing 3, no. 2 (2011): 398-415. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific Description An account of the resource There are many opportunities, challenges, and competing interests related to the development of research on and preservation of submerged WWII heritage in the Pacific. This paper outlines an interdisciplinary, community inclusive project which brings together historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, GIS specialists, veterans and Micronesians to focus on the archaeological and biological research of WWII underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Mariana Islands, specifically Saipan. It is a continuation of research that has been underway since 2008 on WWII sites related to the battle for Saipan and includes a third set of data collection spanning 15 years. At the time of writing, the project is currently underway, and results will be reported at the conference. As such, this paper is an overview of the work being conducted with adjustments made as the field project progresses. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon David Benavente Toni L. Carrell Erin Field Vicki Richards Della Scott-Ireton Mark Stephens Aleck Tan Kota Yamafune Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. McKinnon, Jennifer F.. 2023. “Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1899 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f0fc64ddc4060318fd30b06bc6a58ef2.pdf 1ba4650c58fcd675a897fd9b12be9613 PDF Text Text Native navigation traditions in Mexico Central Plateau: a study between archaeology and ethnology Alexandra Biar University of Paris1 Panthéon-Sorbonne Paris, 75005 France E-mail: alexbiar@hotmail.com Abstract In the Americas, long before the Conquest, existed various native navigation techniques (coastal, lacustrine and fluvial), aboard numerous and diversified wooden boats. Among these, stands one that was made by carving a tree trunk: the dugout canoe. As an evidence of human ingenuity, it acquired its importance by being the bridge between land and water, representing the bond between the human and the aquatic world. Similarly, this means of transportation played a primordial part in the native civilizations as it was involved in daily activities at different levels: transportation (people, goods, raw material), natural resource exploitation (hunting, gathering and fishing), rituals and war. These activities implied the organization of the lacustrine areas, thanks to adapted facilities such as channels, piers, bridges and warehouses. In Mexico’s Central Plateau, in the endoreic basins of Mexico and Pátzcuaro, flourished two of the most powerful contemporaneous and rival empires in all Mesoamerica: the Mexica and the Tarascan (Fig.1). Based on their respective lacustrine surroundings and specific methods, they accomplished the edification of their capitals, Tenochtitlan and Tzintzuntzan, through the use of navigation. Nowadays, some remains of these antique and powerful civilizations naval technology still exists, allowing us, thanks to a multidisciplinary method, to approach a broad vision of their history and transformation. Key words: cross-cultural, navigation, Americas, Mexico, dugout, naval, technology Introduction Contrasting with other civilizations of the ancient world such as those of the Mediterranean or South-East Asia, Mesoamerican cultures are not particularly renowned for their maritime history or naval architecture. We owe the first in-depth studies of Mesoamerican navigation in the 1980s to the British archaeologist Norman Hammond, who focused largely on the transportation of goods 1 �and traffic along the entire coastline of the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula. Historical sources show us that, along this maritime navigation studied by Hammond, another very important form of navigation existed, on rivers and lakes. Unfortunately, few researchers bore attention to these freshwater examples, even though, according to the cultural ecology theory, numerous writers, such as Sanders and Price (1968), Fig.1-Endoreic Basin of the Mexico’s Central have confirmed that they favored the Plateau (lakes of Mexico and Patzcuaroand) development of highly complex and the Post-classic Empires (Mexica social Tarscan) and structures. It is indeed in the center of the closed-water basins of Mexico’s central plateau that we see the flourishing of successive great civilizations such as Teotihuacan, the Mexica s and the Tarascans, and a key correlation between their development and lake navigation has been systemically asserted. Nevertheless, scientific investigation about the dugout canoe as an indispensable tool in a navigation system, specifically in the Basin of Mexico, is only due to Margaret Leshikar as late as 1982. She wrote her PHD Thesis about a dugout canoe discovered in 1959 during a preventive excavation in the heart of Mexico City, using this artifact as an important source to collect new data about the Mexica Empire’s organization. Unfortunately, concerning the Tarascan Empire, there exist no scientific investigation about the navigation system or the dugout canoes, even if nowadays, some of the Lake Pátzcuaro fishermen still use this traditional craft to work. The only evidence we have comes from the CREFAL, an international organism founded in1951 by the UNESCO to approach and educate isolated community about sanitary, social and educative problems. This is why all the available investigations bear on the fishermen’s skills and way of life, rather than on navigation techniques. Due to the perishable raw materiel used to build the canoes and most lacustrine installations, wood, archaeological remains are scarce. The only examples of prehispanic boats from the Basin of Mexico found to date are a wooden one-man canoe 2 �on display in the Mexica Hall of the National Anthropology Museum (Fig.2a) and a miniature model found in Offering 41 of the Templo Mayor (Fig.2b), though we know other similar examples have been found in other parts of Mesoamerica, in Belize for instance. The single-person canoe of the Anthropology Museum was discovered in the 1960s along the actual Calzada de Tlalpan. Judging from its dimensions and carrying capacity, we can estimate it was able to carry about a ton of weight – by our reckoning, after studying similar examples, a vessel able to transport large monoliths, such as several Mexica monuments. Tying together several canoes could of course allow for larger and heavier charges. But this implies sufficient breadth, both of the canoe and of the canals along which it travelled. This is why ethnology and history are the best way to compensate the shortcomings of archaeological research, because native navigation in Xochimilco canals and in Lake Pátzcuaro (Michoacán) is always practiced. Fig.2a-Dugout canoeof Tlalpan causeway in the Mexica Hall of the National Anthropology Museum, Meico City - A.BIAR Fig.2b-Miniatures models founds in Offering 41 of the Templo Mayor, Templo Mayor Museum General environment adaptation Establishment Around 1325, two of the main Mesoamerican empires founded their capital in direct connexion with a lacustrine environment. Tenochtitlan, capital of the Mexica Empire, was built on a small island within Lake Texcoco. Tzintzuntzan, capital of the Tarascan Empire, was established on the northeast shore of Lake Patzcuaro. In order to assert themselves as the centers of the two powerful empires later confronted by the Conquistadors, both cities’ inhabitants had to learn to dominate their environment – to exploit it to economic, political and religious ends. Not only did they took maximum 3 �advantage, like their contemporaries and others before them, of one-man canoes carved from a single log of wood, but they developed complex technological systems in order to control their lakeside world, the supply of goods and the growth of towns and cities. But each one, due to their distinct location, used the lake with different goals. Mexica space engineering The Mexica s soon shaped their environment to suit their needs and to consolidate their power. The major hydraulic works that they and their neighbors on the lakes of the Valley of Mexico engineered fulfilled different objectives. The first and best documented of these was clearly to reclaim land from the lakes using the ingenious system of ‘Chinampas ’ and canals, artificial physical extensions of preexisting islands. As is well known, the invention of Chinampas is probably due to the inhabitants of Lakes Xochimilco and Chalco, in the south of the Mexico Basin, and was intended originally as a means of developing intensive agriculture. It is worth remembering here something clearly illustrated in the Plano en Papel de Maguey, which is that the Chinampas of Tenochtitlan served not only as plots of cultivated land, but also as a residential zone, implying control over the soil dampness. The second objective of Mexica engineering was to control the disastrous fluctuations in lake water levels, by constructing canals, dykes and even aqueducts - public works that also helped reduce the (previously high) water saline levels. The benefits these environmental changes brought complemented each other, but needed daily maintenance, with the use of lake crafts and a large, well organized labor force. The canals of the island of Tenochtitlan, which earned the city the nickname of Venice of the New World, crisscrossed the entire metropolis, creating a grid-like landscape structure and allowing fast communication both within and outside the city. Thanks to the historian Edward Calnek (1972) and the architect Jorge González Aragón, we know that two kinds of canals existed: regular ones that followed labyrinthine [maze-like] routes and which measured up to two meters width, and main canals, facing East-West and measuring 3-5 meters in width. When we consider that the largest Aztec monoliths – such as the goddess Tlaltecuhtli weighing 12 tons and measuring 4.19 x 3.62 m – 4 �were transported on the lake and to the city’s heart, it stands to reason that some of the principal canals must have been at least 6 meters wide. The main canals, epitomized by the famous Acequia Real (Royal Channel) that ran along the length of today’s Corregidora Avenue in Mexico City Historic Centre, were ideal for carrying large boats - used as much for transporting tribute items to Moctezuma’s palace as for bearing religious monuments and processional celebrants. By contrast, the regular canals carried a still larger volume of smaller boats with their daily loads of passengers and goods. Of course, we shouldn’t forget that a significant part of urban traffic took place on land, suggesting the existence of fixed and moveable bridges – a fact confirmed in the accounts of the Spanish defeat during the Sad Night. The broad and lengthy causeways connecting the island of Tenochtitlan with the mainland served several purposes: first, as a means of communication by land; secondly, they acted as dykes to hold the water at bay, and complemented the great stone levee-bridge constructed under the leadership of Nezahualcóyotl, the wise king of Texcoco. The three main causeways were those from Tepeyac (to the north), Tlacopan (to the west) and Iztapalapan (to the south). It’s worth noting that this last one was built by the Xochimilcas, clear proof of the political power of the Mexica s and of their influence over neighboring peoples. A fourth, smaller, causeway was that of Chapultepec. This uniquely supported the aqueduct constructed in the decade following 1420 and re-built on the orders of Nezahualcóyotl two decades later, supplying fresh water to the island city of Tenochtitlan, surrounded by salty water. In the construction and maintenance of these great public works, it’s obvious that single-man canoes played a key role, helping to ferry materials and every-day goods. It’s impossible to imagine life in Tenochtitlan and the coastal communities of the Basin of Mexico without navigation. While navigation is hardly mentioned in the historical accounts of great hydraulic works, its crucial role is evident from the descriptions of daily life and commerce, first and foremost in the southern lakes of Chalco and Xochimilco. As a matter of fact, the pictographic and historical documents describe the movement of products along lacustrine routes that remained in use even into the first half of the 20th century, as in the case of the Canal de la Viga. These routes were 5 �privileged with installations such as harbors and jetties to control the flow of people and goods. Cortés (1983) wrote: ‘At each entrance to the city, where the canoes unload [...] there are houses where live officials in charge of supervising and taxing every product […]’ This organization level demanded the construction and fitting-out of facilities and buildings tailor-made for the moving, storing and monitoring of goods and people by government authorities. These installations included (Fig.3):  Harbors: natural or artificial havens suitable for the (un) loading of cargo and (dis) embarkation of passengers by boat, and for carrying out maintenance.  Quays: places suitable for loading goods and people. Port installations are in effect groupings of architectural several structures complementary that roles: combine custom points for the receipt and control of goods; warehouses and storage facilities; stalls Fig.3-Location of nautical installations in the lake of and posts for buying and selling; jetties for Mexico that contributed to the control and the transfer of goods from dry land to lake regulation of canoe traffic in the Post-classic transportation, etc. The construction of period. these facilities requires both manpower and materials (wood, stone, lime, etc.). Unfortunately, to date, few archaeological remains exist of such facilities, making it harder to draw firm conclusions regarding their construction and purpose. Given their importance to the Mexica economy and government, more archaeological work is badly needed in the search for port installations, several of which should be located at the periphery of Tenochtitlan and the surrounding lake shores. A quay is generally an impermanent construction requiring considerable space, with a jetty whose size would be relative to the breadth of the canal serving it and to the volume of goods passing through. The archaeologist Francisco González Rul (1998) 6 �identified two types of quay: stone and wood. Remains of these have been found under the present Palacio Nacional of Mexico. We also have a few descriptions of them in historical records from the 16th and 17th centuries, and litho-/photographs from the 19th and 20th centuries. On the site of the famous prehispanic and colonial quay (pic 10) at the corner of Alhóndiga Street and Corregidora Avenue stands today a stone bridge, evocative of Mexico City’s bygone lakeside past. Dockyards: military or private establishments dedicated to boat building, repair, maintenance and equipment. These facilities had to be located near large bodies of water and must have resembled hangars, capable of housing several small canoes as well as larger, more important vessels. Fray Bernardino de Sahagún (1978) refers to these last items in his description of the ceremonies and sacrifices at the disposal site of Pantitlán, in the center of Lake Texcoco: ‘When all were sacrificed, we took all the offerings... and we carried them to the place where the lake is called Pantitlán, which is found not far from the dockyards.’ And later (Book 2, Florentine Codex) he indicates: ‘and when [the fire priest] had cast away [papers in an incense ladle], then they turned the boat about [...] And when they had come to reach Tetamacolco, where there had been embarking at the place of embarkation, thereupon there was bathing; then there was [returning] on the part of each [boat].’ What’s interesting in these passages is the specific reference to places for the keeping and return of craft, and in particular those for ritual or military use, suggesting the existence of different types of lakeside storage facilities around the Basin of Mexico – for trade, for military purposes and for religious ceremonies. It would also imply different types of boats, for specific uses. We know, for example, that some vessels were of large dimensions, used in festivals to carry the priests with their offerings, or the emperor and his court. According to historical sources, these boats were kitted out with benches and awnings to offer protection from the sun and the rain. We may then contemplate the existence of larger canoes, or even of rafts. Finally, we should also recall the probable existence of large vessels for military use, as mentioned in the accounts of the Noche Triste (Sad Night) and of the victorious sally of 7 �the Mexica against the Spanish at the beginning of the siege of the city. The simple fact that the Conquistadors had to build brigantines proves the critical role these were to play in achieving eventual control of the lakes. Tarascan space organization The Tarascans used the lacustrine world as an economic space, to provide them part of their basic alimentation, and as a center of distribution, but not to protect and centralize their power. Their capital, Tzintzuntzan, according to its location on the lakeshore, didn’t face the same environmental problems as the Mexica ’s, even if navigation was also used for religious and sometimes political matters. The most important historical data is the Relation of Michoacán and the Lienzo de Jucutacato, studied by Hans Roskamp (1998). Their economic and politic organization turned around three axes: the lake, the shore and the surrounding mountains. Each one provided the capital with basics needs: food, clothes, building materials. The islands of Janitzio, Jaracuaro, Yunuen y La Pacanda have their Fig.4-Spatial organization and principal proper fishing areas, which permit them to communication ways in the lake of Patzcuaro control all the pisicultural resources. Thanks to in the Post-Classic period. this monopole, they were able of supply the more important shore side markets: Tzintzuntzan, Pátzcuaro, Asajo and Erongaricuaro, which allowed distributing local and regional goods. Pollard (1993) considers that the site of Ihuatzio played an important part in storage activities (Fig.4). The only way to transport all merchandise and passengers to these places was by using dugout canoes. Boarding canoes was made from both lake and island natural beaches, today transformed as harbors. From the post conquest period to nowadays, canoes were used during religious ceremonies to transport saints from a village to another one. The canoe transporting the saint’s effigy was decorated with flowers and conducted by the chief of the community, followed by other embarkations with musicians, incense, and singers. This ethnological 8 �evidence allows us to imagine the native ceremonies, including matrimonial ceremony where the pretender had to navigate to the island to receive blessings from his family in law before marrying his wife. This sacred bond between religion and navigation is the same, even if more important in the Tarascan life and ritual than among the Mexica s. But as exemplified in the Mexica ritual calendar, numerous ceremonies involved lacustrine rituals or navigation. Finally, we just have a testimony of a naval battle between the lords of the lakeshore city against the island lords: “Las embarcaciones se dividen en tres grandes flotas mandadas cada una por uno de los principes […] Hirépan dirige sus proas rumbo a Jaracuaro. Hiquingari lleva la dirección de Janitzio. Tangaxhuan hace deslizar sus ágiles piraguas […] en las playas de Pacanda. […] El aire cubrió de flechas, el silencio del lago fue interrumpido por una estruendosa gritería, y cuando las embarcaciones llegaron al abordaje, se oía el duro choque de las macanas […] y bien pronto, el agua cristalina se tiño con la sangre de los heridos y de los moribundos” (Ruiz, 1891, Chapter XVIII) This event, as the “Noche Triste” (Sad Night) in Mexico, reveals the naval military power of these empires. Both of them used their aquatic environment as an economical, political, religious and military way to build, assert and maintain their power. The arrival of the Spaniards in the 1520’s ruined for good the equilibrium created by these two empires. Vessel typology The 16th century sources tell us much about the vessels used by the Mexica s and their neighbors, from the construction materials they used, through their shape and trim, to details such as their form of propulsion, carrying capacity and uses. A careful analysis of the data suggests that, as in the case of the boats spotted by Columbus on the open Caribbean Sea, those of the Basin of Mexico were mainly one-man canoes. 9 �Based on detailed study of the different depictions of canoes represented in the codices – some of which show a wide variety of shapes and styles even on a single page - we are today in a position to draw up a typology of canoes in use in the basins of Mexico and Patzcuaro in the 15th and 16th centuries, including a list of sources consulted for this study, amounting to 63 identified boats (Fig.5). Fig.5-Table of the 16th century sources used to establish the vessels typology Our own research shows that all vessels sported a flat bottom, perfectly adapted to lake use, allowing their crews to maneuver them easily and speedily. To this canoe typology (Fig.6), we need to add another for the vital propulsion tools. In the codices, two different types of paddle are shown: one in the form of a long, broad spade, the other a heart-shaped spade. We should of course add the pole, mentioned in the texts, though not shown graphically. Conclusion This paper is a summary of my PhD research to promote the importance of archaeological and ethnological studies of native navigation in Mesoamerican lakes. The relation between these civilizations and the use of wood as an indispensable material to adapt their customs to a lacustrine environment proves that their engineering capacity and organization were far more complex and elaborate than we imagine. Both material and techniques are underestimated by the scientific world because of the few 10 �archaeological remains. This is why a multidisciplinary approach is necessary. These native navigation traditions are about to disappear because the world is changing too fast for these communities, to be able to adapt every aspect of their culture and traditions. I hope to be able to organize, with the help of the Mexica n archaeologist, Mariana Favila, to create a symposium around the theme of Native’s navigation tradition in the Americas to. It will be interesting to join specialists of navigation in one place to highlight this underestimate aspect of our investigations. Fig.6-Typology of Mexico’s Central Plateau canoes: a first attempt to identify and classify canoe styles shown in the historical sources. Pictures map and table: A.BIAR Bibliography BIAR, A., 2011, La navigation Mexica dans la lagune de Mexico : navigation et prise du pouvoir, master thesis, Université Paris1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, Paris CALNEK, E., 1972, Settlement patterns and chinampa agriculture at Tenochtitlan. American Antiquity, vol. 37, nùm. 1 CORTES, H., 1983, Cartas de Relación, Porrúa, Sepan Cuantos, México 11 �FAVILA VAZQUEZ, M., 2011, La navegación en la Cuenca de México durante el Postclásico tardío: la presencia de la canoa en el entramado social Mexica , license thesis, ENAH, México GONZALEZ RUL, F., 1998, Urbanismo y arquitectura en Tlatelolco, colección científica, seria antropología social, INAH, México D.F. HAMMOND, N.,1981, Classic Maya Canoes. The International Journal of Nautical Archeology and underwater exploration, nùm. 10 (3), pp.173-185 LESHIKAR, M., 1982, The Mexica canoe: an archeologicaland historical study of its design, uses, and significance, PhD thesis, University of Texas, Austin POLLARD, H., 1993, Tariacuri’s legacy, the prehispanic Tarascan State, University of Oklahoma Press, Ed Norman and London ROSKAMP, H., 1998, La historiográfica indígena de Michoacán: el lienzo de Jucutacato y los títulos de Carapan, Research School CNWS publication, Vol.72, School of Asian, African and American Studies, Leiden University, Holland RUIZ, E., 1891, Michoacán: Paisajes, tradiciones y leyendas, Oficina Tip. De la Secretaria de Fomento, Mexico, D.F. SANDERS, W. T. and Barbara J. PRICE,1968, Mesoamerica: the evolution of a civilisation, Random House, New York SAHAGUN, B. de, 1978, Florentine Codex, Dibble et Anderson, The school of American research and the University of Utah, Etats-Unis Biography Alexandra Biar started her studies in archaeology in 2005 at the University of Bordeaux3 to obtain, three years later, a Bachelor in Art History & Archaeology. She started a Master in the University oh Paris1 Panthéon-Sorbonne in 2008, her thesis was supervised by Eric Taladoire, Leonardo Lopez Lujan y Eric Rieth, and titled Navigation in the Basin of Mexico in the Post-classic period. She graduated in 2011 with honours. After beginning her investigations on this theme, she decided to extend her research on the Basin of Pátzcuaro for her PhD, which is supervised by Brigitte Faugère. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 14: Pre-Hispanic Navigation Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 14 Chair Carlos Ausejo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Navigation was not unknown in the Americas, at the Spaniards arrival different kind of vessel were in use both in the Pacific and the Atlantic shores, as well as in lakes or rivers. Canoe, reed rafts, balsa log raft and others skin based watercraft have been described mainly on historical records and gave us an idea of this technologies. Although it is clear that long and short distance maritime trade routes were in use and watercraft were also involve in war activities and other maritime activities, archaeological evidence related with actual boats has been elusive to find. Still some of these traditions have survived time and in use with some changes and others were incorporated to European navigation traditions. During the last decades an increasing interest among researchers in addition to new and different approaches from a broad spectrum of perspectives, including archaeology, history, ethnohistory and ethnography, has brought new and better understanding about these technologies. In spite of this, venues of dialogue to present and discuss about these traditions has been practically inexistent. The aim of this session is to show research advances on this topic mainly in the Pacific shores and inland waters through different perspectives up to the Spanish arrival. It will focus primarily in the Andean and Mesoamerican region, however other regions would be accepted. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Carlos Ausejo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Native navigation traditions in Mexico Central Plateau: a study between archaeology and ethnology Description An account of the resource In the Americas, long before the Conquest, existed various native navigation techniques (coastal, lacustrine and fluvial), aboard numerous and diversified wooden boats. Among these, stands one that was made by carving a tree trunk: the dugout canoe. As an evidence of human ingenuity, it acquired its importance by being the bridge between land and water, representing the bond between the human and the aquatic world. Similarly, this means of transportation played a primordial part in the native civilizations as it was involved in daily activities at different levels: transportation (people, goods, raw material), natural resource exploitation (hunting, gathering and fishing), rituals and war. These activities implied the organization of the lacustrine areas, thanks to adapted facilities such as channels, piers, bridges and warehouses. In Mexico’s Central Plateau, in the endoreic basins of Mexico and Pátzcuaro, flourished two of the most powerful contemporaneous and rival empires in all Mesoamerica: the Mexica and the Tarascan (Fig.1). Based on their respective lacustrine surroundings and specific methods, they accomplished the edification of their capitals, Tenochtitlan and Tzintzuntzan, through the use of navigation. Nowadays, some remains of these antique and powerful civilizations naval technology still exists, allowing us, thanks to a multidisciplinary method, to approach a broad vision of their history and transformation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alexandra Biar, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/16/2014 Asia-Pac Session 14 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2fa63a4e7948034bda4040250102942f.pdf 6815dca04ba5f026365fa0eaa8a12c7f PDF Text Text THE GALLOPING GHOST OF THE JAVA COAST: PRESERVING THE STORY OF WWII ERA HEAVY CRUISER USS HOUSTON (CA-30) Alexis Catsambis (Underwater Archaeology Branch, Branch Head [Acting]) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within the Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges session of the conference as it is directly relevant to the session’s theme. The paper presents a case study on the wreck site of USS Houston (CA-30), a heavy cruiser located in Banten Bay, Indonesia, sank in combat during the Battle of Sunda Strait in 1942. It is associated with one of the greatest losses of life tied to a single sinking event in U.S. Navy history. The wrecksite of USS Houston has been documented over the course of the last several years through the use of diving and remote-sensing based surveys. Collaborative management efforts between the Governments of Indonesia and the United States have recently focused on site preservation, a point of particular concern as nearby contemporary warships have suffered significantly at the hands of unauthorized salvage operations. The results presented will demonstrate what has been learned about the shipwreck over the course of the last decade, as well as highlight transnational approaches to the preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites. KEYWORDS: World War II, Shipwreck, U.S. Navy, Indonesia INTRODUCTION USS Houston (CA-30), a heavy cruiser measuring 600 feet (c.183 meters) in length, was launched in 1929 and was sunk in combat by Japanese forces during the Battle of Sunda Strait on 1 March 1942. In 2014, following a series of reports of unauthorized salvaging of World War II-era shipwrecks in the region, a joint dive exercise of the U.S. Navy (USN) and the Indonesian Navy (IND) was undertaken on the site now confirmed to be the wreck of USS Houston (CA-30). The 2014 operation aimed to verify the identity of the site and ascertain the ship’s state of preservation. During the mission, a wreathlaying ceremony, presided over by the U.S. Deputy Chief of Mission to Indonesia, Ms. Kristen Bauer, commemorated the loss of life associated with the vessel’s sinking, which was among the heaviest in USN history (c. 645 sailors and Marines). Captain Albert H. Rooks, USN, killed in action, posthumously received the Medal of Honor for extraordinary heroism, while USS Houston was awarded two battle stars, as well as the Presidential Unit Citation for its service. Since 2014, the U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC) has engaged extensively with peers and counterparts to ensure the continuing preservation of the USS Houston site. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND History of USS Houston (CA-30) On 7 September 1927, the second USN ship to carry the name of the city of Houston, TX, was launched by Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., in Newport News, VA. The 9,050-ton Northamptonclass heavy cruiser was first commissioned as CL-30 on 17 June 1930, though the vessel’s designation changed to CA-30 on 1 July 1931 (DON 2017). USS Houston traversed much of the world during the interwar period. After spending some time in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, she joined the fleet at Hampton Roads. With the outbreak of war between Japan and China in 1932, Houston moved on to Shanghai to protect American citizens and interests in the region. The following year she joined the Scouting Force in San Francisco, in which she participated in Fleet Problems and maneuvers in the Pacific. During this time, Houston celebrated the opening of the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco on 28 May 1937. For brief periods, in 1938 and 1939, Houston became 1 the flagship of both the U.S. Fleet �and the Hawaiian Detachment. President Franklin D. Roosevelt claimed Houston as his favorite ship, and she made several special cruises carrying the President on a number of occasions in 1934, 1935, 1938, and 1939 (DON 2017; Hornfischer 2006, 14-19). As the fear of war began to spread around the world, Houston departed for the Philippine Islands on 3 November 1940 and arrived at Manila on 19 November. There she became the flagship of Admiral Hart, Commander of the Asiatic Fleet, and was readied for battle. Houston was undergoing some repairs at Cavite Naval Yard on 27 November 1941 in the Philippine Islands when her captain, Albert H. Rooks, received a Navy Department warning about an impending Japanese attack on the Asiatic Fleet (Winslow 1984, 37). In response, Houston set about anti-submarine patrols in the area (Winslow 1984, 38). On 8 December, the crew learned of the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and Houston set out with fleet units for Darwin, Australia (DON 1943, 5). She traveled by way of Balikpapan and Surabaya and arrived on 28 December 1941. After completing patrol duty, she joined the multinational American-British-DutchAustralian (ABDA) naval force at Surabaya in January 1942. Finding herself in the midst of war, Houston saw her first battle against the Japanese at the Battle of Makassar Strait on 4 February 1942. During this engagement, Rear Admiral Karel Doorman of the Royal Netherlands Navy led the Dutch and American forces to the Bali Sea. After evading serious damage for over two hours (Baldwin 1946, 5-7), Houston was the target of an enemy bomb that put turret 3 out of commission, killing nearly 50 crewmembers and injuring 20 (DON 1943, 28). Houston subsequently sought refuge at Tjilatjap to work on repairs and to tend to wounded sailors (Hornfischer 2006, 12). The ship departed Tjilatjap for Darwin, Australia, on 10 February to escort a convoy delivering reinforcement troops to Dutch Timor (Holbrook 1981, 51). Houston, said to be “twisting in and out of that convoy like a mother hen protecting her chicks” (Schultz 1985, 126), successfully defended herself and the rest of the convoy when Japanese aircraft attacked in two waves on 15 and 16 February, shooting down 7 of the second wave’s 44 planes (DON 1943, 37; Holbrook 1981, 53). As the major Japanese invasion force approached Java, Houston was ordered to rejoin Rear Admiral Doorman’s strike force as soon as possible. At sunset on 26 February the fleet of the Combined Striking Force, consisting of 5 cruisers (USS Houston, HMAS Perth, HNMS De Ruyter, HMS Exeter, and HNMS Java) and 9 destroyers, set sail to engage the enemy (Hornfischer 2006, 69). Morning light the next day, 27 February, brought Japanese air raids and by that afternoon the Allied ships met the Japanese support force under Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi consisting of 4 cruisers and 13 destroyers. The resulting encounter became known as the Battle of the Java Sea. While Doorman’s advance had caught the Japanese off guard, the lack of air support, challenges in communication, and fatigue hindered the Combined Striking Force (van Oosten 1976, 42). As the battle got underway, cruisers of both fleets opened fire. Houston struck a Japanese cruiser and temporarily slowed it down, but was hit twice in return. The first shell passed through Houston without exploding, but the second exploded on the port side, rupturing an oil tank (DON 1945a, 2). By 5:10 pm, Exeter was hit and severely damaged (DON 1943, 64), while amidst frantic maneuvering Dutch destroyer Kortenaer took a torpedo meant for Houston and was sunk (Schultz 1985, 142); British destroyer HMS Electra was lost shortly thereafter. Doorman broke off contact and headed north in an attempt to attack the Japanese transports but was unable to determine their location (DON 1943, 70). The American destroyers, low on fuel and out of torpedoes, were sent back to Surabaya. At 9:25 pm British destroyer HMS Jupiter was sunk, either by mine or internal explosion; another destroyer, HMS Encounter, was detached to pick up survivors from Kortenaer, leaving the remaining four cruisers without destroyer protection (DON 1943, 74-75). Later that same night, around 11:00, the cruisers again sighted the Japanese surface group, and the opposing units opened fire. The Japanese launched a devastating torpedo attack 30 minutes later. Twelve of these torpedoes found their targets in De Ruyter and Java, exploding and sinking them, and carrying their captains and Rear Admiral Doorman down with 2 �the ships. Prior to sinking, Doorman managed to radio an order for the cruisers Perth and Houston to retire to Batavia (Jakarta) (Thomas 1968, 212-3). The Battle of the Java Sea marked the largest surface naval engagement since the Battle of Jutland in World War I (Weinberg 2005, 320). The Battle of Sunda Strait The following day, 28 February, the only two remaining Allied cruisers, Perth and Houston, departed from the port of Tanjung Priok, Batavia (Jakarta), with orders to report to Tjilatjap via Sunda Strait (DON 1945a, 3). The cruisers were to make their way out to the Java Sea, regroup, and then continue the resistance against the Japanese (DON 1943, 77). En route to Sunda Strait, Perth and Houston unexpectedly encountered the Japanese invasion force anchored vulnerably in Banten Bay (van Oosten 1976, 60). As the cruisers approached the bay, they swiftly evaded nine torpedoes launched by the destroyer Fubuki (Thomas 1968, 218). The cruisers returned fire, hitting four transports, one of which sank, leading the other three to beach themselves to avoid the same fate. Prospects were grim as Sunda Strait, the cruisers’ means of retreat, was blocked by a Japanese destroyer squadron, and Japanese large cruisers Mogami and Mikutna closed in from the north. Perth was first to come under fire at 11:36 pm and just after midnight went up in flames and sank, leaving Houston alone to face overwhelming odds (DON 2017). Houston battled bravely, holding the paradoxical advantage over the enemy fleet of being able to consider all other vessels in the dark of night targets; this advantage was lost when a hit on Houston’s forecastle started a fire that singled her out (DON 1945a, 5). Shortly after midnight on 1 March, the aft engine room was hit on the port side, presumably by a torpedo (DON 1945a, 6). Despite losing headway due to the torpedo hit, the vessel carried on the fight, guns blazing in all directions. Fires erupting near turrets 1 and 2 helped the enemy get their range and bearing on her, and a second torpedo hit soon followed (DON 1945a, 8, 12). Just prior to the order to abandon ship, another torpedo hit the starboard side abreast the foremast, while severe shelling and machine gunning of the ship was taking place from both the port and starboard side at close range (DON 1945a, 9, 13). A final torpedo struck the forward engine room from the port side (DON 1945a, 13). At 12:30 am, Captain Rooks was killed by shrapnel from an exploding shell (DON 2017). A few minutes later, with her ensign still flying, Houston sank into the waters of Banten Bay taking 645 crew members with her. The number of enemy ships sunk and the extent of damage to others is unknown because of the darkness and the smoke that enveloped the engagement; later reports suggested that Houston sank seven ships, including cruisers, destroyers, and a seaplane carrier (DON 1945a, 14). In questioning by the Japanese after capture, Houston officers were accused of lying when they stated that only two Allied ships were present during the battle; it was the firm belief of all the American officers that the Japanese had shot at several of their own ships (DON 1945a, 5, 14). The 367 Houston crew members who survived the sinking were taken by the Japanese as prisoners to the town of Serang. The prisoners were then moved to Batavia and placed in the “Bicycle Camp,” named for the Tenth Battalion Bicycle Force of the Netherlands East Indies Army it had previously housed (Hornfischer 2006, 187). Conditions at the camp, though still challenging, were less deplorable than in Serang (Schultz 1985, 228). From there, the men of Houston were dispersed to various camps around Asia, most of them heading to Singapore, forced into rusty freighters for days on end where they could hardly move and were given very little to eat; many suffered from dysentery on this journey (Hornfischer 2006, 224-227). Upon arrival at Changi Camp the men were transported to Burma where they became slave laborers on the Burma-Thai Railway (Winslow 1984, 180). When the war ended, after having spent three and a half years in captivity, the Houston prisoners were rescued by American OSS operatives and other Allied forces. The men were brought to Calcutta, India, and the Philippines before returning to the United States (DON 1945b). Of the 376 Houston survivors (including 9 who had been evacuated from the ship prior to her sinking), 299 sailors and Marines survived 3 �captivity and were able to return home. It was not until after the war had ended and Houston’s survivors were liberated from prison camps, that the full story of her courageous fight was told. Almost nine months passed after Houston’s sinking before the world first heard of its fate. When news of the ship’s sinking reached the citizens of the city of Houston, they raised money to build the light cruiser USS Houston (CL-81), as well as the light aircraft carrier USS San Jacinto (CVL-30). On Memorial Day 1942, one thousand men known as the “Houston Volunteers” were sworn in to the USN to symbolically replace Houston’s crew, who were all presumed dead at that time, in an effort to carry on their legacy (Life Magazine 1942). SITE DISCOVERY AND THE 2014 SURVEY Identifying the location of the wreck of Houston was the objective of repeated efforts in the late 1960s, and the quest continued into the early 1970s. Earlier reports suggested the potential salvaging of the vessel by the Japanese, while in 1966 President Johnson was reportedly presented with a bell from Houston by Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos. In June 1973, the Naval Historical Center (later the NHHC) was informed that an Indonesian SCUBA diving club sanctioned by the Government of Indonesia Department of Communications recovered the ship’s bell from Houston and offered it to the U.S. Naval Attaché, indicating the first confirmed identification of the site’s location. The bell was presented to U.S. Ambassador Francis Galbraith on 24 August 1973, along with a 30-caliber machine gun, a telescope, and other small items (DON n.d.). Since that time, the sites of both USS Houston and HMAS Perth have been repeatedly visited by divers and remain common fishing grounds. The 2014 mission represented the first formal site assessment by the USN of the remains of the vessel, producing baseline data that addressed the identity and state of preservation of the wreck. The 2014 operation resulted in a total of 14 dives conducted by USN MDSU-1 Company 1-5, along with several dives conducted by the Indonesian Navy team during the course of five dive excursions. Given the observed depths of 90-120 ft (c. 27.5-36.5 m), dives were limited to 15 minutes in order to conform to standard dive safety practices. Additionally, as a result of the periodic current (up to 1.7 knots) and compromised visibility on site, not all dives permitted for the systematic and provenience-based assessment of site features. Furthermore, early dives did not yet benefit from the subsequent placement of buoys on the extremities and midships of the site, therefore compromising the accuracy of positioning of observed features. In addition to diver reports, 15 of the 19 dives were also documented utilizing GoPro handheld video recorders producing the primary record subsequently analyzed by researchers. Furthermore, Remotely Operated Vehicle footage concentrating on a single feature in the vicinity of the bow, and moderate quality side-scan sonar data collected over the length of the hull enhanced the interpretation of the site and its identification. Finally, GPS coordinates obtained over the buoys affixed near the extremities of the site provided for a precise location and orientation. NHHC developed a comprehensive site plan based on features observed during review of video recordings and concurrent assessment of all other projectderived data such as diver logs and side-scan sonar records. The data collected during the 2014 mission indicated that the hull’s starboard side is lying on the seafloor, with the deck positioned perpendicular to the seafloor facing towards shore and the entire port side exposed. A notable break appears near the bow, approximately 40 ft (c. 12 m) aft of the damaged tip. Battle damage, damage associated with the wrecking event, and subsequent disturbance of the site appear to have severely disfigured the vessel. Fishing nets, strewn throughout the hull and particularly prominent in the vicinity of the stern and along amidships, obscure many of the vessel’s features. 4 �THE 2014 SURVEY FINDINGS Pursuant to a thorough review of available data, confirmation of the identity of the wrecked vessel as USS Houston followed multiple lines of evidence, taking into account historical records, eyewitness statements, construction drawings, overall site dimensions, and identifiable features. Some of the most prominent areas of the ship, such as the bow rake, stacks, masts, and gun turrets, were significantly damaged and/or dislocated during the battle and the ensuing wrecking event. Neither the mainmast, nor the ship’s one remaining scout observation seaplane were located during the dives. Furthermore, marine growth and an expansive array of various grades of fishing nets blanketed the site and concealed many of the finer identifying features. Complicating the assessment was the fact that the pressed operation timetable did not permit for the establishment of any form of reference grid that would allow for the precise positioning of identifying features. Nevertheless, a series of features proved consistent with the vessel’s identification; while no observed features appeared inconsistent, assisting in the confirmation of the vessel’s identity (Catsambis 2014). Of particular interest was that the wrecked vessel showed evidence of battle damage in the form of areas of deformed hull, as well as penetrations of the hull and decks that exhibited both inward-facing and outward-facing impacts. Additionally, the vessel clearly suffered damage as a consequence of its wrecking event, which resulted in all three main gun turrets, the foremast, associated superstructure, and both stacks being displaced. There is particular evidence of battle damage that corresponds directly with the action report filed in 1945 by former gunnery officer Arthur Maher (DON 1945a), the senior survivor of USS Houston, which also correlates with eyewitness accounts presented elsewhere (e.g., Holbrook 1981, 83-102). At the same time, the elevated degree of association between reported hits and battlerelated damage observed on site raised concern over expanses of significant hull deformation that could not be readily explained. This is particular the case near the aft port side of the hull where four adjacent but distinct areas appear impacted. Damage to this section of the hull could not be reasonably dismissed as related to the wrecking event, as is the case with the broken bow extremity, and raised the prospect of notable unauthorized recovery of portions of the hull. The concern over unauthorized and systematic disturbance of the site was confirmed by a series of additional observations. Rivets running along the edges of seams holding hull plates together had been methodically removed to allow for the plates to be maneuvered and lifted as part of unauthorized recovery operations. Elsewhere, what appears to be a water-dredge, used to remove sediment from an underwater environment, was protruding from a cavity resulting from a presumed torpedo hit, permitting access to the interior of the hull. A modern hollow hose, coiled near the stern on the exposed port side of the vessel, would have been used as part of a rudimentary surface-supplied diving system to support prolonged underwater operations. Of greatest perhaps concern was that divers observed an accumulation of shells and ordnance resting on the exposed port side of the hull alongside a secured bag, likely placed there in preparation for their recovery. SITE MANAGEMENT The 2014 survey of USS Houston was conducted as a joint exercise with the local Indonesian authorities, demonstrating the joint interest in the wreck’s management as part of both nations’ cultural heritage. The wreck, which serves as the final resting place for hundreds of sailors, contains potentially live ordnance, is seeping oil, and is suffering from unauthorized disturbance that could significantly impact public safety, the surrounding environment and the local fishing economy. Of great concern is that continuing unauthorized activities that intrude into or impact the integrity of the hull have the potential to disturb remains of those sailors who perished with the vessel. Since 2014, therefore, the USN has continuously engaged with Indonesian counterparts, local government authorities, along with partners from Australia and the United Kingdom, to enhance the preservation potential of USS Houston. These efforts have resulted in world-wide press, public exhibits, conferences, commemorative wreath-laying ceremonies, and additional site surveys. Most recently, a bilateral agreement is being negotiated that would lead the site of USS Houston to be deemed a marine protected area, helping to ensure its future preservation. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Baldwin, Hanson W. Saga of a Stout Ship – The Houston. New York Times Magazine, 3 March 1946. Catsambis, Alexis. Field Report: 2014 USS Houston (CA-30) DIVEX. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Naval History and Heritage Command, 2014. <https://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/research/underwaterarchaeology/PDF/2014%20USS%20Houston%20(CA-30)%20DIVEX%20Field%20Report%20(P).pdf> Accessed 25 May 2023. Department of the Navy (DON). The Java Sea Campaign: Combat Narratives. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Office of Naval Intelligence, USN Publications Branch, Navy Department Library, Naval History and Heritage Command1943. Department of the Navy (DON). Action Report: U.S.S. Houston CA-30 on the Battle of Sunda Strait, 28 February 1942, Account by Senior Surviving Officer Arthur L. Maher. College Park, MD: WWII Action and Operational Reports, Records Relating to Naval Activity During World War II, Box 1047, Record Group 38, National Archives II, 1945a. Department of the Navy (DON). Houston Survivors Liberated. Immediate Press Release, Press and Radio. September 1, 1945. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Archives, Naval History and Heritage Command. 1945b. Department of the Navy (DON). Houston-II. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, Naval History and Heritage Command, 1 March 2017 < https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/h/houstonii.html> Accessed 25 May 2023. Department of the Navy (DON). Communications regarding USS Houston (CA-30) 1967-1986. Washington Navy Yard, DC: Curator Branch, Naval History and Heritage Command. Accessed October 2014. N.D. Holbrook, Heber A. U.S.S. Houston: The Last Flagship of the Asiatic Fleet. Dixon, CA: Pacific Ship and Shore, 1981. Hornfischer, James D. Ship of Ghosts: The Story of the USS Houston, FDR’s Legendary Lost Cruiser, and the Epic Saga of Her Survivors. New York, NY: Bantam Books, 2006. Life Magazine. Houston Replaces “Houston’s” Losses. Life Magazine (12:24), June 15, 1942. Schultz, Duane. The Last Battle Station: The Story of the U.S.S. Houston. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 1985. Thomas, David A. The Battle of Java Sea. New York, NY: Stein and Day, 1968. van Oosten, F.C. The Battle of the Java Sea. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1976. Weinberg, Gerhard A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Winslow, Walter G. The Ghost of the Java Coast: Saga of the U.S.S. Houston. Florida: Coral Reef Publications, 1984. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Galloping Ghost of the Java Coast: Preserving the Story of WWII Era Heavy Cruiser USS Houston (CA-30) Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within the Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges session of the conference as it is directly relevant to the session’s theme. The paper presents a case study on the wreck site of USS Houston (CA-30), a heavy cruiser located in Banten Bay, Indonesia, sank in combat during the Battle of Sunda Strait in 1942. It is associated with one of the greatest losses of life tied to a single sinking event in U.S. Navy history. The wrecksite of USS Houston has been documented over the course of the last several years through the use of diving and remote-sensing based surveys. Collaborative management efforts between the Governments of Indonesia and the United States have recently focused on site preservation, a point of particular concern as nearby contemporary warships have suffered significantly at the hands of unauthorized salvage operations. The results presented will demonstrate what has been learned about the shipwreck over the course of the last decade, as well as highlight transnational approaches to the preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alexis Catsambis Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Catsambis, Alexis. 2023. “The Galloping Ghost of the Java Coast: Preserving the Story of WWII Era Heavy Cruiser USS Houston (CA-30).” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1896 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-utan and the Bird of Paradise; a Narrative of Travel, with Studies of Man and Nature Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alfred Russel Wallace Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Macmillan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1902 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Alfred Russel Wallace Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1902 Edition 10th Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Macmillan Title A name given to the resource The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-utan and the Bird of Paradise; a Narrative of Travel, with Studies of Man and Nature Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/fb0a4f392e4dbb0d0256e78f3346f42b.pdf 01646eb484c6fc8f205da555ec70d71a PDF Text Text The responsible in-situ accessibility and promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage as a strategy for its protection. A discussion based on recent initiatives in the Mediterranean. Angelos Manglis (Founder, Civil Engineer MSc) Anastasia Fourkiotou (Archaeologist MA) Dimitra Papadopoulou (Dipl. Environmental Engineer MSc) (Atlantis Consulting S.A. Greece) ABSTRACT This paper discusses the current challenges in the protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) and proposes the in-situ preservation and responsible accessibility of UCH sites as a strategy for their protection. The questions in focus are the sustainable management and operational framework that can ensure the UCH sites are protected and accessible for the purposes of both research and raising public awareness. Broad accessibility including divers and non-divers can thus enhance the sustainable operation of sites in the long term. This work focuses on the Mediterranean region in Europe and presents initiatives which have been implemented or are still ongoing under various national or transnational projects towards the goal of accessible UCH. The results of the efforts so far include the operation of the first accessible underwater archaeological sites in Greece and integration of technology to reach a wider audience through digital exhibitions, serious games, and dry dive apps available in museums and knowledge awareness centers. This work further discusses how the planning of underwater archaeological field surveys should include considering parameters related to the responsible promotion of the site in a later phase, after the end of excavation or conservation works, as a protection practice. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage, promotion, protection, in-situ accessibility List of Figures Figure 1. The Accessible Underwater Archaeological Site of Peristera in Alonissos, Greece. (Photo by Matteo Collina, UNICAL, DIMEG © Ministry of Culture & Sports, Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities. INTRODUCTION UNESCO emphasizes the preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) sites in their original location and encourages responsible and non-intrusive access for observation or documentation purposes when necessary and appropriate, subject to certain conditions. This approach helps to raise public awareness of the significance of UCH and the need to protect it, as all cultural heritage, for the next generations. Safeguarding UCH entails among other challenges preventing trawling, anchorage or looting. Strict legislation and delimitation have proven ineffective so far to this purpose. When people are educated about their cultural heritage, they come to realize its value and the need for its protection, while citizens acknowledge the UCH sites as part of their history and develop a sense of pride for their heritage and a local cultural identity. It is indeed the broad awareness and public accessibility to UCH that are crucial for the protection and sustainability of the sites. Moreover, accessible UCH creates various benefits for societies from a cultural, educational and socioeconomic development standpoint. There are different approaches to UCH promotion with both advantages and challenges in terms of accessibility and sustainability. One kind of model is the land-based maritime museums with recovered artifacts of wrecks. Another model is the museums with restored ships with several examples in Europe such as the ARQUA National Museum of Underwater Archaeology in Spain, the Mary Rose Museum in the UK, the Roskilde Viking Ship Museum in Denmark, or the Vasa Museum in Sweden. However, the model of in-situ preservation such as in the case of Accessible Underwater Archaeological Sites (e.g., underwater parks, underwater archaeological trails) is unparalleled in terms of efficiency and operational sustainability in the long term. In the Mediterranean, management strategies of UCH vary depending on the site (material, preservation, accessibility), either applying protective frames over the 1 �remains or involving diving centers for the sustainable operation of underwater parks. Recent technological advancements on underwater survey and digitalization have enriched physical dive trails and enabled virtual dives as well. Herein we present different approaches and models of sustainable management, responsible accessibility and promotion of Accessible UCH sites in the Mediterranean. DEVELOPING MODELS FOR INCLUSIVE ACCESSIBILITY OF UCH SITES New approaches to standard technologies can contribute significantly to raising public awareness of UCH protection. Several projects have been implemented or are currently ongoing to promote Accessible UCH sites in the Mediterranean. The CREAMARE project aims to create a cross-sectoral collaboration framework to co-produce creative content to promote UCH and raise awareness about environmental threats to the oceans. The project is testing the framework through the co-production of a Serious Game that allows players to visit highly realistic three-dimensional digital replicas of underwater cultural sites and learn about UCH (shipwrecks, finds, submerged cities, ancient trade routes etc.) and environmental threats. Furthermore, an ad-hoc web platform is being developed to facilitate the matching and collaboration among cultural organizations, creative teams, and technology experts to enable knowledge transfer, synergy and coproduction, to autonomously create three-dimensional models and digital contents of UCH and use those datasets to monitor the conservation state and contribute to the creation of digital apps for their promotion. I-BLUECULTURE is another ongoing research project co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund and Greek national funds that is developing a three-dimensional virtual diving and exploration system in a video-streaming, which is captured underwater in real-time. The system allows non-divers to ‘navigate’ (dry-dive) in selected Accessible UCH sites of the Greek archipelago, including three byzantine shipwrecks with amphoras at Peristera, Alonissos island and the modern wreck of a cargo ship at Skopelos island. The system can be installed in different contexts (e.g. at museum exhibitions or portable devices) allowing dry dives in a virtual reality (VR) environment, textured with live-streaming underwater video. Such three-dimensional virtual explorations can be experienced whether users are on-site, at the sea surface (e.g. on board with a smart phone), or away from the site, on land (e.g. at an awareness kiosk with a VR installation). The MAREBOX project is yet another example of a project that brought together the cultural, artistic, and creative sectors with technology to create an art exhibition and a virtual walkthrough under the theme of the current challenges of the sea. The outputs included a dry diving augmented reality (AR) application for the shipwreck of the classical period in Peristera, in Alonissos Greece. MeDryDive project, using augmented and virtual reality apps and taking personalized dry dive experiences a step further, created a thematic tourism product that included a multi-country approach with Accessible UCH sites in Greece, Italy, Croatia, and Montenegro. The project developed the first serious game on UCH, enriching the experience of tourists and stimulating their interest in UCH and thematic diving. Utilizing augmented and virtual reality increases accessibility to UCH sites for a broad audience. This model of promotion can offer an immersive experience of the underwater environment, which may not be possible otherwise for individuals with mobility impairments or disabilities. The virtual tours and dry diving experiences allow them to explore UCH sites and interact with their surroundings in a simulated underwater environment. 2 �BLUEMED MODEL: EXAMPLE OF CLUSTER OF ACCESSIBLE UCH SITES AT aLONISSOS, GREECE The site and the story The BLUEMED project aimed to raise public awareness on UCH and at sustainable tourism development in coastal regions and islands in the Mediterranean. Based on international good practices for UCH protection, a framework for the sustainable management and promotion of Accessible UCH sites was developed and pilot-tested in three countries, including the “Capo Rizzuto” Marine Protected Area in Italy, the ancient shipwrecks in Alonissos and Western Pagasitikos in Greece, and the submerged sites of Cavtat in Croatia. Figure 1. The Accessible Underwater Archaeological Site of Peristera in Alonissos, Greece. (Photo by Matteo Collina, UNICAL, DIMEG © Ministry of Culture & Sports, Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities). The ancient shipwreck of Peristera is located at the islet of Peristera in Alonissos island and lies at a depth of around 27 meters (m). It is dated around 425 BC with a cargo of transport amphoras of the Mendean and the Peparethian type, both from famed Greek wine-production centers in antiquity, Mendi in Chalkidiki and Peparethos (modern Skopelos island), respectively. The wreck forms an impressive concentration of around 3000 amphoras that seems to maintain the shape of the merchant ship, indicating also that vessels with huge volume cargoes sailed in the Mediterranean already in the fifth century BC (Figure 1). The other three Greek pilot sites nearby are located at the Western Pagasitikos Gulf, near the village of Amaliapolis. A shipwreck from the eleventh-thirteenth century AD at the islet of Kikinthos lies at a depth of three to 11 m with a concentration of pithos and amphoras sherds. At Cape Telegraphos there is a shipwreck of the Roman period at a depth of 17 to 27 m with scattered amphoras sherds of three main types, while at a shallower depth of 10 to 20 m there are also the remains of a second shipwreck from the twelfth-thirteenth century CE. In Cape Akra Glaros at Nies Bay, several shipwrecks of different periods have been discovered, among which a shipwreck of the Middle Byzantine period at a depth of 15 m, with big amphoras sherds and anchors of different eras, and a second shipwreck at about 20 m depth, with intact amphoras and scattered fragments of a great stone stock of a wooden 3 �anchor of the Archaic period (seventh-sixth century BC). The several shipwrecks of different time periods indicate the diachronic trade activity in the area. The project To enhance accessibility at UCH sites and include non-divers, BLUEMED developed digital documentation, three-dimensional-site reconstruction and a virtual diving system, offering a dry-dive experience and providing augmented and contextual site and marine environment information, in a fun and educational context. To host an exhibition of the sites, either on a VR environment or through interactive touch screens, BLUEMED introduced the concept of Knowledge Awareness Centers (KACs), a type of an information center that can host digital exhibitions, showcase replicas of underwater finds or the actual recovered artefacts and hold events to raise awareness among local communities and visitors. KACs can also support the operation of the Accessible UCH sites if located nearby, indicatively provide information about the operating hours of the site, while the VR dry dive system hosted the KACs can become a tourism attraction in the area. Four KACs were established under the BLUEMED project in total. There is a KAC hosted at the National Archaeological Museum of Capo Colonna, in Crotone, Italy and another one in the Archaeological Museum of Konavle, in Croatia. In Greece, two KACs have operated since 2020, one in Chora in Alonissos and another one in Amaliapolis. A web platform was also developed to further introduce users to sites, diving parks, maritime museums and KACs, and offering dry dives at selected sites. BLUEMED as a case study of an integrated approach to UCH sustainable management BLUEMED has developed an all-inclusive model comprising policy recommendations, development strategies, and a management framework to support the sustainable operation of the sites and the KACs. The primary objective of the model is to help competent authorities and managing bodies in issuing policies and managing the sites effectively and sustainably, with the ultimate aim of protecting them. The model focuses on long-term operation sustainability with monitoring of key performance indicators covering cultural, environmental, and socioeconomic aspects, and it employs a validation methodology that assesses the operation of both sites and KACs. Additionally, a roadmap is provided for the uptake of the model, which can be adapted to local conditions. The roadmap is a guide that outlines the technical, operational, and policy requirements that must be fulfilled, the barriers that must be overcome, and the risks and limitations that must be considered, such as funding, legislation, limited promotion, and lack of tourism infrastructure. The roadmap also accounts for the unique characteristics of each site and its location and provides a checklist of steps to follow for the protection, responsible promotion, and sustainable management of the sites. F action plan may develop as a multidisciplinary synergy of different fields and bodies, including the The i Ministry of Culture, regional authorities or municipalities, universities and research institutions, g international organizations or local associations, diving centers, museums etc. u r e BLUEMED roadmap The S E The roadmap is an agile action plan, adjustable to the conditions and circumstances of an island or Q coastal area where a UCH site is located nearby. Its milestones are the crucial issues to consider, yet F these steps can be in overlapping phases and not necessarily in progressive order. Going beyond the i g that meet all the proposed requirements, the roadmap is applicable in cases where the sites may sites u some of the standard features. The core milestones of the roadmap are: lack r e 1.\ * 2.A R A B 3.I C 1 . T h e a Mapping, Assessment and Selection of site(s). Potentials for sustainable tourism development (diving centers, tourism attraction, services and attractions in the area). Stakeholders Engagement. 4 �4. Risk Assessment and sustainability KPIs. 5. KACs operation. The roadmap considers various parameters (environmental, cultural, social, economic) in an area (locality) as well as the policy and technical aspects for an action plan. Offering either a bottom-up or a top-down approach, it is a multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral approach, building upon local community and stakeholders’ involvement, joined by competent authorities and policy makers. The outcomes In BLUEMEDPLUS project, as a continuation of the BLUMED to transfer its good practices, such results have been transferred to three new territories, respectively in Italy, Montenegro and Albania, along the lower Adriatic that preserves an immense UCH that is still barely known and valued. This new effort has aimed to enable the transfer of skills and knowledge gained and improve the management of underwater sites of historical/archaeological interest, promoting new destinations as resources for the sustainable development of coastal tourism. The operation of Peristera Underwater Archaeological Site in Greece has been considered successful, with 260 dives recorded annually since its opening in 2020 and funding secured until 2023. Additionally, as of 2022, four other Accessible UCH sites in Alonissos are open to the public for diving under supervision by archaeologists of the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities. These sites include ancient shipwrecks with cargo amphoras at an average depth of around 35 m: the shipwreck in Cape Tzelios on Peristera islet from the Hellenistic period, the shipwreck in Skantzoura island (end of the fourth century BC), a mid-twelfth century CE shipwreck at Aghios Petros, Kyra Panagia island, and an archaic period shipwreck in Fagrou islet. These efforts have resulted in the creation of the largest Accessible Underwater Archaeological Park in Greece with a cluster of five ancient shipwrecks, dropping the pin for cultural diving tourism worldwide at Alonissos. With the creation of a cluster of five Accessible UCH sites, there is now the possibility of more dives and an extended visit to the area, making it ripe for the development of a weekly-based tourism product. A promotional strategy can be developed to include not only the Alonissos sites but also the ‘CHRISTOPHOROS’ modern wreck, a popular diving site in Skopelos island nearby. The establishment of a KAC in Skopelos and the development of a dry dive app for the site have contributed to its popularity. All these developments make the area an exciting destination for cultural diving tourism. CONCLUSIONS The results and impact of all efforts have documented the benefits of accessibility of underwater cultural assets not only among divers but in the general public. We consider the integration of innovative technologies such as AR and VR applications and the operation of KACs essential to the implementation of the proposed model. The surge of underwater cultural tourism will undoubtedly enhance the socioeconomical benefits in the long term, especially if combined with high quality services and tourism infrastructure in the area. Tourists consider culture a strong asset of a destination and alternative tourism is an emerging trend globally. Still, even though coastal tourism is among the priorities of the EU strategy for blue growth, UCH is rarely included in the touristic promotion strategies and campaigns. UCH can be beneficial for islands and coastal areas in terms of socioeconomic development, while recreational diving can generate multiple advantages for the local economies such as direct and indirect revenues from cultural tourists. Therefore, challenges and prospects of UCH related to blue growth global trends or tourism also need to be considered by policy makers. 5 �This paper presents different models for the sustainable management and responsible accessibility and protection of Accessible UCH sites that have been developed in the framework of several projects with pilot implementation in the Mediterranean. The examples demonstrate the advancements in technology that allow responsible accessibility of UCH under EU and/or national funding. However, the focus needs to shift towards the operational sustainability of these Accessible UCH sites. Synergies between policy makers, managing authorities, and stakeholders will ensure the sustainable management of the sites, focusing on issues such as monitoring and safeguarding, attractive content and ticketing policy, responsible promotion, and secure funding. Considering that responsible promotion of UCH contributes to its protection, planning of underwater archaeological surveys, excavation or conservation works at UCH sites need to take into consideration in advance the available options for the responsible promotion of the site(s) and the prospects. Making the site responsibly accessible to all, following a plan of both in-situ preservation and accessibility from a distance, and raising awareness of the value of UCH among the locals is key to safeguarding cultural heritage for future generations. Acknowledgements A.M. A.F. and D.P. acknowledge funding from the MeDryDive EU co-financed project under COSME Programme, MAREBOX Bridging culture and audiovisual content through digital - EACEA 06/2019, BLUEMED project funded by INTERREG MED Programme 2014-2020 and co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), CREAMARE project CREA-CULT-2021-COOP managed by the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA) under Creative Europe Programme Bibliography Beattie-Edwards, M. “England’s protected wreck diver trails and the economic value of a protected wreck”. In A heritage for mankind, Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on Underwater Archaeology (IKUWA V), Cartagena, October 15th18th, 2014; Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte Eds. Spain, 198-212, 2016. Bruno, F.; Lagudi, A.; Barbieri, L. “Virtual reality technologies for the exploitation of underwater cultural heritage”. In Latest developments in reality-based three-dimensional surveying and modelling; F. 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UNESCO. “The Benefit of the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage for Sustainable Growth, Tourism and Urban Development”. Elaborated by the UNESCO Secretariat and the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 2001, 2013. Vodeb, K.; Nemec Rudež, H. “Which attributes are important to tourists in a mature seaside destination? A case of Opatija in Croatia”. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal 65, no. 3 (2017): 267-279. Zmaić, V. “The protection of Roman period shipwrecks “in situ”. In Underwater Museums. In Exploring Underwater Heritage in Croatia: A Handbook; edited by L. Bekić, L., Miholjek, I. 18-19. Zadar, Croatia, 2009. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 20: Effective Ways to Deliver Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 20 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 20 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The responsible in-situ accessibility and promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage as a strategy for its protection. A discussion based on recent initiatives in the Mediterranean. Description An account of the resource This paper discusses the current challenges in the protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) and proposes the in-situ preservation and responsible accessibility of UCH sites as a strategy for their protection. The questions in focus are the sustainable management and operational framework that can ensure the UCH sites are protected and accessible for the purposes of both research and raising public awareness. Broad accessibility including divers and non-divers can thus enhance the sustainable operation of sites in the long term. This work focuses on the Mediterranean region in Europe and presents initiatives which have been implemented or are still ongoing under various national or transnational projects towards the goal of accessible UCH. The results of the efforts so far include the operation of the first accessible underwater archaeological sites in Greece and integration of technology to reach a wider audience through digital exhibitions, serious games, and dry dive apps available in museums and knowledge awareness centers. This work further discusses how the planning of underwater archaeological field surveys should include considering parameters related to the responsible promotion of the site in a later phase, after the end of excavation or conservation works, as a protection practice. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Angelos Manglis Anastasia Fourkiotou Dimitra Papadopoulou Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Manglis, Angelos, Anastasia Fourkiotou, and Dimitra Papadopoulou. 2023. “The responsible in situ accessibility and promotion of Underwater Cultural Heritage as a strategy for its protection. A discussion based on recent initiatives in the Mediterranean.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Bill Jeffery. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1967 Asia-Pac Session 20 2023