49 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b3b82e38c75d40beea529659e1f2432c.pdf 8a15184ed9434709f4ee8f5cdb005343 PDF Text Text Tanzania's Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Assets: Strategies Towards Sustainable Conservation and Management Ichumbaki, E.B1 Abstract Tanzania has a long and unique maritime history. This shared history left various signatures which are needed by present and future generations for their cultural, scientific and economic significance. However, despite such maritime potentiality, very miniature has been done by scholars to research, identify, document and assess the cultural significance of the Tanzanian maritime and underwater cultural heritages. It was until rescently that the country has started some initiatives to identify and manage her maritime and underwater heritage assets. This is done by the established Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) program which officially started in february 2009. Among others, the program initiatives has resulted to documenting some of the country‟s maritime and underwater cultural heritage assets as well as establishing a strong team from various Government‟s departments and institutions. Introduction Tanzania possesses cultural heritage assets that span from the 2.5 million years ago to the present. These assets include but not limited to Palaeoanthropological, Paleontological, Rock shelters with arts, Urban and Architectural complex sites, Ethnological and Historic sites. The assets do assist in understanding the origin and development of humanity both culturally and biologically. Also, the country is surrounded by water bodies at which human activities have had been taking place throughout history. These activities have left signatures that make Tanzania have important maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) assets. They include historic towns such as Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Kilwa, Pangani and Mikindani all of which rose as a result of commercial contact between the Tanzanian and others traders of the Indian Ocean. Noting the assets‟ significance, the Government of Tanzania and other heritage stakeholders have taken some initiatives to protect them. These measures include the establishment of various legislations and institutions. Such legislations are the Antiquities Act No. 10 of 1964 (amended in 1979) and the National Museums Act of 1963 (amended and 1980). The institutions are such as the Antiquity Division (1954) and Archaeology section of the University of Dar es Salaam (1985) responsible for cultural heritage preservation, monitoring and research and training respectively. This paper therefore shall explore the potentiality of Tanzania in maritime and UCH and provide the current strategies towards sustainable conservation and management. 1 (ichumbaki@udsm.ac.tz), Unversity of Dar es Salaam 1 �Tanzania: Geographical Considerations Tanzania covers the previous British protectorate and a Germany Colony which united together to become a republic in April 1964 (Chami 2009). It roughly stretches between 5˚ and 11˚ with approximated total population of about 40 million people (Census 2003). The country is bordered by Kenya and Uganda in the north; Mozambique, Malawi and Zambia in the south and Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the west. In the eastern part, Tanzania is demacated by the Indian Ocean which has been connecting it to the external world since probably the 6th century (Wheatley 1975; Chami 2002; Chami 2009; Christie 2011). The country is the custodianship of fresh water resources found in the form of lakes and rivers. Moreover, the coastal part has numerous bays, inlets, offshore islands and the associated archipelagos (Lane 2005; Christie 2011; Ichumbaki 2011). Tanzania’s Maritime and Underwater Potentialities Maritime and underwater archaeology are two concepts which have been discussed and distinguished from each other, along with the related concepts such as nautical and shipwreck archaeology (Bass 1966; Gould 2000; Parker 2001; Lane 2005). Although maritime and UCH assets might be different, in this paper the concepts refer to material traces and physical remains of people who at one time engaged in maritime activities. These activities may range from cultural, technology, economic to other related practices. They include but are not limited to diverse features as habour installations, tidal mills, fish traps, coastal settlements, submerged landscapes, naval defences and inundated sites (Lane 2005). This paper therefore, shall use either maritime or UCH assets to mean the same. That is, to refer to material traces, manifestations and physical remains that signify the interactions between past humans and water bodies such as ocean, sea, lakes and rivers (see Westerdahl 1992; Christie 2011). Having a long coast from the north to the south and varieties of lakes and rivers, Tanzania has much to offer as a means to understand past maritime cultures. Although there has not been a maritime based study along the Tanzania‟s lakes and rivers, I believe there are important traces that tell a lot about past societies. For instance, there should be interaction among the communities surrounding lakes such as Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa, Natron, Rukwa and many others. A study by Nancy Alexander (2010) at Kanazi village near Lake Victoria in Kagera region for instance, shows how communities used water resources to sustain their livelihoods. In this study which aimed at explicitly establishing the subsistance strategies of the lucustrine society during the Iron Age period, Alexander found that fishing outweighs domestication as distinguished from many areas where domestication were preferred by Iron Age people. This is one of the evidence which shows that implementing maritime studies to the Tanzanian marine environments (lakes and rivers) may contribute much towards understanding the marine cultures. Thus, for a better understanding of the cultures of people 2 �living near fresh water such as rivers and lakes, for that purpose Tanzania should be considered. Apart from lakes and rivers, the coastal area has much and robust evidence of social and economic interactions among the communities of the Indian Ocean. However, very little has been done to reconstruct the maritime culture. Also, the majority of works done (Chittick 1965; Chittick 1975; Chami 1994; Chami 2002; Kwekason 2010) be it in the form of historical, ethnographical or archaeological are according to Paul Lane (2005:97), “are themselves not „maritime‟ in nature”. In a nutshell, here are some of the maritime potentialities which should be considered for studying and finally reconstructing past human maritime cultures. These potentialities are found but unlimited to sites with robust maritime evidence such as Mbwamaji, Kunduchi, Bagamoyo, Mafia, Zanzibar, Pangani, Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, Ngurumahamba, Mingoyo, Sudi and Mikindani, to mention just a few. All these sites have unique and strong histories that have not been studied in a maritime perspective. Some of these sites have been discussed elsewhere (see Chami 2003; Masele 2007; Ichumbaki 2009; Ichumbaki 2011; Biginagwa forthcoming) but neither exhaustively nor with a maritime focus. Therefore, I shall briefly explain a few sites and show their potential for study to reconstruct past maritime cultures. In this case sites of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, Sudi, Mikindani, Mingoyo, Ngurumahamba, Kitunda, Msanga, Mtandi and Mwitingi shall be considered. Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara These are two islands with complexes of ruins. The islands were visited by the great traveller Ibn Batutta in 1331 – 1332 and described them as the most beautiful cities of the world (Chami 1994; Karoma 1996; Sasi 2006; Kimaro 2006). Due to their unique and outstanding history, the islands were declared World Heritage Sites (WHS) in 1981 (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/). However, due to both physical and human induced problems (Karoma 1996), the sites have been deteriorating year after year. To be able to solicit support from various partners to provide financial support and technical skills, the Department of Antiquities made a deliberate move to add Kilwa to the WHS „in danger‟ list (Kimaro 2006; DBSA and AWHF 2009). The most significant ruins include numerous mosques, the prison, palaces, cemetery and tombs of the sultans. The ruins (mosques, palaces and residences) tell of the rise and fall of the islands under various colonial authorities‟ influences. The time at which settlement began in the islands have been controversial among scholars. For instance, Neville Chittick (1965, 1975) and Karen Moon (2005) argue that these islands were inhabited since at least the ninth century A.D. Moon (2005) explains that the islands, and especially Kilwa, were at one point ruled by an independent African Sultanate. According to her, Kilwa was at its most prosperous during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the present ruins are what remains of a great Swahili city-state. Other scholars (Sasi 2006; Chami 2009; Kwekasoni 2010) argue that communities lived within the islands as early as Stone Age periods (40K). These scholars use the recovered cultural materials running from 3 �Later Stone Age (LSA) 40K – 1K, Early Iron Working (EIW 4th – 7th C) to days of active trading. Also, wattle and daub style2 settlement has been dated to the beginning of the ninth century (Moon 2005; Kimaro 2006a). The islands became major trading centers and developed major trading routes linked to Persia and Southern Arabia in the north, as well as Mozambique in the south, and the interior. Gold, ivory, rhino‟s horns and slaves were amongst the traded products (DBSA and AWHF 1999:7). Materials such as earthernware, cowrie shells, carnelian and pearls of glass (Kimaro 2006b:1– 3) are indicators of commercial and cultural exchanges between Kilwa and other inhabitants of the Indian Ocean. These are some of the evidence which show involvement of the Kilwa society in maritime business. However, nothing has been done in a „maritime‟ perspective. It is a call by this paper to investigate this site and provide education for the local communities to better appreciate its rich maritime culture both in its proximity and to the wider Indian Ocean and global context. Sudi This is an important maritime site located at about 14 km north east of Madangwa junction on the Dar es Salaam – Mtwara road (Ichumbaki 2011). This site has important maritime cultural remains which include but are not limited to inscribed tombs of the 12th/13th century, old mosque of the 17th/18th centuries and old port of the 18th centuries. The site has irrefutable evidence that it was at one time (somewhere between 7th and 12th centuries AD) trading with China, India and many Arabic countries. Moreover, Sudi has signatures of a fight between Germans and other European nations which happened during the 1st and 2nd World Wars. Also, at this site there are courts used during both Germanic and British colonial period between 19th and 20th centuries. In addition, Sudi is one site amongst the area where wars of resistance (Maji Maji war of 1905 – 1907) took place (Ichumbaki 2011). This is a good and unique history which needs to be reconstructed in a maritime perspective. Mikindani A town situated along the protected bay in Mtwara region, southeastern Tanzania (figure 1). It is one of the Swahili historic towns that flourished between 15th and 19th centuries (Pawlowcz 2009). Mikindani‟s advantage was its location, whereby boats move fast along the coast due to strong monsoon winds. It was a trade centre with internal links whereby traders were coming from as far as Zambia, Malawi, Angola and DRC (Ichumbaki 2011). These internal links were destroyed due to interference from the Portuguese. However, once again the town became famous whilst the Sultan of Zanzibar (Seyyid Said) was ruling East Africa starting from 1840s. The major trade goods involved were ivory, skins, tortoise shells, copper, hides and slaves exchanged with clothes, household utensils and weaponry metals (Pawlowicz 2009:41–51). The town also experienced the influence of 2 . Traditional houses built of wood and stones bonded together by using mud or clay 4 �Europeans via the works of both missionaries and explorers. All these events resulted in growth and glorification of the town, for which the results are different architectural buildings. The buildings include Old Boma, the Agakhan House, the Gavonor‟s house, the bank house, Livingstone‟s house, old prison and the slave market. Figure 1. Map Showing Location of Mikindani and its Heritage Assets (Ichumbaki 2011) Ngurumahamba and Mingoyo (Figure 2) Ngurumahamba has tombs and a mosque. One of the tombs is famously known in Lindi and Mtwara regions. It is called Kaburi la Mtu Mrefu loosely meaning a grave of the tallest person. The so called Kaburi la Mtu Mrefu is a rectangular pile of stones measuring 16 m long and 4 m wide (Ichumbaki 2011). Meters from this tomb is a ruined mosque attacked by vegetations. Around the area there are scatters of potsherds of Triangular Incised Wares (TIW) traditions, European wares and LSA artifacts made from chert. Presences of imported ceramics such as European wares indicate the presence of interactions via the Indian Ocean. Mingoyo is found at about 25 km from Lindi urban following the Lindi – Mtwara road. It is located at the landward end of the Lindi estuary and has been hypothesized to have small fortified trading stations built by French traders (Akinola 1969; Gray 1964; Lane 2005). Documentary sources (Lane 2005; Akinola 1969; Gray 1964) explain the area to have various trading 5 �posts, warehouse and gun-boat of four cannons. A survey made by Elgidius Ichumbaki (2011) to this area identified heritage assets including the court built during the German colonial times (still in use), Swahili tombs mixed with Indian tombs and an abandoned jetty. The abandoned jetty is collapsing as only few pillars and walls remain. At about 100 m from the jetty towards inland there is a foundation. This foundation is orally explained as a collapsed sisal bundle warehouse (MA Athman). Sisal bundles from Mangawanga, Narunyu, Lua and other places of south eastern Tanzania were stored in this warehouse before being exported. Figure 2. Map Showing Location of Mingoyo and Ngurumahamba Sites (Ichumbaki 2011) Kitunda This is another site which is rich in maritime heritage assets with technological, scientific and economic value especially within the area formally known as Kitunda Sisal Estate. These assets include an old port and ruins at various locations (see figure 3). The port which is now collapsing is the one used by the Germans to import necessary sisal production requirements and export sisal bundles. Apart from the visible historic port, the area has buildings of 19th and 20th century built of stones, lime, mud and 6 �wattle. According to oral information it was at this site where charcoal run engine was firstly installed in the 1890s (YM Mpanjilu). Msanga An important site with maritime heritage potentials found to the east, about 8 km, of Lindi Municipality. The area has few tombs and many potsherds scattered over the landscape. One of the tombs is roofed and has triangulated decorations as well as Chinese porcelains. The pillared tombs found at this area are similar to those found at Kunduchi ruins site (Masele 2007) and may date to between 15th and 19th centuries. The majority of potsherds are of TIW tradition and few have incisions and ffing ted decorations. According to oral information, this area attracts many people who come to request good luck in their normal undertakings (YM Mbaraku). This means that, the area and its built heritage assets has both spiritual and cultural significance. Moreover, these tombs are located near the beach with white sands and coral caves. Thus, the area has tourism potential if well developed and promoted. Mwitingi and Mtandi Two maritime sites located close to one another. At this area there are big baobab trees (Adansonia digitata). The area is orally explained to be the port where slaves were brought before they were taken to other areas, probably Zanzibar, Mauritius and Reunion Islands (Ichumbaki 2011). How valid this information is has not been reconstructed. This marks a call for the need to undertake a maritime study to better reconstruct this unknown maritime history. The assets found at these two close areas are two ruined mosques and various tombs. However, about 75-90% of the mosques have collapsed and the area is currently used as a burial. Also, the mosques are in ruined state although sewage outlets of the Mtandi mosque are clearly seen. The local people do not know the age of the Mtandi mosque and have Thus come up with a myth that the mosque was built by an unknown architect (YM Mbaraku). It is probably due to this myth the mosque is used for spiritual purpose. 7 �Figure 3. Map of Lindi Municipality Showing location of some Heritage Assets (Ichumbaki 2011) Available Strategies towards Sustainable Management and Conservation Despite all the evidence of Maritime/UCH assets, until very recently, Tanzania had not been able to either intensively research on or even document those which are known. Strategies and plans to establish a maritime program started in early 2000 and its real implementation began in 2008. Thanks to the Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) for initiating the program. In November, 2008 CIE representative, Robert Parthesius came to Tanzania and made initial informal communication with three bodies. These are Antiquities department – Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), Archaeology Unit of the University of Dar es Salaa and National Museum of Tanzania. Also, Parthesius wrote the proposal to the MNRT to request for the establishment of the Maritime Archaeological Unit of Tanzania (MAUT). In early 2009 the proposal was accepted and strategies to establish the MAUT started. Important program stakeholders and „appropriate‟ staff were identified and signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). The identified stakeholders and the relevant staff were: MNRT – 2, National Museums – 2, Marine Parks – Dar es Salaam – 2, Marine Parks – Mafia – 1, Archaeology Unit University of Dar es Salaam – 2 and Archives, Museums and Antiquities, Zanzibar – 5. After finalization of all bureaucracies among the stakeholders, the implementation of the program began in February 2009. The program started with public lectures at the University of 8 �Dar es Salaam between February and March 2009. Identified staff from the stakeholders attended Nautical Archaeology society (NAS) Part I training in Dar es Salaam and went for dive training in Zanzibar. The training was important as it provided trainees with dive qualifications. Also the trainees learned how to implement a site survey and compile a database and fill the site inspection form. Moreover, the trainees were also introduced to the UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention). This training also provided a forum for the stakeholders‟ to meet and discuss the program‟s future prospects. In December 2009, the team members were also brought together for one week. They met at the Dar es Salaam National Museum and House of Culture. The aims of the meeting were two: 1) to conducted NAS Part II training: and 2) complete the preparation of the Great Northern Shipwreck report (see Mahudi this volume). The meeting also initiated strategies to establish a database for the UCH of Tanzania. During this meeting, the trainees were equipped with more knowledge on maritime studies and each made a presentation on various aspects of Tanzania‟s maritime story. Moreover, the team members continued to undertake various training both within and outside the country. For instance, in April 2010, four members of the team went to South Africa. They were equipped with relevant knowledge for both diving, conservation and management of UCH assets. In November 2010 the team and other archaeologists from South Africa and Namibia, conducted a project at Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara World Heritage Sites. This project at Kilwa identified some potential sites for future research and raised public awareness. The report for this work is underway to be published. After the Kilwa project, the team met in Dar es Salaam and set up work plans for 2011. Among the planned works is to develop a database and do more surveys in Mafia, Kilwa and other sites. In April 2011, the team met in Zanzibar for two days to initiate the development of a database. The meeting was conducted at the House of Wonders on 4th and 5th April 2011. It was purposely organized to familiarize team members on the establishment of databases for TMUCH. The team spent considerable time discussing the relevance of and developing the database. The samples from other countries like South Africa was also used as models for developing the database and the strategies for this still continue. Among other things, the workshop participants planned the survey in Mafia and agreed that some participants should be facilitated to attend the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Manila. Generally, the team members in collaboration with other heritage stakeholders still have the duty to accomplish the following tasks: 1. Develop a comprehensive database for Tanzanian Maritime assets; 2. Request and convince the Government to ratify the 2001 Convention; 3. Do survey of other sites e.g Mafia, Kilwa, Pangani, Rufiji and others surrounding lakes of Tanzania; 4. Attend more training and conferences on maritime heritage; and 5. Introduce maritime related courses at undergraduate and master‟s degree levels. Other requirements and research avenues for the development of 9 �maritime history of East Africa, and Tanzania in particular, are outlined by others scholars elsewhere (see Lane 2005; Christie 2011). Acknowledgements I wish to thank the following: Conference organizers for accepting and approving my participation in this conference, Prins Claus Fund for granting me a return air ticket and my employer (the University of Dar es Salaam) for permitting and facilitating me attend the conference. Also, I thank CIE for initiating the maritime program in Tanzania and TMUCH team members and stakeholders for their endless support. Oral Sources Yusph Mbaraku Mbaraku, Mwiting Village – Lindi Urban, 13 November 2010, cited as YM Mbaraku Yusuph Mbaruku Mpanjilu, Kitunda Village – Lindi Urban, 12 November 2010, cited as YM Mpanjilu Mohammed Ali Athman, Mingoyo – Lindi Rural, 15th November 2010, cited as MA Athman Bibliography Alexander, N., 2010 Akinola, G., 1969 Bass, G.F., 1966 Biginagwa, T.J., (In preparation) Chami, F., 1994 Chami, F.A., 2002 Chami, F.A. (ed), 2009 Chittick, N., 1965 Chittick, N., Subsistence Strategies of Kanazi Lucustrine Society: An Ethnoarchaeological Approach, Unpublished Masters Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam. “The French on the Lindi Coast, 1785 – 1789”, in Tanzania Notes and Records, 70, pp. 13 – 20. Archaeology Underwater; Thames and Hudson, London Historical Archaeology of the 19th Century Caravan Trade in East Africa: Zoo – archaeology and Material Culture, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of York. “The Tanzanian Coast in the first Millennium AD. Archaeology of the Iron Working, Farming Communities”, in Studies in African Archaeology, 7, Societas Archaeological Upsaliensis, Uppsala. “The Swahili World”, in (eds) Felix. A. Chami, and Gilbert. Pwiti Sothern Africa and the Swahili World, Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam. Zanzibar and the Swahili Coast From c30,000 Year Ago, E & D Vision Publishing, Dar es Salaam. “The Shirazi Colonization of East Africa”, in Journal of African History, 6; pp. 275 – 295. “The Peopling of the East African Coast”, in (eds) Neville. 10 �1975 Christie, A.C., 2011 DBSA and AWHF 2009 Gould, R.A., 2000 Gray, J., 1964 Chittick and Robert Rotberg, East Africa and Orient, Holmes and Mier Publishers, London. Exploring the Social Context of Maritime Exploitation in the Mafia Archipelago, Tanzania: An Archaeological Perspective, Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of York. Situational Analysis: Kilwa Kisiwani World Heritage Site Archaeology and the Social History of Ships, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge “A French Account of Kilwa at the End of the Eighteenth Century”, in Tanganyika Notes and Records, 63, pp. 224 – 228. Ichumbaki, E.B., “Improving Collaboration in World Heritage Management: 2009 A case of Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songomnara”, In Tanzania and UNESCO, Magazine No. 6 / 2009 – 2010, UNESCO National Commission, United Republic of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam Ichumbaki, E.B., The State, Cultural Significance and Management of Built Heritage of Lindi and Mtwara Regions, Tanzania, 2011 Unpublished Masters Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam. Lane, P.J., “Maritime Archaeology: A Prospective Research Avenue 2005 in Tanzania”, in (eds) Betram Mapunda and Paul Msemwa, Salvaging Tanzania’s Cultural Heritage, Dar es Salaam University Press. Dar es Salaam. Cultural Heritage Management (CHM) in Kilwa: Towards Kimaro, J., a Sustainable Conservation and Management of Kilwa 2006a Kisiwani and Songo Mnara World Heritage Sites, Unpublished MA (Archaeology) Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam. Kimaro, J., “Kilwa World Heritage Sites: the Conservation and 2006b Management Strategies”, Paper presented during the International meeting on World Heritage of Portuguese Origin, Auditorium of the Faculty of Law, University of Coimbra, 27 – 29 April 2006. Holocene Archaeology of Southern Coast Tanzania, Kwekasoni, A., 2010 Unpublished PhD (Archaeology) Thesis, University of Dar es Salaam. Cultural heritage management in Tanzania: a case study Masele, F., of Kunduchi Ruins site, Unpublished MA (Archaeology) 2007 Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam. Kilwa Kisiwani, World Bank. Moon, K., 2005 “Maritime Landscapes”, in Landscapes, Vol. 1, pp. 22-41. Parker, A.J., 2001 11 �Pawlowicz, M., 2009 UNESCO 2011 URT 1964 URT, 1979 URT, 1980 URT, 2003 Westerdahl, C., 1992 Wheatley, P., 1975 “Archaeological Exploration of the Mikindani Region of the Southern Tanzanian Coast”, in Nyame Akuma, Bulletin of the Society of Africanist Archaeologist, No. 72. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, UNESCO, Paris. Antiquity Act No. 10 of 1964, “An Act to to Provide for the Preservation and Protection of Sites and Articles of Palaentological, Archaelogical, Historical or Natural Interest and for matters connected therewith and Incidental thereto”. United Republic of Tanzania. Antiquities (Ammendiment) Act No. 22 of 1979, United Republic of Tanzania. The National Museum of Tanzania Act 1980, United Republic of Tanzania. 2002 Population and Housing Census General Report. National Beaural of Statistics. Government Printer, Dar es Salaam "The Maritime Cultural Landscape", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 21, pp. 5-14. "Analecta Sono – Africana Recensa", in (eds) Neville Chittick, and Robert Rotberg, East Africa and the Orient, pp. 76 – 114, Africana Publishing House, New York. 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Tanzania's Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Assets: Strategies Towards Sustainable Conservation and Management Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource Tanzania has a long and unique maritime history. This shared history left various signatures which are needed by present and future generations for their cultural, scientific and economic significance. However, despite such maritime potentiality, very miniature has been done by scholars to research, identify, document and assess the cultural significance of the Tanzanian maritime and underwater cultural heritages. It was until rescently that the country has started some initiatives to identify and manage her maritime and underwater heritage assets. This is done by the established Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) program which officially started in february 2009. Among others, the program initiatives has resulted to documenting some of the country‟s maritime and underwater cultural heritage assets as well as establishing a strong team from various Government‟s departments and institutions. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ichumbaki, E.B Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Taprobanê: Ancient Sri Lanka as known to Greeks and Romans Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource D.P.M. Weerakkody Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brepols Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1997 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author D.P.M. Weerakkody Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1997 Place Turnhout Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brepols Title A name given to the resource Taprobanê: Ancient Sri Lanka as known to Greeks and Romans India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0037e0d2e87477eee0c40cad8dfb0ebf.pdf 52ea01e0512fd17b928ed70eef8d5ef2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 4: Heritage Preservation and the Journey of the Sailing Vessel Free China Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Technology from Overseas: Misunderstanding Vessels from Afar Description An account of the resource In the maritime heritage preservation field, we preserve what we value, and (perhaps) we only value what we truly understand. The nautical technology of traditional Chinese sailing vessels that crossed the Pacific, often demonstrated through the stories of their voyages, have now opened a window for non-Chinese to understand more of the maritime heritage of China and the legacy of Chinese seafaring. Yet, when the Western public first began to encounter these unfamiliar vessels, very few were capable of understanding what they were seeing. With the exception of the few nautical experts of the time, most could not grasp the technical or cultural construction features. Foreign observers were hampered by their social biases, reluctant to grant maritime expertise to shipwrights and sailors from a non-European tradition, unable to recognize the obvious skills that produced vessels so unfamiliar to their own experiences. They regarded Chinese vessels as quaint and unwieldy creations, derived somehow by accident, or built after the fashion of sea monsters. Vessel designs were generally thought to represent "ancient times," no matter where or when they may have truly originated. Public appraisals often comprised an odd mixture of surprise and contempt. As we now know, the exact opposite was often true: the Chinese vessels that found their way to scattered ports across the Pacific were complex craft. Most represented successful regional designs evolved over many years of trial and error on long sailing voyages. The Free China was one of the vessels that successfully crossed the Pacific, yet was then subject to some of this foreign bias and misunderstanding. The obstacles faced, therefore, in the preservation story of the Free China include not just the storms of her ocean passage and the ravages of shipworms and weathering over time, but also inherent biases and misunderstandings during her sojourn to the West. Maritime encounters on the global ocean, including Western experience with versions of Chinese traditional ship design, sometimes tell us more about our own limitations as humans, than they do about the amazing variety of nautical design within our shared maritime past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Van Tilburg, Hans. 2021. “Technology from Overseas: Misunderstanding Vessels from Afar.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/680 Asia-Pac Session 4 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/94cefaecbad65af9fc71484a4b47ac61.pdf 6b56ce2661e149e2e9ec51d0d0fe1c36 PDF Text Text Textile Manufacture and Trade on the Coromandel Coast S.B. Darsana1 V. Selvakumar2 S. Gowrisankar2 1 2 Holy Cross College, Tiruchirappalli. Tamil University, Thanjavur. Corresponding Author: darsanasio@gmail.com ABSTRACT Textile is an important commodity produced from the early historic period in Southern India. In the early historic period, different types of textiles were produced in Southern India as revealed by the textual sources. In the archaeological context, a few excavated brick structures at Arikamedu have been identified as dyeing vats and evidence of spindle whorls have been recovered from the early historic context. In the medieval period, literature, paintings, and inscriptions offer valuable information on textile production. The communities of weavers known as Kaikkolars, Pattasalins, and Saurashtrians are referred to the medieval inscriptions. In the later medieval period, weavers from Saurashtra in Gujarat and other parts of India moved towards the Coromandel Coast. The colonial period documents the long-distance textile trade of the Coromandel Coast. The weaver communities thrive in certain parts of South India even today indicating historical continuity. The paper presents the research problem related to the history of textile manufacture and the craft groups, long-distance trade in textiles in the Indian Ocean Region, in the context of the Coromandel Coast using diverse sources. Keywords: Textile, Coromandel Coast, Sangam literature, Weaving communities. LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map of the Coromandel Coast with important sites Figure 2: Spindle-whorls from Pattanam 1. INTRODUCTION Textile is an important cultural material fabricated and used by humans as part of their cultural adaptation and creative and innovative solution, at least from the Iron Age-Early Historic period in south India. While a section of the population used clothes made of various fibres, some of the people were using leaf-dresses, as evidenced by the literature and ethnographic accounts. References to varieties of textiles are found in the early Tamil texts datable to the early centuries of the Common Era. Material vestiges for textile production also occur at a few archaeological sites. Among the many commodities that gave importance to the trade activities of the Coromandel Coast, textile occupies a prominent place. The Coromandel Coast along with its hinterland has been one of the major centres of textile production in India and trade for more than two millennia. The Coromandel Coast extends from southern part of Andhra Pradesh to northern part of Tamil Nadu. This paper presents the importance of textile production and trade on the southern Coromandel Coast in the context of the Indian Ocean till the medieval period. 2. PREVIOUS WORK The textile of Tamil Nadu, including the Coromandel region, has been the focus of investigations from the twentieth century. Vijaya Ramasamy undertook studies on textile production and trade during the medieval 1 �period (Ramaswamy 1985, 294–325; Ramasamy 2006, 1-10; 2014, 91-121). Craft production in the early historical context has been studied by Kelly (2009, 1-14). The textile industry of the early historic- Sangam Age has been investigated based on literary references by Athiyaman and Athithan (2018, 41-50). Several studies are on textile production and trade during the colonial period (Georgia 1990, 332–37; Stephen 2014, 1-10), which is not the focus of the current paper. The nature of textile production in the early historic and medieval periods remains obscure due to the lack of detailed narrative accounts. The research problem concerning the ancient textile industry needs to focus on the diverse sources of fibres, plant domestication, technological processes, and social and economic contexts of production, trade, and consumption. 3. TEXTILE PRODUCTION ON THE COROMANDEL COAST Coromandel Coast has been a centre of textile production at least from the early historic period, ca.500 BCE (Figure 1). Diverse sources attest to the importance of the Coromandel Coast in textile manufacture in the ancient and medieval periods, and the major resources are discussed below. 3.1. Textile Evidence from Archaeology Archaeological evidence for textile production in Tamil Nadu has been mainly in the form of spindlewhorls, traces of drapery in terracotta images, sculptures, and paintings, rare occurrences of textile, fibres and seeds, and architectural features of dyeing-vat and the living traditions. Terracotta spindle-whorls are the most abundantly occurring artefacts from the archaeological sites datable from the early historic to the medieval periods (ca.500 BCE to 1500 CE). Spindle-whorls were used for making thread out of cotton fibre. Spindle-whorls inserted with iron rods have been found intact at Kodumanal (Rajan 1996, 72-86), and at Arikamedu (Begley and Sidebotham 2004, 59), and at several other sites, they are found without any iron rods. They are identified as areca-nut beads sometimes. At Arikamedu report, they are mentioned as terracotta objects (Wheeler et al 1946, 101). The evidence from Kodumanal mentioned above and from Pattanam, where about 60 terracotta spindle-whorls have been reported (Cherian 2015, 46), clearly prove the function of spindle-whorls in textile production (Figure 2). 2 �Figure 1: Map of the Coromandel Coast with important sites (Source: Selvakumar) 3 �Figure 2: Spindle-whorls from Pattanam (Source: Kerala Council of Historical Research) For the actual textile fabric, very limited evidence has been identified from the archaeological context. A piece of woven cotton has been identified at Kodumanal near Erode in Tamil Nadu in an Early Historic context (Rajan 1996, 72-86). A cotton thread preserved in clay has been found at Pattanam in Kerala (Chandran 2015, 29). Textile fabric is reportedly found at Adichanallur (Badhreenath 2021, 6), although full details are not available. Interestingly, textile or fabric impression has been found on the appliqué ceramic decorations from Arikamedu (Begley 2004, 211). A thin thread of gold (zari used in textiles) has been found at Pattanam in Kerala in an Early Historic context (Cherian and Jaya Menon 2015, 108). This evidence attests to the textile legacy of ancient Tamizhagam. Arikamedu has produced evidence for textile production in the form of dyeing vats built of bricks and drainages indicating water usage (Wheeler et al. 1946, 30-34), besides spindle-whorls (Begley and Sidebotham 2004, 59). At Uraiyur near Tiruchirappalli, identified as the capital city of the Sangam Cholas, the excavators have identified a structure as a dyeing vat, based on the similarity with that of a structure found in Arikamedu by Mortimer Wheeler. The dyeing vat was found at a depth of about 235 cm (seven feet and ten inches). A square chamber and a rectangular chamber were found. Both chambers had seven courses of bricks. Bricks measure 43 cm x 22 cm x 7.5 cm (17” x 9” x 3”). The square chamber had a pavedflooring, while the rectangular chamber’s floor was covered with earth. The city of Uraiyur is famous for textile production in the Sangam Age as well as in the modern period (Raman 1988, 21-22). Many of the hero-stones and sculptures reveal the clothes of various classes of people of the medieval period. Evidence of textiles is also found in the form of terracotta images from archaeological sites. An image of a woman found on a pottery sherd as appliqué design from the Adichanallur excavation suggests that the woman is depicted as wearing a dress (Badhreenath 2021, 65). The paintings from Pallavas and Cholas of Thanjavur and those of Vijayanagar illustrate textiles worn by humans as well as deities. Archaeological evidence of Cotton is reported from the Southern Neolithic Culture, dated between 3,000 BCE and 1200 CE. Gossypium cf. arboreum L. has been identified from Hallur (Fuller et al. 2004, 123). Since the crops of the Southern Neolithic culture continued to be cultivated in the Iron Age, it is safe to 4 �assume that Gossypium was cultivated in Tamizhagam in the Iron Age. Furthermore, cotton seeds have been found at the site of Kodumanal, Perur, and Mangudi in the Early Historic contexts (Fuller 2004, 5-6). 3.2. Textiles in Early Tamil Literature Tamil Sangam literature dated between 300 BCE and 300 CE have references to the textiles used by the ancient Tamil people along with the trade activities. The main raw material for textiles was cotton in ancient Tamizhagam (Sasivalli 1989, 77). Cotton derives from the cotton plant, and also from the silk cotton tree. The Purananuru 299 mentions the settlements with cotton plants or cotton trees (Bombax malabaricum) as boundaries (‘parutti veli seerur’). Purananuru 326 describes the process of removing the seed and the dust from the raw cotton. To remove the cotton from its seed, the ancient Tamils used a type of bow as known from Akananuru 133 and Narrinai 247. Interestingly, it was usually the women who spin the cotton into a thread as revealed by the textual references. There are also references that the widowed women performed this task. They are called Parutti Pendir (Cotton Women). Purananuru 125 refers to the untangled cotton thread made by the Parutti Pendir. Narrinai 353 refers to the parutti pendir, as women who work for textile production at night with the help of a lamp. Perhaps men used the threads spun by women to weave intricate cloth. Purananuru (383) describes the cloth as fine as the thin inner layer of the bamboo plant. The Porunaarrupadai (80-84) describes the torn cloth of the poor bard who was given a new cloth as fine as the skin of a snake, with floral designs. The fine cloth was called tukil in Tamil. A Purananuru poem (145) refers to pataam, a type of cloth given by the chief Pegan to a peacock. It was perhaps a silk shawl. Cirupanarrupatai 85 mentions kalingam, as a type of cloth given by a king Pegan to a peacock. Kalingam could be a thick material probably like a modern-day shawl or upper garment. This incident indicates the extreme kindness of the chief. Poetess Auvaiyar in Purananuru 392 compares the old, torn dress of the bard with that of the root of the duckweed spread in a well. The Purananuru poem 398 graphically describes the cloth as fine as smoke worn by the king. Purananuru 400 refers to the old and torn clothes worn by the poor bards who sought gift of fine and soft clothes decorated with floral motifs. Perumpanarrupadai 468 to 470 refers to the extremely thin cloth (tukil) which was as fine as milky-coloured smoke being given as a gift to the bards by the king. Akananuru song 11 describes the fine sand as a cloth spread out indicating the fineness. The Sangam literature refers to clothes made of tree leaves (Akananuru 7). It is not implausible to suggest that leaf dresses are used by people who could not afford cotton dresses. 5 �Narrinai 21 talks about the lower garments (kachchai) worn on the waist by soldiers. Apart from these clothes, the people would have worn stitched dresses as known from the reference in Perumpanarrupatai 69-71. The word puttagam mentioned in Narrinai 12:17 probably indicates a saree-like clothe. Nedunalvadai, describes a bed as adorned with: ‘… pearls on fine threads strung That look like lattice work…. On this, a mattress made of pure white down Of mated swan is placed and pillows too Above all this a sheet washed white and starched’ (Chelliah 1946, 132). In Purananuru 393, a bard compared his old and torn dress with that of a tongue of a snake that laid new eggs and asked the king to give him a new garment that folds like the petals of pakandrai (Crotalaria verrucosa) flowers. In the same poem, poet Nalliraiyinar describes the pleated dress which looked like the petals of a flower. The white cotton clothes were dyed with colours as known from the Sangam poems. Kalitokai (72.1) describes a blue-coloured cloth, while Narrinai 33 talks about red-coloured cloth. The colouring of the garments is further attested by the presence of dyeing-vats in excavations at Arikamedu and Uraiyur. These poetic references suggest that by the early historic and early medieval periods, textile production became common in south India. However, it appears that only from the Late Medieval period, i.e., from the thirteenth century CE, textile use became more common. 3.3. Textiles in Foreign Literature The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, while describing the important port cities in India, talks about ports on the western coast and it describes cotton and silk clothes as important exports along with spices. It refers to an inland town called Argaru which is known for muslin, called Argaritic (Schoff 1912, 46). Italian traveller Marco Polo talks about the fine clothes produced on the Coromandel Coast (Eraly 2011, 208). These accounts do suggest the prosperous textile traditions of the Coromandel Coast. 3.4. Communities of Textile Manufacture from Medieval Inscriptions While the early texts do not refer to any specialised communities involved in textile production, medieval inscriptions clearly refer to textile-weaving communities. Several communities specialised in textiles are discussed in the inscriptions and a few of the groups still survive as caste groups in Tamil Nadu. They are Kaikkolars, Pattasalins, Padmasalins and Devangars. The inscriptions refer to the tax on textiles as tari irai (tax on looms) from the Pallava times (Hall 1983, 113; SII 22, 166). 3.4.1. Kaikkolars Kaikkolar is a caste group of weavers with the title Mudaliyar living in many parts of Tamil Nadu and more particularly on the Coromandel Coast. They are also known as Sengunthar (Frasca 1975, 1119-1123). They 6 �seem to have been associated with the Chola army and the Chola inscriptions refer to Terinja Kaikkolar (Heitzman 1997, 118), which was an army wing. An inscription from Tiruppazahanam refers to one Karrali Battalakan, a member of the regiment Arumolideva-terinja Kaikkolar, who offered a donation to feed the Brahmanas, the priestly class (SII 19, 29). Another Chola inscription refers to Sankayan Orri, who was a member of the regiment Adityapanma-terinda-Kaikkolar (SII 19, 25). A Chola inscription refers to Karikala-Chola-terinja Kaikkolar regiment (SII 19, 27). An inscription from Valikandapuram dated 1227 CE refers to Kaikkolar as part of the Pathinen Vishayam merchant guild (Karashima 2012, 15). It appears that the Kaikkolars were employed in the army of the Cholas and were also weavers. They were very active textile manufacturers till the early twentieth century CE. The Kaikkolar weavers seem to have attained social mobility and received a number of privileges during the time of the Vijayanagar, which reveals the growing importance of craft production in the economy (Sinopoli 2003, 278). Although it has been often reported that Kaikkolar occurs in medieval Tamil inscriptions, a rare Tamil-Brahmi inscription datable to the early historic context from Arikamedu, reads ‘Kaikkolar’ (Wheeler et al. 1946, 114) indicating their presence in the early historic period. 3.4.2. Saurashtra / Pattunulkarars Saurashtra weavers are originally from the Saurashtra region of Gujarat in western India, and they migrated to south India from the time of the Vijayanagara period (Sapovadia 2014, 6-7). A major concentration of this community is found in the Madurai and Kumbakonam regions of Tamil Nadu. It appears that the Indian Ocean interactions and the development of mercantile activities on the Coromandel Coast have induced the migrations of Saurashtra craft groups (Ramasamy 2014, 102-103; Selvakumar and Hauser 2023, in press). 3.4.3. Devanga Chettiyars Devanga Chettiyars are Kannada-speaking weavers found in various parts of India (Haridarshan 2021, 2). They seem to have migrated to the Tamil region during the Vijayanagara period (Palat 1986, 137). They were associated with silk weaving and continue to be involved in the production of textiles even to this day to a limited degree. 3.4.4. Pattasalins and Padmasalins Pattusali or Pattasalins are silk-weaving communities of south India, and they are from the Andhra region and spoke Telugu (Swarnalatha 2005, 30-31). Padmasalins were also weavers of Andhra region specialised in cotton weaving (Swarnalatha 2005, 30-31). The weaving communities are referred to in the Madras Museum Copper plates of the Chola king Uttama Chola. It records the presence of Pattasalins in Kanchipuram, referred to as Kachipedu. The Sanskrit part of the inscriptions refers to these Pattasalins living in the areas of Kanchipuram such as Karuvulan-pati, Kamasahappati, Atimanappati, and Erruvalichcheri. This suggests that the Pattasalins were active as early as the tenth century in the Chola regions (SII 3, 128). 7 �4. COROMANDEL COAST AND THE INDIAN OCEAN TRADE The active participation of the Tamil region in the Indian Ocean trade seems to have begun in the early historic period. The Periplus reports the export of silk from the port of Muziris and the Sangam Tamil texts report different kinds of clothes including very fine fabrics. It is reasonable to assume that certain varieties of clothes were exported from the Coromandel Coast in the early historic period. The contextual evidence of pepper found in Berenike and the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions from Egypt and Oman indirectly point towards such a possibility. Berenike has procured cotton textiles possibly from Gujarat (Wild, 2014, 91). The reference to Argartic as a type of cloth exported from the east coast mentioned in the Periplus Marei Erythrea along with the spindle whorls and the dyeing vat from Uraiyur and Arikamedu may indicate the export of textile from the Coromandel Coast to the Indian Ocean regions. In the early medieval context, under the Pallavas, weaving gained importance and some of the Pallava sculptural images and paintings reveal the clothes. Kanchipuram which is famous for silk became an important centre of weaving (Hall 1983, 189). The Pallavas had strong connections with Southeast Asia and China where textile export could have taken place. The South Indian merchant guilds were very active in East and Southeast Asia (Dale 2009, 86) and there is a possibility that textiles of the Coromandel region reached East and Southeast Asia through merchant guilds dealing in clothes. The Chola period was well known for the export of cotton textiles (Devare 2009, 179). The textile trade seems to have reached its zenith during the Vijayanagara times. 5. CONCLUSIONS The survey of the evidence indicates the importance of Tamizhagam and the southern Coromandel coast in textile production. Based on archaeological evidence, it is certain that the textile tradition of this region can be dated to late first millennium BCE. However, the antiquity of tradition could go back further in the Iron Age or even earlier. The region witnessed migration of craftspeople from the early period. The crafts groups of Kaikkolkars were the earliest local crafts groups. Silk textile manufacture probably started in the medieval period during the time of the Pallavas. We need more evidence of silk fabric being produced on the Coromandel Coast in the Early Historic period, although the Periplus reports the export of silk from southern India. The mid-late Medieval period witnessed monetization and the movement of various groups of textile weavers into the Coromandel Coast. The development of the Indian Ocean markets and long-distance trade coupled with the higher intensity of state formation and the associated developments in the late medieval period induced such migration of craft persons, more particularly, Pattasalins, Padmasalins, Suarashtra/Pattunulkarars and Devanga Chettiyars. Thus, Coromandel coast became one of important hubs of commodity production in the Indian Ocean thanks to the long durée of historical process. Further research including excavation and scientific analysis could throw more light on the dynamics of textile production and consumption on the Coromandel Coast. 8 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Athiyaman, N. and T, Athithan. “Tamizhagattil Varalaarrut thodakkaala Nesavuththozhil: Oru kur Nokku Ayvu.” Ungal Nulakam 10, no. 2 (2018): 41-50. (in Tamil) Badhreenath, S. Excavation at Adichanalllur. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 2021. Begley, Vimala, and Steven Sidebotham, “Trenches of the Northern Sector, 1989-92”. In The Ancient Port of Arikamedu New Excavations and Researches, edited by Vimala Begley et al. 41-66. Pondicherry: Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient, 2004. Begley, Vimala. “Pottery from the 1989-92 Excavations in the Northern Sector”. In The Ancient Port of Arikamedu New Excavations and Researches. edited by Vimala Begley et al., 115-286, Pondicherry: Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient, 2004. Chandran, Jishnu. “Image of Antiquities”. 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Kesavapany and Vijay Sakhuja, 178-192. Singapore: ISEAS Publishing, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1355/9789812309389-016 Eraly, Abraham. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. New Delhi: Penguin Books Limited, 2011. Frasca, Richard A. “Weavers in Pre-Modern South India.” Economic and Political Weekly 10, no. 30 (1975): 1119–23. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4537283. Fuller, D. Q. "The spread of textile production and textile crops in India beyond the Harappan zone: an aspect of the emergence of craft specialization and systematic trade" Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past Occasional Paper 3, edited by T. Osada and A. Uesugi, 1-26. Kyoto: Indus Project, Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. Fuller, Dorian, Ravi Korisettar, P. C. Venkatasubbaiah, and Martin K. Jones. “Early Plant Domestications in Southern India: Some Preliminary Archaeobotanical Results.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 13, no. 2 (2004): 115–29. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23419609. Georgia, Sr. “Textiles and Weavers on the Coromandel Coast with Special Reference to Pondicherry during the second half of the Seventeenth and the first half of the Eighteenth Centuries.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 51 (1990): 332–337. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44148233. Hall, Kenneth R. Trade and Statecraft in the Ages of Colas. Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1983. Haridarshan, P. “Voices of Women within the Devanga Community, Bangalore, India.” Education Sciences 11 (2021): 547. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/educsci11090547. 9 �Heitzman, James · Gifts of Power: Lordship in an Early Indian State. Delhi: Oxford University Press.1997. Karashima, Noboru. “The Past as known from Tamil Inscriptions: Village Community and Challenge to the Caste System” Paper presented at “Traces of the Past:” The 2012 Annual Tamil Studies Conference, Toronto, Ontario, 2012. 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Ghosh, and Krishnadeva “Arikamedu: an Indo-Roman trading-station on the East Coast of India, Ancient India 2, (1946): 17-124. 10 �Wild, John-Peter “Berenike and textile trade on the Indian Ocean” Textile Trade and Distribution in Antiquity Textilhandel und distribution in der Antike, edited by in K.Dross-Kruepe, 91-109. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2014. 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Textile Manufacture and Trade on the Coromandel Coast Description An account of the resource Textile is an important commodity produced from the early historic period in Southern India. In the early historic period, different types of textiles were produced in Southern India as revealed by the textual sources. In the archaeological context, a few excavated brick structures at Arikamedu have been identified as dyeing vats and evidence of spindle whorls have been recovered from the early historic context. In the medieval period, literature, paintings, and inscriptions offer valuable information on textile production. The communities of weavers known as Kaikkolars, Pattasalins, and Saurashtrians are referred to the medieval inscriptions. In the later medieval period, weavers from Saurashtra in Gujarat and other parts of India moved towards the Coromandel Coast. The colonial period documents the long-distance textile trade of the Coromandel Coast. The weaver communities thrive in certain parts of South India even today indicating historical continuity. The paper presents the research problem related to the history of textile manufacture and the craft groups, long-distance trade in textiles in the Indian Ocean Region, in the context of the Coromandel Coast using diverse sources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource S.B. Darsana V. Selvakumar S. Gowrisankar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Darsana, S.B., V. Selvakumar, S. Gowrisankar. 2023. “Textile manufacture and Trade on the Coromandel Coast.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Kaushik Gangopadhyay, and Wijerathne Bohingamuwa. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1948 Zotero Author S.B. Darsana V. Selvakumar S. Gowrisankar Asia-Pac Session 8 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/10045d82e716b110bdeb6dd2a09edf94.pdf 3ae8b1d158e9bd0bbe45277d08c931b7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 11: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organizations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Session Organizer: Sila Tripati Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Textile Trade and Hinterland Settlements of the Lower Kaveri Valley on the Coromandel Coast of India from 13th to 20th Century CE Description An account of the resource The textile industry became one of the important economic activities on the Coromandel coast from the Late Medieval Period. Several ports became active on the Coromandel coast as a result of the urbanization contributed by long-distance trade and colonialism. The Lower Kaveri Delta region on the Coromandel Coast had many ports and was connected hinterland settlements. The settlements show evidence of textile production at many of these sites, and settlements of weaver communities are present in this area even today. The settlement of Nangur excavated by the author in 2019 produced evidence of textile weavers in archaeological as well as ethnographic contexts. Thirumullaivayil was one of the important ports of the region that connected with Nangur and other craft settlements in Sirkazhi region. This paper focuses on the textile trade on the later medieval and colonial periods and the hinterland settlements that connected with the ports of Lower Kaveri valley. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource V.Selvakumar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Selvakumar, V.. 2021. “Textile Trade and Hinterland Settlements of the Lower Kaveri Valley on the Coromandel Coast of India from 13th to 20th Century CE.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/695 Asia-Pac Session 11 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8e4a80abdb9709f2c5d0ce11f0db9c0d.pdf cbe112adf5b0d3ed4187b318fd57a7d2 PDF Text Text The “Stone Four Legged Quern” (Bench) recovered in the oldest Maritime Archaeological Site at Godawaya (Ambalantota) in Sri Lanka Mr Sanath Karunarathna Abstract The stone bench that was recovered at the oldest Maritime Archaeological site at Godawaya (Ambalantota) in Sri Lanka is an unusual archaeological artifact which has become instrumental in turning the history of Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka in a new direction It has been recovered for the first time in the area of Godawaya (Ambalantota) in the Hambantota District in Sri Lanka. The particular object is a Stone Bench with four legs where the whole thing is carved out of a single stone. The main purpose of this article is to describe this stone bench and to discuss the symbols it carries with its making. Also an attempt will be made to look into the site where the object was found and other certain related aspects as well. In August 2008, Maritime Archaeologists attached to the Department of Archaeology and Central Cultural Fund (CCF) under the aegis of UNESCO launched an exploration in the area where this stone bench had been found. The location was around 30 meters under the sea at a place 4 km away from the fishery harbor in the coastal area of Godawaya village in the proximity of Ambalantota Town in the Hambantota District in Southern Province of Sri Lanka. Stone Bench An unusual artefact, which has become instrumental in turning the history of maritime archaeology in Sri Lanka towards a new direction, has been recovered for the first time in Godawaya (Ambalantota) in the Hambantota District. This particular object is a stone bench with four legs carved out of a single stone. The main purpose of this article is to describe this object and to discuss the symbols it carries. Also an attempt will be made to analyze the site and associated materials where the object was found. In October 2008, maritime archaeologists of the Maritime Archaeology Unit (attached to the Central Cultural Fund and the Department of Archaeology) under the aegis of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) launched an exploration in the area where this Stone Bench was found. The location was around 30 m under the sea, 4 km away from the fishery harbour in the coastal area of Godawaya village. This exploration did lead to recovery of a number of significant artefacts. The MUA observation of remains spread over the area of concern pointed to the possibility that this place could very well be the oldest maritime archaeological site to date to have been found in Sri Lanka. Accordingly, a number of significant samples have been collected for further studies and, at present, the research work is in progress. �Figure 1. Stone Bench Site. (Photo by R. Muthucumarana - M.A.U) In fact, the story behind the recovery of this stone bench found in the Godawaya area is rather interesting. One day in March 2003, I was participating as the officer in charge of the excavation work carried out on the premises of the Godawaya (Buddhist) Temple. In the meantime, two people named Peminda and Sunil who were commercial divers who collect conch shells for their living brought an object they had over their shoulders and placed on it the ground before me. They said that they had found it in the sea while diving and discussed it uniqueness in finding something like this on the seabed around this area. They went on to say that there was a large number of pottery shards widely scattered over the same area. Having listened to them attentively, I examined the Stone Bench very carefully. Some parts of the object were covered with sea shells and plants. On the flat surface (top part of the bench) there were three symbols which were very artistically carved. Those Symbols can be identified as Nandipada, Sri Vatsa and Mathsya (fish). Interestingly a number of similar stone benches had been recovered in the excavations performed at the Yatala stupa terrace and the surrounding area which are now kept in the Yatala museum in Tissamaharamaya In addition, some stone benches which are similar to those mentioned above, have been found in the past excavations carried out at Akurugoda and Sarwodayawatta in Tissamaharamaya (Sanath 2008:9). It was clear to me that this stone bench possessed a significant historical value in addition to its unusual recovery from the seabed. Therefore I chose to show this stone bench to Mr. Oliver Kessler, a German Archaeologist, who had come here to assist in the excavation work. His opinion was the same as mine. When I explained the situation to Peminda and Sunil, they agreed to keep it at the Godawaya (Buddhist) Temple to be preserved as an archaeological object. Subsequently this stone bench paved the way to the underwater archaeological exploration around the Godawaya area. �Figure 2. Profile of bench showing legs / close-up of symbols in bench. (Photos by Gamini Saman – MAU) This bench measures 37.5 cm in length, 16cm in width and 17cm in height and has four legs. There are three symbols finely carved along a border at the top. However, when those symbols are closely studied with the available historical evidence it becomes clear that those symbols have their origin from Hindu religious symbols but were later treated as Buddhist symbols (Wimalarathana 1991:63), It is also a fact that those symbols have been simultaneously accepted in both Buddhism and Hinduism during a certain period (Wimalaratana1991:63), Nandipada and Sri Vathsa can be seen on Amarawathie Stupa in India while the same symbols are found among Buddhist carvings available in Sri Lanka (Sanath 1979:167-193), Samuel Beal holds the view that those symbols are used to depict Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha in Buddhist iconography (Beal 1884:60), The opinion of Samuel Bell is that the Nandipada has been employed to depict the Triple Gem (Rathnatra) and Buddhahood (Beal1884:60), "Sri Vathsa" is considered to be a symbol found on the chest of the god Vishnu (Basham 1995:385; Senaratna 1992:26). There are ideas which argue that the Nandipada is only another symbol or a figure representing the Trishula symbol (Wimalaratana 1991: 64), which can be found in Hinduism. However as the Trishula is not accepted in Buddhism, a majority of scholars agree that this symbol is used to denote the Triple Gem (Rathnatra) (Beal 1884:60). The Sripada Stone (The Buddha‟s Footprint carved on a stone slab) which was recovered in Anuradhapura and is, at present, preserved in the museum in Colombo carries all three symbols and is thought to belong to the second century Anno Domini (A.D.) (Karunaratna1979:167-193). The widely recognized view is that they tend to symbolize the Chakrawarthi Status (Holding Universal Sovereignty) or Buddhahood (Karunaratna1979:167193). There is also evidence available to show that the Mathsya or the "fish" symbol had been used to imply auspiciousness (Subha mangala Sanketha or the auspicious symbol) (Senaratna1992: 26). A Sripada Stone (Buddha's Foot Print) bearing the Symbols of Mathsya (fish) Nandipada and Sri Vathsa has been found at Amarawathie Stupa in India which is also identified as belonging to the second century A.D. (Senaratna1992: 26). This further supports the hypothesis that during a certain period those symbols had simultaneously been employed in Buddhist iconography in both Sri �Lanka and India. In addition to use in contemporary works and creations, those symbols have been utilized in the gateway structure (Archway for Entrance) of the Sanchi Stupa in India, Also, a few similar stone benches found in the excavations carried out at the Yatala site in Tissamaharama have been identified as artefacts from the first and second centuries B.C.E; (Somadeva 2006:197198). Further, there is one stone bench on which a few Brahmi letters, which are believed to be of first or second century B.C., have been inscribed (Somadeva 2006:197-198). Karunarathna, in his book Shanthiya, has classified the eight Auspicious symbols (Asta mangala Lakshanas) by allocation them to different cardinal directions (Karunaratna1979:167-193); only four of them given here:  Sri Vatsa Ravi (Sun)- East  Mathsya Rahu (Shadow of the moon) - South  Nandipada Shani (Saturn) - West  Conch Budha (Mercury) - North Therefore, it has been suggested, that the symbols were used to indicate direction (Karunaratna1979:167-193). The begging - bowl (Patra) recovered in Abhayagiri bearing those three symbols along with the eight auspicious symbols (Asta Mangala Lakshanas) has been judged to belong to the sixth century A.D. (Senaratna1992: 26). However there is available evidence to suggest that there have been instances where stone benches of similar shapes have been utilized as grinding stones for domestic purposes - perhaps for kitchen work or medicinal preparations (Karunaratna 2008:9; Somadeva 2006:197-198). A number of such quern stones as well as a host of grinder stones and upper grinder stones (or Doogala,) have already been recovered in the excavations performed at Sarvodaya wattha and Akurugoda in Thissamaharamaya (Karunaratna 2008:9). Hans Josim Waighsaar (Director KAWA project-Tissamaharama), who inspected the marks on the quern, said these objects were used for domestic purposes or medicinal preparation (KAWA Excavation Unpublished Report 2008-2010). It was allowed to sit on those noble symbols which had highly and widely been accepted and respected in both Sri Lanka and India altogether? If the symbols inscribed on the stone bench represent the Lord Buddha, Buddha hood or the triple gem there is no way that these benches were used for the purpose of sitting. Some scholars argue that these comparatively shorter stone benches could possibly have been constructed to go with the Rank / hierarchy of the chief reverent / Bhikkus (Buddhist Priests) so they may have been prevented from sitting on comfortable seats in terms of a disciplinary code enacted then (Anandamaithree 2006:135-140). My idea is that either those structures could very well be the direct offerings for the Lord Buddha himself or the structures upon which offerings would be placed before being proffered to the Lord Buddha. Such structures, in this case the stone benches, in my opinion would be placed in the image House of the Temple (Aramaya). (It represents the “Great Enlightenment of the Buddha” Scholars believe it was the first brave step by the Greek Buddhists, who wanted to create a sculpture of Buddha according to the style of the more familiar Greek tradition of sculptures. Before the image of the Buddha was created, Buddhists �believed should never be created or represented as a figure of The Buddha with His Great Qualities (Wimalaratana 1991:64). Hence Buddhists considered some of the symbols in Buddha‟s likeness to be the “Representation of the Buddha” Bodhi tree (Picas Religiosa), which provides shelter, and the Seat (AsanaVajrasana), which provides seating facilities for attaining "The Great Buddha Hood” under the Bo Tree (Basham 1995:134). These were venerated as a great honour from the beginning of Buddhism. It is very obvious in early paintings and sculptures that these represent those objects on behalf of the Buddha (Anandamaithree 2006:135-140). Wherever Artist wants to show the Buddha it appears as “Asana” or “Bo Tree". And this practice has been continuous for a long time, even after the introduction of the Buddha sculpture. I believe it is a very reasonable and widely accepted view that sailors carried “Asana” to areas of religious practices while they voyaged. It mean, they may have used these “Asanas” as the representation of their religious leader and as the protector of their life. Figure 3. Grinding stones. Photo by Sanath karunarathna Considering the above information it can be deduced that the symbols that we have discussed were used during the period of the second century Before Christ (B.C.) to the second country A.D. So far a number of Sri Vathsa Symbols carved out of the copper material have been recovered from the Katharagama area (Somadeva 2006:197-198). It could therefore be said that similar symbols had been very popular during that period. The fact that this object has been recovered from the deep seabed, away from the shore, we also can think they were transported as merchandise on vessels. At the same time it could be assumed that those objects had acquired a degree of social recognition and were honoured with a sense of respect and sacredness. Nandadasa Samaraweera (Nandadasa 2010: 1-5) Has clearly �expressed his opinion that the glazed ingots found from the same site belong to a period spanning from the first century BC to the second century AD. It has been firmly established that the Godawaya harbour, by the second century AD, (Gamini 2010:32-35) had been a well organized and highly active centre where even the tariffs and customs charges were duly collected (Kessler 2001:290-300), The stone inscriptions found at the Godawaya Buddhist Temple actively help to support this view (Kessler 2001:329). However, it is possible that this harbour was functional long before the specified period. Namely, the excavations carried out by Somadeva in the area surrounding the Kirinda Harbour (Somadeva 2006:163-165) can be cited as proof that the Kirinda Harbour had been operational prior to the Christian era. Considering the archaeological findings obtained in that area, Somadeva holds the view that the functional city situated in the Akurugoda area in Tissamaharama was linked to the Kirinda Harbour while the settlement, situated at Ridiyagama close to Ambalantota, had been linked to the Godawaya Harbour via the Walave River (Somadeva 2006:115-120). Figure 4. Bench like stone object with Brahmi Letter's perod between 250-100 BCE (Somadeva 2006:197-198). Photo by R. Muthucumarana When the above facts are carefully studied and analyzed we could readily accept that those archaeological findings and the old Harbours could easily be traced to the same social era in the 2nd century AD (Paranavithana 1983: 101). However, the research is still ongoing so a valid conclusion has not been reached. Other Findings After the 2008 exploration another two small scale explorations have been conducted. The main one took place at the end of 2010 as a collaboration project of MAU, UNESCO and the Government of Netherlands. The Godawaya shipwreck discovery generated much interest among the local archaeologists as well as international historians and archaeologists with interests in Asian �underwater cultural heritage. It caused for much enthusiasm in the international layer, which provided allocation of funds towards a UNESCO training programme in maritime archaeology (post-field activity MAU 2010). The international team comprised of experts in diving and underwater archaeology from India, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines who participated in the assessment with the MAU team on the shipwreck at Godawaya. According to the previous exploration the site was identified as spread over an area of 40 X 22 m. Before initiation of the actual site survey, the team had to explore what had been previously collected such as jars, cooking vessels, stone benches and unidentified parts of the main wreckage (possible timber stacks).  Investigation of the exploration was mainly concern with the following:  To inspect and survey of the site and identify possible artefacts and antiques apparently visible on the sea bed.  To make a surface plan with the finds using measuring equipments.  To photographically document the site with digital cameras and other documentary equipment.  To make an evaluation of the site with available data and resources. The exploration team was comprised of underwater archaeologists, selected on the basis of their experience in multi-disciplinary approaches A well balanced team was thus engaged in the exploration activities for extracting maximum information and taking firsthand experience through non-disturbance survey. This survey produced observation of a large number of artefacts on the seabed, including varieties of pottery and a large area in the north-western quadrant covered with the remains of shipwreck (including the unidentified cargoes). During the exploration we found that there were more stone benches scattered around the site and most of them are different in style and size from each other and required close inspection to identify any symbols carry on them. I suppose that early mariners may have carried these stone benches in their personal belongings for making individual religious rituals and offerings. Keep in Possession these benches as in personal properties which brings symbolic message of the “Great Victory” (The Attainment of Buddha hood) of their religious leader may bring them self-esteem to do the uncertain voyages The main obstacle in this case is the fact that all the recovered archaeological objects seem to have relationships to regional countries, especially to India and Sri Lanka during certain time periods. Nevertheless, wooden remains of the wreck are in very fragile condition and worn out, so its origins deduced by construction methods is difficult. This problem could hopefully be reached by proper documentation of the site and the scientific analysis of the findings in the near future. Bibliography Anandamaitree, B., 2006 Basham, A. L., 1995 “Vinaya Pitakaya”, in Senasana Khandaka Chullawaggapali, Part 11, government of Sri Lanka. Asirimath Indiyawa , Educational Publication Department, Reprint, Colombo. �Beal, S., 1884 Fouche , A ., 1918 Gamini , P.A.L., 2010 Karunarathna, T.B., 1979 Nandadasa,S.M; 2010 Paranavithana, S., 1983 Roth, W., Kessler, O., Rocker., Wijepala W,. 2001 Sanath, W.K., 2008 Samuel, B., 1884 Senarathna, W., 1992 Senavirathna, A., 1979 Somadeva, R., 2001 Weisshar, H.J., Wijepala, W., Roth, H., 2001 Wimalarathana, B., 1991 Buddhist Record of the Western World, London. The Beginning of the Buddhist Art, London. Godawaya, S & S Printers, Colombo. “A new Interpretation of The Buddhist Trirathna Symbol”, Ancient Ceylon, Journal of the Archaeological Survey, Department of Archaeology, Colombo. “Sri Lankawe Glaze bhavitaya saha Godawaya muhuden hamu u Glaze kutti ”, in MAU News Letter, Volume ιι, Part 1, Central Cultural Fund, Colombo. Inscription of Ceylon ,Archaeological Survey of Sri Lanka, Volume II, Part 1, Colombo. “Sri Lankan -German Archaeological Project in Southern Province”, in Ancient Ruhuna, Volume Ι, Germany. Excavation report, „tissa-3 “, Regional Archaeology Office, Galle, 2008. Buddhist record Of the Western World, London. “Ashtamangala Patraya”, in Sanskrutika Puranaya, Volume 1, Part II, Central Cultural Fund, Colombo. “A Symbol Which Represent the Buddha in early Singhalese Sculpture, Ancient Ceylon", in Journal of the Archaeological Survey, Department of Archaeology, Colombo, 1979. "Urban origins in Southern Sri Lanka", in Studies in Global archaeology, 7, Uppsala University Uppsala. “Sri Lankan -German Archaeological Project in Southern Province”, in Ancient Ruhuna, Volume 1, Germany. Budu Pilimaya asana saha Mudra, Sedevi printers, Dehiwala. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The "Stone Four Legged Quern" (Bench) recovered in the oldest Maritime Archaeological Site at Godawaya (Ambalantota) in Sri Lanka Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource The stone bench that was recovered at the oldest Maritime Archaeological site at Godawaya (Ambalantota) in Sri Lanka is an unusual archaeological artifact which has become instrumental in turning the history of Maritime Archaeology in Sri Lanka in a new direction It has been recovered for the first time in the area of Godawaya (Ambalantota) in the Hambantota District in Sri Lanka. The particular object is a Stone Bench with four legs where the whole thing is carved out of a single stone. The main purpose of this article is to describe this stone bench and to discuss the symbols it carries with its making. Also an attempt will be made to look into the site where the object was found and other certain related aspects as well. In August 2008, Maritime Archaeologists attached to the Department of Archaeology and Central Cultural Fund (CCF) under the aegis of UNESCO launched an exploration in the area where this stone bench had been found. The location was around 30 meters under the sea at a place 4 km away from the fishery harbor in the coastal area of Godawaya village in the proximity of Ambalantota Town in the Hambantota District in Southern Province of Sri Lanka. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sanath Karunarathna Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5ebf5fc4d413b82e1d781f5f9beed659.pdf cc25853ce84a8e2a502c1a147b024f0c PDF Text Text The 12th to 13th century Cargo Ships of Korea: Proof of Medieval Maritime Transportation Found in Taean waters, Korea Jong-guk Shin 530-839 136 Namnongro, Mokpo, Jeonnam, Korea Email: sjk1203@ocp.go.kr Abstract This paper is about the wrecked ships found in Tae-an, Korea, and the ongoing investigation. Four cargo ships of the Middle Ages were excavated from Taean, Korea during 2007 - 2011. Three of these four ships were found in a 1 km radius, as such, this sea area is famous for sinking ships since ancient times. Among the found relics were wooden tablets describing the origin of the cargoes, the receiver, types of cargoes and quantity was found. These wooden tablets were the first of its kind found in a Korean wrecked ship, which provide specific historical facts. The four wrecked ships found in adjacent place, were wrecked during the transportation of products from a production area in the mid-southern part of Korea, where a capital city was located at one time. One ship was transporting tens of thousands of porcelain, while the other three were transporting a small quantity of porcelain and foodstuffs. Key words: Tae-an waters, Medieval maritime, Transportation, Taean Shipwreck, Yellow Sea coast Introduction The Taean Peninsula is a prominent area of the Yellow Sea coast. It is known for its rough seas; in the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910 AD) they tried to build a canal to change the seaway, since many cargo vessels transporting taxed grains had wrecked. In particular, they had to pass through between Gauido and Gwansugak across the route between Sinjindo and Anheungseong to transport tax grain from the south of Yangkwang Province. This is where marine accidents happened frequently, so uring the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392 AD) this place was known as “Nanhangnyang”, a waterway dangerous to pass( Anheungnyang since Joseon) and considered it as one of the most dangerous sea areas including Uldolmok in Jindo, Sondolmok in Kanghwa Island, and Indangsu in Seohae Province. For this reason, from the Goryeo Dynasty the excavation work for canals was conducted to keep cargo vessels safer. The following shows the situation of marine accidents in the early Joseon. Although all of these accidents did not occur in the Taean waters, most of them are considered involved in this area. 1 � Ship Accident Statistics during 1395 to 1455 (for 60 years) (a total of 200 ships; loss of grain-15,800 bags of rice) As a part of an effort to overcome these frequent sinking accidents of cargo vessels, they had attempted the excavation of canals since the Goryeo period, to develop new routes in order not to pass through Anheungnyang. The first attempt was in 1134, which was at the Gulpo Canal passing between Cheonsu Bay and Garorim Bay. This canal was planned as a total of 7km sluiceway. They succeeded in excavating 4 km, but failed because of the bedrock in the way. It was resumed in 1391, but was ultimately uncompleted. The second Fig. 1 Shipping places and destination of attempt made was the Uihang Canal, between medieval Korea. (NRIMCH) Uihang-ri and Mohang-ri, Sowon-myeon, Taean-gun in 1521 during the Joseon Era. They mobilized 3,000 people to excavate but eventually the project was abandoned. The region of Anheungnyang, Taean, was the standard ship course that they had to pass through to transport tax grain of Jeolla and Gyeongsang Provinces, the breadbasket of Korea; by ship, but as there were many barriers to sailing the region such as strong tides, rocks, winds and thick fog. About 80 anchor stones were discovered in 200 x 100 m area between Mado and Geunheung where tidal currents were relatively weak and the winds were manageable while exploring the Mado waters from 2009 to 2012. These anchor stones were used for anchoring premodern ships and tied to wooden anchors. With nearly 100 anchor stones found in that part of the Mado Sea area implies that this place used as an anchorage over a long period. The 12th to 13th Century Shipwrecks Found in the Taean Waters The Taean Shipwreck, a porcelain carrier, was investigated between 2007 and 2008, and the Mado 1, 2 and 3 Shipwrecks were excavated consecutively between 2009 and 2011 in the Taean waters, this place became where most of the underwater 2 �archeological surveys were actively conducted in Korea recently. These shipwrecks are located within a radius of 4km, dating to the early 12th century to the end of the 13th century and dating within the Goryeo Dynasty Period. The Taean Shipwreck The Taean Shipwreck had sunk while transporting porcelain made in the famous ceramic producing area in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, from the then capital city at that time. In a space of 12 m east to west and 8 m south to north, approximately 25,000 pieces of porcelains loaded in five stories were recovered, and external boards of the ship framed in 4 levels appeared in the bottom. It is inferred that the reason there is no bottom plank, compared to both bottom plank and external plank are identified usually in the other vessels, is that at the time of sinking the vessel was completely tilted a port or a starboard and settled on the seabed. It was likely that the other prow, stern and bottom parts disappeared, except for a part of the external plank in one side pressed by the heavy porcelain after sinking. The excavated relics from the Taean Shipwreck include 34 wooden tablets, 23,760 porcelains, 9 pieces of earthenware, 2 iron pots, including bamboo baskets, bronze bowls and anchor stones. Porcelain was the major cargo of the ship. On the wooden tablets were a list of recipients, and the other things were items that the crew used. Most important among these artifacts are the wooden tablets. Even though wooden tablets Fig. 2 Canals and shipwrecks in Taean were also identified in the Sinan Ship (the first peninsula. (NRIMCH) Korean ship excavated underwater ship) the ship was of the Yuan Dynasty, China, and it was the first time that wooden tablets were discovered from a sunken ship operating in Korea. Since the wooden tablets recorded the kinds of cargo, quantity, shipping places, destinations, recipients and shipment times, they offers critical clues to specifically figure out the historical features of the ship. Brief examples of the tablets are as follows: 3 �○ wooden tablet 1: (the front side) “I send 80 pieces/packs of pottery to the house of a government official (隊正 仁守) in Gaegyeong from Tamjin (place name).” “We load the same amount as mentioned above. Captain’s signature/ Tamjin-hyeon as the shipping place (Kangjin, located in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at present), a recipient called Daejeong Insu in the Goryeo’s capital, Gaegyeong (present Gaeseong), pottery as a kind of cargo, and 80 pieces or packs as the amount of cargo were inscribed there. ○ wooden tablet 2: (the front) “I offer this to Daegyeong Choi”/a Daegyeong (a highranking title of the official of jeong 3 pum to jong 3 pum) having his last name of Choi ○ wooden tablet 3: (the front) “I offer pottery to Jangmyeong Yu /a Jangmyeong (title of the office) having his last name of Yu. ○ wooden tablet 4: As the result of wiggle match, combining dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating of wooden tablet/the body of the ship where year marked, if we consider the ship was made of wood cut down between 1126 and 1150 and the porcelain was made between the early and mid-12th century in terms of pottery chronology, the Year of the Swine was ascertained to be 1131, and eventually the Taean Shipwreck was assumed to be wrecked while transporting cargo in 1131. Thus, we could specifically grasp historical facts of the sunken ship through the wooden tablets discovered from the Taean Shipwreck. However, as only 4 levels of the external planks remain out of the hull, it is hard to comprehend the structure of the ship. 4 �The Mado Shipwreck No.1 The Mado Shipwreck No.1 was found in 2009, and was investigated in the same year. The sea area where the ship was wrecked is about 15 to 20 m deep and is affected by the strongest tides in the harbor. The remaining conditions of the hull were relatively fine; 7 rows of bottoms, 2 levels of port, 3 levels of starboard, and stem, although not framed, were identified. The port and starboard Fig. 3 Wooden tablets of shipwrecks. remains, in term of cross section of the bottom (NRIMCH) of the ship almost maintains level, and in terms of longitudinal section the ship has raked forward. Artifacts found comprised of nearly 300 pieces of porcelain, 49 pieces of earthenware, 69 wooden tablets, 9 bamboo trays, 6 wooden combs, 2 bamboo baskets, 13 bronze spoons, 3 iron pots. This shipwreck was a cargo ship having transported mainly grains such as rice seed, buckwheat and bean. Other foodstuffs such as fish bones and Korean sauces inside earthenware jars were found as well. Unlike the porcelain carrier Taean shipwreck, the Mado Shipwreck No.1 was mostly a grain carrier. The shipments of the Mado No. 2 and 3 shipwrecks seem to have transported grains such as rice in the remainder but the center of hull, and earthenware jars containing food such as Korean sauces, porcelain for merchandise, and craftworks such as bamboo trays in the central part. A lot of wooden tablets were also excavated in these ships. Major items are as follows: ○ wooden tablet 1 : “I offer these produce to Choi Gwang in February 19, the Year of the Dragon (1208): 10 bags of millet and 3 bags of buckwheat harvested in the field, and 2 bags of fermented soybean lumps; 10 mals (approximately 34L) of produce are put in each bag.” ○ wooden tablet 2 : “I offer this produce to Honorary Army Commander Yun Gi-hwa in Capital from Juksan-hyeon in December 28, the Year of the Hare (1207): 3 bags of millet harvested in the field. 20 mals (approximately 68L) a bag” 5 �○ wooden tablet 3: “I offer this to Nangjung Choi (a government official in jeong 5 pum post having his last name Choi): a jar of salted fish”. ○ wooden tablet 4: “I offer 24 bags of white rice harvested in a new field in Hoejin-hyeon (now Naju city)”. ○ wooden tablet 5: “I offer these to Army Commander Kim Sun-yeong. 6 bags of rice harvested in the field”. We can understand concretely about the Mado shipwreck No.1 through the contents of the wooden tablets. First, regarding freight shipping and departure date, as a result of comparing with Kim Sun-yeong, a figure appearing in “History of the Goryeo Dynasty Period”, a historical book on Goryeo, we can find out that the period of shipping was around October 1207 to February 19th, 1208, and the departure date was not later than February 19th. The places of shipping identified in wooden tablets are at present Haenam-gun, Naju-si, Jangheung-gun and Yeongam-gun in South Jeolla Province, and the recipients were persons of high position, including Army Commander Kim Sunyeong, Nangjung Choi, Kwon Geuk-pyeong and Yun Bang-jun. In the kinds of cargo, well-polished rice, unpolished rice seed, millet, buckwheat, bean, fermented soybean lump, salted fish, salted mackerel, salted crabs, bamboo tray and comb are verified in the wooden tablets. In particular, as all recipients of the grains were individuals, the freight was almost for rent. Therefore, the Mado 1 doesn’t seem to be a state cargo ship but a private one transporting grains, food and craftworks of South Jeolla region where there were private lands of the then influential persons residing in capital. The Mado Shipwreck No. 2 The Mado shipwreck No.2 was discovered in 2009 in process of trial excavation and fully excavated in 2010. 2 levels of external planks of the port, 7 rows of bottoms and 5 levels of external planks of the starboard remain; it listed 25 degrees to starboard in terms of cross section yet it was almost level between stem and stern. We removed soil layers by checking exposed relics. There are 5 layers into the Mado Shipwreck No.2. The first layer was the surface of the mud; the second is the state that base blocks expose stacks of grain; the third is the side where bridging, vessels for living, and earthenware and porcelain for cargo in the central part are exposed after removing the 6 �base blocks; the fourth is the side where the hull is completely exposed; and the fifth is the state after salvaging the hull. Fig. 4 Plans of Mado shipwreck No. 2. (left: Fig. 5 Plans of Mado shipwreck No. 3. (left: 3-1 second layer plan, right: third layer plan). layer plan, right : 3-2 layer plan). (NRIMCH) (NRIMCH) The area where the Mado No. 2 sank is not an area that has active sedimentation, since there were not many collapsed timbers of the upper part. Relics from the upper part, the external planks of port and starboard, stem and stern seem to have been all washed away. We see the entrance of the vessel as the second section and the central part as the third section, the bridging and base blocks for loading grain were found in the second, fourth and fifth spaces, and grains such as rice seed were identified in the exposed upper side of base block, so grains probably was loaded in the second, fourth and fifth sections. A mast was installed in the central part of the end of the third section, and there is an area to make a fire comprised of fragments of roof tiles, stones and clay to port. Iron pots that sailors used, big jars containing water, dinnerware, spoons and bamboo baskets were excavated around the “fireplace”, and there were jars for salted fish, 2 mae-byeong (a type of jar), a pack of cups and overlapped iron pots assumed as freight were recovered in the second section. In the last (sixth) section a millstone was recovered. The excavated relics from the Mado No. 2 are: 157 pieces of porcelain, 28 pieces of earthenware, 58 wooden tablets, 8 bronze spoons, 4 bronze bowls, 8 iron pots, bamboo baskets, and grains such as rice seed, millet, buckwheat, wild sesame, and bean. 7 �Similarly, we can find out the places of shipment, recipients and date of the wreck through the contents of the wooden tablets. The places of shipment were Gochang-gun and Jeongeup of North Jeolla, Korea, and the recipients were government officials residing in capital, whose names are Lee Geuk-seo, Yu Ja-ryang and Oh Mun-bu. The sailing time is not correct, but it can be assumed to be approximately 1200 to 1213 CE in the light of records on the persons above. Freight carried included polished rice, beans, malt, fermented soybean lumps, salted fish, honey, sesame oil, and some iron pots. Like the Mado No.1 shipwreck, we can see this shipwreck as a cargo ship that mainly carried grains, including food and other craftworks of the North Jeolla region, where there was private lands of influential people living in the capital. The Mado Shipwreck No. 3 The Mado Shipwreck No. 3 was investigated in 2011 and holds the best state of its hull among the regions’ shipwrecks discovered. The maximum height of the ship is 2.8 m; 10 levels of port, 9 levels of starboard, and 5 rows of bottoms remain; body of the ship tilted 8 to 12 degrees to port and about 5 degrees to bow. The reason that the Mado No. 3 remains are well preserved is in the position of sinking. The area where the Mado No.3 was discovered was about 200m from shore, and as it is surrounded by land and islands like the Mado No.2. There is almost no tide and it is a place used for a refuge area in storms even today. It is also an area where there is active sedimentation. We can guess why the Mado No. 2 and 3 sank although they already arrived at refuge. The Mado No. 3 was excavated in four sections. The first section is a state that clay is removed up to around – 60cm, with lumbers for loading grain and wooden relics were recovered from this side. The second section is the exposed side where the ship framework collapsed, where fragments assumed to be a deck board of the upper part and the upper external boards collapsed. The third section is comprised of shipped or used relics at –180 to 250 cm depth. The upper area in the section is classified as 3-1 and the lower part as 3-2.The inside of the hull is divided into six sections; from the bow, the first space was too steep to ship goods. In the second, fourth and fifth sections, a bridging and base block for loading grain was recovered, as well as some grains. The sixth section of the stern part is the narrowest space, where bamboo boxes containing shark jerky, baskets and earthenware jars were loaded. Grains are found in the port and 8 �southern areas along with earthenware in the third section the central part (where a mast is installed), yet these grains seem to have flowed into this section from the second and fourth sections while the ship wrecked. Particularly, there is a space only for earthenware jars in about 70 cm section of the central part from the second section, from which about 20 pieces of earthenware were excavated. A fire place for cooking was installed in the southwest corner in the 3-2 side of the third section; earthenware goods are loaded in two rows north; iron pots and earthen goods in the central part; and about 50 bronze containers such as bowls, plates and spoons (9) were identified around the starboard side and right lower side corner. From the bow, the first section was the space unfit for use due to the inclination of the bottom part, a large amount of grains were onboard in the second, fourth and fifth section, and additional cargoes were loaded in the sixth section. And in the center of the third section, there was a fireplace and a living space for crew dinnerware and cooking containers. Earthenware jars containing salted fish for freight were also loaded. In the Mado No. 3 various relics were recovered, including 50 pieces of earthenware, 41 pieces of porcelain, 35 wooden tablets, 2 iron pots, 43 bronze tableware, 9 bronze spoons, 7 wooden combs, fabrics, janggi (Korean chess) pieces, 12 antlers, and grains such as rice, buckwheat, millet and barley. The facts that we can know through the wooden tablets are that the shipping place of the Mado No. 3 was Yeosu-city of southeast area of South Jeolla Province, and individual recipients were Shin Yun-hwa, Yu Cheon-u and Kim Jun, among whom especially Kim Jun was a man of supreme power who seized power of the Goryeo at that time. Unlike the other ships, individuals as well as state institutions appear as the recipients; Jeonmin in charge of the reforming land system, Jungbang-ubeon and U-sambeon-byeolcho were military departments in nature, and Dogwan, in charge of documents on slaves and lawsuit. Barley, salted abalone viscera, salted mussel, abalone, shark jerky, peasant, fish oil, and dog meat jerky are verified as the kind of freight in the wooden tablets. We can find out that the Mado No. 3 sunk between 1265 and 1268 through the comparison of persons’ names on the wooden tablets and historical records. 9 �Conclusions The number of the sunken ships excavated in the sea of Korea by now is 12, and all of them fall under the Goryeo Period (10th to 14th centuries). Thus, it can be said that in the Goryeo maritime transportation at home and abroad was the most active. These four cargo vessels of the Goryeo period were discovered in Taean waters, over recent years, and they give more abundant proof of maritime transportation in the region than anything else among the sunken ships of the time e.g. the data of the ship structure, the pottery, grains, food and articles of the crew. The most significant finds are the wooden tablets inscribed with specific information of the cargo. As these wooden tablets sometimes have records on the shipping time as well as the shipping places, recipients, kinds and quantity, we can figure out historical facts of the shipwrecks. Cargo ships of Goryeo investigated by now are classified into two kinds according to the kinds of freight. One is a porcelain carrier, which was a vessel transporting porcelain made in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, the then major porcelain-producing area, mostly to the central region where the capital was located. The Taean Ship represents one of these types, as well as the Wando Ship and the Sibidongpado Ship. These pottery carriers seem to have shipped only porcelain and earthenware usually, not other freight. The other type of ship is identified as a grain carrier, represented by the wrecks Mado No.1, 2 and 3. For convenience sake, we can call it a grain carrier, but in these vessels various goods were shipped, not only grains but also various foods such as salted fish, fermented soybean lumps, Korean sauces, jars of honey and sesame oil, craftworks such as bamboo trays, combs, bronze vessels, iron pots, porcelain and fabrics, and raw material for handcrafts such as antlers. In the light of Mado No. 2 and 3, it is thought that the method of shipping cargo such as food and craftwork was in the central part of the ship, or in the central part and in the stern part, and grains were commonly shipped in the other sections. These sunken ships were generally estimated to be between 13 to 20 m long and more than 2.5 m high, but it is not certain; a mast was installed in the central part in terms of ship structure; and the floor was flat. A simple cooking facility was located in the central part where the mast was installed, and articles for the sailors, food and craftworks seem to have been packed there as well. It is not certain yet 10 �whether these ships were operated officially by the state, by influential persons or by a merchant group. Acknowledgements I am thankful to everyone who participated in the underwater excavation on Taean Shipwreck and Mado Shipwreck No. 1, 2, 3 projects. Also, I appreciate to Mr. Sung-Tae Lim and Gwang-Hee Hong who were supposed to join in 2014 APCONF. I have deep gratitude to Mr. Seojin Kim who helped me a lot and all of my colleagues of the NRIMCH. References NRIMCH., 2009. Taean Treasure ship, Report of the Research of Antiquities of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 17. NRIMCH., 2010. Taean Mado Shipwreck No.1, Report of the Research of Antiquities of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 20. NRIMCH., 2011. Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 2, Report of the Research of Antiquities of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 22. NRIMCH., 2012, Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 3, Report of the Research of Antiquities of the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 27. Shin Jong-guk is senior curator (40 years old) serving at National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, the Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea. He has excavated 3 shipwrecks of the Goryeo Dynasty as a team leader of the underwater excavation and investigated from 2010 to 2013 and participated in the marine exploration in various places of Korea. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The 12th to 13th century Cargo Ships of Korea: Proof of Medieval Maritime Transportation Found in Taean waters, Korea Description An account of the resource This paper is about the wrecked ships found in Tae-an, Korea, and the ongoing investigation. Four cargo ships of the Middle Ages were excavated from Taean, Korea during 2007 - 2011. Three of these four ships were found in a 1 km radius, as such, this sea area is famous for sinking ships since ancient times. Among the found relics were wooden tablets describing the origin of the cargoes, the receiver, types of cargoes and quantity was found. These wooden tablets were the first of its kind found in a Korean wrecked ship, which provide specific historical facts. The four wrecked ships found in adjacent place, were wrecked during the transportation of products from a production area in the mid-southern part of Korea, where a capital city was located at one time. One ship was transporting tens of thousands of porcelain, while the other three were transporting a small quantity of porcelain and foodstuffs. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jong-guk Shin, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b5a07bd794490d688d66b73e322c9f8a.pdf e7f8ae641174dd9f1248d675050774e0 PDF Text Text The 17th Century Wooden Shipwreck off Hatsushima Island, Japan Hayato Kondo Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology hkondo@kaiyodai.ac.jp Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology iwabuchi@kaiyodai.ac.jp Toshiaki Hayashibara Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology sea.museum@gmail.com Abstract The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) at Fukuoka and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, which is a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network, have researched upon the 17th century wooden shipwreck off Hatsushima Island in front of Atami city, Shizuoka Prefecture, since 2011. The shipwreck lies on the seabed at the depth of 20 metres, 200 metres from the western shore. It consists mainly of a cargo of roof tiles or grinding bowls and some parts of the wooden hull. Judging from them, the original vessel seems to have been a 17th or 18th century wooden freighter or kaisen (廻船), which left a port of western part of Japan for the capital town of Edo; most of well made roof tiles were not made in eastern part at that time. Because most of the roof tiles are high-quality and one of them is marked by the wild ginger trefoil coat of arms of the Shogunate family, they might mean to have been used for the Edo Shogunate castle. In 2011 and 2012, archaeologists with financial assistance from the Nippon Foundation, did the submersible survey upon this wreck site, about which local fishermen had already known to identify its exact position. In 2013, then, its bathymetry was made with a multibeam sonar. In order to make a precisely measured drawing of the 5 metre square wreck site, an AUV in 2013 and a ROV in 2015, both of which were developed uniquely by Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, and divers in 2016 were deployed to collect numerous underwater photos to generate 3D photogrammetric models with photogrammetry software Agisoft ‘PhotoScan’. Key words: Shipwreck, survey, Photogrammetry �Introduction Hatsushima Island is approximately 4km around and located in the Sagami bay off east coast of Izu peninsula. In terms of its administration, it belongs to Atami city, Shizuoka Prefecture. From the mainland city, we could always see the island and vice versa, and regular ferry services are frequently available between them (Fig. 1). Hatsushima Island has approximately 200 inhabitants, most of whom engage in fishery and tourist industries. There is only one elementary school, about 30 guest houses, and a resort hotel on it. The surrounding sea around Hatsushima Island is managed by the Fisheries Cooperative Association of the Hatsushima Island; without permission from the association, neither recreation fishing nor fun diving around the island is allowed. Fig. 1: Location of Hatsushima Island. �The so-called Hatsushima shipwreck lies on the seabed at the depth of 20 metres, being 200 metres from the western shore. Its cargo mainly consists of roof tiles or grinding bowls and some parts of wooden hulls. Judging from them, the original vessel seems to have been a 17th or 18th century wooden freighter or kaisen (廻船), which left a port of western part of Japan, might be Osaka or Hyogo, for the capital town of Edo, which is currently known as Tokyo. During the Edo period, Japan was in national isolation, called sakoku (鎖国); consequently, there was only limited contact with foreign countries, while domestic seaborne transportation systems were highly developed. Almost all areas in Japan were connected by the shipping traffic with wooden freighters. Using ships, rice was transported from northern Japan to Edo or Osaka, which was the largest town in western Japan; earthenware from western Japan to Edo; marine products from Hokkaido to western Japan, and so on. The shipwreck site was officially found in the latter half of 1970s by a constructor of underwater pipelines which supplied pure water to Hatsushima Island from mainland. Even before, however, it has been known by fishermen that roof tiles and grindstones have sometimes been caught by fishing nets. In addition, the islanders have inherited legends testifying that at the shipwreck, night after night, a sodden samurai who wore armour used at that time, landed on the western shore of Hatsushima island from the bottom of the sea. Since the area was opened as a diving spot, some leisure divers have recognized the shipwreck. Because the Fisheries Cooperative Association of the Hatsushima Island has strictly managed the wreck, its destruction has been prevented somehow. �A series of surveys have been done mainly by the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) and by Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology is the only an active academic society for underwater cultural heritage in Japan. Although its headquarters is situated at Fukuoka city, Kyushu, the institute has not only Japanese members but also foreign scholars including from Korea and Germany. It was founded in 1986 under the name of the Kyushu Okinawa Society for Underwater Archaeology or KOSUWA, and then in 2005 it became a nonprofit organization. The president director is Kenzo Hayashida, who is an expert advisor of the Submerged Sites Study Committee at the Agency for Cultural Affairs. The institute has regally published a journal titled The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies which is the only one periodical specialized about underwater cultural heritage in Japan. In November 2011 and in February 2012, several ARIUA underwater archaeologists did the underwater survey upon the Hatsushima shipwreck site to locate its exact position. The third diving campaign was executed on April 2012, which was covered by a TV programme, and the fourth diving campaign was executed on October 2012 in order to create plans for future surveys and excavations. On March 2013, the multibeam sonar survey and pilot survey using an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), which was built by Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, were executed (Kondo, 2017). Figure 2 shows the bathymetry around the site generated by a multibeam sonar mounted. A group of embossments surrounded in a circle shows the wreck site. multibeam survey was a SONIC 2024. A sonar used for this �Fig. 2: Bathymetry of the archaeological site. Archaeological Relics The shipwreck site itself measures 4.7m from east to west and 5m from north to south. In an area of 5m square, the freighter’s cargos, such as roof tiles, grinding bowls, and whetstones are spread (Fig. 3). Although decorative ridge-end tiles, pan eaves-tiles, and whetstones are found dispersedly, other cargo components such as pan-tiles, round eaves-tiles, and grinding bowls are well aligned. It could be imagined that, when this freighter sank, the heavy cargos might be placed bottom on the wooden hull. The number of pan-tiles, round eaves-tiles, and grinding bowls were spread far more than that of decorative ridge-end tiles, pan eaves-tiles, and whetstones. As for the hull, its greater part seems to be buried inside the sandy seabed; after the sand is push aside, a few wooden plates from the ship could be observed between the group of aligned pan-tiles and grinding bowls. �Fig. 3: Rough drawing of the wreck site. At the southern part of the relics-concentrated site, pan-tiles are aligned in five rows and two layers to the east-west directions; and others are aligned in one row and one layer to the north-south directions. About the northern part, round eaves-tiles are aligned in two rows and two layers. Contrarily, pan eaves-tiles and decorative ridge-end tiles are sporadically spread to relatively outside of the relics-concentrated site. Judging from their forms and characteristics, the grinding bowls were produced from the middle of the 17th century to the beginning of the 18th century in the Tamba region of western Japan, which is now in Hyogo Prefecture. This Tamba ware or Tamba-Tachikui ware had started to be made around 1000 years ago, and then became famous in Japan �especially for its grinding bowls. Before the 18th century almost all Japanese grinding bowls came either from the area of Tamba or from Seto. After the middle of the 18th century, however, the cheap bowls produced in a town of Sakai, near Osaka, became much more popular. As for roof tiles, the original production area might be Awaji Island, which is also now in Hyogo Prefecture. Throughout Japanese History, we had three famous roof tile production areas, viz. Awaji Island at Hyogo, Sanshu at Aichi, and Sekishu at Shimane. The roof tile production at Awaji Island is said to have started around the 6th or the 7th centuries. The roof tiles produced at Awaji Island are characterized by their beautiful silvery colour, which could be observed on some roof tiles at the Hatsushima wreck. Indeed, it would be possible that not all roof tiles belonging to the wreck came from Awaji Island, but other roof tiles might have also been produced at some tile kilns, at least near Awaji Island, such as kilns around Osaka or Kyoto. Most of roof tiles found on the shipwreck seem to be relatively high-quality products. One of the decorative ridge-end tiles has a well-known mark, its centre displays the wild ginger trefoil coat of arms (三葉葵文) of the Tokugawa Shogunate family or clan. The decorative cap of each round eaves-tile presents the crest of three comma-shaped figures (連珠三巴文) in a circle without circular line. On the other hand, the decorative cap of each pan eaves-tile has the ‘Osaka-typed’ motif of arabesque (均整唐草 文) which is marked by elongated calyxes and y-shaped sides both on the right and left. All the roof tiles were polished-up beautifully that even did not display trace of polishing marks. �These high-qualitied roof tiles seem to have been produced especially for the Edo Shogunate castle as one of the decorative ridge-end tiles that has the crest of the Tokugawa family or clan. In 1657, the Great Fire of Meireki burned down more than the half districts of Edo, including the castle; therefore, the roof tiles of the Hatsushima wreck might be ordered for the reconstruction attempt of the castle after the fire. Also, there is a record that the Genroku earthquake hit Edo in 1703, yet the physical damage on the castle against the Edo castle was minor; only some gates or guard houses were reported to be collapsed. Consequently, it is natural to consider that the roof tiles were to be used for the repair works after the fire rather than the earthquake. The roof tiles of the Hatsushima wreck must be specially ordered products by the Tokugawa Shogunate family or clan, while the grinding bowls seem to have been general-purpose products. As this freighter carried both products, it was not a ship owned by the government but rather a private merchant vessel. During the Edo period, two types or systems of mercantile operations were recorded. One was ‘kaizumi (買積)’, in which vessels itself went to productions, factories, or industrial areas to buy goods directly in order to bring those goods back home ports or to bring them to the big cities such Edo or Osaka to sell. The other one was ‘unchinzumi (運賃積)’, in which vessels carried cargos for customers, for instance the government and other merchants, based on orders and requests of customers. The Hatsushima wreck did belong to the latter system. The wreck of the same trading type was discovered off of Kozushima Island (Iwabuchi, 2012). Survey after 2015 �The main purpose of the survey after 2015 was to map the wreck site accurately using a 3D photogrammetry technique. The obtained data will help us to understand the whole archaeological site off Hatsushima Island including the shipwreck. Presumably the evaluation of this site by using this data would open a way that the site will be registered as a place of buried cultural properties which will be a legal evidence to help the site. Another purpose of this survey is to consider the potential usage of underwater vehicles and underwater photogrammetry for archaeological site. Methodology: A remotely operated vehicle (ROV) was operated to take pictures while keeping close distance over the wreck for mapping. Divers were attended at the seabed to prevent any accidents. To complement for the mapping, visual inspections and measuring were operated by divers. The survey area was set to 5m square focusing on the relicsconcentrated area. A small boat was locally hired to serve as a research vessel which delivered divers and instruments from pier to the site; and operation of the ROV was also done from the boat. The survey operations were completed by both photo-shooting by the ROV and visual inspection by divers; any destructive operations such as excavation and rising artefacts of the relics were not executed. Homemade Remotely Operated Vehicle: A simple ROV was designed and constructed by Kondo laboratory of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. Figure 4 shows the general arrangement of the vehicle. The length of the ROV is 1m, width is 0.58m and the depth is 0.48m (excluding hanging points). The weight is about 70kg, yet it is neutrally buoyant in seawater. Four propeller thrusters are mounted on the vehicle; two horizontal thrusters are mounted horizontally to make the vehicle �move forward and backward; the other two thrusters are mounted vertically (see Fig. 4) to make the vehicle to move upward and downward. Fig. 4: General arrangement of the homemade ROV. Four cameras are mounted on the vehicle as observational equipment. Main camera has Type 4/3 sized, 3296 x 2472 resolution CCD. An F mount lens was attached to the camera. The camera is sealed in a homemade pressure bottle with underwater connectors. Still images are transmitted from the ROV to the surface boat via an umbilical cable, and stored in a laptop computer. This main camera is mounted vertically/perpendicularly as the camera face-down to the seabed. Other used cameras were wearable cameras (GoPro), one camera was mounted perpendicularly to take top-view movies. Other two were paired as works as stereo cameras, and mounted slightly diagonally angled down to take slant-view movies of the site. Three original underwater LED lights were also mounted to provide lighting. A syntactic foam, which is a buoyancy material made of glass microspheres and compound was mounted on top of the vehicle. A main pressure bottle made of aluminum alloy was attached beneath the buoyancy material. Microcomputers, control units, a depth sensor and batteries were stored in the main bottle. The main bottle was relatively �heavy to make the long separation between centers of buoyancy and gravity to provide better stability for the vehicle’s motions. An umbilical cable which encloses ethernet and power lines connected the main bottle and a laptop computer on the boat. Operator can control the vehicle’s motion and onboard equipment from the laptop. The structure of the ROV consists of High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE), which is positively buoyant in seawater, free from corrosion and easy to let any equipment to be mounted. Results: Although divers supported the ROV (Fig. 5) because of electric failure of thrusters, an orthophoto mosaic of the wreck (Fig. 6) was obtained from 3D spatial data generated by photogrammetric processing using digital images taken by the ROV. Agisoft ‘PhotoScan’ was used for photogrammetric processing. Although blank parts can be seen on the orthomosaic because of the bad image conditions, distortions of the orthomosaic are minimum, and this orthomosaic can be used for archaeological drawings. �Fig. 5: A photo taken by a diver during the Survey. Fig. 6: Orthophoto mosaic of the wreck site. �In November 2016, to obtain better 3D photogrammetric data, several ARUIA divers took numerous underwater photos of the Hatsushima shipwreck. At that time, two grapnels were discovered at north-east from the wreck site (about 10 metres apart from the site). However, the relationship between these anchors and the wreck is still under investigation. Both in 2015 and in 2016, the open briefing sessions of the survey for the general public living in Hatsushima Island were organized by ARIUA and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology during the campaigns. Many islanders, including members of the Fisheries Cooperative Association of the Hatsushima Island, attended the sessions and displayed their high interests to this underwater cultural heritage (Hayashibara et al., 2016). We have once again understood that working together with local people is necessary. Additionally, foreign researchers participated in the surveys at Hatsushima Island both in 2015 and in 2016. In 2015, one Indonesian student from the graduate school of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology received hands-on training of underwater archaeology in this field campaign. This was a part of the programmes of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network at TUMSAT. In 2016, two Italian scholars from the International Research Institute for Archaeology and Ethnology, one Dutch from ICOMOS Netherlands, and one American from the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, attended the survey to help the underwater investigations. Complying with the UNESCO international standard, ARIUA and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology are planning to make good use of this underwater archaeological site for education and training, not only as a touristic attraction. �Conclusions and Perspectives An orthophoto mosaic of the wreck was generated from 3D spatial data generated by photogrammetric processing using digital images taken by the ROV and divers. Line art (2D site plan) for the cultural heritage documentation is under drawing. Currently, the team is planning more data collection in order to obtain sectional drawings. The ROV operation was executed twice and its total time is about one hour; this is a large saving for divers’ archaeological sites. underwater operation time for underwater The advantage of underwater vehicles for archaeological survey has been confirmed by the orthophoto mosaic of the wreck. Also, we are planning to evaluate the validity of increasing the image quality and usage of underwater technological instruments. The goal of these investigations is to produce a site map as an orthophoto mosaic, and share detailed and accurate information of the site with the Board of Education of Atami city. Although it has already recognized its existence, the Hatsushima shipwreck has not designated as a ‘Buried Cultural Property’ or ‘Historic Site’ under the Japanese domestic law of the Cultural Properties Protection Act (Hayashibara, 2013). The board of education believes that more detailed information is required, for instance its historical values or current situation including the complete picture of the hull buried beneath the seabed. Without raising all archaeological components of the site, which is against the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, its general view of the site could not be appeared and observed. The other reason why the board of education does not want to protect this site under the civil law is that the Agency for Cultural Affairs has ordered every board of education to execute the Cultural Properties Protection Act upon all sites before the Middle Age, �but this order also implies that it is not priority to apply this order to heritage sites dated after the Early Modern Age. Acknowledgements The research in 2011 and in 2012 was carried out with financial assistance from the Nippon Foundation, in 2013 from the Canon Foundation, and in 2015 from the Asahi Shimbun Foundation, to which our thanks are due. We also wish to thank ARIUA members and graduate or undergraduate students at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology who helped our surveys. References Hayashibara, T., 2013. Off Hatsushima Island, Atami city. Archaeology Quarterly, Vol. 123: 31-33. Hayashibara, T., Kondo, H., and Iwabuchi, A., 2016. Making a site map of underwater cultural heritage off Hatushima Island. ARIUA Newsletter, No. 5: 2-11. Iwabuchi, A., 2012. Cultural Heritage under the Sea: An Introduction to Underwater Archaeology. Kagaku-Dojin, Kyoto. Kondo, H., 2017. Underwater techniques to exploit new possibilities of deepwater archaeology. In K. Hayashida (Ed.), Underwater Cultural Heritage: History Resuscitated from the Sea, Bensei, Tokyo: 175-203. Biographies Hayato Kondo is Associate Professor at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. His research interests include ocean-related autonomous system, high-resolution ocean observation, AUV system design, and its payload system including optical and acoustic sensors. He received his PhD from the University of Tokyo in 2002 on naval architecture and ocean engineering, M.Eng. and B.Eng. from Waseda University on mechanical engineering. He is a co-chair of the technology committee on unmanned �maritime vehicles and submersibles, Oceanic Engineering Society, IEEE. He is also a member of the Japan ICOMOS National Committee. Akifumi Iwabuchi is Professor of Maritime Anthropology and Nautical Archaeology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. He is the ICOMOSICUCH National Representative for Japan, being also Directors of the Japan Society for Nautical Research, of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and of the Forum on the Oceanic State of Japan. He received his PhD from the University of Oxford in 1990. His publications include The People of the Alas Valley (Clarendon Press, 1994) and Cultural Heritage under the Sea: An Introduction to Underwater Archaeology (Kagaku-Dojin, 2012). Toshiaki Hayashibara was born in Tokyo in 1960. He received his MA from Toyo University in 1986. He is a director of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology at Fukuoka and lecturer in underwater archaeology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. He is also a member of the Japanese Archaeological Association. His archaeological specialties include prehistorical bronze wares in Japan, underwater cultural heritage, and heritage management. In the process of participating in underwater researches all over Japan, he has most gradually come to have his doubts about treatments of underwater archaeological sites and their managements in Japan. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The 17th Century Wooden Shipwreck off Hatsushima Island, Japan Description An account of the resource The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) at Fukuoka and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, which is a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network, have researched upon the 17th century wooden shipwreck off Hatsushima Island in front of Atami city, Shizuoka Prefecture, since 2011. The shipwreck lies on the seabed at the depth of 20 metres, 200 metres from the western shore. It consists mainly of a cargo of roof tiles or grinding bowls and some parts of the wooden hull. Judging from them, the original vessel seems to have been a 17th or 18th century wooden freighter or kaisen ( 廻船 ), which left a port of western part of Japan for the capital town of Edo; most of well made roof tiles were not made in eastern part at that time. Because most of the roof tiles are high-quality and one of them is marked by the wild ginger trefoil coat of arms of the Shogunate family, they might mean to have been used for the Edo Shogunate castle. In 2011 and 2012, archaeologists with financial assistance from the Nippon Foundation, did the submersible survey upon this wreck site, about which local fishermen had already known to identify its exact position. In 2013, then, its bathymetry was made with a multibeam sonar. In order to make a precisely measured drawing of the 5 metre square wreck site, an AUV in 2013 and a ROV in 2015, both of which were developed uniquely by Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, and divers in 2016 were deployed to collect numerous underwater photos to generate 3D photogrammetric models with photogrammetry software Agisoft ‘PhotoScan’. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hayato Kondo Akifumi Iwabuchi Toshiaki Hayashibara Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Hayato Kondo Akifumi Iwabuchi Toshiaki Hayashibara Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/58638aac62bd6af08c9f3ed4fad0f4ad.jpg 347382332462621b59ecad45ffb83741 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 315 Height 278 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4547fb3c265cb55a4324c893109e8239.jpg 23cc3dde5458b9513a5278536544d563 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 648 Height 390 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/92bb5d94134bdeb2152bd7aa260fbc94.pdf 4a985f2bf93bbc68daa9baabd2feccc9 PDF Text Text THE 2001 CONVENTION: A FRAMEWORK FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SAFEGUARDING OUR UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE Dr. Tim Curtis Chief of Culture Unit UNESCO Bangkok Office Conference participants, Ladies and gentlemen, Good morning. On behalf of UNESCO, I am very pleased to be here at this Inaugural Asia-Pacific Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, in the company of distinguished scholars and professionals who have devoted their careers to the study and protection of this region’s invaluable underwater cultural heritage. As the first academic conference on this significant theme focused on Asia and the Pacific, our gathering here today marks an important milestone. I would like to take this opportunity to thank our host, the National Museum of the Philippines, for its warm hospitality, and to commend the organizers, the Asian Academy for Heritage Management and, in particular, Dr Mark Staniforth of Flinders University, for their initiative in making this conference a reality. Challenges for Underwater Cultural Heritage All around the world, our underwater cultural heritage is under threat. Unlike archaeological sites on land, which are under stringent legal protection and widely understood by the general public to be worthy of conservation, the sites underwater are still vulnerable to exploitation and destruction. Looting by treasure hunters, commercial fishing, seabed exploitation, construction of offshore and on-shore maritime infrastructure, improvements in diving technology, environmental changes and the rise in marine tourism – these are all factors that have put this heritage at risk. Here in the Asia-Pacific region, it is common knowledge that our waters are home to some of the world’s richest archaeological remains, bearing witness to over three millennia of history concerning the region and, indeed, the world. The extensive 1 �underwater cultural heritage ranges from ancient shipwrecks to the remains of submerged cities and settlements to other traces of maritime infrastructure. Yet, the state of protection of the underwater cultural heritage in Asia and the Pacific is particularly worrying, as most States have very limited resources to adequately enact measures to protect such sites – from the policy level down to practical in situ protection operations. This leaves a gaping chasm which has resulted in the witting or unwitting destruction of the sites by a range of actors, from illicit treasure hunters to deep sea oil exploration companies. Data compiled by UNESCO shows that at least seventy-two shipwrecks were reported to have been looted and/or commercially excavated in the region within a period of forty-seven years from 1963 to 2010. Of the seventy-two shipwrecks, only eight were excavated with government cooperation or participation of archaeologists from relevant agencies. Commercial salvage operations by treasure hunters are of particular concern for UNESCO. With financial resources fueled by the growing market in antiquities, these operations have become increasingly ubiquitous. Driven by commercial motivations, such treasure hunting operations often result in destruction of the wreck site, selective recovery of high-value artefacts and a dispersal of finds into the hands of antique collectors in various countries. They do not provide the means to undertake the rigorous scientific inquiry and preservation measures for the sites and artefacts which is advocated by the international conservation community and by UNESCO. National legislation governing the protection of underwater cultural heritage is greatly varied. Some countries provide a high level of protection, others provide a minimum level of protection, while many provide no protection at all. Moreover, the remit of national legislation is limited only to waters in the exclusive jurisdiction of states. Given that only a small part of the world’s underwater cultural heritage are in territorial waters, this leaves a vast amount without any effective protection. The Making of the 2001 Convention In response to the international community’s growing concern about the underwater cultural heritage, the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was promulgated under the auspices of UNESCO. The Convention is the key international treaty that sets a common framework and standard for the protection of underwater cultural heritage against looting and destruction. The Convention extends protection to cultural heritage underwater that is 2 �comparable in spirit to the protection granted by existing international conventions or national legislation for cultural heritage on land. The Convention helps to strengthen the international normative framework that UNESCO has been supporting in the fight against the illicit trafficking of cultural property. As an instrument dealing specifically with underwater cultural heritage, it fills the gap in the international law and reinforces the provisions of three other important conventions, namely: • • • the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (known as the Hague Convention), the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Cultural Property the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Objects The Convention was the result of four years of intense negotiations which started in 1998 and included a wide range of stakeholders from government representatives to archaeologists, lawyers and NGOs. It was adopted by the UNESCO General Conference in 2001 and entered into force on 2 January 2009. Popularly referred to as the 2001 Convention, at present, it has been ratified by forty countries: fourteen from Latin America and the Carribean, eight from Africa, three from the Arab States and fourteen from Europe and North America. This includes both Spain and Portugal, two major maritime powers during the colonial era. However, to this day, there has been only one signatory to the Convention from the Asia-Pacific region, that is, Cambodia. The 2001 Convention: An Overview How does the 2001 Convention contribute to the protection of the underwater cultural heritage? The 2001 Convention starts by providing a shared understanding of what constitutes the underwater cultural heritage. It defines underwater cultural heritage as “all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been partially or totally underwater, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years”. The 2001 Convention sets out basic principles for the protection of underwater cultural heritage, and attempts to harmonize the protection of underwater archaeological sites with that of heritage on land. It provides a detailed cooperation system among States. 3 �Finally, it provides practical rules for the treatment and research of underwater cultural heritage in its Annex. It should be noted that the 2001 Convention does not regulate the ownership of cultural property. As such, the Convention cannot be used to arbitrate quarrels or claims to ownership between the various parties concerned. Similarly, the 2001 Convention has no bearing on the sovereignty of States. Article 3 of the Convention specifically says that it is not intended or designed to amend the regulations of 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) or any other international law which outlines the definition and boundaries of maritime zones and the jurisdiction and sovereignty of States. The 2001 Convention: Main Principles The 2001 Convention is underpinned by four main principles. 1. States Parties have an obligation to preserve underwater cultural heritage 2. In situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first and preferred option 3. Underwater cultural heritage shall not be commercially exploited 4. States Parties should promote training and information sharing The preference given to in situ preservation as the first option stresses the importance and scientific significance of the historical context of the cultural object, which should be respected. It also recognizes that, under normal circumstances, heritage is well preserved under water, due to the lack of oxygen and low rate of deterioration. The Convention prohibits commercial exploitation for both trade and speculation; it also dissuades against the irretrievable dispersal of finds. Furthermore, the Convention requires States Parties to take measures against the illicit trafficking of cultural objects. In particular, they should prevent the entry into their territory, the dealing in, or the possession of underwater cultural heritage that was illicitly exported/and or recovered. States Parties should seize such property if it is found in their territories. The rationale is that if treasure hunters have a difficult time to sell looted objects, the financial motivation for conducting illegal excavations will eventually decrease. Finally, the Convention promotes information sharing, training in underwater archaeology, and technology transfer with a view to raising public awareness concerning the significance of underwater cultural heritage. States Parties are 4 �encouraged to cooperate and assist each other in the protection and management of such heritage, including collaborating in its investigation, conservation, study and presentation. It should be understood that the 2001 Convention contains minimum requirements. Each State Party, if it so wishes, may choose to develop even higher standards of protection. For instance, Australia, under the 1976 Historic Shipwrecks Act, protects all shipwrecks and associated artefacts that are older than 75 years. The 2001 Convention: A Framework for International Cooperation The 2001 Convention provides States with a clear framework for cooperating with other States to protect underwater cultural heritage sites wherever they are located. Prior to the Convention, the existing international law did not furnish a sufficient basis for such cooperation. UNCLOS, for example, has only two provisions that establish an obligation of its States Parties to protect underwater cultural heritage, with Article 303 saying simply that the States “shall cooperate” to protect the underwater heritage (paragraph 3), without providing further details or a mechanism for doing so. The 2001 Convention proposes a State Cooperation System for the protection of underwater cultural heritage. Within the current situation, a State usually has exclusive jurisdiction only within its Territorial Sea, limited jurisdiction over the Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental Shelf, and jurisdiction only over its own vessels and nationals at High Sea. As such, a Coastal State cannot prevent a vessel from another State from pillaging a site beyond its territorial seas. As for the Flag State of the pillaging vessel, it usually ignores the activities of its vessels and nationals, especially if they are undertaking activities very far away from its own territorial waters. As the extension of jurisdiction of States at sea was not an option, the 2001 Convention chose to facilitate cooperation among States as the only way to resolve this situation. By joining the 2001 Convention, States agree to prohibit their nationals and vessels from looting underwater cultural heritage, regardless of its location. The Flag State sets legal regulations for its nationals and vessels, and other States help it in implementing them. If no State has jurisdiction over a site, a “Coordinating State” takes over the control, coordinating the cooperation among States Parties and implementing their decisions, while acting on their behalf and not in its own interest. The Convention also provides specific regulations for the reporting and the coordination of activities, depending on the location of an underwater cultural heritage site. In their Internal and Archipelagic Waters and Territorial Sea, States Parties have the exclusive 5 �right to regulate activities. For activities further afield, for instance, in the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf, States Parties should report discoveries and activities concerning heritage in these areas, and inform other States Parties. Interested States can then cooperate in the protection of these sites. This system makes it easier for States to take joint and effective action against treasurehunting and pillaging being conducted in territories outside the national jurisdiction of any Coastal State. In the event that a large number of States join the 2001 Convention, this international cooperation scheme will eventually render comprehensive protection of underwater heritage sites around the world. Initiatives and Next Steps for Protecting UCH in Asia and the Pacific Even though ratification of the 2001 Convention is still pending among most Member States in Asia and the Pacific, a number of initiatives have already been implemented which are consistent with the spirit and intention of the Convention. That said, on the whole, legislation, institutions and professional expertise still need to be substantially strengthened, as the issue of underwater cultural heritage is relatively new in the region. UNESCO has been supporting Member States to raise awareness among policy makers and the general public, and to build national capacities in the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage. Of particular concern in the region is the lack of trained professionals who are qualified to protect and manage underwater cultural heritage. Without adequate human resources at the frontlines, efforts to apply the principles and regulations of the 2001 Convention will be difficult, even if policy and legislative measures are enhanced. In order to respond to this need, UNESCO has trained over 70 underwater archaeologists and professionals in allied fields since 2009 through a regional programme supported by the Norwegian government. A Field Training Centre has been set up in Chanthaburi, Thailand, which is hosted by the Royal Thai Government’s Fine Arts Department. Trainees hailing from as far afield as the western reaches of the Indian Ocean (like Kenya) and as far east as the Pacific islands have received rigorous instruction in various aspects of managing underwater cultural heritage during Foundation Courses, including GIS applications and techniques for in situ preservation in two Advanced Courses. To reinforce these skills, a number of graduates of the training courses were sponsored by UNESCO to take part in an actual survey and research project organized by the Sri Lankan Maritime Archaeology Unit on an ancient shipwreck in southern Sri Lanka. 6 �The curriculum and materials used in the training course will be made available in early 2012 as a standard training package for underwater cultural heritage. Already, the UNESCO-affiliated training centre in Zadar, Croatia has already expressed interest in using these materials for their upcoming training courses. As a way of reaching out to a broader audience, an interactive exhibition on underwater cultural heritage was organized for three months from August to October in 2010 at the Siam Ocean World Bangkok, viewed by an estimated 150,000 visitors. The exhibition material, which includes a full-scale model of a ship wreck, is now a part of the permanent exhibition of the National Maritime Museum in Thailand. It can also be accessed online through UNESCO Bangkok’s website as a virtual exhibition. To sustain these efforts in the future, the Thai Government has indicated its commitment to sustain the Field Training Centre over the long term. This welcome gesture will allow trainees from around the region to continue to benefit from the fullyequipped facilities of the Centre, one of the leading venues of its kind in Asia and the Pacific, and indeed, the world. Conclusion The success of the 2001 Convention hinges on the commitment of States to put into action this framework for international cooperation to protect the underwater cultural heritage. As a large part of this heritage is found on ocean floors located outside national jurisdiction, by definition, it cannot be sufficiently protected by any State alone, but only by a community of States. Until such time that a significant number of States ratify the Convention, the Asia-Pacific region will remain vulnerable to pillaging by treasure hunters and the destruction of underwater cultural heritage will continue. On behalf of UNESCO, I urge you, as policy makers, as leading scholars, and as professionals, to help support the process for the ratification of the 2001 Convention in your countries. It is only through our cooperation that this vulnerable heritage can be protected for future generations to come. Thank you. 7 �For further information Tutorial on the Annex to the 2001 Convention: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/underwaterheritage-tutorial/tutorial/ Code of Ethics for Diving on Submerged Archaeological Sites: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/scubadiving/ Frequently Asked Questions about the 2001 Convention: http://www.unesco.org/culture/underwater/faq-en/ Reference: ______.2006.Finishing the Interrupted Voyage: Papers of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.L.V.Prott(ed.),Leicester,UNESCO/Institute of Arts and Law. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The 2001 Convention: A Framework for International Cooperation in Safeguarding our Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Description An account of the resource <p>Keynote speech by Dr. Tim Curtis Chief of Culture Unit UNESCO Bangkok Office.</p> <p>To watch a video of this presentation please click here:</p> <p><a title="Dr. Tim Curtis Keynote Address" href="http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/videos/Tim_Curtis.m4v" target="_blank">http://www.uri.edu/artsci/his/mua/videos/Tim_Curtis.m4v</a></p> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Tim Curtis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Keynote https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3276b0929f4ca18123ace45d09410a58.jpg 23cc3dde5458b9513a5278536544d563 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 648 Height 390 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7d929f70271ca71ba385b93d59f1063e.jpg 347382332462621b59ecad45ffb83741 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 315 Height 278 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 IPTC String caption: IPTC Array a:1:{s:7:"caption";s:31:" ";} Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource THE 2001 CONVENTION: A FRAMEWORK FOR INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SAFEGUARDING OUR UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE Subject The topic of the resource Keynote Description An account of the resource Keynote speech by Dr. Tim Curtis Chief of Culture Unit UNESCO Bangkok Office Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Tim Curtis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011