49 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7d69fd476a70b8c9d500930a68444b12.pdf 919a59be0734bbad79bc9f9742b341ee PDF Text Text Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines Email: mjlabolunia@yahoo.com Abstract When the Spanish colonizers reached Philippine soils, one of the earliest places they occupied is the tip of southern Luzon including the San Bernardino Strait. The whole area was known as Ambos Camarines and Albay. At present, it is the Bicol Region comprised of six provinces. As one of the earliest Spanish-occupied areas, it was exposed to Spanish activities like building of churches, government halls and shipbuilding. Ancient shipyards called astilleros are found in Bicol. These were used for construction and repair of the galleons that plied the Manila-Acapulco trade. This present archaeological study looks into the shipyards of Sorsogon where three shipyards were documented. Key words: Astillero, Shipyard, Embocadero, Metal smelting, Seamanship Introduction The Spanish colonization of the Philippine archipelago (Scott, 1994, 1992; Arcilla 1971; Pigafetta and Transylvanus, 1969) resulted in major changes in the lives of the peoples. Communities lost their independence with the Spanish imposition of the plaza complex resettling people within the government and church’s ambit (Jocano, 1998; Robles 1969). The majority of the local inhabitants were looked down by the colonizers because of their different manner of dressing, eating and skin color while at the same time surprised that these same people were very knowledgeable in seamanship and metallurgy (Agoncillo, 1990; Jocano, 1998; Scott, 1994, 1992, 1977). Their knowledge was exposed because of their ability to build different types and sizes of boats from memory. Since the Spanish government had decided to maintain the Philippines, there was a need to cut on cost both on the galleons and government. One measure was to build the galleons locally through the astilleros or shipyards. Filipino involvement were either direct through the actual construction of the shipyard, the galleons and as seafarers, may be indirectly through metallurgy and related activities (Agoncillo, 1990; Bolunia, 1995; Jocano, 1998; Mallari, 1999; Scott, 1981). The astilleros displaced many 1 �Filipinos because of their forcible transfer near the shipyard. Bicol experienced this. One of its provinces, Sorsogon, was the location of several shipyards particularly in the towns of Donsol and Pilar (Fig. 1). This present research looked into three astilleros in Sorsogon. The objective is to find out why the Spaniards decided to establish astilleros in this part of the archipelago and to validate what was written on documents by archaeological evidences . Fig. 1. Map of Sorsogon Province. (NAMRIA) Methodology Library and archival research were conducted. Interviews with key cultural consultants carried out. These were senior members of the population like Pedro Nocido, 85 years old, resident of the astillero since he was five. Archaeological activities included foot surveys, reconnaissance and excavations. Mapping of each astillero was done to produce visual representation of the sites. Artifacts like metal objects, earthenware and stoneware sherds as well as the features like furnace, ruins of buildings were collected and drawn and included in the analysis. Laboratory tests were conducted on some of the artifacts. 2 �The site The Bicol Region is found at the southern tip of Luzon, with Sorsogon as its southernmost province (Schurz, 1985; Bolunia, 1995; 1997; 1998). It was a favorable choice because it was directly located on the route of the galleons that plied the Manila-Acapulco trade. It had forests with the best trees for shipbuilding and a population who were skilled in boat-building and metal working. Sorsogon is bounded on the north by Albay, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by San Bernardino Strait, and on the west by Ticao and Burias Passes (Fig. 2). It has a total land area of 2,141.4 sq. km. The San Bernardino Strait or the Embocadero is the passage of all galleons (Malanyaon, Fig. 2. Maps showing the location of the astilleros in the towns of 1991). Two of its towns, Donsol (above) and Pilar (below). (NAMRIA) Donsol and Pilar, face the South China Sea on the west. Both towns are sheltered from typhoons. Both have extensive coasts dotted by bays, coves and major rivers that are navigable (Fig. 2). The town of Donsol is at the eastern side of the Donsol River (Dery, 1991; Goyena del Prado, 1981; Mallari, 1990). Its land area is approximately 156.3 square kilometers comprised of flatlands and low 3 �mountains, streams and rivers, with Donsol River (12.908 0 N and 123.5980 E) as a major river used for transport and food source. The town of Pilar (12.9260 N and 123.6760 E) is found east of Donsol with an approximate area of 248.1313 square kilometers of forests, hills, rivers and bays. An extensive mangrove surrounds it for a safe haven for boat and people. The Astilleros of Donsol and Pilar, Sorsogon Astillero is the Spanish term for shipyard. These were established during the Spanish Colonial Period to cut on the construction cost of the galleons that plied the ManilaAcapulco route (Schurz, 1985), the lifeline of the Spanish government. Their seaworthiness was of primary importance for an uninterrupted trade and exchange of European goods and silver and Chinese trade ware ceramics, silks and precious objects. The astilleros were either established at the mouth of a river like the Donsol astillero or on a cove like the Pilar astileros. The two astilleros of Pilar are separated by bodies of waters. One is inland while the other is nearer the sea. Both are adjacent to deep waters. The more inland is Binanuahan Astillero, located at the Pilar Peninsula. Prior to road networks, this can be reached by boat through Pilar Bay. The bay is a natural harbor and a natural barrier. The survey of the site yielded artifacts like slag, corroded iron nails, Chinese, European and local ceramic sherds. Documented were ruins of an old stone structure (Fig. 3) with a floor area of 288 square meters and thick walls (Bolunia, 2006). Provisions for large Fig. 3. One of the remaining walls of the structure in windows were also evident. A Panlatuan Astillero. (Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia). few meters away are remains of the palm palisade anahaw (Livistona sp.). It is approximately 100 m long with only the top visible during low tide. Two large wooden posts with a diameter of 40-50 4 �cm were also documented. The Panlatuan Astillero (Fig. 4) is located on a cove. Deep waters, two rivers, an extensive mangrove made it a favorable choice for an astillero including a vast flatland and a hill. Corroded iron nails, chain rings, bronze sheathing nails, iron tools, a porthole window, Chinese, European and local ceramic sherds, brick tiles and Spanish coin were recovered. A large slag concentration was also found on the northeastern side. Remains of large wooden posts were equidistantly buried. Ruins of watchtowers Fig. 4. The Panlatuan Astillero showing the location of the various features associated with the shipyard. (National Museum, Philippines) and a warehouse were also documented including remains of a big gate (Bolunia, Santiago and Penalosa, 2011). Two old deep wells were still being used by the owners. The Donsol Astillero is located on the lower reaches of the Donsol River. This astillero was established by reclaiming part of the mangrove around the area based on the auger-coring conducted (Bolunia, 1997, 1998). It has an approximate 5 �Fig. 5. The team members, Mssrs. Penalosa and Toling, posing beside the 3 m long anchor from the Donsol astillero. At right is a scientific illustration of the same anchor. (Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia) area of 11,000 square meters and thickness of 1.75 m with 19,250 cubic meters of sandy clay fill (Aguilera, 1997). Survey, test and full-blown excavations showed that 296 square meters were used for various purposes (Bolunia, 1995; 1997; 1998). Thousands of artifacts and ecofacts were recovered and the remains of the base of a furnace (Bolunia, 1997; 1998). Iron nails and spikes, copper sheathing nails and cut sheets, lead objects, Chinese and European trade ware ceramic sherds, animal bones, shells, wood, lime, stones, Spanish bronze coins, and more than 400 kg of slag were recovered (Bolunia, 1997; 1998). Earthenware moulds showing traces of melted copper and clay tubes or tuyeres were also recovered. A three-meter anchor was also found (Fig. 5). Coal, coke and charcoal were the fuel types recovered. The coke was of high quality based the analysis conducted by the Department of Energy (Bolunia 1998). Coal and coke are major ingredients in iron smelting together with lime and the ore. Charcoal was sourced from the mangrove (Rhizophora sp.) that grew abundantly around. It is a very good fuel because it burns longer and produces a high temperature. The furnace was for smelting based on the slag, lime and burnt surface observed. Iron tools like tongs, wedge, anvil were also recovered. Large wooden posts, approximately 30 cm were also documented in the direction of the 6 �river. Previous studies on the Manila Galleon trade usually focused on the shipwreck and its economic importance. Studies on the shipyards where these galleons were built and repaired are few (Dery, 1991; Schurz, 1985). These assumptions were arrived at after reviewing the available documents. The study of the astilleros showed that the Spaniards took advantage of the favorable landscape of Sorsogon and its strategic location in relation to the San Bernardino Strait. The Donsol Astillero was studied extensively because of its accessibility (Bolunia, 1995; 1997; 1998). The knowledge of the local people was picked when a three-meter Spanish anchor was exposed after a flood in the1950s. Mallari (1990; 1999) writes that a shipyard was built in Donsol where an encounter with pirates occurred resulting in the abandonment of its anchor. Pedro Nocido, mentioned of the presence of the frame of a big ship whose keel and ribs (frame) were eventually used as fuel. Furthermore, Nocido described that the area was flatland planted with hardwoods. Linguistically, the people residing in the Donsol astillero spoke the dialect spoken in Pilar. They are the only ones not speaking the Donsol dialect. They attribute this to their ancestors from Pilar which was a part of Donsol then. Nocido also mentioned that the Spanish mestizo owner was a friend of the Pilar astillero owners. The presence of wooden posts near the riverbanks can be associated with a pier. These wooden posts approximately 30 - 40 cm were deeply buried for mooring. The posts have pointed and grooved ends that would secure them. In the Panlatuan astillero, the wooden posts were still firmly secured even if only 30 cm can be seen during low tide. They were arranged either parallel or perpendular to each other. The presence of stone structures point to a single construction architecture prevalent during the Spanish period. The use of tiles as roof was observed as well as the construction of thick walls using riverine stones and adobe tuff. They have big window and door frames. The deep water well used adobe tuff while the watch tower used riverine stones. Lastly, the fence that enclosed the Panlatuan Astillero also used broken glass on the top for added protection. Based on the artifacts recovered, the structures documented and the accounts given by the cultural consultants, the astilleros were established to complement each other based on the types of activities that were carried out. The Donsol astillero was used as construction and repair site 7 �and smelting site while the Binanuahan astillero must have been the administrative site and the Panlatuan astillero the construction site and smelting site. It is easier to smelt ore in Donsol and Panlatuan because of the rivers that can transport the coal from its origin. It is also easy to roll the galleon once construction or repair work is finished. The waters nearby are also deep; favorable for rolling the ship. In the Binanuahan astillero, the remains of the palisade can be construed as a way of securing the place of administration. The ruins point more to a building of commerce because of the presence of big windows, a courtyard and doors. It has been said by many authors (Schurz, 1985; Mallari, 1990; Dery, 1991, 1996; Legarda, 1999) that the Bicol Region was the location of shipyards because of the forests and its skilled boatbuilders. Bicol, especially Sorsogon, is dotted with bays and coves as well as navigable rivers and streams that serve as transport system for humans and cargoes. Sorsogon faces the famous San Bernardino Strait or the Embocadero, the main access route for the galleons. Bicolanos, like the other boat builders, were capable of building big and small boats (Cuevas, Ronquillo and Santiago, 2006; Scott, 1981, 1994). Those who worked in the astilleros were not only skilled boat builders and mariners but also skilled in handling metals. Up to the present, there are still blacksmiths in Sorsogon making machetes and other objects that may be requested. Archaeological evidences have indicated that even as early as 500 BC there were already inhabitants in the archipelago who had knowledge of metallurgy (Beyer, 1947; Fox, 1970; Solheim, 2002; Dizon, 1988). Dizon (1979) in his archaeological excavation in Sorsogon was able to identify some iron tools and implements that date to 200 BC. This knowledge is thus presumed to have persisted until the coming of the Spaniards. It is not the domain of this paper to tackle how this knowledge was acquired. The shipyards of Sorsogon continue to beguile those who want to know what these bastions of Spanish colonization looked like. At present, there are no shipyards to construct galleons but many Bicolanos, especially those from the towns of Donsol and Pilar are still making boats either for their own use or for commerce. They still use their skills in choosing which wood is good for the keel and which 8 �should be used for other parts of the boat. They do not use blueprints or complex tools. When asked, their ready answer is still “because it has been done that way”. Discussion Previous studies on the Manila Galleon Trade usually focused on the shipwreck and its economic importance. Studies on the shipyards where these galleons were built and repaired are few and scanty (Dery 1991; Schurz 1985). Their locations were not specifically pointed out while the activities were left out for the reader’s own interpretations. These assumptions were arrived at after reviewing the available documents. Based on the three astilleros, the Spaniards took advantage of the favorable landscape and strategic location of Sorsogon. The Donsol Astillero was studied extensively because of its accessibility (Bolunia 1995; 1997; 1998). This location became a bane because many people decided to recycle the materials. The knowledge of the local people was alerted when a strong typhoon hit the town of Donsol in the 1950s flooding the whole town including the astillero. After the water receded, a 3 m Spanish anchor was exposed. Mallari (1990; 1999) wrote that there was once a shipyard in Donsol and an encounter with pirates occurred resulting in burning the galleon thus the anchor. My cultural consultant, Pedro Nocido, also mentioned of the presence of the frame of a big ship whose keel and ribs (frame) were eventually used by the locals for fuel. Had I come a earlier, I would have seen it lying on the shore. Nobody was familiar that the wooden frame was part of a ship although they often heard that these ships went to the alta mar or high seas. Furthermore, Nocido described that the area was flatland planted with hardwoods. Unfortunately, when I did my study, only coconut and fruit trees remained in the astillero. Linguistically, the people residing in the Donsol astillero spoke the Bicol Pilar dialect. They are the only ones not speaking the Bicol Donsol dialect. They attribute this to their ancestors originating from Pilar which was part of Donsol then. The Spanish mestizo owner was a friend of the owners of the Pilar astillero according to Nocido. The wooden posts near the riverbanks in all the three astilleros can be associated with the presence of a pier. These huge wooden posts approximately 30-40 cm in diameter that were deeply buried were neither for houses nor trading centers. This 9 �can be seen in the Donsol astillero where these wooden posts had pointed and grooved ends that would secure them from being swayed. In the Panlatuan astillero, the wooden posts were still firmly secured on the ground even if only approximately 30 cm can be seen during low tide. They were arranged either parallel or perpendular to each other. The presence of structures in the three astilleros also point to a single construction architecture that was prevalent during the Spanish period. The use of earthenware roofing tiles, thick walls using riverine stones and adobe tuff and lime mortar. The remains of the different structures are similar to those other Spanish period structures that have big windows and door frames. The deep well for water also used adobe tuff as building material. The foundation for the watch tower also used riverine cobble stones. Lastly, the fence that enclosed the Panlatuan Astillero did not only use cobble stones but also added imported broken glass on the top for added protection. Based on the artifacts recovered, the structures documented and the accounts given by the cultural consultants, the three astilleros were established to complement each other. This can be based on the types of activities that were carried out in the different astilleros where there was no duplication observed. The Donsol astillero was used as construction and repair site for galleons and smelting site too. The Binanuahan astillero must have been the administrative site while the Panlatuan astillero was also the construction site for galleons and smelting site for iron. It is easier to smelt ore in Donsol and Panlatuan because of the rivers that can transport the coal from Batan Island to the sites. It is also easy to roll the galleon once construction or repair work is finished and this same for the Panlatuan astillero. The area was large and it was possible to conduct various shipbuilding activities. The ruins of a watchtower as well as the possible warehouse and the large water wells are testament to its size. Large amount of slag and the oily soil can still be seen at present near the shore that would point to smelting activities before. The waters nearby is also deep, favorable for rolling the ship once it is built or repaired. In the Binanuahan astillero on the other hand, the remains of the palisade can be construed as a way of securing the place of administration. The ruins of the structure point more to a house or building of commerce rather than a storage structure because of the 10 �presence of openings for windows, a courtyard and doors. Unfortunately, it was impossible to see the full extent of the palisade because of natural (tidal changes) and human interventions. Interviews conducted with the locals confirmed the impression that much of the astillero is already underwater because of the presence of two river systems that meet nearby. It has been said by many authors (Schurz, 1985; Mallari, 1990; Dery, 1991; Legarda, 1999) that the Bicol Region was one of the areas where shipyards were constructed because it had some of the best forests where hardwoods can be found in addition to its skilled boat builders. Bicol, especially Sorsogon, is dotted with bays and coves as well as navigable rivers and streams that serve as transport system for human and cargoes alike. Both natural and human resources made Sorsogon a good choice for the establishment of astilleros with Sorsogon facing the famous San Bernardino Strait, the main route of the galleons. Bicolanos, like the other boat builders in the country, were capable of building big and small boats (Cuevas and Santiago, 2006; Scott, 1981; 1994). They were skilled boat-builders, mariners and metallurgists. At present, there are still blacksmiths in Sorsogon making machetes. Archaeological evidences have indicated that as early as 500 BC the inhabitants of the archipelago had knowledge of metallurgy (Beyer, 1947; Fox, 1970; Solheim, 2002; Dizon, 1988, 1979). This knowledge is thus presumed to have persisted until the coming of the Spaniards. The shipyards of Sorsogon continue to beguile people. At present, there are no more shipyards but many Bicolanos, including those from Donsol and Pilar still making boats for their own use or for commerce. They do not have blueprints nor complex tools. When asked, their answer is “because it has been done that way”. Acknowledgment I would like to acknowledge the help extended by the National Museum, Department of Tourism-Region V, Department of Energy, Sorsogon Provincial Tourism Council, Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation, Drs. Francisco Datar and Meliton Ordillas, Messrs. Rey Santiago, Melchor Aguilera, Antonio Penalosa, Alfredo Orogo and the lot owners. 11 �References Agoncillo, T., 1990. History of the Filipino People. Garotech Publishing, Quezon City. Aguilera, M. L., 1997. Detailed Geological Study of Astillero Site in Barangay Dancalan, Donsol, Sorsogon. In The Astillero: A Metal Smelting Site, Bgy. Dancalan, Donsol, Sorsogon. A Report submitted to the Department of Tourism. National Museum, Manila: 1-14. Arcilla, J. S., 1971. An Introduction to Philippine History. Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City. Beyer, H. O., 1947. Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by Islands and Provinces. The Philippine Journal of Science, Vol. 77 (3-4) July-August 1947. Bolunia, M. J. L. A., 1998. Astillero: An Archaeological Analysis of a 19th Century Metal Smelting Site. University of the Philippines, Unpublished Thesis. Bolunia, M. J. L. A., 1997. The Astillero: A Metal Smelting Site, Bgy. Dancalan, Donsol, Sorsogon. A Report Submitted to the Department of Tourism. National Museum, Manila: 15-53. Bolunia, M. J. L. A., 1995. Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Exploration and Test Excavation of the Astillero Site, Dancalan, Donsol, Sorsogon. Manuscript. National Museum, Manila. Cuevas, M., Ronquillo, W., and Santiago, R., 2006. Boat Building Traditions in Pre-18th Century Philippines. ASEAN-COCI, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Dery, L. C., 1991. From Ibalon to Sorsogon: A Historical Survey of Sorsogon Province to 1905. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Dizon, E. Z., 1988. Iron Age in the Philippines. PhD Dissertation. University of Pennsylvania, United States of America. Dizon, E. Z., 1979. Tigkiw na Saday: Final Report. Anthropological Papers No. 2, National Museum, Manila, p.49. Department of Energy., 1997. Energy Research Laboratory Report. Department of Energy, Makati, p.2. Goyena, D. P. M., 1981. Ibalon: Ethnohistory of Bikol Region. AMS Press, City. 12 Legazpi �Jocano, F. L., 1998. Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage. Punlad House, Quezon City. Fox, R., 1970. The Tabon Caves. National Museum, Manila. Mallari, F., S. J., 1990. Vignettes of Bicol History. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Mallari, F., S.J., 1999. Ibalon Under Siege. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Malanyaon, J., 1991. Philippines: A History of the Bikol Region. AMS Press, Naga City. Legarda, B., 1999. After the Galleons. Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City. Pigafetta, A., and Transylvanus, M., 1969. First Voyage Around the World and de Moluccis Insulis. Filipiniana Book Guild, Manila. Robles, E. G., 1969. The Philippines in the Nineteenth Century. Malaya Books, Inc., Quezon City Schurz, W. L., 1985. The Manila Galleon. E.P. Dutton & Co., New York. Scott, W. H., 1994. Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture & Society. Ateneo de Manila University Press, Quezon City. Scott, W. H., 1992. Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Scott, W. H., 1977. Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History. Revised Edition. New Day Publishers, Quezon City. Scott, W. H., 1981. Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society. National Museum, Manila. Solheim, W., 2002. The Archaeology of Central Philippines: A Study Chiefly of the Iron Age and its Relationships. Revised Edition, University of the Philippines, Archaeological Studies Program, Quezon City. Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia is the Acting Senior Museum Researcher and is presently the Officer-in-Charge of the Archaeology Division. She earned her PhD in Anthropology from the University of the Philippines. Her research interests include prehistoric maritime trade and exchange. She has been working in Butuan excavating the fourth and fifth prehistoric Butuan boats ca. 12th-13th centuries CE. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Introduction interview with session chair María Cruz Berrocal and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Research on early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region makes a fundamental contribution to the study of Global History. In the last decades, historians are highlighting the region's relevance in the transformation of global economy through its role in far-reaching trade networks. The early beginnings of colonialism in the region, as well as the role of non-Angloamerican colonial agents in the shaping of modern world have been also highlighted. Although these debates have been driven largely from history, archaeology must become more prominent for the study of early modern colonialism in the Asia-Pacific region through the study of consumption patterns, environmental effects, demographic impacts, transformation of gender systems brought about by contact, the role of material culture in these first colonial endeavours, and specifically, the important evidence that maritime archaeology can bring to the fore. It is argued in this session that new lines of evidence and argumentation will be found through a history- archaeology joint collaboration. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. María Cruz Berrocal Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon Description An account of the resource When the Spanish colonizers reached Philippine soils, one of the earliest places they occupied is the tip of southern Luzon including the San Bernardino Strait. The whole area was known as Ambos Camarines and Albay. At present, it is the Bicol Region comprised of six provinces. As one of the earliest Spanish-occupied areas, it was exposed to Spanish activities like building of churches, government halls and shipbuilding. Ancient shipyards called astilleros are found in Bicol. These were used for construction and repair of the galleons that plied the Manila-Acapulco trade. This present archaeological study looks into the shipyards of Sorsogon where three shipyards were documented. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 5 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/13d2232f8a43d13cfdc81b0ea62c6b80.pdf 1affe1abdd590747caf5ce32897c7c27 PDF Text Text The Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Marshall Islands; A Discussion of the Resources, the Legislation, the Community, Protection and Preservation Mary Jane Naone Abstract The unique underwater cultural heritage (UCH) of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) remains a formidable challenge for management and preservation. The heritage includes traditional sites such as important coral reef heads and Marshallese fish traps, the Japanese and American signature of World War II in the Pacific, and the material evidence of nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll. Last year, Bikini Atoll was inscribed as a World Heritage Site, and Kwajalein Atoll remains a United States National Historic Landmark. Traditional sites continue to be used by Marshallese navigators and fisherman. A widening circle of legislation informs management, including the respective RMI and United States legislation, U.S. military regulations, and global strategies for World Heritage management. Consultation and planning may require involvement from landowners, Irooj (traditional chiefs), mayors, tour operators, developers, the military, local cultural resource officers, and the governing agencies. Geography and unreliable transport pose a challenge to preservation and protection. The 29 atolls and 5 islands are not easily reachable, requiring collaboration and creativity for survey and monitoring. Threats to underwater cultural resources range from WWII wreck looting to ensuring continued access for fisherman to traditional fish traps at a proposed surf resort. The value of historic preservation often competes with development interests and the immediacy of economic need. This paper is a discussion of the ways that the Historic Preservation Office approaches the vastness, multiplicity of legislation, range of stakeholders, and challenges that are associated with preservation and protection of the UCH in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. First I present an overview of the geography and the resources, followed by discussion of the various legislation and our actions to address the challenges and build capacity to protect and preserve the UCH in the Marshall Islands. Geography A discussion of the preservation of the UCH of the Marshall Islands must begin with an understanding of the vastness of the country. The Marshall Islands are approximately 5000 miles southeast of Japan, and halfway between Hawaii and Australia. The two chains of atolls and islands that make up the Marshall Islands are traditionally referred to as the Ralik (eastern) and the Radik chain (western). The northwestern atolls were traditional known as Kabin Meto, or the “far reaches of the sea” or “bottom of the sea” (National Biodiversity Team 2000:1011). While the land mass of the 29 coral atolls and 5 islands totals an area of 70 square miles, the Exclusive Economic Zone that differentiates the waters surrounding the archipelago from the rest of Micronesia covers 750,000 square miles. Dry land forms less than 1% of the country’s area. There are 1,225 �individual islets and islands that make up the Marshall Islands, and amongst the atolls, a total lagoon area of 4,507 square miles. Of these, Kwajalein Atoll is the largest atoll (and largest in the world) with a lagoon area of 839 square miles and a land area of about 6 square miles (National Biodiversity Team 2000:11). Due to its remote location and large lagoon, Kwajalein is leased by the United States government for use as a military base and ballistic missile testing site. Resources The Marshallese are internationally regarded as skilled navigators, peopling the remote atolls after traveling great distances in outrigger canoes reading the swells, ocean currents, and the weather. Traditional sites demonstrate this intimacy with the ocean and include coral reef heads featured in bwebenwato (storytelling), mo, and the fish traps that are still in use today. Marshallese Irooj (chiefs) set aside land, lagoon, and ocean areas as mo, off limits for harvesting or fishing – this allowed depleted resources to recover before the area was used again, ensuring sustainability. The vast cultural landscape of the country includes these natural resources that have roles in bwebenwato (storytelling), the components of travel (swells, weather) and the basis of survival (healthy biodiversity and the coral reef). In the 14th century, Spanish wayfarers voyaged into Micronesia, and although they didn’t occupy the lands, claimed “discovery” of several of the atolls. They were followed intermittently throughout the 1500s – 1700s by more Spanish, British, and Dutch ships. British Captain William Marshall, commander of the Scarborough and Thomas Gilbert of the Charlotte are credited for discovering the Marshall Islands in 1788. In 1885 the Marshall Islands became a protectorate of Germany which lasted until 1914. After the outbreak of WWII in Europe, the Japanese succeeded Germany in administration of the Marshalls, and sought to develop Micronesia economically and to begin fortification of the islands in preparation for WWII in the Pacific. The Japanese fortified Kwajalein, Jaluit, Maloelap, Mili, and Wotje in the 1930s, relocating the residents to other atolls. In 1937, the famous American aviator, Amelia Earhart, and her navigator, Fred Noonan, disappeared on a trans-Pacific flight, and one theory placed her in the Marshalls (Roach 2003). World War II started in 1941 and the United States gained supremacy in the Pacific, conquering Kwajalein, Majuro and Enewetok Atolls within one month. The U.S. fortified Kwajalein and Enewetok, and took over trusteeship of the Marshall Islands in 1944. The UCH of the Marshall Islands includes the material signature of the events of World War II. Sunken ships and airplanes characterize the war torn atolls and undoubtedly extend beyond our current scope of investigation. A recent survey of Ujae Atoll, arguably removed from the main areas of WWII activity, revealed an intact Catalina B-5 bomber, typically used for scouting, sunken in the lagoon. Kwajalein Atoll has an extensive underwater WWII story, characterized by new finds in addition to the prestigious wrecks long explored. �The event that placed the Marshall Islands in the global consciousness came after the war. Following the takeover, the United States detonated 23 thermonuclear weapons in the Marshall Islands. Chosen for its remote location, the United States assembled WWII Japanese and U.S. warships into Bikini Atoll’s lagoon, fortified the atoll with bunkers, and relocated the Bikiniians to neighboring atolls in an epic and unforgettable agreement that they were leaving their homeland “for the good of all mankind and to end all world wars” (Baker and Niedenthal 2009:33) During the first peace time test of an atomic bomb, the fallout from the tests effectively radiated hundreds of Marshallese, Japanese fisherman, and military servicemen. Due to its outstanding universal value, Bikini Atoll was inscribed as a World Heritage Site in July of last year (2010). Bikini Atoll represents the nuclear age, the introduction of fallout, the first peacetime atomic tests, and serves as an illustration of nuclear colonialism. Bikini testing marked the beginning of the Cold War and motivated a global anti-nuclear movement in the second half of the twentieth century, including the signing of the “Suginami” petition in Japan after a radiated fishing boat distributed radiated tuna into the markets. The UCH of Bikini stands as a testament to the nuclear testing. In the Bikini Atoll lagoon ten sunken vessels remain from the tests from the U.S. Saratoga, which features Helldiver planes and an Avenger torpedo bomber on her deck, to the Nagato, a Japanese flagship that assisted in the operation at Pearl Harbour (Baker and Niedenthal 2009:21). The collection of testing targets represents over thirty years of naval design and development of which most of the ships had prestigious roles in WWII prior to the testing (Delgado et al., 1991:143). Legislation The legislation governing the UCH in the Marshall Islands reflects the variety of resources, origin, and ownership. The Historic Preservation Act of 1991 and the Regulations Passed Pursuant to the Act mandate cultural resource management within the country. In addition, United States funded activities in the Marshall Islands are governed by the U.S. National Historic Preservation Act. The United States Army at Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA) has three governing documents, and the Bikini World Heritage Site is managed with deference to the recommendations of the World Heritage Committee. The Historic Preservation Office (HPO) which is housed in the building of the Ministry of Internal Affairs1 works with the local governments, the USAKA, the U.S. National Park Service, and Bikini Atoll Local Government and Management Committee to implement the legislation protecting submerged resources. The HPO implements the diving permitting procedure in the legislation (Spennemann 1992:85). Visitors traveling to outer islands must get an Outer Island Entry Permit from the Local Government office. The Local Government 1 The Ministry of Internal Affairs (IA) is a branch of the federal government located in the RMI capitol, Majuro. IA houses the local government office, women’s services, child advocacy, and the Historic Preservation Office. �office in the capitol of Majuro is in contact with the local governments on the outer islands and serves as a hub for communication. Once the visitors obtain an Outer Island Entry Permit and pay a fee to visit the islands (atolls) they wish to visit they are sent to the HPO to obtain a diving permit. The diving permit is $50USD for individuals and they must be certified divers. The permit contains information about the UCH and serves as an agreement that the diver is aware of the legislation protecting the UCH and will abide by it. Snorkelers are also subject to the agreement. We provide the radio station with the names of the visitors and their activities which are then radioed to the respective atolls. As the diving permit is tied to the Outer Island Entry Permit it ensures accountability to the local government about the visitor(s)’s activities. Due to the breadth of the country the HPO trains Cultural Resource Officers from the outer atolls to assist with the implementation of the legislation. The Mayors of the outer atolls appoint the Cultural Resource Officers who may report back to the HPO should there be problems with visitors and diving. Additionally, the HPO issues Dive Tour Operator Affidavits which place the tour operator as monitor of the responsible party for implementation of the legislation. The dive tour operator pays $150USD annually for the permit to operate dive tours and the HPO provides historic preservation education to the dive masters and employees of the dive tour operation. The USAKA operates according to the Environmental Standards and Procedures for U.S. Army at Kwajalein Atoll Activities in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (UES) which was enacted in 1995 and are reviewed every two years. The three regulatory documents, the UES, the Document of Environmental Protection (DEP) and the Historic Preservation Plan (HPP) provide the basis for the cultural management on Kwajalein Atoll. The Army has also released policy CR 200-4, which prohibits looting and artifact collection on Kwajalein. Roi Namur and Kwajalein Island were listed as U.S. National Historic Landmarks in 1985 but the boundaries of the listing have to be clarified to assess the designation’s effect on the protection of UCH. USAKA representatives have maintained that the designation became null in recent years. The issue remains unresolved and is currently in consultation. In 2002 the Marshall Islands accepted the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. This is an international treaty that binds the RMI to an agreement to promote and protect cultural and natural heritage. Following Bikini Atoll’s inscription as a World Heritage Site in 2010 the RMI is responsible for managing the site in accordance with the general objectives of the Convention, and periodic reporting provides an opportunity to cooperate with the World Heritage Committee to ensure the policies and aims of the Convention are being met. Challenges There are several factors that render the UCH vulnerable and present challenges to its protection: unsurveyed and unmapped resources, limited staffing, limited �monitoring, military security, foreign development, and the question of economic and/or resource benefit(s) of underwater resources to visitors and islanders. Additionally, the rising sea levels and eroding shorelines have introduced new resources into the ocean and produced concerns about ownership into the future. An accurate assessment of the UCH within the 750,000 square miles of the country is still beyond our reach. Of the 29 atolls and 5 islands, 12 remain to be surveyed by the HPO for cultural resources. Underwater surveys have been conducted at Wotje, Maloelap, Bikini, Jaluit, Mili, and Majuro. Like our Micronesian neighbors the remote reaches of the country belie monitoring. While our administrative procedures for diving activities ensure education and communication between the capitol city and outer islands. Implementation of our laws is subject to visibility and reporting. The HPO is responsible for conducting survey and inventory and funded by the U.S. National Park Service (NPS). Staff capacity is limited and funding can be delayed pending grant reporting. The professional staff are contracted for two years. The office has seen considerable delays in hiring, causing a gap in implementation of the legislation as well as progress towards realizing the extent of the UCH. Looting remains a problem on the military base of Kwajalein. Limited capacity within the RMI local government office on Ebeye, military security, and a poor understanding of the conditions of the wrecks over time have impeded our office’s efforts to investigate complaints. Complaints from divers on Kwajalein have been anonymous for fear of backlash. The HPO has attempted to enlist the Kwajalein Scuba Club to provide monitoring information but questions of ownership over the wrecks and the lagoon as well as the disbelief that there is “anything left” to strip have led to an impasse. The recent dismantling of a rare aircraft below legal dive limits and a formal complaint with “before” and “after” photographs has heightened RMI action; leading to a government to government cooperation to address the problem through legislation and investigation. Foreign development poses a new challenge to the UCH. Many developers simply don’t “see” the resource as a national heritage and RMI’s strong land ownership rights can impede implementation of the legislation. A recent development proposal for a surf resort on the outer islet of Berang, in Ailinglaplap Atoll, included leasing the water surrounding the islet for exclusive use by the developer. However, neighboring islanders have frequented the area for fishing, and the northern shore of the islet features historic, possibly prehistoric, fish traps (Wright 2011:31). During consultation with the RMI Environmental Protection Agency, we questioned whether the waters of the RMI can be leased due to the Public Lands Act, which stipulates that “all marine areas below the high watermark are the property of the RMI government”.2 Exclusive use of the waters surrounding Berang Islet requires negotiation with the federal government and a special permit should be sought. In the event that a permit of this type is sought, the 2 www.rmicourts.org - Search Public Lands and Resources Act, pdf, Chapter 1, Public Lands, Section 103. �Historic Preservation Office will request that Ailinglaplap residents may continue to use the traditional fish traps as it is an established traditional cultural site protected by the Historic Preservation Act. The power of landowners to make agreements regarding their land and shorelines may conflict with historic preservation measures, and requires careful negotiation to ensure protection of the resource. The interconnectedness of natural and cultural resources should inform protection. In the above example concerning Berang Islet, the developer questioned whether the traps were anything more than “natural reef lines”. The Marshallese have traditionally utilized natural reef formations as traps, abridging the formations by stacking additional reef rock or closing off an area. These areas may not be recognizable as a cultural resource to foreigners. Traditional sites in the Marshall Islands are defined as the “sites, landmarks and locations to which oral traditions of the indigenous people of the Marshall Islands are attached” (Spennemann 1992:13). As all traditional sites are significant according to the legislation the sites qualify for eligibility to the RMI National Register. Traditional sites include landmarks assisting with navigation, coral reef heads, sacred areas, and traditional sites. Much of the success in the implementation of the legislation regarding the preservation of UCH depends on the investment of Marshallese citizens as it is difficult to inscribe value to historic underwater resources without a recognizable impetus or economic stimulus. Throughout the Marshall Islands WWII artifacts have been reused as household and technical implements; to a lesser degree the same is true for the underwater WWII heritage (Spennemann 2006: 272). However, growing recognition of the benefits of visitors and preserving destinations for cultural tourism as well as education about historic preservation may deter future looting of the wrecks for household use. The future of the UCH will likely meet more government to government relations as climate change and rising sea levels affect atolls throughout the Pacific Ocean. Shoreline graves have been eroding into the lagoon and ocean for years. Predictions that the atolls will be underwater in the not-so-distant future necessitate discussion about mitigating effects to shoreline resources. There may also be questions of ownership of the UCH should the land they are governed by become submerged. Capacity Building The HPO has addressed many of the challenges to preservation by collaborating with those close to the resources. This includes landowners, divers, snorkelers, fishermen, the scuba club, local governments, and others. Given the remote reaches of the country and the limited capacity to implement corrective measures for violations of the legislation, the HPO emphasizes education and networking. We work with dive operations to request status reports of the underwater heritage. Most tour operators and dive clubs maintain that stripped wrecks are bad for business and make for a compromised experience. We are attempting to �enlist the Kwajalein Scuba Club to assist with monitoring of the wrecks and provide education to divemasters at Bikini Atoll. Bikini Atoll Local Government has recently allowed diving at the World Heritage Site and manages the exclusive tour operation activities by requiring two Bikiniian live aboard monitors, a divemaster in the water, and a monitor on deck of the charter boat to watch the divers as they get on and off the boat. The HPO is creating an educational dive brochure to distribute when issuing dive permits, and to provide to the Marshall Islands Visitors Authority. The RMI Advisory Council of Historic Preservation (ACHP) provides support to RMI HPO in protection of the heritage. For the past year the HPO has addressed complaints about looting on the military base at Kwajalein. The RMI ACHP, featuring government officials from various ministries, the Council of Irooj, and local non government organizations (NGOs) provides the official support to engage RMI high level officials in government to government relations. The support of the ACHP ensures cultural resource issues are taken seriously. We also consult with natural resource managers and educators at monthly Coastal Management Advisory Committee (CMAC) board meetings, and collaborate on potential surveys and projects. CMAC features representatives from the Environmental Protection Agency, Marine Resources Authority, non-forprofit conservation, and others. Meeting with CMAC affords the opportunity to build capacity by sharing resources and training as well as to collaborate on understanding the multifaceted impacts of development projects and resource exploitation. The HPO stays abreast of natural resource protection measures and maintains relationships with the stakeholders. Earlier this year HPO staff attended the workshop “Marshall Islands Comprehensive Legislative Review”, as the Marshalls are part of Western and Central Pacific Fishing Commission (WCPFC) and used the opportunity to request insertion of language about protection of the underwater cultural resource. Given recent local, national and international collaboration we remain optimistic, while it is clear that there are formidable challenges facing effective protection of the important underwater resources of the RMI. Building relationships with the stakeholders and emphasizing education about historic preservation on the outer atolls builds cooperation and capacity. The inscription of Bikini Atoll as a World Heritage Site has opened discussions about protection of the resources at Bikini World Heritage Site and throughout the country. As the field of maritime archaeology expands globally the UCH of the Marshall Islands will continue to gain exposure for its uniqueness and importance. Using creativity and collaboration the HPO will continue its mission of the documentation and protection of the underwater sites recognized as important resources to the cultural history of the Marshall Islands. �Bibliography Baker, N. and Niedenthal, J., 2009 Delgado, J.P., Lenihan, D.J. & Murphy, L.F., 1991 Delgado, J. P., 1996 Finney, S., 2007 National Biodiversity Team, 2000 Neidenthal, J., 2002 Roach, J., 2003 Spennemann, D., 1992 Spennemann, D., 1998 Spennemann, D., 2000 Spennemann, D., 2006 Spennemann, D., Bikini Atoll: Nomination by the Republic of the Marshall Islands For Inscription on the World Heritage List Majuro, 2010. The Archaeology of the Atomic Bomb: A Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment of the Sunken Fleet of Operation Crossroads at Bikini and Kwajalein Atoll Lagoons, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Santa Fe, N.M: US Department of the Interior,National Park Service, Submerged Cultural Resources Unit. Note: an online version can be found at http://www.nps.gov/history/history/ online_books/swcrc/37/contents.htm Ghost Fleet: The Sunken Ships of Bikini Atoll University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Phase Two Survey and Inventory of Submerged Cultural Resources in Portions of Maloelap Lagoon, Republic of the Marshall Islands, HPO Report, Majuro. The Marshall Islands – Living Atolls Amidst the Living Sea. Santa Clarita, Ca: St. Hildegard. For the Good of All Mankind; A History of the People of Bikini and their Islands. Bravo Publishers, Majuro. Where is Amelia Earhart? Three Theories National Geographic News http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/12/121 5_031215_ameliaearhart.html Republic of the Marshall Islands Historic Preservation Legislation. Majuro: Ministry of Internal & Social Affairs, Historic Preservation Office. Essays on the Marshallese Past Second Edition. Albury: URL: http://life.csu.edu.au/marshall/html/essays/es-arc 1.html. Freshwater Lens, Settlement Patterns, Resource Use and Connectivity. Albury: URL: http://life.csu.edu.au/marshall/mile.html. Freshwater Lens, Settlement Patterns, Resource Use and Connectivity in the Marshall Islands Transforming Cultures eJournal, Vol.1 No.2, June 2006 http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/TfC Examples of Adaptive Re-Use of World War II �2006 Tobin, J., 1952 Williamson, R.V., 2001 Wright, M.J., 2011 Artefacts in Micronesia Micronesica Vol.5 n.1/2. pp.269-285. Land Tenure in the Marshall Islands. Atoll Research Bulletin 11. The Challenge of Survey and Site Preservation in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Cultural Resource Management 24: 44-45. An Inventory of Archaeological Resources on Berang Islet, Ailinglaplap Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. HPO Report 2011/01. Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands: Historic Preservation Office. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Underwater Cultural Heritage of the Marshall Islands; A Discussion of the Resources, the Legislation, the Community, Protection and Preservation Subject The topic of the resource Session 8: Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource The unique underwater cultural heritage (UCH) of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) remains a formidable challenge for management and preservation. The heritage includes traditional sites such as important coral reef heads and Marshallese fish traps, the Japanese and American signature of World War II in the Pacific, and the material evidence of nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll. Last year, Bikini Atoll was inscribed as a World Heritage Site, and Kwajalein Atoll remains a United States National Historic Landmark. Traditional sites continue to be used by Marshallese navigators and fisherman. A widening circle of legislation informs management, including the respective RMI and United States legislation, U.S. military regulations, and global strategies for World Heritage management. Consultation and planning may require involvement from landowners, Irooj (traditional chiefs), mayors, tour operators, developers, the military, local cultural resource officers, and the governing agencies. Geography and unreliable transport pose a challenge to preservation and protection. The 29 atolls and 5 islands are not easily reachable, requiring collaboration and creativity for survey and monitoring. Threats to underwater cultural resources range from WWII wreck looting to ensuring continued access for fisherman to traditional fish traps at a proposed surf resort. The value of historic preservation often competes with development interests and the immediacy of economic need. This paper is a discussion of the ways that the Historic Preservation Office approaches the vastness, multiplicity of legislation, range of stakeholders, and challenges that are associated with preservation and protection of the UCH in the Republic of the Marshall Islands. First I present an overview of the geography and the resources, followed by discussion of the various legislation and our actions to address the challenges and build capacity to protect and preserve the UCH in the Marshall Islands. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mary Jane Naone Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kaitei Kyuuden 海底宮殿 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Masaaki Kimura Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Jitsugyō no Nihonsha Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Masaaki Kimura Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Jitsugyō no Nihonsha Title A name given to the resource Kaitei Kyuuden 海底宮殿 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Yamatogatasen: Sentai. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Masafumi Horiuchi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Seizandoshoten Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Masafumi Horiuchi Item Type Book ISBN 442530201X Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 193 Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Seizandoshoten Short Title Yamatogatasen Title A name given to the resource Yamatogatasen: Sentai. Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/87cbe8eb246c04ada634f17f3dd9bd76.mp4 ad6d50925a971a265c6819450cb71c83 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development <br /><br /><em>Editor&rsquo;s note: Although Dr. Jeffery refers to Session 2 in his interview it was later changed to Session 3. He also discusses Session 11.</em> Subject The topic of the resource A video interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery about Sessions 3 and 11. Description An account of the resource Description: Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bill Jeffery Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/12/2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development Subject The topic of the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 with links to the papers presented in Session 3. Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Event A non-persistent, time-based occurrence. Metadata for an event provides descriptive information that is the basis for discovery of the purpose, location, duration, and responsible agents associated with an event. Examples include an exhibition, webcast, conference, workshop, open day, performance, battle, trial, wedding, tea party, conflagration. Participants Names of individuals or groups participating in the event. <a title="Link to paper." href="http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1585">Intangible Heritage Approach of Safeguarding Underwater Heritage: A Trans-disciplinary Perspective</a> by Montakarn Suvanatap<br /><br /><a title="Link to paper." href="http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1584">Seabee Junkyard: A Holistic and Locally Inclusive Approach to Site Management and Interpretation</a> by Kalle Applegate Palmer and Bill Jeffery<br /><br /><a title="Link to paper." href="http://www.themua.org/collections/items/show/1583">The Fiji Museum’s Efforts Towards the Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites</a> in Fiji by Elia Nakoro Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: <br />• Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; <br />• Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. <br /><br /><br /><em>Editor’s note: </em><br /><br /><em>Although Dr. Jeffery refers to Session 2 in his interview that session was later changed to Session 3.</em> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Meretui Ratunabuabua Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 3 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f7400a7ea36a4f42b250878d7c118ff9.pdf 32564c779549bdb842b13b9696097687 PDF Text Text Micromorphological and chemical characteristics of waterlogged archaeological bamboo Mi Young CHA1 Abstract Waterlogged archaeological bamboo works such as bamboo slips and bamboo baskets, etc. were unearthed during excavations of the Mado shipwreck No. 1 excavation in 2009. Despite the number of bamboo artefacts recovered from underwater sites, the characteristics and conservation of waterlogged archeological bamboo unearthed from the sea have not been studied sufficiently. Following examinations of waterlogged archaeological bamboo using optical, scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy, it was found that waterlogged archaeological bamboo has been invaded by soft rot fungi and erosion and tunneling bacteria. This is similar to the usual micromorphological decay characteristics of waterlogged archaeological wood. Unlike waterlogged wood however, waterlogged bamboo demonstrated differences in aspects of decay in the interlayer structure of the fibre cell and in the degree of decay, depending on the parts of the bundle sheath examined. Chemical analyses suggested that, as in waterlogged archaeological wood, cellulose and hemicellulose were significantly degraded and the content of lignin was relatively high in waterlogged bamboo. 1. Introduction Many bamboo artefacts have been recovered from shipwrecks in Korean waters. Excavations of the Mado No. 1 shipwreck in 2009 uncovered waterlogged archaeological bamboo artefacts such as bamboo slips, chopsticks and baskets (Figure 1; National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 2010). Large numbers of waterlogged bamboo artefacts were also recovered from the Mado shipwreck No. 2 in 2010 and from the Mado shipwreck No. 3 that is still being excavated (National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage in press). 1 Underwater Excavation and Conservation Division, National Research Institute of Maritime Culture Heritage, KOREA cmy040301@nate.com �Figure 1. Bamboo slips from Mado shipwreck No. 1 (National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2010) Bamboo artefacts are very important, particularly the bamboo slips that were found with rice seeds, buck wheat and millet because the writing on them provides valuable archaeological information about trade and the date of the shipwreck. The year that the goods were packed, the names of the senders of the goods and the people to whom they were despatched were given on these slips. Ceramics found on the same shipwreck could then also be easily dated. Despite the large amount of bamboo that has been excavated from Asian shipwrecks, very little work has been done to characterise the type and extent of deterioration of these archaeologically valuable material types. This knowledge is very important as a guide to the best conservation method for the long-term stabilisation of these artefacts. On the other hand, the deterioration of waterlogged wood has been extensively studied. Waterlogged archaeological wood, excavated after being buried for long periods in boggy marshes, lakes or the marine environment, is usually deteriorated due to attack by non-biological and/or biological agents. In the case of wood that has been buried in the ocean for hundreds of years, the wood breaks down due to attack by marine organisms such as Teredo navalis or by the chemical actions of sea water and the attack of soft rot fungi, erosion bacteria and tunneling bacteria. Changes induced by microbiological attack can be verified through microscopic and chemical analyses. Decay of wood by soft rot fungi mainly occurs in the thick cell walls of the latewood and a cavity is formed in the middle layer of the secondary cell wall. Soft rot fungal decay also occurs in the cell wall of the cell lumen. Decay of the secondary wall is usually widespread while that of middle lamella is quite insignificant by comparison. When examined using optical microscopy, evidence of bacterial decay of the secondary wall is provided by the appearance of a form of granulates. It is �possible to differentiate between attack by erosion and tunneling bacteria by examining the pattern of decay in the cell wall. Erosion bacteria decay the S2 layer, penetrating into the S3 layer and attack the secondary wall. They do not attack the middle lamella. On the other hand, tunneling bacteria attack the S2 layer as well as the S1 layer, penetrating the middle lamella and leaving a crescent-shaped decay pattern in the area in which wood cell wall was decayed (Eriksson et al 1990; Hoffmann and Jones 1990:35-65; Kim and Singh 2000:135155; Singh and Butcher 1991:143-157). Chemical and microbiological attack on wood has the biggest impact on the cellulose and hemicellulose components. These polysaccharide components are more easily degraded than the polyphenolic lignins, leading to significant decreases in the polysaccharide content and a corresponding relative increase in the amount of lignin retained in waterlogged wood (Hedges 1990:111-140; Hoffmann and Jones 1990:35-65; Kim 1993; Kim, et al. 1990:3-7). As seen above, much research has been devoted to the analysis and preservation of waterlogged archaeological wood. Unfortunately, probably because of the relative scarcity of bamboo on many shipwreck sites, the pattern of decay and changes in the chemical characteristics of waterlogged archaeological bamboo have not been adequately determined. The archaeological significance of bamboo artefacts however, demands that a study of the nature of their deterioration be conducted. This study aimed therefore to analyze the micromorphological characteristics and the changes in the chemical components of waterlogged archaeological bamboo and compare these with the characteristics of both modern, undegraded bamboo and with waterlogged wood. It was hoped that this comparison would provide information that could be used to guide conservation treatments of waterlogged archaeological bamboo. 2. Methods and materials Examinations were conducted of the micromorphological characteristics and changes in the chemical characteristics of waterlogged archaeological bamboo unearthed as part of the Mado shipwreck No. 1 underwater excavations in 2009. The Mado shipwreck No. 1 is estimated to have sunk in coastal waters near Mado island, Taean in the spring of 1208 (National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 2010). As there is no anatomical difference between Phyllostachys bambusolides, Phyllostachys nigra var. henonis and Phyllostachys pubescens which grow in Damyang, Korea (So, et al. 1999:7-14), this study used 3 year old, undegraded Phyllostachys bambusolides as a control group for comparison. The species of waterlogged archaeological bamboo unearthed in the Mado shipwreck excavations could not be precisely determined. 2.1 Micromorphological characteristics Collected samples were embedded in Spurr's resin after being fixed and dehydrated. Semi-thin sections were observed with an optical microscope (Olympus BX50) after being were dyed with Toluidine blue. Ultra-thin sections were observed with a transmission electron microscope (TEM, JEM-1400; JEOL Ltd., Japan) after being were dyed with KMnO4 and UALC. �2.2 Chemical characteristics Waterlogged archaeological bamboo samples used in this experiment were freeze-dried prior to characterisation to minimize changes that may have otherwise occurred during drying. 2.2.1 Material composition Prior to chemical component analysis, the bamboo samples were ground with a Wiley mill, producing a wooden powder of 60~80 mesh. Organic solvent extractives, holocellulose, Klason lignin, and ash were analyzed according to TAPPI standards while the monosaccharide components were analyzed by gas chromatographic techniques. 2.2.2 Chemical analysis Powder samples of less than 300 mesh were analyzed with FT-IR after mixing them with KBr in the proportion 100:0.05 and producing a pellet. For X- ray diffraction analysis, CuKα radiation was used at 40 kV and 20mA. The relative crystallinity was determined using the Segal method (Lee and Kim 1992:28-37) Cr. (%) = [(I200 - Iam)/ I200] x 100 I200 : diffraction intensity of (200) (2) Iam : diffraction intensity of non-crystalline region (2) 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Micromorphological characteristics Bamboo fibres have a polylaminated structure in which narrow and wide layers are repeated (Cho, et al. 2008:261-265; Liese 1987:196-208). Examination with an optical microscope showed that there were differences in decay between the layers. Decay of the bamboo fibres near parenchyma cells was more advanced than that of bamboo fibres near vessels. Cavities were found in bamboo fibres and the presence of granulates showed that they were attacked by soft rot fungi and bacteria. Observations using a TEM showed that there was difference in decay between the narrow layers and the broad layers in the polylaminated bamboo fibres. Although the waterlogged archaeological bamboo was attacked by both bacteria and soft rot fungi, most of the decay was caused by bacteria. Because the decay was so advanced it was impossible to clearly observe the exact nature of the decay of the bamboo samples. It was possible however, to observe the damage caused by tunneling bacteria. In some bamboo fibres, the deterioration of the cell lumen is similar to that of the middle lamella. �Figure 2. Bundle sheath of waterlogged archaeological bamboo(x200) (photo by author). 3.2 Chemical characteristics 3.2.1 Material composition of waterlogged archaeological bamboo The chemical composition of waterlogged archaeological bamboo is shown below (Table 1). It is reported that unlike lignin, polysaccharides are easily decayed, especially in waterlogged archaeological wood (Hedges 1990:111-140; Fujii, et al. 1988:261-265; Kim, et al. 1990: 3-7; Kim 1993; Seifert and Jagels 1984:269-297; Taniguchi, et al. 1986:738-743). It was revealed that the ratio of holocellulose to lignin was 0.1 to 1, due to preferential decay of the polysaccharides compared to lignin in waterlogged archaeological bamboo, a result similar to that which has been previously demonstrated in waterlogged archaeological wood. The ratio of holocellulose to lignin was 3.1 to 1 in the bamboo control group. These results compare favourably with the results of earlier research on waterlogged archaeological wood (Hedges 1990:111-140; Hoffmann and Jones 1990:35-65; Kim, et al. 1990:3-7; Kim 1993). Assuming that all the glucose determined and reported in Table 1 originated from cellulose, the amount of cellulose and hemicellulose in degraded waterlogged archaeological bamboo is 8.1% and 8.4% respectively (Kim 1988:39). Based on the expected yields of glucose and hemicellulose sugars from �undegraded bamboo, approximately approximately 76.7 % of the bamboo cellulose and 79.3 % of the bamboo hemicellulose has therefore been lost from the waterlogged archaeological bamboo. The amount of organic solvent soluble material also deceased. It was difficult to clearly judge whether the loss of organic soluble extractives like resin, was caused by activities of marine microorganisms or by chemical degradation and dissolution into the sea water. The ash content of the waterlogged archaeological bamboo was 4.2 times greater than that of the control group. This result is not unexpected and is consistent with earlier reported results for waterlogged archaeological wood unearthed from marshes or underwater sites (Cha, et al. 2006:19-30; Hedges 1990:111-140; Hoffmann and Jones 1990:35-65; Kim, et al. 1990:3-7; Kim 1993). Table 1. Chemical composition of Control(Phyllostachys bambusolides ) and WAB (Waterlogged archaeological Bamboo). (% of dry matter) OSE Control 4.4 HL Rham Ara Xyl Man Gal Glu KL Ash 24.3 1.3 62.1 5.4 75.2 0 3.5 36.0 1.0 0 34.7 16.5 WAB 2.3 0.1 0.6 7.3 0.3 0.1 8.1 Abbreviations used: Rham (rhamnose), Ara (arabinose), Xyl (xylose), Man (mannose), Gal (galactose), Glu (glucose), HL (holocellulose), KL (Klason lignin), OSE (organic solvent extractives). 3.2.2 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and XRD analyses When analyzing the chemical characteristics of waterlogged archaeological bamboo with FT-IR, it was revealed that all components in the waterlogged archaeological bamboo sharply decreased. Cellulose absorptions at the 895, 1050 and 1160 cm-1 bands either disappeared or decreased. The 1730 cm-1 band corresponding to hemicelluloses disappeared and the combined -1 cellulose/hemicellulose band at 1315~1335 cm band sharply decreased. In the control group, one band (1251 cm-1) was found while in waterlogged archaeological bamboo, two bands at 1225 cm-1 and 1266 cm-1,were found. Absorptions at the 1220~1230 cm-1 band and at approximately 1270 cm-1 are attributed to guaiacyl lignin and it was found that the guaiacyl lignin component was less decayed than the syringyl type. This result supports the argument that as lignin decays, the decay resistance of guaiacyl lignin is greater than that of the syringyl type (Hedges 1990:111-140). The results of X- ray diffraction analyses are presented in Table 2. The diffraction intensity corresponding to crystalline cellulose (I200), sharply decreased while the diffraction intensity , corresponding to amorphous cellulose (Iam) decreased. When measuring the degree of relative crystallization according to �the Segal method, it was revealed that crystallization sharply decreased by over 4.7 times. Table 2. Relative crystallinity of Control(Phyllostachys bambusolides) and WAB (Waterlogged archaeological Bamboo). Relative crystallinity(%) Control 51.8% WAB 10.9% 4. Implications for Conservation Treatment of Bamboo The aim of this study was to determine the degree of degradation of waterlogged archaeological bamboo as a precursor to the determination of the most appropriate conservation treatment for these material types. The polysaccharide content, as found by the chemical determination of holocellulose (Table 1), corresponds to a maximum water content of approximately 700 % (Wilson, et al. 1993:599-610), indicating that the waterlogged archaeological bamboo is extremely degraded. Such extreme degradation would normally imply that PEG 4000 should be used to treat these materials. However because of the differences in the structures of wood and bamboo such a treatment would not necessarily be the best. It was also important to find a treatment that would stabilise the bamboo for eventual display in the high relative humidity conditions that exist in the Korean summer. Experiments are in progress therefore, in which different consolidants (PEG, sucrose and cetyl alcohol) are being used to determine the most effective treatment for these materials. For these consolidants different molecular weights (PEG), different concentrations and varying treatment times are being tested. Treated archaeological bamboo will be freeze-dried after consolidation. An analysis of the treatments, based on shrinkage data, colour, extent of cracking and checking and general aesthetic appearance will be used to determine the most effective treatment or treatments. The results of these tests and the conclusions drawn will be reported at a later date when all experiments have been completed. 5. Conclusions When observing waterlogged archaeological bamboo with an optical microscope and a TEM, it was revealed that waterlogged archaeological bamboo was decayed by soft rot fungi and bacteria, in a manner similar to the micromorphological decay of waterlogged archaeological wood. It was found that unlike the decay of wood however, in waterlogged bamboo, there were differences in aspects of decay of the layer structure in the fibrous cells of bamboo and in the degree of decay in the vascular regions of the plant. As with waterlogged archaeological wood, there is a relative increase in the lignin content compared to the holocellulose that degrades more readily. Research on changes in the chemical characteristics according to patterns �and processes of decay was not conclusive because the decay of the waterlogged archaeological bamboo used in this study was very highly advanced. Further research will be conducted into the changes in the chemical characteristics according to patterns and processes of decay. Bibliography Cha, M. Y., Lee, K. H., and Kim, Y. S., 2006 Cha, M. Y., Lee, K. H., and Kim, Y. S., 2011 Cho, C. H., Lee, K. H., Kim, J. S., and Kim, Y. S., 2008 Eriksson, K. E. L., Blanchette, R. A. and Ander, P., 1990 Fujii, T., Tamai, A., and Hiroi, T., 1988 Hedges, J. I., 1990 "Alteration of physical and chemical characteristics of waterlogged archaeological woods after cleaning", in Journal of Conservation Science, Korea Vol. 19, pp 19-30. "Micromorphological characteristics of waterlogged archaeological bamboo", in Proceedings of the Korean Society of Wood Science and Technology Annual Meeting, The Korean Society of Wood Science and Technology. "Micromorphological characteristics of bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) fibers degraded by a brown rot fungus (Gloeophyllum trabeum)", in Journal of Wood Science, Vol. 54, pp 261-265. Microbial and enzymatic degradation of wood and wood components, Springer Verlage, Berlin. "Cell wall structure of buried wood of Tochinoki (Aesclus turbinate B)", in Mokusai Gakkaishi, Vol. 34, pp 261-265. "The chemistry of archaeological wood", in (eds.) Roger M. Rowell and R. James Barbour, Archaeological Wood Properties, Chemistry, and Preservation, American Chemical Society, Washington D. C., pp 111-140. Hoffmann P., and "Structure and degradation process for waterlogged Jones, M. A., archaeological wood", in (eds.) Roger M. Rowell and R. James Barbour, Archaeological Wood Properties, 1990 Chemistry, and Preservation, American Chemical Society, Washington D. C., pp 35-65. Kim, Y. S., "Application of infrared spectroscopical techniques for investigation of archaeological woods", in Journal of the 1988 Korean Wood Science and Technology, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp 3-9. Kim, Y. S., Bang, "Chemical composition archaeological woods submerged in the seawater", in Journal of the Korean Wood Science and J. W., Kim, I. J. Technology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp 3-7. and Choi, K. N., 1990 Kim, I. J., Wooden characteristic and conservation of Jindo logboat, 1993 Report on the Excavation of Jindo logboat, Mokpo Conservation Institute for Maritime Archaeological Finds Mokpo, Korea. Kim, Y.S., and "Micromorphological characteristics of wood biodegradation �Singh, A. P., 2000 Lee, W. Y., and Kim, N. H., 1992 Liese, W., 1987 National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2010 National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, in press Seifert, B., and Jagels, R., 1984 Singh, A. P., and Butcher, J. A., 1991 So, W. T., Kim, Y. S., Chung, W. Y. and Lee, H. Y., 1999 Taniguchi, T., Okamura, K., Harada, H, and Nakato, K., 1986 Wilson, M. A., Godfrey, I. M., Hanna, J. V., Quezada, R. A., and Finnie, K. S., 1993 in wet environments: a review", in International Association of Wood Anatomists (IAWA) Journal, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp 135-155. "Fine structures of some major softwoods and hardwoods by X-ray difference methods", in Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp 28-37. "Anatomy and properties of bamboo", in (eds) A.N. Rao, G. Daanarajan and Cherla B. Sastry, Recent research on bamboos, Chinese Academy of Forestry, China and International Development Research Center, Canada, pp 196-208. Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 1, Underwater Excavation, Report of the Research of Antiquities of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 20, Korea. Taean Mado Shipwreck No. 2 Underwater Excavation, Report of the Research of Antiquities of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage No. 21, Korea. "Conservation of the Ronson Ship’s bow, Waterlogged wood study and conservation", in Proceedings of the 2nd ICOM waterlogged wood working group conference, Centre D’Etude et de Traitement des Bois Gorges D’eau, Grenoble, pp 269-297. "Bacterial degradation of wood cell walls: A review of degradation patterns", in Journal of the Institute of Wood Science, Vol. 12, pp 143-157. "Wood characteristics of Phyllostachys bambusolides, Phyllostachys nigra var. henonis, and Phyllostachys pubescens grown in Damyang District", in Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp 7-14. "Accessibility and density of cell walls of unearthed buried woods", in Mokusai Gakkaishi, Vol. 32, pp 738-743. "The degradation of wood in old Indian Ocean shipwrecks", in Organic Geochemistry, Vol. 20, pp 599-610. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Micromorphological and chemical characteristics of waterlogged archaeological bamboo Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource Waterlogged archaeological bamboo works such as bamboo slips and bamboo baskets, etc. were unearthed during excavations of the Mado shipwreck No. 1 excavation in 2009. Despite the number of bamboo artefacts recovered from underwater sites, the characteristics and conservation of waterlogged archeological bamboo unearthed from the sea have not been studied sufficiently. Following examinations of waterlogged archaeological bamboo using optical, scanning electron and transmission electron microscopy, it was found that waterlogged archaeological bamboo has been invaded by soft rot fungi and erosion and tunneling bacteria. This is similar to the usual micromorphological decay characteristics of waterlogged archaeological wood. Unlike waterlogged wood however, waterlogged bamboo demonstrated differences in aspects of decay in the interlayer structure of the fibre cell and in the degree of decay, depending on the parts of the bundle sheath examined. Chemical analyses suggested that, as in waterlogged archaeological wood, cellulose and hemicellulose were significantly degraded and the content of lignin was relatively high in waterlogged bamboo. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Mi Young CHA Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Southern Barbarians; the First Europeans in Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael Cooper Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tokyo, Palo Alto, Calif., Kodansha International in cooperation with Sophia University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Michael Cooper Item Type Book ISBN 0870111388 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 216 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tokyo, Palo Alto, Calif., Kodansha International in cooperation with Sophia University Title A name given to the resource The Southern Barbarians; the First Europeans in Japan Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Bakau wreck: an early example of Chinese shipping in Southeast Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael Flecker Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Michael Flecker Item Type Journal Article DOI 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2001.tb01369.x Abstract Note Very few early Chinese shipwrecks have been discovered in Southeast Asia, despite the enormous volume of trade with China. This article describes the surprising hull features of one such wreck, and its diverse ceramic cargo. The Bakau Wreck dates to the early 15th century, and was bound from southern China to Indonesia via a Thai entrepot port. Access Date 2009-11-28 06:23:20 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Issue 2 Library Catalog Wiley InterScience Pages 221-230 Publication Title International Journal of Nautical Archaeology Short Title The Bakau wreck Title A name given to the resource The Bakau wreck: an early example of Chinese shipping in Southeast Asia URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2001.tb01369.x Volume 30 China Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The South-China-Sea Tradition: the Hybrid Hulls of South-East Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael Flecker Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Michael Flecker Item Type Journal Article DOI 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00109.x Abstract Note The South-China-Sea Tradition is a hybrid vessel-type combining structural features of Chinese and South-East Asian origin. It only occurs from the late-14th to the late-16th centuries and mirrors the production period of Thai export ceramics. This article examines 16 South-China-Sea-Tradition wrecks with a view to determining a well-defined list of characteristics, the origin of those characteristics, and the most likely builders. © 2006 The Author Access Date 2009-11-28 06:23:12 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2007 Issue 1 Library Catalog Wiley InterScience Pages 75-90 Publication Title International Journal of Nautical Archaeology Short Title The South-China-Sea Tradition Title A name given to the resource The South-China-Sea Tradition: the Hybrid Hulls of South-East Asia URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00109.x Volume 36 China Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2d6c0915b56c5ef0bab7c6a27aa15ac0.pdf 7411c91d605333fe0f19d2c3e0886ca6 PDF Text Text Assessing Potentially Polluting Wrecks in US Waters Michael L. Brennan (SEARCH, Inc., Deep Water Sector Leader) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits within this session on threats to underwater cultural heritage (UCH) because of the environmental risk posed by shipwrecks with petroleum cargoes. While many shipwrecks from the World Wars are important parts of our cultural heritage, they also pose a significant threat to the marine and coastal environment as the steel hulls containing their cargoes continue to corrode. A vital limiting factor in addressing such pollution risks is that many of these wrecks lie in deep water and have yet to be located. Surveys to find these wrecks, followed by assessment and management are required to prevent or minimize the adverse impacts to our ocean heritage. Recent work using satellite detection of oil slicks has assisted in locating certain oil tanker shipwrecks in deep water. KEYWORDS Potentially Polluting Wrecks, World War II, oil spills, shipwrecks INTRODUCTION This paper studies the wrecks identified by the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as “Potentially Polluting Wrecks” (PPW), which are those that pose the greatest risk of leaking or spilling their petroleum cargoes or bunker fuel and causing an environmental hazard (NOAA 2013a). This fits within this session, “Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage” because most are considered historic under the US National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA). More than half of the wrecks identified as PPWs are merchant ships from World War II, which is a significant theme of national importance reflected in the programs for recognizing and encouraging the historic preservation efforts in the United States. The risk of threats to conservation of our heritage also refers to both natural and cultural resources under the World Heritage Convention. Historic and archaeologically significant shipwreck sites that are also potentially polluting therefore pose a risk to natural ocean heritage while being cultural sites also at risk themselves of collapsing. In these instances, when a wreck suffers a loss of structural integrity due to corrosion in the marine environment, the result is not only a loss of archaeological integrity as a historic site, but as a catastrophic pollution event as the cargo that had been retained in the hull is released. Under U.S. law, removing oil to prevent potential release from historic wrecks needs to consider and attempt to avoid or mitigate any loss of the historic property. CASE STUDIES A handful of significant shipwrecks have undergone site assessment and pollution risk mitigation through oil removal operations in the last few decades, but have typically been responsive to oil leaks rather than proactive. The wrecks that still retain their bunker fuel and petroleum cargoes will leak them into the ocean, and it is a matter of when rather than if. A major factor, therefore, is how much cargo or fuel remains, which is determined by the amount of damage to the hull, what level of structural integrity remains, the rate of corrosion, and how the wreck is situated on the seabed. Several case studies speak to these efforts, here I discuss three: SS Jacob Luckenbach, USS Mississinewa, and SS Bloody Marsh. Remediations of polluting wrecks have typically been conducted as reactionary spill response rather than proactive remediation of retained petroleum cargos. However, the approaches and methodologies employed on these early remediations have assisted in developing our understanding of removal efforts and how to assess sites. The lessons learned from these 1 �remediations have informed later work and guided the various studies that have begun to standardize approaches to pollution mitigation from shipwreck sites. SS Jacob Luckenbach In 1953, the 164-m C-3 freighter SS Jacob Luckenbach collided with its sister ship in the fog offshore San Francisco when departing for Korea with full bunkers. All crew members were rescued as the vessel sank to a depth of 53 meters (m) in less than 30 minutes. A series of mystery oil spills were observed in the 1990s, and possibly going back as far back as the 1980s, and a group consisting of the US Coast Guard, California’s Office of Spill Prevention and Response together with NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS) searched for the source of these spills in 2001 (Symons and Parker-Hall 2003). NOAA’s involvement as a trustee for ocean resources included the ONMS because the wreck lies within the Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary protecting significant natural and cultural resources. Leading up to this, thousands of oiled birds had washed up along California beaches (Michel et al. 2005). Samples of the oil were chemically fingerprinted to the bunker fuel carried on Jacob Luckenbach. A salvage operation was undertaken in May 2002 to determine the amount of oil remaining on the wreck and remove as much as possible. Many of the fuel tanks were found to have badly corroded piping and vents, which caused the oil to leak into cargo tanks; the assessment identified numerous spaces on the wreck that were estimated to contain 540 tons of heavy fuel oil (Michel et al. 2005). After 123 days on site, the operation removed 350 tons of oil from the wreck. The pollution remediation of the Luckenbach wreck was the first major one performed by the United States. Its location in a sanctuary further complicated the effort due to environmental impact concerns and mitigation. Approximately 85,000 gallons of oil were removed leaving an estimated 29,000 gallons of the oil within the wreck likely in small overhead spaces within the structure. The project was also viewed as a restoration action that addressed the immediate threats to the marine life and environment (Symons and Parker-Hall 2003). USS Mississinewa USS Mississinewa (AO-59) was a 553-ft T3-S2-A1 type auxiliary oiler launched in the spring of 1944. The oiler carried a cargo of 146,000 barrels of aviation fuel and Navy Special fuel oil (Gilbert et al. 2003). While at anchor at Ulithi in the Federated States of Micronesia in November, the tanker was struck by a kaiten, a Japanese human-piloted torpedo, which caused a large explosion that sprayed fuel across the ship that set it ablaze. The aviation fuel caused a second explosion, followed by a final one when the flames reached the ammunition magazine. The ship capsized and sank, extinguishing most of the fires. Sixty-three sailors died in the attack. It was the first known successful use of a kaiten (Mair 2008). A team of adventure divers located the wreck in 2001 in the Ulithi lagoon at a depth of 38 m. Soon after, a typhoon hit and caused the surrounding beaches to be “fouled by heavy oil leaking from the vessel” (Gilbert et al. 2003, 175). The oil continued to leak for months causing the Governor of Yap State to declare a state of emergency. U.S. Navy divers patched leaks in 2001, and then conducted a more extensive oil removal operation in 2003. The bow of the tanker had been blown off during the attack and lies at 90 degrees on its port side while the rest of the wreck is fully capsized on the seabed, which presented the removal team access to the cargo tanks (Naval Sea Systems Command 2003). Approximately 6,000 tons of oil was removed from the wreck and pumped onto a barge. Oil remains on the site, but is only residual oil in the piping, likely less than 50 tons (Michel et al. 2005). The removal operation was more straightforward than at the Luckenbach wreck due to the inverted position of the wreck and the warmer waters, which made moving the heavy fuel oil easier and better visibility for divers. A similar oil removal operation was conducted by the U.S. Navy on the wreck of the German heavy cruiser, Prinz Eugen in 2018. The vessel had been a target ship at Bikini for Operation Crossroads 2 �following its capture by the US at the end of the war. After the nuclear tests, the ship was towed to Kwajalein Atoll, where it capsized and sank in shallow water against the reef. The removal operations recovered nearly 230,000 gallons of oil from the wreck, which had been leaking into the waters of the atoll (Naval Sea Systems Command 2019). SS Bloody Marsh Recent ocean exploration efforts located the wreck of SS Bloody Marsh in deep water off the coast of South Carolina in 2021. The T2-SE-A1 tanker was sunk with two torpedoes by U-66 on its maiden voyage from Texas to New York with a cargo of more than 100,000 barrels of heavy fuel oil (NOAA 2013b). After an initial attempt to find with wreck by NOAA ship Okeanos Explorer in 2019, we were provided satellite data from colleagues in the UK who had found a series of oil slicks in the area of the tanker’s reported sinking that had been repeating since the 1990s. A second mission with Okeanos conducted additional multibeam mapping in the area and located a target, which when dived on with the ship’s ROVs, was identified as the wreck of Bloody Marsh. The stern and area of the engine room was severely damaged from the first torpedo strike, and the forward 100-feet or so of the tanker were missing and this bow section is ostensibly somewhere nearby. The main part of the wreck is the completely inverted hull, identified through its welded joinery and overall dimensions. The welded seams and hull plates are fairly intact in this main section, and the leaking oil is likely stemming from ruptured tanks near the areas of torpedo damage rather than corroding plate seams. The wreck, however, due to its intact and inverted state, is expected to likely contains a large amount of the oil cargo it carried. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct pollution risk assessments of potentially hazardous shipwrecks typically start with desktop and historical research, followed by site inspection and then remediation, when warranted. However, often, remediations are reactive rather than proactive and sometimes must start with patching leaks and move to direct remediation and oil removal, as was the case with Mississinewa. Studies like the RULET work, NOAA’s PPW study, and the International Oil Spill Conference work by Michel and colleagues have done much to lay the groundwork for standardized approaches to stepped assessments and informed remediations. Estimates of 20,000 PPWs convinced Congress to appropriate $1 million for NOAA to identify and prioritize the most ecologically and economically significant PPWs in U.S. waters for inclusion into USCG regional and area contingency plans resulting in NOAA’s 2013 PPW study. NOAA’s PPW study began with an assessment of nearly 20,000 historic era shipwrecks that had the potential to pollute that lay within the territorial waters of the US Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Through systematic assessment and detailed historical research, as well as assessing available archaeological data, the list was ultimately reduced to 87 shipwrecks that had the greatest potential to pollute. However, fewer than half of the 87 wrecks identified as highest priority in the PPW study have been found, in a large part because they were sunk away from the coast and lie in deep water. While desktop assessments of historical accounts of petroleum cargoes and the sinking events are essential, those only go so far. Locating and assessing the shipwreck sites themselves is imperative, especially now that wrecks from World War II are now passing their 80th year in the marine environment undergoing corrosion. Expanded efforts for targeted ocean exploration to find potentially polluting wrecks is necessary to understand the scope of the pollution threat posed by these wrecks. Since its 2013 study of PPWs, NOAA’s ONMS Maritime Heritage Program, and Ocean Exploration assessed two of the 87 wrecks: MV Fernstream, wrecked in 1952, lies in shallow waters inside San Francisco Bay, and SS Coast Trader, a World War 2 (1942) combat loss in the Straits of Juan de Fuca, between the state of Washington and Canada’s Province of British Columbia. These assessments determined that all the oil had been released when Fernstream sank, and approximately half of the oil had been released when Coast Trader sank, but that the other half remained in the 3 �intact, and essentially non-corroded forward hull of the wreck. Bloody Marsh was the third such assessment, this time undertaken by NOAA Ocean Exploration collaborating with the author. While the wreck of Bloody Marsh was thankfully relatively intact and indicative of a stable hull, we also learned that the hull was inverted and containing a substantial percentage of its cargo. It is not a matter of if that will spill out, but when, and at what rate, either slow leaks or catastrophic. FRAMEWORK The research questions regarding addressing pollution concerns from shipwrecks include standardized steps to be taken among stakeholders to best mitigate their pollution risks. While there is no consensus on a single comprehensive approach for pollution remediation between nations who have dealt with the issue, approach typically taken is incident specific and requires evaluation of the wreck, environmental conditions, risk reduction, and potential for catastrophic pollutant release (Landquist et al. 2013, 91; Etkin et al. 2009). The determination of a shipwreck as potentially polluting does not, however, negate its significance as a historic site. While the pollution risk from wrecks can pose a threat to ocean heritage, the potential hazard also poses a risk to the archaeological integrity of the historic sites. NOAA’s Remediation of Underwater Legacy Environmental Threats (RULET) project was designed to assist “in prioritizing potential threats to ecological and socio-economic resources while at the same time assessing the historical and cultural significance of these nonrenewable cultural resources” for shipwrecks in US waters (NOAA 2013a, 1). As a US agency, NOAA is required to comply with federal laws that protect natural and cultural resources. Therefore, the RULET work not only assessed which shipwrecks in U.S. waters might pose a risk of polluting, but also whether they met the standard for listing on the National Register of Historic Places. To narrow down the list of shipwrecks in US waters that could pose a pollution threat, the RULET study used a series of risk factors to assess the potential structural integrity of those identified wrecks and the oil remaining on board, and oceanographic factors that might influence removal operations. These include the amount oil on board, if the wreck had been demolished as a risk to navigation, if a large amount of oil was lost during the sinking, and the nature of the sinking event (NOAA 2013a, ES-3). Responses included a variety of options from leaving shipwrecks alone and responding to leaks or spills as they arose, to full oil removal and salvage. Intermediate options include background research for wreck-specific response plans, site monitoring, and in situ assessments through remote sensing and ROV documentation (NOAA 2013a, 74). Factors affecting response options include the type and volume of oil on board, water depth and visibility, location relative to shore, and other site factors like the wreck orientation. The study also addresses the potential impact of remediation on shipwrecks’ historical integrity: “this vessel is of historic significance and will require appropriate actions under the NHPA and the Sunken Military Craft Act (SMCA) prior to any actions that could impact the integrity of the vessel” (NOAA 2013b, 6). Such assessments are important in protecting shipwrecks that are historically significant and war graves. However, for many of the shipwrecks in the NOAA PPW study, they have yet to be located, so the response options are high level and all encompassing. The U.S. Coast Guard, which would lead, coordinate, and often contract for the remediation of polluting wrecks, is required under Section 106 of the NHPA to consider adverse effects to the PPWs that are also historic properties (Symons et al. 2014, 2024). In an emergency response situation, there is often insufficient time to adequately comply with the NHPA, to determine if a wreck warranted mitigation because it was listed in or was eligible for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). What was needed was a proactive approach that streamlined the process. Thus, the responsible federal agencies entered into the NHPA Section 106 Programmatic Agreement (PA) to ensure that historic properties are considered in their planning for and conduct of the emergency response under the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP). 4 �Following the larger contextual study, NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program evaluated three representative shipwrecks with a high pollution potential to determine which characteristics and historical associations would be eligible for the NRHP, meet the definition of a historic property, and would then be subject to Section 106 consultation should the Coast Guard move forward with assessment and pollutant recovery activities (Symons et al. 2014, 2025). The three wrecks nominated as tests were the WWII combat losses of SS Lancing, SS Empire Gem, and SS Coimbra. All three were pollution risks and lie off the coast of North Carolina and New York. The results include how they were accepted and listed in the NRHP. RESULTS The expected results of this combination of historical research and on-site assessments and remediations is a greater understanding of how to efficiently and effectively mitigate pollution risks from sunken oil tankers and other potentially polluting wrecks. Modern technology has allowed for better access to sites in deep water and will continue to improve the process. However, not only are there more potentially polluting wrecks that have yet to be found and assessed, there are actively leaking wrecks in US waters and elsewhere. Satellite detection of oil slicks, such as that which led us to the wreck of Bloody Marsh, has located repeating slicks over areas of deep water that have yet to be explored, but likely point to the locations of other PPW sites. However, the cost is high of bringing vessels and deep-water survey equipment to those remote areas offshore. Additional dedicated funds and resources need to be brought to bear to address these polluting sites. Some of these documented repeating slicks are off the eastern seaboard of the United States along the path of the Gulf Stream and, were a catastrophic release to occur, could oil a large area of the east coast shoreline (NOAA 2013a, 2013b). Expanded ocean exploration, targeted efforts to find and assess potentially polluting wreck sites, and the implementation of new technologies, such as satellite detection of oil slicks, is imperative to addressing this problem and mitigating the environmental hazard these wrecks pose. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I’d like to thank The Ocean Foundation, Lloyd’s Register Foundation, Ole Varmer, Mark Spalding, James Delgado, and Charlotte Jarvis for their support and assistance in preparing this manuscript. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Etkin, D.S., van Rooij, H., McCay French, D., Risk assessment modeling approach for the prioritization of oil removal operations from sunken wrecks. Effects of Oil on Wildlife. Estonia: Tallin, 2009 Gilbert, Trevor, Sefanaia Nawadra, Andy Tafileichig, Leonard Yinug, 2003. Response to an Oil Spill from a Sunken WWII Oil Tanker in Yap State, Micronesia. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 1, (2003): 175-182. Landquist, H., I.-M. Hassellöv, L. Rosén, J.F. Lindgren, I. Dahllöf,. Evaluating the needs of risk assessment methods of potentially polluting shipwrecks. Journal of Environmental Management 119 (2013): 85-92. Mair, Michael. “Oil, Fire, and Fate: The Sinking of the USS Mississinewa AO-59.” WWII by Japan’s Secret Weapon. Platteville, WI: SMJ Publishing, 2008. Michel, Jacqueline, Trevor Gilbert, Jon Waldron, Charles Blocksidge, Dagmar Schmidt Etkin, Robert Urban. Potentially Polluting Wrecks in Marine Waters, 2005 International Oil Spill Conference, IOSC 2005. NHPA Section 106 Programmatic Agreement (PA) to ensure that historic properties are taken into account in their planning for and conduct of the emergency response under the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) (2002, signed 1997) https://www.nrt.org/sites/2/files/Programmatic_Agreement_on_Protection_of.pdf Naval Sea Systems Command, U.S. Navy Salvage Report, USS Mississinewa Oil Removal Operations. Naval Sea Systems Command, S0300-B6-RPT-010, 0910-LP-102-8809, 2003. Naval Sea Systems Command, U.S. Navy Salvage Report, Ex-USS Prinz Eugen Oil Removal Operations. Naval Sea Systems Command, S1740-AK-RPT-010, 0910-LP-118-8301, 2019. NOAA. Risk Assessment for Potentially Polluting Wrecks in U.S. Waters. 2013a <https://nmssanctuaries.blob.core.windows.net/sanctuariesprod/media/archive/protect/ppw/pdfs/2013_potentiallypollutingwrecks.pdf>. Accessed 6 April 2022 NOAA. Screening Level Risk Assessment Package: Bloody Marsh. 2013b <https://nmssanctuaries.blob.core.windows.net/sanctuaries-prod/media/archive/protect/ppw/pdfs/bloody_marsh.pdf>. Accessed 6 April 2022. Symons, Lisa, and Heather A. Parker-Hall. “The SS Jacob Luckenbach: Integration of NOAA Trust Issues into the Response.” International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2003 1 (2003): 649-653. Symons, Lisa J., James P. Delgado, Deborah Marx, and Erika Martin Seibert, A Means to Streamline Historic and Cultural Resource Consultation and Compliance for Pollution Assessment and Recovery Activities on Shipwrecks. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2014 1 (2014): 2024–2036. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Assessing Potentially Polluting Wrecks in US Waters Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits within this session on threats to underwater cultural heritage (UCH) because of the environmental risk posed by shipwrecks with petroleum cargoes. While many shipwrecks from the World Wars are important parts of our cultural heritage, they also pose a significant threat to the marine and coastal environment as the steel hulls containing their cargoes continue to corrode. A vital limiting factor in addressing such pollution risks is that many of these wrecks lie in deep water and have yet to be located. Surveys to find these wrecks, followed by assessment and management are required to prevent or minimize the adverse impacts to our ocean heritage. Recent work using satellite detection of oil slicks has assisted in locating certain oil tanker shipwrecks in deep water. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Michael L. Brennan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Brennan, Michael L.. 2023. “Assessing Potentially Polluting Wrecks in US Waters.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Ole Varmer. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1902 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023