47 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/44abd9bec55afaf5e134ef9359ed07bd.pdf bf31fc4fd48d2431b640015a65a8b483 PDF Text Text Stone anchors of India: Findings, Classification and Significance Sila Tripati CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India Email: sila@nio.org Abstract Various types of stone anchors have been observed during inshore and offshore explorations along the east and west coasts of India. The earliest stone anchors of India have been recorded from the Harappan sites (3rd millennium BC), but their shape and size do not resemble the anchors found during maritime archaeological explorations since 1986. The stone anchors until now recovered from many sites of India can broadly be classified into four types: namely composite, Indo-Arabian, ring stone (mushroom) and single hole. Among all these types of anchors the Indo-Arabian are largest in number and were associated with the Arab traders who were also involved in the horse trade. Moreover, Indo-Arabian stone anchors have been found in a datable context as well reused as lintels, mooring bits, pavements, etc. Composite and single-hole stone anchors are the oldest ones. Composite stone anchors have been reported from Gujarat and Maharashtra coast; ring stone anchors from Gujarat and Goa coast and single hole and Indo-Arabian anchors from both east and west coasts of India. Evidences suggest that stone anchors were used in Indian waters from the 3rd millennium BC to the mid 20th century along with iron anchors which were introduced by the Europeans. Stone anchors resembling Indian have also been reported from the Persian Gulf, African countries, Sri Lanka and Maldives, which suggest maritime contacts and transfer of knowledge and technology. This paper details the finding of stone anchors, their role and significance in the maritime history of India. Key words: Stone anchor, Horse trade, Maritime contacts, Technology, transfer of knowledge Introduction It has been stated that man attained the knowledge of nautical skills from the time when he crossed the oceans with the help of crafts made of logs and dugouts during the Stone Age. He must have used stones of some size as anchors. After several centuries, different types and shapes of stone anchors were developed and used for various purposes including inland and overseas trade. In Indian contexts, a great extent of new evidence relating to stone anchors has come to light during inland, coastal and offshore explorations and excavations (Fig. 1). Gujarat is the lone state of India where stone anchors have been recorded during land excavations but those differ in shape and size 1 �from the anchors which were found during maritime archaeological explorations. A study of stone anchors of India is the key to understanding maritime trade, overseas contacts and shipping activities of the region. In this paper an attempt has been made to describe the stone anchors of India, their role and significance in the maritime history of India. Anchor finding sites of India In India, stone anchors have been observed during land excavations and onshore as well offshore explorations. Lothal and Kuntasi, Fig. 1 Map showing the stone anchor sites in India. both inland sites in Gujarat, off the west coast of India, have yielded (Sila Tripati) stone anchors during land excavations that vary in shape and size from other anchors. Seven stone anchors from Lothal (Fig. 2a) (Rao, 1979) and two from Kuntasi (Fig. 2b) (Dhavalikar et al., 1996) have been recorded. Lothal anchors appear like the composite and single hole types whereas Kuntasi anchors seem like the ring stone type. Since the commencement of maritime archaeological research in Indian waters in 1983 by the CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography (NIO), Goa, (http://www.nio.org) their goals are to discover submerged habitation, port sites and shipwrecks in order to understand the relationships between man and sea. Explorations have been carried out along both the east and west coasts of India. During this maritime archaeological research, in addition to habitational and port remains and shipwrecks, numerous stone anchors of composite, Indo-Arabian, ring stone and single hole type have been recovered during both onshore and underwater explorations off Gujarat (Gulf of Kachchh, Bet Dwarka, Aramda, Dwarka, Miyani, Visawada, Somnath, Mithi Virdi, Kodinar); Maharashtra (Dabhol, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg); Goa (Baga, Grande Island, Sunchi Reef); Kerala (Kannur); 2 �Lakshadweep (Minicoy Island); Tamil Nadu (Gulf of Mannar, Tuticorin and Manapad); Andhra Pradesh (Kottapatnam); Odisha (Kanas, Chilika Lake); West Bengal (Harinarayanpur). Fig. 2 (a-e) Types of stone anchors found Fig. 2 (f-k) Types of stone anchors found along the Gujarat coast of India. (Sila Tripati) along the Gujarat coast of India. (Sila Tripati) Gujarat In order to locate remains of submerged habitation and port sites of Gujarat, onshore and offshore explorations at Dwarka (Fig. 2c i, ii, iii), Bet Dwarka (Fig. 2d i, ii,), Aramda 3 �(Fig. 2e), Somnath (Fig. 2f i, ii, iii), Miyani (Fig. 2g i, ii), Viaswada (Fig. 2h i, ii), Kodinar (Fig. 2i), Mithi Virdi (Fig. 2j), Gopnath, Hatab, Ghogha, Navi Bunder (Fig. 2k) were carried out. During these excavations, composite, Indo-Arabian, ring stone and single hole types of stone anchors were found from different water depths (Gaur et al., 2013, 2008, 2005). Those were documented and some of them were retrieved for study and analysis. These anchors resemble those found in the Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf and Red Sea Coast. Petrographic analysis shows that mariners of India used different rocks for making anchors irrespective of their size and variety and sourced the rock from nearby and sometimes from the hinterland (Sila Tripati, et al., 2010) Maharashtra During maritime archaeological explorations along Maharashtra coast, composite and Indo-Arabian types of stone anchors were discovered at Sindhudurg (Fig. 3a i, ii) and Vijaydurg (Fig. 3b i, ii). These stone anchors have been used as mooring bits and laid on the pavement, whereas Indo-Arabian type of stone anchors have been utilised as lintels (Fig. 3b iii) in the second fortification of the Vijaydurg Fort and mooring bit at the dockyard, which is 3 km away from Vijaydurg Fort (Sila Tripati et al., 1998). Similarly, one Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor was noticed which has been used as a lintel at Padmagad Fort (Fig. 3c), which is near Sindhudurg Fort (Sila and Gaur, 1997). In 2003, dredging for construction of a passenger jetty at Dhabol port, revealed four Indo-Arabian stone anchors (Fig. 3d) along with wooden flukes Radiocarbon dates of the flukes suggest that the anchors were 590 + 90 and 600 + 70 years old (Gaur et al., 2009). In India this is the first instance where stone anchors found along with wooden flukes. Goa During shipwreck explorations in Goa waters stone anchors are also recorded: one each of Indo-Arabian and ring stone (Fig. 3e) type of stone anchor from Sunchi Reef, two Indo-Arabian type from Grande Island (Fig. 3f) and a pyramidal type of stone anchor from Baga waters (Sila Tripati et al., 2013). At first glance, the Baga stone anchor appears like an Indo-Arabian type (Fig. 3g). All these anchors of Goa are chance finds. 4 �Kerala During exploration an Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor was recorded on the southeast corner of Hydross Palli Mosque near the beach of Kannur. The stone anchor is half buried in the ground (Fig. 3h). It has two lower square holes meant for wooden flukes. No marks are visible on its surface; however, a thick coat of grey varnish colour has been applied on its surface. The length and width of the visible portion of the anchor is 0.89 x 0.30 m, but the original length is more than what has been recorded. The anchor has been trimmed neatly leaving prominent straight lines all around on its surface (Sila Tripati et al., 2005). Lakshadweep An Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor was found Fig. 3 (a-d) Types of stone anchors lying in the compound of Jama Mosque of Funhilol found along the Maharashtra, Goa, of Minicoy, which was built in 1344 year of the Hijri. Kerala and Lakshadweep coast of Originally the anchor was used as a lintel at the entrance of the mosque. During renovation of India. (Sila Tripati) mosque the anchor was removed from the lintel and kept aside (Fig. 3i). Chisel marks are visible on the surface of the anchor. Its upper hole is round and lower holes are square. The anchor is made of sandstone and its maximum length is 292 cm (Sila Tripati, 2009). Coral growth, noticed on its surface, signifies that the anchor was underwater for some time. Tamil Nadu Onshore and offshore explorations off Rameswaram (Fig. 4a), the Gulf of Mannar and Tuticorin region of Tamil Nadu have yielded one trapezoidal and five Indo-Arabian types 5 �of stone anchor. These anchors are made of greywacke sandstone, granite and sandstone. The biggest anchor, found off Kursadi Island, measures 2.97 m, has fluke holes at lower end and the upper hole for rope. The anchor is not used extensively and its estimated weight is 1522 kg. The other Indo-Arabian anchor has lower holes and rope hole is missing. It is made of greywacke sandstone and the estimated weight is 178 kg. The Indo-Arabian type stone anchor which was found near the mosque of Fig. 3 (e-i) Types of stone anchors Vedalai (Fig. 4b) is made of granite. The fluke found along the Maharashtra, Goa, holes of the anchor are present whereas the rope Kerala and Lakshadweep coast of hole is missing. Marine growth and chisel marks are visible on the anchor. Its maximum length is India. (Sila Tripati) 181 cm and weight is 520 kg. The trapezoidal type of stone anchor found in the backwaters of Periapattinam, is made of sandstone and its rope hole is present. Its total length and weight is 52 cm and 72 kg respectively and it is highly weathered (Athiyaman and Jayakumar, 2004). During underwater exploration five single hole stone anchors (Fig. 4c) were found off Manapad, Tamil Nadu coast. Among the five anchors four were found in shallow water and one from inland. All these anchors serve as mooring for small fishing boats. These anchors are made of sandstone and chisel marks were visible on some anchors. The quarrying site of these anchors is also noticed close to the church of Manapad. This is the first evidence of a quarry site for stone anchors in the Indian context. Local craftsmen were engaged in making these square shaped single hole stone anchors which they sold to fishermen. Similar types of anchors have been retrieved from Visawada in Gujarat. Moreover, these anchors resemble the Uluburun stone anchors which are recovered from the late 14th century BC shipwreck (Pulak, 2005). 6 �Andhra Pradesh Recently, onshore explorations were carried out at Kottapatnam in Andhra Pradesh to ascertain the antiquity of the site and possibilities of undertaking underwater explorations. In the course of the exploration various types of pottery and a coin belonging to the Vijaynagar period were collected amidst the sand dunes. In addition to these finds, a single hole stone anchor was found lying in an agricultural field close to the navigational canal (Fig. 4d). A major portion of the Fig. 4 Types of stone anchors found along the anchor is buried and only a little portion is east coast of India. (Sila Tripati and N. visible on the surface. Soil on one side of the anchor was removed to study its Athiyaman) shape, size, presence of marks if any, etc., before it was documented. Prominent chisel marks are visible on its surface as well in the hole. The anchor tapers upwards and its overall thickness is not uniform. A big piece of rock has been chopped off from the lower side. The maximum length, width and thickness of the anchor are 76x77x27 cm and weight could be about 250 kg. From the archaeological finds of Kottapatnam and a comparative study of stone anchors recorded from other sites of India, the stone anchor of Kottapatnam can be tentatively dated to the medieval period (Sila Tripati et al., 2014). Odisha Onshore explorations at Kanas on the bank of River Luna in the surrounding region of Chilika Lake, brought to light stone anchors and hero stones. The stone anchors of Kanas are made of sand stone, trapezoidal in shape, having one, two and three holes, an uneven surface and were weathered (Fig. 4e). Moreover, they differ in shape and size from the anchors reported from other sites of India. These stone anchors were 7 �made for marshy and muddy river mouths and lakes. Wooden pegs were inserted in the holes and rope was tied at the upper hole. The stone anchors with one hole were probably used for small boats. The wear and tear marks are distinct and breakage is more because these anchors are made of sandstone. Some of the stone anchors have been converted into hero stones. These stone anchors were found lying with a number of hero stones. However the shape and effectiveness of the anchors can be taken into account in relation to the environment and nature of the lakebed. The possible reason for finding a number of hero stones could be that there might have been some naval battles fought in the region and hero stones were erected in their memory. The making of anchors from the hero stones indicates their alternative use (Sila Tripati and Patnaik, 2008). Classification Stone anchors are classified according to character, shape and region. In general stone anchors have been classified as composite, Indo-Arabian, Ring stone and single hole stone anchor. Frost (1991) indicates that a composite stone anchor used to have more than one hole. Wooden flukes were provided in the additional holes which protrude on both sides of the anchor so that whichever manner the anchor falls on the seabed the flukes will hold the seabed firmly. Triangular anchors are known as composite anchors, these are often made of a flat thin stone block, giving them a triangular shape with a circular upper hole at the apex and two holes at the lower side. These lower holes may be either rectangular or square. Occasionally, some of the composite anchors used to have one, two and four holes. The common feature of Indo-Arabian type stone anchor is that they are trapezoidal or rectangular in shape, used to have two square or rectangular holes at the lower end opposite facing each other for securing wooden flukes and a round hole at the apex meant for cable. The other feature of Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor is that its lower side is thicker than the upper side because it tapers upwards. As the lower side is broader and heavier it provides sturdier, better grip and chances of drifting become less. The distinctive feature of ring stone type of anchor is that they are circular in shape, have a flat base, taper upward to a certain height and have a wide hole. In shape they appear like mushrooms. Single hole stone anchors are made of thick flat blocks of different sizes. The hole is found either at the centre or 8 �upper portion of the block. The size of the hole used to be smaller than that of the stone block. Significance Stone anchors are mostly recovered along ports and harbour sites, sheltered bays and shipwrecks. A study of anchors provides evidence of maritime contacts between countries and finding of varieties of anchors suggests visits of ships of various countries. It also helps in understanding the nature of maritime trade and the period. It shows that a larger number of stone anchors have been discovered than shipwrecks have been explored all around the world. In case of composite stone anchors which have been profusely reported from the Mediterranean Sea, they are distinct in their dimensions, typology, period and similar anchors have been found in underwater and in-land regions of the west coast of India. So far there is no direct evidence to conclude that composite stone anchors which were reported from Indian waters were introduced by the Mediterranean mariners in this part of the world. Whereas Arab mariners had sailed in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean with varied climatic and physical conditions hence, technically, they had designed their (Indo-Arabian) type of anchors differently to be able to withstand rocky, coral or sandy seabed. From the 8th-9th centuries onwards the Arabs and Persians had sailed to the Indian Ocean region and used Indo-Arabian type of stone anchors for anchoring their ships. Similar types of stone anchors have been reported from Iran, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Kenya and Sri Lanka suggesting maritime contacts between these countries (Sila Tripati et al., 2013). Unless some new evidence for dating Indo-Arabian stone anchor comes from any other source, the earliest date of Indo-Arabian stone anchors would remain between 8th and 11th centuries AD. With regard to ring stone anchors those are recorded in Gujarat, Goa, and Minicoy and found along with Indo-Arabian stone, composite and single holes (Sila Tripati et al., 2013). In India reuse of Indo-Arabian stone anchors has been noticed at the Jama Mosque of Funhilol of Minicoy. Earlier such instance has come to light at Vijaydurg fort where Indo-Arabian stone anchors have been used as lintel in the fortification wall of the fort. Composite, Indo-Arabian anchors have also been used as mooring bits, pavement 9 �and doorsill of Sindhudurg fort. In India a larger number of Indo-Arabian and ring stone (mushroom) stone anchors have been reported than composite and single hole stone anchors. All these types of stone anchors were concurrently in use in Indian waters. Probably composite type of stone anchors were used in Indian waters for a limited period, because, these stone anchors are nowhere reported other than in Gujarat and only one from Vijaydurg along the west coast of India. Indo-Arabian, ring stone, single hole type stone anchors have been reported with and without composite type of stone anchors in Indian context. Date of anchors Most of the stone anchors of India have been discovered without any archaeological context and associated findings are too minimal to date them. In the absence of direct evidence, findings such as pottery, coins, inscription, etc in close proximity of the stone anchors have been taken into account to date the stone anchors. In India, there are very few sites where the dating of stone anchors has been correlated with archaeological evidence. For instance in Bet Dwarka stone anchors were found along with amphorae datable to the 4th and 5th centuries AD (Gaur et al., 2005), glazed ware of medieval period were recovered along with stone anchors in Ghogha, stone anchors have been used in the lintel of Vijaydurg Fort of medieval period (Sila Tripati et al., 1998), the Arabic inscription of the Mosque of the 13th and 14th centuries can be associated with the stone anchor in Kannur (Sila Tripati et al., 2005), in Chilika Lake the hero stones of the 7th to 9th centuries AD are related to stone anchors (Sila Tripati., and Patnaik, 2008). In Dabhol, Maharashtra, stone anchors found along with wooden flukes and their Radiocarbon dates show that the flukes are 500 to 600 years old which confirms that Indo-Arabian type of stone anchors were used in Indian waters 500 to 600 years Before Present (Gaur et al., 2009). Such dating of stone anchors confirms that stone anchors were used during those periods, but it is not known exactly when the particular type of stone anchors was introduced and how long those were in use. However, from the shape, size and weight, the evolutionary development of stone anchors can be traced. Although the stone anchors of Lothal and Kuntasi were found during land excavations and dated in archaeological context, there is some ambiguity about their use, identification and context. 10 �Conclusions It is well recorded that India had along maritime history starting from the Bronze Age civilization onwards if not earlier and the discovery of large number of anchors both from east and west coast confirm the statement. So far there is no clear evidence to suggest that the varieties of anchors recorded were evolved in India or these were introduced by outside mariners in Indian waters. As different types of stone anchors have been found in different parts of the world therefore scholars are keen to study their evolution to development. The type of stone anchors reported from other parts of world is also recorded in Indian waters. It has been observed that all varieties of stone anchors were used simultaneously for long period and continued till the introduction of iron anchors by the European in Indian waters. The recovery of types of stone in Indian water suggests that the mariners adopted all varieties of stone anchors for the safety of their vessels. Once mariners found a type of anchor suitable for anchoring the boats they adopted it for centuries. In many parts of the world fishermen still use their primitive type of stone anchors even today in spite of advancement made in every field and this makes interest to the maritime archaeologist to study the stone anchors. Acknowledgement The author is thankful to the Director, CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography for his encouragement. The author is highly obliged to the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) for financial grants for attending the conference. Thanks are also due to colleagues for their co-operation in the field and while completing the paper and Shri S. B. Chitari, R. Uchil, and Sham Akerkar for computer tracing of figures, Shri S. N. Bandodker and Shri Sheikh Ali for the photographs. References Athiyaman, N., and Jayakumar, P., 2004. Ancient anchors off Tamil Nadu coast and ship tonnage analysis. Current Science, Vol. 86 (9): 1261-1267. Dhavalikar, M. K., Raval, M. R., and Chitalwala, Y. M., 1996. Kuntasi - A Harappan Emporium on the West Coast. Post Graduate Research Institute, Deccan College, Pune. 11 �Frost, H., 1991. Anchors sacred and profane; Ugarit-Ras Shamra, 1986; the stone anchors revised and compared. In Yon, M. (Ed.), Ras Shamra-Ougarit, VI: Arts et Industries de la pierre: 355-410. ERC Paris. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., 2013. Maritime Archaeology around Porbandar. Aryan Books International, New Delhi. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., Sila Tripati., and Vora, K. H., 2009. Radiocarbon dates of the medieval period stone anchors from Dabhol, west coast of India. Current Science, Vol. 96 (2): 299-302. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., Vora, K. H., 2008. Underwater Archaeology of Dwarka and Somnath. Aryan Books International, New Delhi. Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., Vora, K. H., 2005. Archaeology of Bet Dwarka Island: An excavation Report. Aryan Books International, New Delhi. Pulak, C., 2005. Discovering a Royal Ship from the Age of King Tut: Uluburun, Turkey. In G. F. Bass (Ed.), Beneath the Seven Seas, Thames and Hudson, London: 34-47. Rao, S. R., 1979. Lothal – A Harappan Port Town, Part I, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Sila Tripati., Rao, K. P., Kumari, S., Imsong, O., and Vanlalhruaitluangi, V., 2014. A Single-hole Stone Anchor from Kottapatnam: early historic port site of Andhra Pradesh, India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 43 (1): 188-191. Sila Tripati., Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., 2013. Maritime Archaeology and Shipwrecks off Goa. Kaveri Books, New Delhi. Sila Tripati, Mudholkar, A., Vora, K. H., Rao, B. R., Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., 2010. Geochemical and mineralogical analysis of stone anchors from west coast of India: provenance study using thin sections, XRF and SEM-EDS. Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 37 (8): 1999-2009. Sila Tripati., 2009. Stone anchors from Minicoy Island, Lakshadweep, India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 38 (2): 406-412. Sila Tripati., and Patnaik, A. P., 2008. Stone anchors along the coast of Chilika Lake: New light on the maritime activities of Orissa, India. Current Science, Vol. 94 (3): 386390. 12 �Sila Tripati., Manikfan, A., and Mohamed, M., 2005. An Indo-Arabian type of stone anchor from Kannur, Kerala, west coast of India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 34 (1): 131-137. Sila Tripati., Gaur, A. S., Sundaresh., and Bandodker, S. N., 1998. Historical period Stone anchors from Vijaydurg on the west coast of India. Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 22: 1-8. Sila Tripati., and Gaur, A. S., 1997. Stone anchors from Sindhudurg Fort on the west coast of India. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 26 (1): 51-57. Based in Goa, Sila Tripati is a Maritime Archaeologist at the CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography (NIO). Tripati is the author and co-editor of books on Maritime Archaeology and Archaeology and has published his works in peer-reviewed national and international journals. He has excavated shipwrecks in Goa and Tamil Nadu waters and studied stone anchors discovered along the Indian coast. He has participated in a number of maritime archaeological explorations in the waters on the west and east of the Indian subcontinent and overseas. He also specialises in the research and study of maritime trade and submerged ports of India. 13 �Table 1. Various types of stone anchors observed along the Indian coast (North to South) 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone anchors of India: Findings, Classification and Significance Description An account of the resource Various types of stone anchors have been observed during inshore and offshore explorations along the east and west coasts of India. The earliest stone anchors of India have been recorded from the Harappan sites (3rd millennium BC), but their shape and size do not resemble the anchors found during maritime archaeological explorations since 1986. The stone anchors until now recovered from many sites of India can broadly be classified into four types: namely composite, Indo-Arabian, ring stone (mushroom) and single hole. Among all these types of anchors the Indo-Arabian are largest in number and were associated with the Arab traders who were also involved in the horse trade. Moreover, Indo-Arabian stone anchors have been found in a datable context as well reused as lintels, mooring bits, pavements, etc. Composite and single-hole stone anchors are the oldest ones. Composite stone anchors have been reported from Gujarat and Maharashtra coast; ring stone anchors from Gujarat and Goa coast and single hole and Indo-Arabian anchors from both east and west coasts of India. Evidences suggest that stone anchors were used in Indian waters from the 3rd millennium BC to the mid 20th century along with iron anchors which were introduced by the Europeans. Stone anchors resembling Indian have also been reported from the Persian Gulf, African countries, Sri Lanka and Maldives, which suggest maritime contacts and transfer of knowledge and technology. This paper details the finding of stone anchors, their role and significance in the maritime history of India. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sila Tripati, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/16/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5ffbd46adae370b15fbecb5fcc917cb3.pdf 70cd0c78ca8b2c90e8bd855005e68d15 PDF Text Text Stone Tidal Weirs in Hainan Island, PRC Yishi Wang (Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, wangyishi_2020@163.com) ABSTRACT Around Danzhou City at the northern coast of Hainan Island, PRC, stone tidal weirs are widely distributed. Local history says that immigrants from the southern part of Fujian Province in mainland China came to this area to build many stone tidal weirs during the Ming Dynasty. Each patrilineal linage composed the construction unit of them. One stone tidal weir at the village of Wangzhai has the stone-circled catching trap at the tip of the stone wall, which looks similar to ones in the Penghu islands. On other stone tidal weirs at the village of Shenchong, there are openings between stone walls, which are usually closed by wooden sluice gates; when the openings are opened on the ebb, people set fishing nets just outside of the opened gates. Before the tide is out of stone tidal weirs completely, fishing nets are also used inside them. At night, fishermen light a fire on floats of fishing nets with coconut oil in order to drive fish into the nets. Although one stone tidal weir at the village of Changsha has been registered as a Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the Provincial Level by the Hainan Provincial People's Government, most stone tidal weirs in Hainan island have not been safeguarded properly by local people as well as by the government. Some weirs are abandoned, and others are transformed into fishing ports. As for the intangible aspect, villagers still remember ‘Tide Song’ in Hainanese, which narrates the dates of the spring tides and the commencement times of high tides according to lunar calendar. In former days, in addition, some families held special rituals during high tides so that a haul at stone tidal weirs might be good. INTRODUCTION The stone tidal weir is a large fixed fishing gear constructed by piling up rocks or coral limestone in a horseshoe, semi-circular, square, or linear shape from the intertidal zone towards the sea. Fish schools enter the stone weir during high tide, but they are trapped inside when the tide recedes, so the fish are easy to catch. The stone weir is considered a primitive fishing gear and method, relying solely on tidal changes, and is seen as an ancient fishing technique. Research on stone tidal weirs in China has been primarily focused on Taiwan and Fujian Province, with no existing studies on stone weirs in other regions. Based on the current state of research, this paper presents the first study on stone tidal weirs in regions other than Taiwan or Fujian Province. The study focuses on the stone tidal weirs of Hainan Island. Drawing on fieldwork conducted in autumn 2021 on Hainan Island, this study provides insights into the conservation of Hainan's stone tidal weirs and their potential utilization as cultural resources for tourism. Hainanese Stone Tidal Weirs Hainan Island, located in the southern part of the East China Sea, north of the South China Sea, belongs administratively to Hainan Province in China. Stone tidal weirs are distributed on Hainan Island, Danzhou City. Danzhou City is situated in the northwest of Hainan Island, facing the Beibu Gulf, at approximately 109.5 degrees east longitude and 19.5 degrees north latitude. According to the local dialect known as Danzhou dialect, ‘沖(chong)’ a pond surrounded by sandy beaches or reefs by the seaside, and when combined with ‘石 (shi)’ stone weirs. In the local dialect, however, ‘石沖 (shi chong)’ is also referred to as ‘冲篱 (chongli)’ or ‘魚沖 (yu chong)’. Unlike stone tidal weirs in other regions, the stone tidal weirs in Hainan Island do not have specific names or unique designations. In 2021, stone tidal weirs were surveyed in three villages in Danzhou City, Hainan Province, namely the villages of Wangzhai, Changsha, and Shenchong. Village of Wangzhai Four stone tidal weirs remain in Wangzhai. However, the practice of using these stone weirs for fishing activities has largely disappeared. During the 2021 survey, only two stone tidal weirs were identified. The first stone tidal weir is massive, with a total length of over 800 meters. The second stone weir is smaller, with a total length ranging from 200 to 300 meters. At the curved end of the second stone weir, there is a fishing area similar in the stone tidal weirs of the Penghu Islands. 1 �Village of Changsha Three stone weirs remain in the village of Changsha. Among them, one small-sized stone weir has already suffered significant collapse. Immediately adjacent to its west, however, the second stone weir has been completely preserved, and the village residents still use this stone weir for fishing activities. It is an extremely long stone weir, with a total length of approximately 1,000 meters and a height of around three to five meters. The third stone weir was designated as a ‘Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the Provincial Level’ by the Hainan Provincial People's Government on 24 November 2015, and the ‘Changsha Village Offshore Enclosure Site’ was established in October 2016. During the survey conducted in 2021, however, it was not possible to visually confirm the existence of this third stone weir. Even the nearby village residents have no information about this stone weir, and it cannot be ruled out that it has already completely collapsed due to the impact of wind and rain. Village of Shenchong Three stone weirs remain In the village of Shenchong. Part of the stone wall of the first stone weir has been destroyed intentionally by nearby village residents to facilitate the entry and exit of fishing boats. Therefore, this stone weir primarily serves as a refuge for fishing boats during typhoons. Located northeast of the first stone weir, the second stone tidal weir is perfectly preserved, and its original form is fully intact. It is still being used by the local villagers for fishing activities. The third stone tidal weir is damaged but still usable for fishing, and neighboring villagers come to it during low tide. The stone tidal weirs at the village of Shenchong are significantly different from those in other locations in Danzhou City. While they share the common feature of utilizing tidal variations to retain fish within the weirs, each stone tidal weir's stone walls have two openings. These openings are equipped with two wooden gates that regulate the speed of drainage during low tide. The gates consist of a large gate and a small gate, and depending on the drainage requirements, both gates can be opened simultaneously or only one. To prevent fish from escaping the stone weir during drainage, fishing nets are installed outside the gates to capture them. Inside the stone walls, there are artificial water pools or depressions excavated for the purpose of collecting fish. Before high tide, the villagers stack stones in these depressions. During high tide, when the fish enter the stone weir, many of them have a tendency to hide in the gaps between the stones or gather near the stones. These depressions serve to enhance fishing efficiency. Additionally, the villagers sometimes use fishing nets when fishing inside the stone weir, especially when the tide does not completely recede. Some fish species emit sounds, especially during spawning, and the villagers move the fishing nets towards the source of the sound. During nighttime fishing, the villagers light coconut oil-fueled lamps on the buoys of the fishing nets. The fish are attracted to the light and are led into the nets. Tangible Aspect According to the village residents, in Hainan Island, stone tidal weirs were privately owned by the clans that constructed them. Each branch of the clan would take turns in fishing and jointly repairing the stone tidal weirs. On any given day, only people belonging to the same branch were allowed to use the stone weirs. The usage rights for the stone tidal weirs would transfer between the different branches on a daily basis. Additionally, other village residents who did not belong to the clan could borrow the stone tidal weirs. By paying a suitable fee, these villagers would temporarily acquire the right to use the stone tidal weirs. Furthermore, some stone tidal weirs were not solely built by a single clan but rather through cooperation among several clans. As a result, these stone tidal weirs became co-owned by multiple clans. However, despite involving multiple branches from different clans, the fundamental process of transferring usage rights remained unchanged. These transfers of usage rights not only helped maintain relationships within the clans but also fostered connections between different clans, while simultaneously preserving the relationship between each clan and the village. Additionally, the importance of stone tidal weir repairs surpassed the significance of usage rights. Stone tidal weirs were susceptible to destruction from typhoons and high waves, making regular maintenance essential. Stone tidal weirs brought stable fishing yields to the village, this provided a means for the villagers to obtain wealth and sustain their livelihoods. Therefore, the obligation to repair the stone tidal weirs was considered more significant than the usage 2 �rights. As a result, the repair work for the stone tidal weirs was primarily led by the users themselves, with the respective clans overseeing the repair activities. The stone tidal weirs in Hainan Island are similar to those in Fujian Province and the Penghu Islands. The basic structure consists of arc-shaped stone walls, but in Hainan Island, there are also stone tidal weirs with fishing compartments at the ends of the arcs, similar to those found in the Penghu Islands. Additionally, there are features in the stone tidal weirs of Hainan Island that resemble drainage outlets found in the stone tidal weirs at other regions of mainland China. The construction and management of stone tidal weirs seem to be quite similar in these regions. The construction and maintenance of stone tidal weirs require a large amount of labour. The ownership clans had exclusivity over the usage rights of the stone tidal weirs, which were primarily treated as private property. In other areas such as southern Fujian Province and the Penghu Islands, communal ownership was also observed. The stone tidal weirs at the village of Wufeng of Huian County in Fujian Province had an alternating system where different branches of the Song clan would take turns overseeing the fishing activities in the stone tidal weirs, and the catches were distributed fairly. The distribution of catches in Hainan Island is similar, with usage and distribution alternating among different branches of the family. All this gives a sense that stone tidal weirs in Fujian, Taiwan, and Hainan were privately owned. Furthermore, just like in Fujian Province and the Penghu Islands, it was possible to buy, mortgage, rent, or give away stone weirs in Hainan Island. This indicates that the stone tidal weirs had a certain immovable property nature as a source of productive activity. Intangible Aspect Since the Ming Dynasty, three main religious beliefs have coexisted in Hainan Island: Mazu worship, Xifu Ren worship, and Shuiwei Shengniang worship. Among them, the Shuiwei Shengniang worship and Xifu Ren worship originated in Hainan Island, while Mazu worship entered Hainan Island with the immigrants from southern Fujian and has become the mainstream belief on the island today. Near each stone tidal weir in Danzhou City, Hainan Island, there are traces of religious rituals. According to the villagers, local people participate in formal ceremonies for Xi Furen, Mazu, and Shuiwei Shengniang. They also conduct clan-based ritual activities by building ritual platforms near the stone tidal weirs. In addition to the worship of these three major deities, however, many fishing communities also worship other deities. For example, villagers who worship ‘Ganling Zhenjun’, ‘Lingying Zhenjun’, or ‘Ganying Dijun’ go out to the sea on holidays, wedding days, and full moon days to conduct incense-burning ceremonies, praying for a bountiful catch in the stone weirs and seeking the blessings of these deities. According to the memories of villagers in the village of Changsha, they used to conduct ceremonies for ‘Ganling Zhenjun’ during high tide, praying for abundant tides and the entry of many fish and crustaceans into the stone tidal weirs. However, with the development of modern fisheries and the emergence of industrial zones, the stone tidal weirs are no longer the means of livelihood for most fishing communities. Many have become factory workers or have chosen modern fisheries, so there are now fewer villagers who conduct ritual activities specifically for praying for a bountiful catch in the stone weirs. According to the villagers at the village of Shenchong, they have a ‘Tide Song’ that has been passed down through generations, which describes the laws of tides related to the stone tidal weirs. Although there is no written record of the song, most of the villagers still remember it through oral tradition. Through this song, the villagers grasp the high tides of the spring tide and gather manpower earlier to increase the fishing efficiency in the stone tidal weirs. According to the villagers at the village of Shenchong, they have a ‘Tide Song’ that has passed down through generations, which describes the laws of tides related to the stone tidal weirs. Although there is no written record of the song, most of the villagers still remember it through oral tradition. Through this song, the villagers grasp the high tides of the spring tide and gather manpower earlier to increase the fishing efficiency in the stone tidal weirs. The ‘Tide Song’ is recorded as the following content in modern Chinese: 大正月初七二十一、将门出虎子；二月初四与十九、蟾宫玉兔走；三月初一又十六、龙女会柳 毅；四月初二十五二十九、银蛇走三周；同间切星五月十二二十五、天马行空来往独；六月初 3 �十二十三、苏武牧羊不知年；七月初八二十二、悟空闹天河；八月初五与十九、雄鸡一唱天地 久；九月初二又十六、杨戩纵天狗；十月初一十四二十七、八戒娶妻；效十一月十二ニ十五、 弥勒走失金飞鼠；十二月初九二十四、牛郎会织女甘 The English translation of the ‘Tide Song’ is: ‘In January, there are two spring tides, on 7 January and 21 January, with high tides starting from three AM to five AM. In February, there are two spring tides as well, on 4 February and 19 February, with high tides starting from five AM to seven AM. In March, there are two spring tides on 1 March and 16 March, with high tides starting from seven AM to nine AM. In April, there are three spring tides on 2 April, 15 April, and 29 April, with high tides starting from nine AM to 11 AM. In May, there are two spring tides on 12 May and 25 May, with high tides starting from 11 AM to one PM. In June, there are two spring tides on 10 June and 23 June, with high tides starting from one PM to three PM. In July, there are two spring tides on 8 July and 22 July, with high tides starting from three PM to five PM. In August, there are two spring tides on 5 August and 19 August, with high tides starting from five PM to seven PM. In September, there are two spring tides on 2 September and 16 September, with high tides starting from seven PM to nine PM. In October, there are three spring tides on 1 October, 14 October, and 27 October, with high tides starting from nine PM to 11 PM. In November, there are two spring tides on 12 November and 25 November, with high tides starting from nine PM to 11 PM. In December, there are two spring tides on 9 December and 24 December, with high tides starting from one AM to three AM.’ The ‘Tide Song’ was originally passed down orally among the local villagers in Hainan, who spoke the Hainan dialect. With the influence of urban civilization in modern China, there is now a written version of the Chaozhou song in Standard Mandarin. Hainanese belongs to the Min Nan language group, and the formation of the Hainan dialect is directly related to the large-scale migration of people from Fujian to Hainan. According to Fu Yuchuan's ‘Ancient Migration and Hainan Dialect’, it is believed that Hainanese evolved and developed from a certain dialect brought by the dominant number of Fujian immigrants, and later underwent further changes influenced by other local dialects. Similarly, Taiwanese Hokkien is also a variant of Min Nan language, which has been influenced by the significant influx of Fujian immigrants. CONCLUSIONS The outstanding difference stone tidal weirs in Hainan Island is the conversion of stone tidal weirs into fish ponds. While cases of such conversion, like those observed in the Hawaiian Islands, are known, some argue this should be viewed as a common development trend for stone tidal weirs to become fish farming areas (Nishimura 1981). Similar observed exist for Hong Kong Island. In the past, stone tidal weirs were used as a means of fishing activity in coastal areas, but they faced damage and destruction. In traditional societies, the repair of broken stone tidal weirs was commonly done by the community at the clan level. However, as the fishing catch in stone tidal weirs has decreased, such communal work has diminished. Rapid coastal development at a national scale has led to the abandonment and disappearance of stone tidal weirs, without thorough investigation, causing them to rapidly vanish worldwide. Furthermore, the impacts of recent ocean climate changes, such as sea-level rise and destructive storms, have become the greatest threats to stone tidal weirs. The situation is similar for stone weirs in Hainan Island. In the Penghu Islands located in the Taiwan Strait, conservation efforts are underway for stone tidal weirs as cultural heritage. Extensive surveys are continuously conducted, and the results and statistical data are being compiled into a database. Additionally, conservation of stone tidal weirs is supported, considering its direct connection to marine resource conservation. Restoration activities for stone weirs are sponsored, and linked to cultural and ecological tourism (Lee 2017). In Hainan Island it is necessary to transform the historical and cultural value of stone weirs into practical tourism value. With the development of tourism, the establishment of an economic foundation through the maintenance and conservation of stone tidal weirs becomes possible, thereby increasing awareness for the protection of marine resources. 4 �However, the following principles are essential. First of all, the use of stone tidal weirs must adhere to the fundamental principles of cultural heritage preservation. So development activities that would damage stone weirs as cultural assets are not allowed. Secondly, based on the UNESCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, not only the stone tidal weirs themselves but also the coastal landscapes where stone tidal weirs exist are maritime cultural landscapes or seascape and should be protected. It is not possible to isolate stone tidal weirs from their surrounding environment, and while ensuring the integrity of the archaeological site without interfering with the stone tidal weir remains, the good condition and integrity of the ecological environment around the stone weir site must be ensured. Improving the surrounding ecological environment in conjunction with stone weirs is necessary to maximize the preservation of their historical and cultural value. Thirdly, in terms of tourism, ‘experience’ is the keyword. The development of stone weirs as a tourism resource should go beyond mere observation or listening to guide explanations. It should involve excavating the essence of stone tidal weir culture, assimilating tourists into the stone tidal weir experience, enhancing the level of tourist participation, and increasing the attractiveness of stone tidal weirs as a tourism resource. Tourists can have unique experiences by participating in fishing activities and restoration work at stone tidal weirs, gaining special experiences not available in their daily lives. Many tourists seek distinctive experiences. Finally, while utilizing stone weirs as a tourism resource, it is necessary to protect the marine resources in the surrounding sea areas for the conservation of stone tidal weirs. Collaborating with local governments, marine protected areas should be established for the release of fish and shellfish larvae into these protected areas. This would open the path for the revival of stone tidal weirs as traditional fishing and allow tourists to actively participate in fishing activities. Stone tidal weirs in Hainan Island should transcend traditional fishing and be passed down to the next generation as cultural or tourism resources. Bibliography Lee, M. “Study, Survey and Historical Change of Stone Tidal Weirs in the Penghu Island.” In Chong-Wu Stone Fish Weir on Ming Dynasty, edited by J. Chen, 51-72. Quanzhou: Chinese Literature and Culture Studies Association at Hui An County and Villagers’ Committee of Fong-Hou Village at Chong-Wu Town, 2017. Nishimura A. “Maritime Counterpart to Megalithic Culture on Land. » Journal de la Société des Océanistes 3 (1981): 255-266. 5 �6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 1: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Type The nature or genre of the resource Conference presentation Date Available Date (often a range) that the resource became or will become available. November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone Tidal Weirs in Hainan Island, PRC Description An account of the resource Around Danzhou City at the northern coast of Hainan Island, PRC, stone tidal weirs are widely distributed. Local history says that immigrants from the southern part of Fujian Province in mainland China came to this area to build many stone tidal weirs during the Ming Dynasty. Each patrilineal linage composed the construction unit of them. One stone tidal weir at the village of Wangzhai has the stone-circled catching trap at the tip of the stone wall, which looks similar to ones in the Penghu islands. On other stone tidal weirs at the village of Shenchong, there are openings between stone walls, which are usually closed by wooden sluice gates; when the openings are opened on the ebb, people set fishing nets just outside of the opened gates. Before the tide is out of stone tidal weirs completely, fishing nets are also used inside them. At night, fishermen light a fire on floats of fishing nets with coconut oil in order to drive fish into the nets. Although one stone tidal weir at the village of Changsha has been registered as a Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the Provincial Level by the Hainan Provincial People's Government, most stone tidal weirs in Hainan island have not been safeguarded properly by local people as well as by the government. Some weirs are abandoned, and others are transformed into fishing ports. As for the intangible aspect, villagers still remember ‘Tide Song’ in Hainanese, which narrates the dates of the spring tides and the commencement times of high tides according to lunar calendar. In former days, in addition, some families held special rituals during high tides so that a haul at stone tidal weirs might be good. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yishi Wang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wang, Yishi. 2023. “Stone Tidal Weirs in Hainan Island, PRC.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Akifumi Iwabuchi, and Kotaro Yamafune. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1892 Asia-Pac Session 1 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/eb52ee3672269843aa46edc861a0066a.pdf 011526e0bd94b666e598385a8fcde3d7 PDF Text Text Stone Tidal Weirs, Underwater Cultural Heritage or Not? Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 135-8533 Email: iwabuchi@kaiyodai.ac.jp Abstract The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale in semicircular, half-quadrilateral, or almost linear shape. At the flood tide these weirs are submerged beneath the sea, while they emerge into full view at the ebb. Using with nets or tridents, fishermen, inside the weirs at low tides, catch fish that fails to escape because of the stone walls. They could be observed in the Pacific or the Yap Islands, in the Indian Ocean or the east African coast, and in the Atlantic or Oleron and Ré Islands. The UNESCO’s 2001 Convention regards this weir as underwater cultural heritage, because it has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years; stone tidal weirs have been built in France since the 11th century and a historical record notes that one weir in the Ryukyu Islands was built in the 17th century. In Japan every weir is considered not to be buried cultural property or cultural heritage investigated by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset studied by anthropologists, according to its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties. Even now in many countries stone tidal weirs are continuously built or restored by locals. Owing to the contemporary trait, it is not easy to preserve them under the name of underwater cultural heritage. Sometimes their bases were constructed several hundred years ago while their upper parts were repaired very recently. Key words: stone weir, tide, fish trap, underwater cultural heritage, 2001 Convention Introduction The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks, boulders, or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale (Fig. 1), in semicircular, circular, half-quadrilateral, horseshoe, keyhole, or almost linear shape. At the flow tide it is completely submerged beneath the sea, while at the ebb, in particular during the spring tide, it gives its entire figure on the tidal zone. Then, fishermen step into such weirs in order to catch fish, which fails to escape from them owing to the stone walls, by hand or with small fishing gears such as hand-nets or tridents (Fig. 2). Occasionally, some opening spaces between stone walls or tunnels under each wall are cut through a weir for the purpose of being drained water easily and being gathered preys; outside such spaces or tunnels, fishing nets, gratings, or basket traps are usually 1 �set. The passive fishing gear of stone tidal weir, which operates only on the strength of tidal amplitude, is different from the active fishing gear of fish fence or trapped chamber, which guides the fish into the specially arranged ends or labyrinths where they are trapped (Gabriel et al., 2005). Fig. 1 Stone Tidal Weir in Japan. (A. Iwabuchi) Usually, however, we cannot draw a hard and fast line between those two kinds of gears. Some stone tidal weirs have pectinate fish fences which project from their walls, and some have labyrinths at their outer tips. A Wide Distribution Stone tidal weirs could widely be observed all over the world, viz. in tidal zones of western Japan, southern Korea, Formosa, Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Polynesia, Melanesia, the Indian Ocean, and Europe. In Kyushu Island and its adjacent small islands of western Japan, stone tidal weirs are named ishihibi or sukki. Around Ariake Bay of Kyushu Island, approximately 200 weirs did exist around 1707, and then until recently no less than 100 stone tidal weirs were still on active service. The most famous one was ‘Bora-zukki’ or ‘Mullet Tidal Weir’, which was filled up innumerable mullet in 1881; there is a stone monument in commemoration of this event on the seashore near this stone tidal weir’s ruin. In the Ryukyu or Okinawa Islands, they are named kaki, which used to number about 100 (Iwabuchi, 2012a). In 1972, there were 27 stone tidal weirs around Kohama Island: 7were still on active service, 11 were abandoned, and 9 were left only their traces. Other than the last 9 disappeared weirs, however, it is said that many small stone tidal weirs which has already faded completely out from sight seem to have existed before. In this isle of the Ryukyu Islands some stone tidal weirs have semicircular shape and some have linear one. The length of stone walls varies in stone tidal weirs; the longest wall is approximately 800 m, while the shortest one is 200 m (Yano et al., 2002). Generally in Japan, including this isle, stone tidal weirs are owned not by professional fishers but by local peasants. 2 �In southern Korea, the stone tidal weirs are called dŏksal, sŏkpangryŏm, sŏkchŏn, or wŏn. Although they used to be important at Korean traditional fishery, their number has already decreased to an extreme. Around Jeju Island in the Korea Strait, 4 stone tidal weirs are still being used, in particular, for the sake of catching anchovies. In Formosa around the Penghu Islands, there are still approximately 500 stone tidal weirs named chioh-ho. In terms of their types, they could be divided into three. The first consists of traditional semicircular or horseshoe-shaped stone tidal weirs. The second is composed ofstone tidal weirs, each of which has several pectinate Fig. 2 Japanese Fisher. (A. Iwabuchi) short stone walls extended inward from an original stone wall; these short walls serve for driving fish as well as for dividing a stone tidal weir into several parts with each family’s fishing right. The last type is stone tidal weirs, each of which has at its tip a labyrinth as fish trap. In the Penghu Islands, the golden age of stone tidal weirs, which used to one of the most important fishing methods at coastal villages there, was 100 years ago, but their economic or social value has already been diminished mainly because of modern onshore fishery. Nowadays their touristic and educational purposes are more stressed (Tawa, 2007). In Southeast Asia, stone tidal weirs are reported to be in the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. In the Philippines, the stone tidal weirs named atob around the Visaya Islands already existed at the beginning of the 20th century, and then still in the 1970’s new weirs kept being built or old weirs kept being restored (Tawa, 2007). Eastern Indonesia seems perhaps to be the world-centre of stone tidal weirs: 3 �Stone walls in tidal areas can be used in a similar manner, as is done in Indonesia (western Flores). There, a wall is built in the shallow water parallel to the sea shore. As in some of the Japanese stone walls, there are passages through which the fish can enter with the flood, but they are prevented from escaping on the ebb tide. The outlets are closed and the fish remain in the water-filled channel behind the walls until they are collected (Gabriel et al., 2005). In Indonesia, fish fences set in the form of labyrinths, made of brushwood, are ubiquitous on tidal zones, and stone tidal weirs as primordial type of such fish fences are still widely used; new ones are also continuously built by locals, in particular, when famine strikes maritime settlements. Almost all islands of Micronesia, including the Caroline, Palau, or Gilbert Islands, used to have millions of stone tidal weirs around them. In the Chuuk Islands the stone tidal weirs are named maai and in the Yap Islands aech. In the former, there are three types, i.e. conventional semicircular type, tennis racket-shaped one, and inverted keyhole-shaped one. In the last type, the seaward open side of each weir seems to be closed by fishing nets or trap baskets when the tide is on the ebb. In the Yap Islands, the stone circle of the Chuuk’s second type is transformed into the boomerang-shaped or arrow-shaped stone circle, inside which people catch fish at the ebb. There, however, some do not have ‘racket’ shafts lying perpendicular to the shoreline. In olden times, moreover, there inverted triangular stone weirs seem to have existed; as the outward bottom of each triangle did not possess any stone walls, locals set nets or trap baskets when the tide was outgoing (Tawa, 2007). They say that possibly more than a thousand years or more ago these weirs were built, and from 700 to 800 stone tidal weirs have been documented (Guérin et al., 2010), but with reducing island population after Europeans arrived those stone tidal weirs began falling away into disuse. At the end of the last century, many seemed to have been abandoned and never been repaired again. In the Hawaii Islands, the stone tidal weirs are called loko ‘umeiki. There, there are also many fishponds named lokokuapa, of which shapes are entirely similar to conventional stone tidal weirs. Some fishponds are built across the mouth of a small bay or between two points of land, and some semicircular-shaped ones are built independently on seashores in order to be raised fish such as mullet or milkfish. Contrariwise, each stone tidal weir is surrounded by a low wall that is submerged at the high tide and has opening, 4 �walled on each side like lanes, leading in or out of the weir (Nishimura, 1981). In Rarotonga Island of the Cook Islands every tidal weir is also used as fish trap into which fish is driven toward nets between boulders by locals, although its detail is not clear. There it is named pā (Takeda, 1993), which originally means an eel weir in the Maori language. The Maori of New Zealand uses even today stone walls for their eel fishery; these are not artificial, but built by nature by the strong wave of the sea (Gabriel et al., 2005). Around many islands in Torres Strait as well as around Cape York at Melanesia, numerous stone tidal weirs could be observed, and they represent the most obvious fishing technique utilized in this area. On the eastern aspect of the large fringing reefs of a few of the western islands, but notably in the eastern islands, long low walls of unworked boulders of stone were built, or rather piled up, to a height of three or four feet. These walls enclosed large irregular areas of the reef, graz(W.), sai (E.). During the north-west monsoon, when the sea is calm on the lee-side of the island, large numbers of fish swim over the walls at high tide, they are prevented by the low night tide from escaping and so fall an easy prey (Haddon, 1912). Of the Eastern Islands around Darnley Island there are 34 stone tidal weirs, and in Stephens Island there are 23. Some have at their tips protruding navels without labyrinth where a lot of fish gather at the ebb (Barham, 2000). Similar navels are reported from stone tidal weirs of the Ryukyu Islands or of southern Korea. Around the Indian Ocean, much information upon stone tidal weirs is not available. It is said that the Mascarene Islands (Yabuuchi, 1978) and the Lakshadweep Islands have stone tidal weirs. In the latter, the stone tidal weirs are called padhi; as their open ends face the lagoon while the seaward ends are usually closed, fish that tries to leave the lagoon during receding tide enters and remains in the enclosure. They are family owned properties which are acquired by inheritance (Anand, 1996). Along the East African coast, there seem to be stone tidal weirs. Coast Bushmen and pastoral Hottentots are reported to have constructed and used stone tidal weirs (Nishimura, 1981). Near the towns of Stilbaai and Arniston in South Africa there are stone tidal weirs (Parthesius, 2011), but the relation between these weirs and ones by Bushman and Hottentots is obscure. Along the western coast of Africa, stone tidal weirs are constructed by natives, such as Guineans (Gabriel et al., 2005), but we do not really know much about them. 5 �There are many stone tidal weirs in Scotland (Bowens, 2009) or in western France. Ré, Aix, and Oleron Islands off the western coast of mainland France would be the European centre of stone tidal weirs. In Oleron Island there were about 40 stone tidal weirs at the end of the 19th century (Bithoneau et al., 1993), while in Ré Island there were something over beginning of 30 the weirs at the 15th century, approximately 140 in the latter part of the 19th century, and only 14 at the end of the 20th century. A French stone tidal weir is named l'écluseàpoissons and weirs are les éclusesàpoissons, but all tidal weirs have their own proper names. The largest stone tidal weir at Fig. 3 ‘Mouffet’ in Ré Island. (A. Iwabuchi) Ré Island, whose length is about 1000 m, is named 'Mouffet' or 'Skunk' (Fig. 3), and the smallest one, whose length is about 300 m only, is 'Le Petit-Port' or 'Small Port'. Every weir is collectively owned by local peasants who catch fish at time assigned as separately with a hand-net or a trident inside his weir sometimes in the daytime and sometimes at night. One stone tidal weirs named 'La Belle-Pointe' is equipped a metal basket trap, as replica of an old wooden basket, on the outer side of a drain gap between the stone walls (Fig. 4). Fish caught is only for domestic consumption; it is never on the distribution channel to commercial fish markets (Iwabuchi, 2002). Stone Tidal Weirs and the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention Article 1-1 of the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage provides that ‘underwater cultural heritage’ means all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been 6 �partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years. First of all, all stone tidal weirs are partially or totally under water periodically, and so they do correspond to the first half of the above definition. However, not all stone tidal weirs are more than 100 years old. Indigenous people in Southeast Asia or in the Pacific are still constructing new weirs every day. Owing to ecological conditions, nonetheless, they seem not to build stone tidal weirs on completely virgin tidal zones. They always build them exactly on traces for old weirs or, at least, on tidal zones which used to have millions of old stone tidal weirs. These days, in other words, most locals are, not constructing, but repairing old weirs every day. According to A. C. Haddon, no native within the memory of man ever made a stone tidal weir around Torres strait, and all they can do now is to repair them (Haddon, 1912). Fig. 4 ‘Le Petit-Port’ in Ré Island. (A. Iwabuchi) It is within the bounds of possibility that only the lower parts or stones of a new tidal weir or its basement are more than 100 years old. However, it is extremely difficult to guess 7 �how old even its base is, mainly because no written historical material is recorded for almost all stone tidal weirs. Some anthropologists insist that the stone tidal weir itself is considered a very old fishing method, and some existing today date back to early Neolithic times, and even to the pre-Sapiens phase of human evolution (Nishimura, 1968). It is true that contemporary foragers are also using a kind of stone tidal weir. Canadian Eskimo, for example, uses not only fish traps but also stone tidal weirs named haput’. This horseshoe-shaped weir is built at a river mouth. Its stone wall seems to be extremely low, in comparison with Taiwanese or French walls, but it is completely submerged at the high tide and then at the ebb foragers go into the weir, which has depth 60 cm only, to catch charr. Similarly, northwest coast Indians used to build stone tidal weirs, in particular, at river mouths (Stewart, 1993). It is said that Australian aborigines also use stone tidal weirs. Impounding shallow enclosure of boulder fences were formerly in use among them, although Hornell classifies this technology as fish trap, not as stone tidal weir (Hornell, 1950). Nevertheless, stone tidal weirs among primitive foragers are rather smaller-scaled than modern tidal weirs observed in Japan, Formosa, or France. Very few written records say that the large-scaled stone tidal weirs were all constructed during the feudal age. In Ré Island, stone tidal weirs were started to be constructed at the 11th century or at the Middle Age (Boucard, 1984). In Kyushu Island of western Japan their golden age was around 1707; the local feudal lord imposed corvée to the peasants to construct or restore large-scaled stone tidal weirs. In the Ryukyu Islands, there is one historical document written in 1824 telling us that a female priest who was granted an official court rank by the lord of Ryukyu kingdom mobilized commoners by royal decree to build a stone tidal weir whose length was about 1200 m around the 17th century (Nishimura, 1975; 1981). In Korea and Formosa, there is no evidence that the class of rulers played a large role in constructing stone tidal weirs, but usually all the villagers seem to have turned out in full force for restoring or building them. Without substantial labour power, it would not have succeeded in constructing large-scaled stone weirs. In the Hawaii islands as well, the remarkably well-preserved chain of offshore fishponds is a leftover of local chiefs, and the ponds are raised fish to feed the ruling class (Nishimura, 1981). Indeed, for example, the Torres Strait Islands do not have any feudal systems, but at 8 �least the society is not a band-based foraging one but a horticultural chiefdom. At those coastal hamlets there seem to have been powerful builders or chiefs who had mobilized villagers in order to construct or repair stone tidal weirs (Haddon, 1912). Building stone tidal weirs might have something to with the population growth as well as with the pressure on food production, with which people in power had normally to cope. In the Yap Islands, the peak of stone tidal weirs seems to have been at the beginning of the 19th century, when they had the largest population. These stone tidal weirs at the chiefdom level would not look directly to link up with ones at the band level, although their method and concept could ‘take place sometimes in antiquity’ (Barham, 2000). Judging from instances from the Far East and the South Pacific, it is morally certain that almost all stone tidal weirs, or at least their bases, all over the worldat present might have been constructed more than 100 years ago. Perhaps, however, weirs which we could see these days could date back only to not more than several hundred years ago, not to more than 100 thousand years.In short, most stone tidal weirs may not be objects of prehistoric character, but important human sites, structures, buildings, or artifacts together with their archaeological and natural context. How to Protect Stone Tidal Weirs Although stone tidal weirs are still being constructed or restored in remote regions on the earth, they are quickly disappearing, being destroyed, or being abandoned, in particular, in civilized countries. Nowadays, first of all, stone tidal weirs cannot catch fish as much as in olden times, because of the intensification of modern fishery on their outsides. Owners of stone tidal weirs are normally local peasants, while onshore fishing are conducted by professional fishers who think weirs as fish stealing traps or as shipping obstacles. Secondly, the modern coastal management for tourism or for industrialization is not always happy with stone tidal weirs which occupy the huge area of tidal zones. For many hotels or fishers stone tidal weirs are only eyesores and real pains in the neck; in actual practice tourists’ water motorcycles as well as commercial fishing boats sometimes split on stone tidal weirs. On the contrary, however, the new movements, in which locals make good use of stone tidal weirs for tourism or for activity aimed at enlivening coastal communities, have just begun on grassroots levels, although they are still minor. In France' Association de défense des eclusesà poissons 9 �de l'île de Ré'or in Japan ‘Ishihimi Summit’ has been organized to plan events, for instance, so tourists could experience fishing inside stone tidal weirs, or to restore old weirs jointly. On national levels, on the other hand, the conservation activity or management of stone tidal weirs as underwater cultural heritage has not been started yet. Even in France, which has already ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention, we have never heard that the Département des recherchesarchéologiquessubaquatiqueset sous-marines were doing research upon stone tidal weirs in western France. In Japan, some stone tidal weirs are under the control of the domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, but they are not to be buried cultural property, which is normally studied by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset or cultural landscape, which is always studied by anthropologists or by folklorists. Famous Mongolian shipwrecks of northern Kyushu Island are, of course, designated as buried cultural property. In 2006, owing to the bureaucratic sectionalism, not the Agent for Cultural Affairs, but the Fisheries Agency was designated two stone tidal weirs in Japan as selections of 100 historical and cultural heritage sites and heirlooms related to fisheries and fishing villages which we would like to hand down to future generations. However, both central government offices would not plan to excavate either bases of any stone tidal weirs or traces of their old ruins to identify, for instance, when they were built or how large they used to be, because no Japanese civil servant regards them as study object of archaeology, i.e. underwater cultural heritage. Conclusion In Japan a research group from Waseda University, Tokyo, which was directed by an anthropologist, started its academic investigation upon stone tidal weirs in 1956, which might be the world-first comprehensive field survey on them. However, no introductory book to underwater archaeology does not mention this important research. On the other hand, all books give the detailed description of the Swedish Vasa project which began in the same year. Even in Japan, no underwater archeological booklet treats this historical research activity, while all do the salvage of the wreck of Kaiyo-maru at northern Japan which began in 1974. Besides as for stone tidal weirs themselves, only two introductory books to underwater archaeology have referred to them unusually: one 10 �is in English (Bowens, 2009), and the other is in Japanese (Iwabuchi, 2012b). Indeed, underwater archeologists have not much been interested in stone tidal weirs, partly because they have been or are concerned about conventional shipwrecks, and partly because stone tidal weirs have mainly been studied, not by archaeologists, but by anthropologists, by folklorists, or by geographers. As mentioned before, nevertheless, the stone tidal weir does be true underwater cultural heritage according to the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention. Stone tidal weirs are as important as shipwrecks such as the Uluburun or the Sinan ship. References Anand, P. E. V., 1996. Fishing Methods in Lakshadweep. Infofish International, Vol. 3: 57-65. Barham, A. J., 2000. Late Holocene Maritime Societies in the Torres Strait Islands, Northern Australia. In S. O’Connor and P. Veth (Eds.), East of Wallace’s Line, Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam: 223-314. Bithoneau, R., and Morisset, C., 1993. Les éclusesàpoissons de l'îled'Oleron. Les Cahiers d'Oleron, (2nd edition), Vol. 10: 5-9 Boucard, J., 1984. Les éclusesàpoisonsdansl'île de Ré. Rupella, La Rochelle. Bowens, A., (Ed.), 2009. Underwater Archaeology. Blackwell, Oxford, (2nd edition). Gabriel, O., Lange, K., Dahm, E.,and Wendt, T., (Eds.), 2005. Fish Catching Methods of the World, Blackwell, Oxford, (4th edition). Guérin, U., Egger, B., and Penalva, V., (Eds), 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania. UNESCO, Paris. Haddon, A. C., 1912. Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, Vol. 4 (Arts and Crafts), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hornell, J., 1950. Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Iwabuchi, A., 2002. Stone Tidal Weirs at Ré Island of Western France. Proceedings of the Lecture Meeting at Tokyo University of Mercantile Marine, Vol. 50: 45-48 (in Japanese). Iwabuchi, A., 2012a. Stone Tidal Weirs. In Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: the Nansei Islands, the Asian Research Institute of 11 �Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka: 97-99 (in Japanese). Iwabuchi, A., 2012b. The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage. Kagaku-dojin, Kyoto (in Japanese). Nishimura, A., 1968. Primitive Fishing Methods. In A. Smith (Ed.), Ryukyuan Culture and Society, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: 67-77. Nishimura, A., 1975. Cultural and Social Change in the Modes of Ownership of Stone Tidal Weirs. In R. W. Casteel and G. I. Quimby (Eds.), Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific, Mouton Publishers, The Hague: 77-88. Nishimura, A., 1981. Maritime Counterpart to Megalithic Culture on Land. Journal de la Société des Océanistes, Vol. 37: 255-266. Parthesius, R., 2011. Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? In M. Staniforth, J. Craig, S. C. Jago-on, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 Nov. 2011, Manila: 641-651. Stewart, H., 1993. A Tidal Stone Weir in the Arctic. The Historical Review, Vol. 128: 6479 (in Japanese). Takeda, J., 1993. Offerings from the Sea. Shiosai, Vol. 9: 48-51 (in Japanese). Tawa, M., 2007. Stone Tidal Weirs. Hosei University Press, Tokyo (in Japanese). Yabuuchi, Y., 1978. A Basic Written Material of Fishing Anthropology and its Complementary Study. Kazama-shobo, Tokyo (in Japanese). Yano, T., Nakamura, T.and Yamazaki, M., 2002.The Stone Tidal Weirs in Kohama Island, Ryukyu. Waseda Studies in Human Sciences, Vol. 15 (1): 47-83 (in Japanese). Biography Akifumi Iwabuchi is professor of Marine Culturology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, being also a director of the Japan Society for Nautical Research and ARIUA, ICOMOS-ICUCH delegate for Japan, and INA research associate. He received his PhD from the University of Oxford in 1990. His publications include The People of the Alas Valley (Clarendon Press, 1994) and The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage (Kagaku-dojin, 2012). His university, UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unit win Network member, is the only one academic institution, teaching and studying nautical archaeology, inside Japan; to PhD candidates from foreign countries the governmental scholarship schemes are available. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone Tidal Weirs, Underwater Cultural Heritage or Not? Description An account of the resource The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale in semicircular, half-quadrilateral, or almost linear shape. At the flood tide these weirs are submerged beneath the sea, while they emerge into full view at the ebb. Using with nets or tridents, fishermen, inside the weirs at low tides, catch fish that fails to escape because of the stone walls. They could be observed in the Pacific or the Yap Islands, in the Indian Ocean or the east African coast, and in the Atlantic or Oleron and Ré Islands. The UNESCO’s 2001 Convention regards this weir as underwater cultural heritage, because it has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years; stone tidal weirs have been built in France since the 11th century and a historical record notes that one weir in the Ryukyu Islands was built in the 17th century. In Japan every weir is considered not to be buried cultural property or cultural heritage investigated by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset studied by anthropologists, according to its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties. Even now in many countries stone tidal weirs are continuously built or restored by locals. Owing to the contemporary trait, it is not easy to preserve them under the name of underwater cultural heritage. Sometimes their bases were constructed several hundred years ago while their upper parts were repaired very recently. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2473329bd9ebaf5f12169717c8858b5e.pdf 4acf0fc5377512d45540048e8186425b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 1: Asia-Pacific Maritime Cultural Landscape: an Austronesian Cultural Identity? Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone Weirs Investigation by using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Photogrammetry Description An account of the resource Stone weirs are a traditional fishing method as well as an important underwater cultural asset of Taiwan. There are about 600 stone weirs in Penghu and more than 100 of them in the western coastal area of Taiwan that are still in use. This study utilized high resolution UAV photogrammetry and spatial analysis techniques to investigate the stone weirs of Qimei and Jibei islands in Penghu as well as the Houlong coast in Taiwan. By stitching aerial photos, the overall picture and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of stone weirs could be understood. The technology developed by this study is able to provide a standard mode for the large-scale investigations in the Asia-Pacific region, and the database developed is able to become the basis of cross-disciplinary research. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yu-Ming Chang Hung-Ming Kao Wen-Yan Chiu Steven Chang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chang, Yu-Ming, Hung-Ming Kao, Wen-Yan Chiu, and Steven Chang. 2021. “Stone Weirs Investigation by using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Photogrammetry.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/663 Asia-Pac Session 1 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/346e893b23bdfe7241e4cb16b4c49dc5.pdf 74c9e8dce5178cff8829f0646a84a1c5 PDF Text Text Study of the corrosion of copper coins from the wreck of “The South China Sea No.1” Xing-ling Tian, Nai-sheng Li, and Zhi-guo Zhang Department of Conservation Science and Technology for Underwater Cultural Relics, Center for Cultural Relic Restoration and Training Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage Beijing, 100029 China E-mail: Tiantian1278[at]sina.com Hengyang University of Science and Technology Beijing, 100029 China Abstract. The South China Sea No.1 is the wreck of the longest, largest and most preserved shipwreck site in China. It is a classic example of bireme construction and navigational technology. The artefacts located on the site may provide many secrets of the Silk Road on the sea. Therefore, the archaeological value is greater than its economic value. In order to know more about the craftwork and the state of the coppers in this wreck, this paper will examine the concretion and corrosion on the surface of copper samples obtained from the upper layer of South China Sea No. 1. The samples were analysed with metallographic microscopy, 3D video microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD),X-ray fluorescence（XRF) and scanning microscopy (SEM-EDS). The results show that the copper coin is tin-lead bronze, and the content of Cu is about 94%. The corrosion is mainly Cu2(OH)3Cl, Cu2O, Cu(OH)2, Cu(OH)Cl and Cu(SO4)2. The concretion on the surface of the copper coin is rich, but the matrix becomes thinner. Lead (Pb) is scattered freely in the matrix. Tin (Sn) is high in the corrosion layer, which shows that some Cu has corroded. The electrochemistry of the corrosion was controlled by oxygen depolarization. Selective corrosion occurred between Cu and Sn, and the effect of Clsped up the rate of corrosion in the electrochemical reaction. The results of the study can provide a reference for the protection of the copper artefacts excavated from South China Sea. Key words: The South China Sea No.1, copper coin, archaeology 1 �Introduction Due to being in an underwater environment, undersea bronze has its own corrosion characteristics and corrosion products, which vary from bronze relics found on the land. With the high-speed development of underwater archaeology abroad, more and more resources have been put into the study of undersea relics in China. Internationally, several research projects studying the characteristics, composition, theory of corrosion and composition of the corrosion products in undersea bronzes have been conducted (Beccaria et al., 1982; Gettens, 1933; MacLeod, 1991;MacLeod, 1982;Scott, 2002). Gettens (1964), for example, identified cuprous sulphide (Cu2S) and digenite (Cu18S)in the corrosion products on copper nails recovered from a shipwreck in the Mediterranean. Copper (II) sulphate (CuS)was identified by XRD on a fragile black-blue bar from the wreckage of Herminie. According to studies of the corrosion products on undersea bronze by MacLeod (1985), North(1987) and Nord(1993),copper oxide(Cu2O), cuprous chloride (CuCl), chalcanthite (CuSO4·5H2O), brochatite (Cu4SO4(OH)6), lead carbonate (PbCO3), lead sulfate (PbSO4), stannic oxide (SnO2), and CuS are also common corrosion products. Currently, research on the conservation of bronze artefacts in China is still lacking. Despite the development of underwater archaeology internationally, more and more bronze artefacts are being recovered but domestically, the question of how to protect them is still a problem. Researchers are therefore using The South China Sea No.1 as a case study to research the conservation of bronze relics. This site provides a typical sample for the study of ancient Chinese shipbuilding technology and marine technology. The associated artefacts can also potentially unlock the key to many secrets of the marine Silk Road. The archaeological value of the cultural relics at the South China Sea No.1 site is much greater than the economic value. At present, the excavation of the South China Sea No. 1 and the protection of the bronze relics housed at the Marine Silk Museum not only provide valuable historical information about wreck protection but also provide a strong reference for the study of marine water relics. It will provide reliable support forthe protection of our marine cultural resources. 2 �Analytical instruments The methods utilised to analyse the concretion on the bronze surface and the corrosion products included: an Olympus metallurgical microscope from Japan; the KSTAR Company’s HIROX KH-3000 3D video microscopy; Japan the Science RINT2000 X-ray diffractometer (copper target, slit DS = SS = 1 °, RS = 0.15mm, voltage 40kV, current 40mA); scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy; Hitachi S3600N scanning electronic microscope (SEM) and the EDAX Genesis 2000XMS Xray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) (SEM-EDS); and XPS. Results and analysis Fig.1a: copper coins from The South China Sea No.1.: (X. Tian). Coins surface morphology analysis Representative samples were taken from the concreted copper coins (Fig. 1a). 3D video microscopy was used to observe the surface morphology of the copper coins and the results are shown in Fig.1b.A metallographic microscope was used to observe the cross-section of the sample coins with the results shown in Fig.1c. Fig.1b demonstrates that the coin has an Fig.1b: The 3D video microscopic image of the concretion and corrosion on the surface of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). uneven distribution of black, brown and green coloured material on the surface. There are also varying degrees of spots, salt crystallization and a dark texture on the surface. 3 �Results of the metallographic microscopy (Fig.1c) identifies that the outside of the coins are corroded. The results also establish that a uniform phase is formed within the coins. This includes the yellow area interspersed with many black spots located inside the coin matrix, also seen in Fig.1c. The grey concretion can only be Fig.1c: The metallographic dark field image of the cross section of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). found on the edge of the thin layer and the corrosion products are located between the concretion and the metal matrix. Additionally, the coin is thin. Chemical composition of corrosion products The corrosion products on the coins from the South China Sea No. 1were analysed by XRD. The results are shown in Table 1. The major corrosion products include basic cupric chloride Fig.2a: SEM image of the metal matrix of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). [Cu2(OH)3Cl], cuprite (Cu2O), copper hydroxide [Cu (OH)2], cupric hydroxyl chloride[Cu(OH)Cl], and cuprous sulfate [Cu 2 (SO4)]. The composition and structure of the matrix of the coins The metal matrixes of the coins were analysed by SEM and EDS to investigate the composition and structure of the substrate shown in Fig.2. Fig.2a shows the SEM images of a sample coin’s metal matrix. Figs 2b, 2c, and 2d provide an example of Fig.2b: distribution image of Cu.: (X. Tian). the distribution of Cu, Pb and Snin the metal matrix, respectively. The SEM image of the copper coin metal matrix shows uneven grey spots, 4 �which are Pb-rich pockets distributed across the coin. Except for these Pb areas, Cu and Sn are evenly distributed throughout the matrix. EDS results show that the composition of the coins is as follows: Cu is about 94%, Pb is approximately 4%and Sn is only about 2%. Fig.2c:The distribution image of Pb.: (X. Tian). Analysis of the corrosion process While cutting the edge of the coins, only a little metal matrix was observed. The first step was to observe the outside of a cross-section of the coins through SEM and then analyse the elements of the different colour regions identified. The analysis results are shown in Fig.3 and Table 2. Fig.3 shows that Zone 1 is a black, loose surface layer along the outside of the coin. This is the concretion layer, which contains a small amount of Cu, but no Pb and Sn. Zone 2 is a white layer of uneven thickness, which contains S and Pb, and therefore may be PbSO4. Zone 3 is a greyish-black, banded structure, containing S, Pb, Cl and Cu, which may be PbSO4 and copper chlorides. Lastly, Zone 4 is Fig.2d: distribution image of Sn.: (X. Tian). grey and the largest area. This section contains Cu, Pb, Sn, Si and Cl, which corresponds closest to the coin metal matrix. Table 2 shows that the main elements in the corrosion products are Cl and S. After comparison of the results, Zone 2 contains the greatest amount of Pb, Zone 3 contains the greatest amount of Cu and Zone 4 contains the most Sn. Therefore, the Cu in the coin has preferentially corroded. 5 �In order to observe the change in the content of each element from the outer surface to the inner regions of the coin, SEM analysis was conducted. The results are shown in Fig.4. Fig.4 shows that the content of Cu, Sn and Ca change significantly in the white area, while the content of Si, Pb and Cl change only slightly. Pb is mainly found in Zone 2, while Sn occurs Fig.3: SEM image of the cross section of the outer layers of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). mainly in Zone4. Overall, the Cu content Cu changes in most zones and in the greyish black zone, Cu is greater, which maybe the residual Cu metal matrix. Discussions The corrosion layer found on thebronze artefacts from The South China Sea No.1 shipwreck was mainly turquoise in colour. The typical powdery rust coloured corrosion that falls Fig.4: The content line of different elements in the cross section of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). off when touched was uncommon on the copper coins. The corrosion products identified were Cu2(OH)3Cl, Cu2O, Cu(OH)2, Cu(OH)Cl, Cu(SO4)2. Copper chloride was one of the main corrosion products (e.g.Cu2(OH)3Cl and Cu(OH)Cl) identified. Chlorine easily induces bronze corrosion, so it is important to take the proper measures to remove as much chloride as possible, via proper desalination to effectively stabilise the metal. The analysis of the corrosion products provides data that will assist in deriving better methods for later desalination work. From the presence of copper chlorides (i.e. Cu(OH) Cl and Cu2(OH)3Cl) and cuprite (Cu2O) corrosion products, it can be deduced that the bronze in the South China Sea No.1 was primarily in anaerobic marine environment, which included Cl- and SO42- in solution. Where oxygen was more 6 �abundant loose concretion formed on the outside of the coins. There are, however, some instances when oxygen was sealed in the space between the original metal surface of the coins and the loose concretion. Thus, the oxygen depolarization controlled the electrochemical corrosion of the bronze. In this type of environment, Sn has a lower electrode potential than Cu, so it corrodes first, with the effect of Clspeeding up the rate of corrosion by combining with Cu and Sn ions to form new corrosion products. Conclusion. 1.The copper metal matrix contains mainly Cu, Sn and Pb at a ratio of 47:1:2, respectively. 2.The copper corrosion products mainly include: Cu2(OH)3Cl, Cu(OH) Cl, Cu2O, Cu(OH)2 and Cu(SO4)2。 3. Selective corrosion occurred between Cu and Sn in the bronze coin and the presence of Cl-increases the rate of corrosion in the electrochemical corrosion reaction. Table 1 sample NHTQ-1-a NHTQ-1-b NHTQ-1-c NHTQ-1-d NHTQ-2-b NHTQ-2-a Main composition Cu2（0H）3Cl、Cu2O Cu2（0H）3Cl、Cu2O Cu（0H）2 、Cu（0H）Cl、Cu2O Cu（0H）2、Cu（0H）Cl、Cu2O Cu（0H）2、Cu（0H）Cl、Cu2O、 Cu（SO4）2 Cu（0H）2、Cu（0H）Cl、Cu2O、 Cu（SO4）2 Table1:The XRD results from the analysis of the corrosion products from the copper coin from the South China Sea No. 1 shipwreck.: (X. Tian). 7 �Table 2 No. Elements（Wt%） Mg Al Si S Cl K Ca Fe Cu Pb Sn 1 3.0 17.4 36.8 7.7 1.8 3.9 2.6 21.7 5.1 — — 2 — — — 3.6 — — — — — 96.4 — 3 — — — 40.5 1.7 — — — 43.1 14.7 — 4 — — 1.8 — 0.7 — — — 5.7 23.1 67.7 Table 2:The elemental distribution of the cross section of the outer layers of the copper coin.: (X. Tian). Bibliography Beccaria, A. M., Mor, E. D., Bruno, G., Poggi, G.,1982. Corrosion of lead in sea water. British Corrosion Journal,Vol.17(2): 87-91. Gettens, R. J., 1964. The corrosion products of metal antiquities. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1963, Vol. 1963: 547-568. Gettens, R. J., 1933. Mineralization, electrolytic treatment, and radiographic examination of copper and bronze objects from Nuzi. Zerox from Technical Studies 1: 118-142. MacLeod, I. D.,1991. Identification of corrosion products on non-ferrous metal artefacts recovered from shipwrecks. Studies in Conservation, Vol. 36(4): 222-234. MacLeod,I.D., 1985.The effects of concretion on the corrosion ofnon-ferrous metals. Corrosion Australasia, Vol. 10:10-13. MacLeod,I. D., 1982.Formation of marine concretions on copper and its alloys. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 11(4): 267-275. 8 �Nord, A. G., Lindahl, K., &Tronner, K., 1993. A note on spionkopite as a corrosion product on a marine copper find. Studies in Conservation, Vol. 38(2): 133-135. North,N.A.,1987.Conservation of Metals, In C. Pearson (Ed.),Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects. Butterworths, Sydney:207-252 Scott, D. A.,2002. Copper and Bronze in Art: Corrosion, Colorants and Conservation. Getty Publications, USA. Biography. Xing-ling Tian is a conservation researcher who holds a doctor’s degree of Materials Science and Engineering from Beijing University of Chemical Technology. In 2003, Xing-ling Tian joined the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage (State Administration of Cultural Heritage Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage).In 2006, became a research associate. Past research interests have been predominantly concerned with the conservation of metal and wood, developing and applying research to new materials and techniques and currently I am focused on the conservation of underwater cultural heritage. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 7: Preservation and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials and Site Management Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 7 chairs Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from freshwater, marine and wet terrestrial sites. The main purposes of this session are to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as the development of conservation networks throughout the region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas: • In situ preservation of marine archaeological materials, including reburial practices • Conservation management of shipwreck sites, including on-site monitoring • Conservation treatment case studies • Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials • Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region • Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs Suggestions for additional topics are welcomed by the session organizers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Study of the corrosion of copper coins from the wreck of 'The South China Sea No.' Description An account of the resource The South China Sea No.1 is the wreck of the longest, largest and most preserved shipwreck site in China. It is a classic example of bireme construction and navigational technology. The artefacts located on the site may provide many secrets of the Silk Road on the sea. Therefore, the archaeological value is greater than its economic value. In order to know more about the craftwork and the state of the coppers in this wreck, this paper will examine the concretion and corrosion on the surface of copper samples obtained from the upper layer of South China Sea No. 1. The samples were analysed with metallographic microscopy, 3D video microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD),X-ray fluorescence （ XRF) and scanning microscopy (SEM-EDS). The results show that the copper coin is tin-lead bronze, and the content of Cu is about 94%. The corrosion is mainly Cu2(OH)3Cl, Cu2O, Cu(OH)2, Cu(OH)Cl and Cu(SO4)2. The concretion on the surface of the copper coin is rich, but the matrix becomes thinner. Lead (Pb) is scattered freely in the matrix. Tin (Sn) is high in the corrosion layer, which shows that some Cu has corroded. The electrochemistry of the corrosion was controlled by oxygen depolarization. Selective corrosion occurred between Cu and Sn, and the effect of Cl- sped up the rate of corrosion in the electrochemical reaction. The results of the study can provide a reference for the protection of the copper artefacts excavated from South China Sea. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xing-ling Tian Nai-sheng Li Zhi-guo Zhang, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 7 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/78e67bdab834d2c9297d77595864c76a.pdf c4477b759806ac9cedf1566504afc09a PDF Text Text Study on Ancient Artifacts Recovered from the West Sea of Korea Yang Ki-hong (Curator, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT During the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties numerous ships loaded with ceramics and grains went to the capitals Gaegyeong and Hanyang in the West Sea. We know this from 14 shipwrecks from the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties and tens of thousands of artifacts such as Goryeo celadon, Joseon grayish-blue-powdered celadon, and Joseon white porcelain. Now as ancient artifacts are excavated in Mado, Taean and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo, there is a possibility of ancient shipwrecks. Key words: Taean Mado, Baekje pottery, Baekje roof tile, Waters of Jindo Myeongryangdaecheopro List of Tables and Figures Table 1 List of artifacts recovered from underwater Figure 1 Hard and plain potteries excavated from waters of Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo Figure 2 Baekje potteries and roof tiles excavated from waters of Mado, Taean Figure 3 Fragments of Baekje roof tile (Mado 18-110) INTRODUCTION NRIMCH archaeological excavated fourteen ancient shipwrecks and approximately 55,000 artifacts from in the West Sea. Research on these artifacts has focused on celadon from the Goryeo Dynasty, the largest frequency of artifacts. Chinese ceramic research is also underway. However, research on artifacts from the first to fifth centuries, that is, pottery and roof tiles from the Proto-Three Kingdom period to the Three Kingdoms period, which NRIMCH staff rarely identify from the sea, are lacking. Meanwhile, three pieces of Baekje pottery and 10 pieces of Baekje roof tile were excavated for the first time during the excavation of waters of Mado, Taean in 2018 and 2019, raising the need for the research on ancient artifacts. Lee In-sook’s (2021) study on roof tiles excavated from the sea indicated it was difficult to grasp the overall aspect due to the insufficient number of ancient artifacts excavated. Therefore, this study is a literature review to identify aspects of ancient artifacts excavated from the West Sea. ANCIENT ARTIFACTS RECOVERED FROM THE SEA Waters of Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo (NRIMCH 2015; 2018; 2021) Located right to the north of Byeongpahang, 4 to 5km away from Uldolmok in the southeast direction, waters of Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo are one of the four most dangerous places including Jindo Uldolmok, Taean Nyanhyangryang, Ganghwa Sondolmok and Jangsanggt Indangsu. Byeongpahang was the port that was connected to Haenam through ships before it was connected via Jindo Great Bridge. The east side of underwater artifact site had very rapid current and west side has a bay-like structure, showing the swirling of water due to strong current from the Uldolmok. The fact that underwater artifacts are scattered in the north of Byeokpahang became known when a thief was arrested in 2011. Based on the testimony of the robber, the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage stated exploration in September, 2012. 1,200 items including pottery pieces, celadon incense burner with girin-shaped lid, guns were confirmed through the first to seventh excavation survey from 2012 to 2020. Artifacts from various fields such as hard plain pottery from Proto-Three Kingdoms Period, celadon in Goryeo period and porcelain in Joseon period. In 2013, one hard plain deep bowl-shaped pottery (Jindo-497), one hard plain net pattern pottery (Jindo-498), and one hard plain fragment of pottery mouth part (Jindo-499) were identified. In 2017, one hard plain pottery lower part (Jindo II-271) was identified. As only the lower part and body part remained, the exact shape cannot be certain. Beaten design remains faintly on the outer surface of the pottery. In 2020 excavation was lower part of hard 1 �plain pottery (Jindo III-165) identified. The exact shape cannot be assumed as only part of the lower area and body remained. The shape is widened from the flat bottom to the body area gradually. They have shapes and method of making in common and it seems that it was used before and after Christ. It is from the earliest age among artifacts excavated from waters of Myeongryangdaecheopro. Figure 1. Hard and plain potteries excavated from waters of Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo Waters of Mado, Taean (NRIMCH 2021) Waters of Mado, Taean includes many reefs and complicated topography, with strong waves and heavy fog. And since ancient times, it has been known as one of the four rough places where ships had difficulties in crossing the sea. However, it was necessary to pass through it to go to Gaegyeong or Hanyang with the grains collected from Chungcheong-do, Jeolla-do, and Gyeongsang-do, etc. Waters of Mado was known for the first time with the reporting of discoveries of artifacts in 1981 and intensive exploration was conducted after receiving another reporting in 2007. As a result, four old ships called Mado no. 1, 2, 3, and 4 shipwrecks and about 3,500 artifacts were identified, from 2009 to 2015, mainly celadon from the Goryeo Dynasty and white porcelain from the Joseon Dynasty. The excavation survey started for waters of Mado in 2018 and 2019 as th west sea cultural department was established in Taean in June 2017. Accordingly, potteries and roof tiles from the Three Kingdoms period, which are different from those excavated so far, were confirmed. Figure 2. Baekje potterie and roof tiles excavated from waters of Mado, Taean Three potteries from the Three Kingdoms period recovered from the waters of Mado were identified: a mouth part of one deep bowl-shaped pottery, [Mado 18-58], one piece of lower part [Mado 18-84], and one piece of the body part [Mado 19-10]. The firing state of the earthenware was all soft nitrogen, and some of them were excavated in the form of remaining. All of the patterns have a lattice door, and frontal 2 �traces such as some hand-handling marks and beat marks are observed. Also, black spots were confirmed on the outer surface. It was identified as a piece of earthenware, but it is presumed to be a deep-shaped earthenware judging from the morphological characteristics. It is presumed to be pottery of Baekje Dynasty dating from the fourth to fifth centuries. All of them were made with soft firing method and part of them was excavated. They had lattice pattern and traces of trimming them are observed. On the outer side, black spots are observed. They are identified to be fragments of pottery and they are assumed to be deep bowl-shaped pottery given the shape characteristics and they are considered to be Hansung Baekje pottery from the fourth to fifth centuries. 10 concave roof tile pieces from Three Kingdoms Period were identified. Even though it is not even in colors, major colors are divided into greyish, yellowish or brownish colors. All of them are thin with the thickness of about 1.5 cm with clustered line pattern. The common feature is that they were made of well selected soil. There are traces of penetration, framing and connection of frame inside. There are traces of division point and roof tile division inside (Lee In-sook 2021, 136-137). It seems that they were produced in areas in Baekje as elements from Hanseonggi and Ungjingi are observed partially. Table 1. List of artifacts recovered from underwater No. Artifact No. Artifact Name Jindo-497 Hard plain deep bowlshaped pottery 2 Pattern Color - Yellowish grey Jindo-498 Hard plain net-patterned pottery - Bright brown 3 Jindo-499 Mouth part of hard plain fragment of pottery - 4 Jindo II-271 Lower part of hard plain pottery Beaten design 5 Jindo III-165 Lower part of hard plain pottery - 1 Mado18-58 Deep bowl-shaped pottery, mouth part Beaten pattern (lattice) 2 Mado18-84 Deep bowl-shaped pottery, lower part Beaten pattern (lattice) 3 Mado19-10 Deep bowl-shaped body part Beaten pattern (lattice) 4 Mado18-28 Concave roof tile piece Clustered line pattern 1 Grey+ black (Inside) Bright brown (Outside) Dark brown Bright brown (Inside) Yellow brown (Outside) Red brown (Inside) Grayish brown (Outside) Brownish grey (Inside) Yellow brown (Outside) Greyish yellow 3 Grey Specification Remarks Height (18.3-18.8 cm), Mouth diameter (14.7 cm) Black soot traces, reddish oxidation traces Height (25-26.8 cm) Neck diameter (8.7 cm) Maximum body diameter (21.7 cm) Height (10.1 cm) Maximum width (10.0 cm) Black spot - Height (10.4 cm) Bend diameter (8.0 cm) - Height (8.4 cm) Bend diameter (7.1 cm) - Height (6.9 cm), mouth diameter (restored; 16.8 cm), thickness (0.4-0.7 cm) Black spot on the outside Height (7.2 cm), floor diameter (restored; 11.3 cm), thickness (0.5-0.9 cm) Black spot on the outside Length (14.5 cm), width (12.1 cm), thickness (0.50.7 cm) Black spot on the outside Length (21.9 cm), width (14.2 cm), thickness (1.31.5 cm) �5 Mado18-29 Concave roof tile piece 6 Mado18-74 Concave roof tile piece 7 Mado18-69 Concave roof tile piece 8 Mado18-70 Concave roof tile piece 9 Mado18-71 Concave roof tile piece 10 Mado18-72 Concave roof tile piece 11 Mado18-73 Concave roof tile piece 12 Mado18-110 Concave roof tile piece 13 Mado 111 Concave roof tile piece 18- Clustered line pattern Clustered line pattern Clustered line pattern Clustered line pattern Clustered line pattern Clustered line pattern Clustered line pattern Clustered line pattern Clustered line pattern Greyish yellow Length (23.8 cm), width (12.9 cm) thickness (1.2-1.4 cm) Greyish yellow Length (13.6 cm), width (4.9 cm), thickness (1.0 cm) Greyish yellow Length (28.5 cm), width (11.5 cm), thickness (1.31.5 cm) Grey Length (15.0 cm), width (8.4 cm), thickness (1.3 cm) Greyish brown Length (8.6 cm), width (9.5 cm), thickness (1.2 cm) Greyish blue Length (13.1 cm), width (9.1 cm), thickness (1.1 cm) Greyish white Grey Grayish blue Length (12.5 cm), width (10.7 cm), thickness (1.3 cm) Length (15.3cm), width (12.1cm), thickness (1.2 cm) Black soot Length (13.3cm), width (9.3cm), thickness (1.3c m) EXCAVATION BACKGROUND OF ARTFIACTS For antient artifacts, five pieces of hard plain pottery from Proto Three Kingdoms period estimated to be the first century were found in waters of Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo and three Hanseong period potteries and 10 roof tile fragments of Baekje period from the fourth to fifth centuries were excavated from waters of Mado, Taean. The number of pieces collected was not huge but let’s examine the background of excavation of antient artifacts not from the land but from the sea based on the recovered artifacts. The reason why artifacts are found in sea can be divided into three-fold: 1) artifacts used in coastal area were discarded and inflowed into the sea by wave. It is the case where artifacts are fragmented and found near the coast. But both waters of Mado and Myeongryangdaecheopro are off from the coastal area, so it is hard for artifacts used on land are flown into the sea. 2) artifacts were discarded from sea crew or artifacts were sunken together with ship. At this time are fragments or original shapes found and the trace of using their remains. In some cases, traces of fire or cooking remain are indicated. 10 roof tiles excavated from waters of Mado, Taean were recovered in the form of fragments and among them, concave fragments [Mado 18-110] showed black soot trace. The side area had black soot traces (Figure.3). The color is reddish brown and inside foreign Figure 3. Fragments of Baekje roof tile material in greyish yellow color is attached. It is hard to confirm (Mado 18-110) as other roof tiles do not show black soot but it seems that fragments of roof tile were used to make fire. This is also shown in Mado no. 2 shipwreck. All roof tiles excavated from Mado no.2 shipwreck were from the area near the second 4 �compartment mast hole. The area was arranged by placing clay on the floor added with roof tile fragments, small number of pottery fragments and stones. The fragments of roof tile confirmed on the site were flat roof tile and 162 fragments of concave roof tiles and 24 fragments of convex roof tiles were identified. The roof tiles from Mado no. 2 shipwreck are all broken fragments and with the black soot traces, it is assumed that they were used not as roof tile but as firing for cooking. The lower part of the pottery excavated from waters of Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo [Jindo-497] had red oxidation trace and black soot at the bottom so it is assumed to be used by screw. In addition, potteries recovered from Mado, Taean [Mado 18-58, 84,19-10] are deep bowl-shaped pottery with black spots on the outside and this is traces from firing phase. The deep bowl-shaped pottery has a mouth part with flat bottom part and body part has lattice or clustered line pattern. Given the excavation of fragments of cooking ware, they are considered to be used for cooking by crew on the ship. 3) artifacts fell into the sea while transporting cargo using a ship. As they were loaded on the ship as cargo, artifacts were found in packaged state or they have no traces of use. Among roof tiles excavated from waters of Mado, Taean Mado, nine pieces with no traces of burning showed no signs of use. As they remain as not a complete but fragmentary, the possibility of being a cargo is low but there is a possibility that they were damaged by sea current. Therefore, it is necessary to look into the artifacts of Three Kingdoms Period near waters of Mado, Taean. There are four historic sites related to Three Kingdoms Period including Baekhwasanseong and Dalsanri sites. Seosan has nine sites such as Yecheondong site and Gijiri site. Dangjin has five historic sites. Taean Baekhwasanseong is a representative site where roof tiles are excavated. Baekhwasanseong is located at Baekhwasan, Dongmun-ri, Taea-eup, Taean-gun Chungcheongnam-do. It is stone fortress located in the middle of Mountain Baekhwasan and was established in 1287 during Goryeo Dynasty. The terrain was built on cliffs on all sides and served as a fortress that made it difficult for foreign enemies to approach. In 2011, a prospective excavation was conducted on the east wall section and part of the upper fortress wall at Baekhwasanseong Fortress in Taean, and 79 pieces of tile were excavated. Although it is difficult to clarify the construction period of the fortress wall due to the lack of evidence, it can be assumed that Baekhwasanseong Fortress was built in the early Baekje period (the sixth to seventh centuries), repaired and used until the early Goryeo period, and was abandoned during the Goryeo period. It is not clear as the excavation on Baekhwasanseong was not conducted but as the lattice-patterned roof tile were used Baekje Sabi period, the possibility of finding artifacts from Baekje Hansung period in the fourth and fifth centuries in future studies cannot be excluded. And there is no kiln for Baekje roof tile is identified in the area near Taean and Seosan, it is presumed that roof tiles were supplied through sea route of Mado, Taean. CONCLUSIONS Three pieces of deep bowl-shaped potteries which are artifacts from Baekje Hansung period and 10 pieces of Seungmun roof tile were first identified in 2018 and 2019. Underwater excavation of waters of Mado is the first case that confirms such artifacts since the start of the underwater excavation. So far, as many Goryeo celadons have been found in waters of Mado, Taean, the research on prior periods was not conducted. However, with recovery of the collection of fragments of Baekje pottery and of roof tile for the first time in 2018, the need for research on ancient artifacts and sea route was raised. Therefore, this paper examines the ancient artifacts reocovered from the West Sea. 15 pieces of artifacts were found in waters of Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo and Mado, Taean. 5 pieces of hard plain potteries were collected from Myeongryangdaecheopro and the traces of oxidation in red were found at the bottom of the body and black soot were observed so it is considered that those were used on the ship, not a cargo subject to transportation. In addition, the deep bowl-shaped pottery collected from waters of Mado, Taean is also for cooking so it is assumed that the pottery was used for cooking by antient crews on the ship. However, many opinions can be raised for the Baekje roof tiles. First of all, the traces of putting roof tile on fire were found in one roof tile among tiles collected from waters of Mado, Taean. It is likely that the wasted roof tile was used to make fire for cooking. As all pieces from Mado, Taean are fragmentary, there is a possibility to use the waste roof tile as cover for storage container. Or, it is likely to be sunken in the process of being moved for recycling as construction material. Even though official excavation was not conducted for Baekhwasanseong, Seonmun and lattice pattern roof tiles from Baekje 5 �Sabi period in the sixth and seventh centuries were found, so the relevance with waters of Mado, Taean where roof tiles from Baekje Hansung period were collected cannot be excluded. As the places for kiln for roof tiles were not found in areas near Taean and Seosan, it is highly likely that roof tiles were transported to Baekhwasanseong via sea route. Given the pattern of the artifacts, it is likely that many ancient artifacts can be found in waters of Mado, Taean and old ships from Three Kingdoms Area will be found. Bibliography Chungnam Institute of History and Culture. Excavation Report on Baekhwa Fortress, Taean. Gongju: One Design, 2013 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Waters off the Jindo Myeongnyangdaecheop-ro [Ave.] Underwater Excavation I, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 39. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2015 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Waters off the Jindo Myeongnyangdaecheop-ro [Ave.] Underwater Excavation II, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 49. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2018 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Waters off the Jindo Myeongnyangdaecheop-ro [Ave.] Underwater Excavation III, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 67. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2021 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Waters off the Taean-Mado Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH .62 Taean: NRIMCH, 2021 (In Korean). Yi, Insuk. “Significance of Roof Tiles Excavated from Sea Routes (Jooun-ro) in the Goryeo Period.” Archaeology 20, no. 2 (2021): 127-149 (In Korean). 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Study on Ancient Artifacts Recovered from the West Sea of Korea Description An account of the resource During the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties numerous ships loaded with ceramics and grains went to the capitals Gaegyeong and Hanyang in the West Sea. We know this from 14 shipwrecksfrom the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties and tens of thousands of artifacts such as Goryeo celadon, Joseon grayish-blue-powdered celadon, and Joseon white porcelain. Now as ancient artifacts are excavated in Mado, Taean and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo, there is a possibility of ancient shipwrecks. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yang Ki-hong Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ki-hong, Yang. 2023. “Study on Ancient Artifacts Recovered from the West Sea of Korea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/items/show/1929 Asia-Pac Session 2 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0857e6282ee61d068bb9b965c0cbb292.pdf 2270caf0aebf9aceea4ea4b0d8b92db1 PDF Text Text Study on Corrosion Factors of Iron Artifacts Recovered from the Middle West Sea Kim Taek-joon¹, Yoo Dae-young² and Lee Hyeon-ji² ¹Curator, Natural Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage ²Reseacher, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage ABSTRACT This study investigates corrosion process through analysis of corrosion products and desalination solution as a precedent study to present proper conservation treatment methods for iron artifacts collected from the middle West Sea. Depending on the environment where the iron artifacts were buried underwater, the corrosion patterns may be different. In order to treat the heritage stably and effectively for conservation, the major corrosion factors and information to remove or control the factors should be obtained. The underwater environment is rich in water, oxygen and salt, and it is very easy for iron artifacts to be corroded. In an environment where oxygen supply is little like seabed mud, anaerobic corrosion may occur. The iron artifacts in the seabed may be deeply buried in the mud or exposed on the surface of the seabed. This study intends to obtain information on the corrosion pattern of iron artifacts collected from the seabed surface of middle West Sea. In addition to those deeply buried in dense silt, there are also cases of recovering those exposed on the seabed or shallowly buried in the surface layer. In this study, we obtained information on the corrosion patterns of iron artifacts recovered from the seabed layer in the central West Sea.The samples used in the study were corrosion products from iron artifacts excavated from waters of Mado, Taean and of Seomeopbeol, Ongjin and desalination solution and the major components of corrosion products and anions of desalination solution were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Spectroscope (SEM-EDS) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Ion Chromatography (IC). The analysis result shows that major components including P, S and Mackiwanite (FeS) were identified as compounds related to it. In the desalination solution, high concentration of Cl- and SO42- was measured. It is expected that this study result can be utilized as essential data for establishing methods for effective and systematic conservation of iron artifacts excavated from underwater and it is intended to continue additional studies such as analysis on corrosion product of iron artifacts recovered from various waters and corrosion reproduction experiment through collaboration with various fields. Keywords: middle West Sea, iron artifacts, corrosion factor, corrosion product List of Tabless Table 1. Results of analysis on corrosion product of iron pot recovered from Mado (EDS, XRD) Table 2. Results of analysis of corrosion product of iron pot recovered from Seomeopbeol sea area (EDS, XRD) Table 3. Results of analyzing desalination solution of iron pot excavated from Mado (IC) Table 4. Results of analyzing desalination solution of iron pot excavated from Seomeopbeol (IC) INTRODUCTION Middle West Sea is a place where underwater cultural heritage is buried. Along the Taean coast Goryeo celadon was net-caught while fishing octopus by Ongjingun Seomeopbeol, Ansansi Daebudo and Hwaseongsi Jebudo in Korea. In particular, five shipwrecks from Goreyo and Joseon dynasties were discovered and surveyed in the Taean offshore of Chungcheongnam-do for eight years from 2007 to 2015 and historic ships from early and mid-eighth century was discovered in the waters of Seomeopbeol in Incheon in 2013. Iron pots, which were used as kitchenware by crew or carried as cargo, were lifted. Underwater environment is rich in water, oxygen and salt where iron artifacts are easily corroded. In addition, in an environment where oxygen supply is low like in the mud, anaerobic corrosion may occur by sulfate reducing bacteria. Therefore, the corrosion patterns of iron artifacts may be different in the underwater environment depending on each condition or various factors. In order to conserve damaged iron artifacts effectively and stably, information on how to remove or control major factors that influence corrosion should be obtained. 1 �CORROSION OF IRON ARTIFACTS IN UNDERWATER ENVIRONMENT Cl- and SO42- are dissolved in seawater at about 19 gr and 2.6 gr per 1 L (1 gr = 0.0684 g), and their high electrical conductivity promotes corrosion of iron artifacts (Baek Young-Nam and Yeo Woon-Hwan 1980, 673). Deposits formed on the surface of iron artifacts are removed by the high flow rate of the environment, and corrosion can be accelerated (Japanese Standards Association 1984, 33). Due to these various factors, iron artifacts are actively corroded in the seabed environment, concretion, a very hard foreign substance is formed on the surface. According to previous studies, the main component of concretion is CaCO3, and iron artifacts are corroded and it is the clump of organisms and shells and surrounding mud. Concretion is densely formed and corrods independently from the external environment and the process is as follows (North and MacLeod 1987, 76-78): 1. Reduction reaction occurs with the formation of cathode in an isolated water in the concretion. 2. An anode is formed on the surface of iron artifacts, releasing Fe2+ and Fe3+ with oxidation reaction, resulting in creation of acidic solution at pH 4-5. 3. Hydrolysis of Fe2+ + H2O → Fe (OH)+ + H+ by acidic solution. 4. FeCO3 is formed as part of Ca2+ in CaCO3 of concretion is interchanged with Fe2+. 5. Part of CaCO3 is dissolved by Ca (HCO3)2 that includes H+, increasing pH concentration of the surrounding environment. 6. As the pH concentration rises, oxides, hydroxides and hydroxide chlorides such as Fe2+and Fe3+ are gradually eluted. 7. During steps one to six, CaCO3 condensate is gradually dissolved and hard iron cementing is formed. In addition, anaerobic corrosion can occur in places where oxygen is scarce, such as deep in the mud of the seabed environment. The typical example of anaerobic corrosion of iron artifacts is corrosion by sulfide reduced by sulfate reducing bacteria (4Fe + SO42-+ H+→ 3Fe2++FeS + H2O). The resulting corrosion forms black iron sulfide, which is oxidized in red when exposed to the atmosphere (Fujii 2009, 50-51). METHODOLOGY In this study, desalination solution (Sodium Sesquicarbonate 0.1M aqueous solution) used during the conservation treatment of iron pots collected from Mado, Taean, Chungcheongnamdo and waters of Seomeopbeol, Ongjin, Incheon and corrosion products removed from the surface, were used as samples. The iron pots from the Mado were discovered through visual exploration of the sea bottom and part of the surface layer of the sea bottom by divers during wide-area exploration in 2011 (NRIMCH 2017, 27). Iron pots collected from Seomeopbeol were recovered from the sand and shell layer identified during the southeast Shingoji probe survey in the first underwater excavation survey in 2012 (NRIMCH 2014, 33-34). The components of corrosion product samples were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Spectroscope (SEM-EDS) and the external characteristics of the point where certain components (P, S) were detected were observed. Then they were powdered and the compound was identified through X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. Concentration of desalination solution was measured using Ion Chromatography (IC) to measure concentration of anions (F-, Cl-, SO42, NO3-, PO43-) to identify the relationship between SEM-EDS and XRD analysis result. The number of corrosion product analysis samples was 16 in total (eight from Mado and the others from Seomeopbeo) and the points (55 points in Mado and 41 points in Seomeopbeol, 96 points in total) subjected to SEM-EDS analysis were selected with 40x magnification of stereoscopic microscope images were recorded using digital recording device attached. Conditions of SEM-EDS analysis include voltage of 15-20 kV, WD 10 mm, spot size 25, measurement time of 60 seconds and magnification up to 9,000 times. Conditions of XRD analysis for 16 powdered samples after 2 �SEM-EDS and one additional sample (corrosion product of iron pot from Mado shipwreck no. 4) were voltage of 40 kV, current of 30 mA, and target Cu. For desalination solution analysis, 16 samples (eight from Mado, the others from Seomeopbeol) were prepared and anion concentration was measured using IC. As Cl- concentration of the desalination solution sample was expected to be very high, it was diluted with ultrapure water 100 times and cellulose filter was used to remove impurities in the sample and then anion analysis was conducted. STUDY RESULTS Analysis of corrosion product When sulfate reducing bacteria is involved in the corrosion process, the high content of phosphorus and sulfur may be detected in the corrosion products (Lee Yong-deuk et al. 1996, 256), SEM-EDS analysis was conducted to check whether these two components are detected and their content. The results of analyzing corrosion products showed that sulfur was detected in 15 samples except for one sample from Mado (MD6). The maximum sulfur level was 63.61 wt per cent (MD8) in samples from Mado and 25.13 wt per cent (SE7) in samples from Seomeopbeol sea area and other samples contained 0.64~23.02 wt per cent. Among them MD8 is characterized by maximum sulfur content of 11.51 wt per cent and phosphorus content of 12.17 wt per cent. This result can be interpreted that sulfate reducing bacteria influenced the corrosion process of iron pots collected from Mado and Seomeopbeol. However, these compounds were identified with the identification of mackinawite (FeS) in MD1 and other samples identified iron oxides such as siderite (FeCO3) or goethite (FeOOH) formed by the influence of concretion. Table 1. Results of analysis on corrosion product of iron pot recovered from Mado (EDS, XRD) Sample Maximum content of major ingredient (wt per cent) Compound Name (Chemical Formula) P S Ca MD1 - 11.85 10.12 Magnetite (Fe3O4) calcite (CaCO3) mackinawite (FeS) MD.2 - 1.40 0.51 Magnetite (Fe3O4) siderite (FeCO3) MD3 - 2.53 - Siderite (FeCO3) MD4 - 6.65 - Siderite (FeCO3) MD5 - 1.54 - Magnetite (Fe3O4) quartz (SiO2) MD6 - - - Magnetite (Fe3O4) siderite (FeCO3) MD7 - 63.61 - Siderite (FeCO3) MD8 12.17 11.51 - Magnetite (Fe3O4) Table 2. Results of analysis of corrosion product of iron pot recovered from water Seomeopbeol sea area (EDS, XRD) Sample Maximum content of major ingredient (wt per cent) Compound Name (Chemical Formula) P S Ca SE1 - 0.64 1.36 Siderite (FeCO3) magnetite (Fe3O4) goethite (FeOOH) SE2 0.27 1.11 3.63 Siderite (FeCO3) SE3 - 2.96 0.48 Siderite (FeCO3) magnetite (Fe3O4) SE4 - 0.87 1.51 Siderite (FeCO3) goethite (FeOOH) SE5 - 8.48 4.09 Magnetite (Fe3O4) goethite (FeOOH) SE6 0.17 4.04 - Goethite (FeOOH) SE7 - 25.13 37.80 Siderite (FeCO3) magnetite (Fe3O4) SE8 - 23.02 31.61 Siderite (FeCO3) magnetite (Fe3O4) goethite (FeOOH) 3 �Iron sulfide such as Mackinawite or pyrite (FeS2) are formed together with oxides such as FeOOH, serving as the evidence to show corrosion by sulfate reducing bacteria (Lee Jae-ik and Seo Myeong-po 1992, 63), but this study did not obtain results with unique characteristics. However, according to previous studies, iron sulfide in a honeycomb structure, which is easily oxidized to calcium sulfate in the form of iron crystals, was observed in European old ships using iron nails (Kim Yong-han 1987, 151-152), SEM observation confirmed similar type of corrosion products in SE5 and SE7. In addition, samples from Seomeopbeol contain large amounts of Calcium and SE7 and SE8 showed high concentration of sulfur so it is considered to be the result of oxidation of iron sulfide. However, in the XRD analysis, the identification of relevant compounds (CaSO4, etc.) was not done and SEM observation did not confirm unique characteristics, requiring further research on this matter. Analysis of desalination solution Sixteen samples were collected from desalination solution from six pots, three from each area including MT64 and SE405 where corrosion product analysis sample was collected (red square in Table 3 and 4) to conduct anion analysis. The analysis results showed that Table 3 and 4 Cl- and SO42concentration was higher overwhelmingly than other anions and EDS ingredient analysis showed 20 ppm or higher PO43- in the MT64 sample where phosphorus was detected. PO43- was measured in the sample from primary desalination solution of YDS1 and YDS on December 4, 2013 once respectively but it was not identified in samples after that. Table 3. Results of analyzing desalination solution of iron pot excavated from Mado (IC) Sample (date) M3S262 (‘12.3.15) M3S262 (‘12.5.24) M3S262 (‘12.6.28) MS76 (’12.4.25) MS76 (’12.6.7) MS76 (‘12.7.12) MT64 (’12.3.22) MT64 (’12.5.16) Anion concentration (ppm) FClSO420.18 60.74 241.41 0.16 48.11 104.80 0.14 30.24 72.29 0.20 14.54 41.83 0.37 13.96 40.22 NO33.49 - PO43- 0.28 14.33 29.56 - - 0.28 0.25 223.83 109.66 271.22 194.79 - 25.44 22.64 Table 4. Results of analyzing desalination solution of iron pot excavated from Seomeopbeol (IC) Anion concentration (ppm) FCl- SO42- NO3- PO43- SE403 (‘14.1.7) 0.12 41.05 100.64 - - SE403 (‘14.3.5) SE403 (‘14.5.13) YDS1 (‘13.12.4) YDS1 (‘14.8.5) YDS1 (‘15.4.7) YDS4 (‘13.12.4) YDS4 (‘14.4.17) 0.27 0.07 0.77 0.01 0.01 0.46 0.05 13.62 10.79 1530.31 172.80 110.51 439.99 55.61 17.19 7.66 84.31 27.17 54.32 48.19 10.04 6.00 3.97 7.19 16.27 15.68 - Sample (date) As presented in Table 3 and 4, SO42- was clearly detected in the desalination solution from the two sites. Generally, Cl- dissolution is the focus in the process of stabilization considering the impact of sea water containing large amounts of salt for iron artifacts excavated from underwater but as shown in the result, whether SO42- remains or not should be checked mandatorily. 4 �CONCLUSIONS This study was conducted to obtain information on effective methods of conservation treatment by analyzing corrosion products of iron artifacts collected from the Middle West Sea and desalination solution. The iron artifacts recovered from waters included artifacts lifted by removing strong and dense mud layers and artifacts buried near the surface layer or exposed on the seabed surface. In order to find out the pattern of corrosion of iron artifacts, wide area exploration of waters of Mado, Taean and excavation survey in waters of Seomeopbeol, Ongjin were conducted and the corrosion product of iron pots lifted and desalination solution were used as samples for research. In the iron corrosion process, when sulfate reducing bacteria is involved, significant amounts of sulfur and phosphorus can be detected. Therefore, in this study, SEM-EDS analysis was conducted for the components of iron pot corrosion products from Mado and Seomupbeol. Previous studies on iron test piece corrosion by seawater, mud (collected from Mado) and Na2S water solution, ingredients such as Sulfur or Phosphorus were not detected at all (Kim Taek-joon 2013, 47-50). In our SEM-EDS analysis on corrosion products, a large amount of sulfur was detected in most samples and one sample from Mado contained 12.17 wt per cent of phosphorus. Sulfate reducing bacteria is confirmed in the process of iron pot from Mado and Seomupbeol. However, in the XRD analysis, there were no clear results except for the identification of mackinawite (FeS) in one sample. In the anion analysis of desalination solution, highly concentrated Cl- and SO42- were measured and it is considered to be related to the identification of sulfur as the main ingredient of corrosion products. Sulfur and SO42- were major factors that influence the corrosion of iron artifacts collected from the Middle West Sea. However, it was not possible to obtain specific information on how these factors are involved in corrosion of iron artifacts. Follow-up research will involve sulfate reducing bacteria and further analysis of corrosion products of iron artifacts collected from various sea areas. Acknowledgements I would like to thank people from the Conservation Science Lab of NRIMCH for helping with the analysis of samples. Bibliography Fujii, Tetsuo. Countermeasures against Corrosion of Metal Materials. Tokyo: Nikkan Industrial Newspaper, 2009 (In Japanese). Kim, Taek-joon. “Study of Corrosion Characteristics of Iron Objects Excavated from Taean Mado Waters.” Master’s thesis, Hanseo University, 2013 (In Korean). Kim, Yonghan, “Conservation and Restoration of the Shipwreck.” Conservation Studies 8 (1987): 123-148 (In Korean). Lee, Jae-ik. and Seo, Myeongpo. “Corrosion of metals by microorganisms.” Journal of Corrosion Science 21, no. 1 (1992): 50-66 (In Korean). Lee, Yong-deuk. Ryu, Seung-ki. and Kim, Youngho. “Microbially Influenced Corrosion of Stainless Steels.” Journal of Corrosion Science 25, no. 2 (1996): 249-259 (In Korean). Noboru, Masko. Anticorrosion Technique Manual. Tokyo: Sanbi Printing, 1984 (In Japanese). North, Neil A. MacLeod, Ian D. “Corrosion of Metals.” In Corrosion of Marine Archaeological Objects, edited by Colin Pearson, 68-98. London: Butterworths, 1987. NRIMCH. Waters off Taean-Mado Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 62. Taean: NRIMCH, 2017 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Incheon Ongingun Yeongheungdo Shipwreck Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 35. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2014 (In Korean). Paik, Yeongnam. and Yeo, Woonkwan. “A Study of Marine Corrosion Phenomena of Metals.” Theses Collection of Kyung Hee University 10 (1980): 673 (In Korean). 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 14: Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 14 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Study on Corrosion Factors of Iron Artifacts Recovered from the Middle West Sea Description An account of the resource This study investigates corrosion process through analysis of corrosion products and desalination solution as a precedent study to present proper conservation treatment methods for iron artifacts collected from the middle West Sea. Depending on the environment where the iron artifacts were buried underwater, the corrosion patterns may be different. In order to treat the heritage stably and effectively for conservation, the major corrosion factors and information to remove or control the factors should be obtained. The underwater environment is rich in water, oxygen and salt, and it is very easy for iron artifacts to be corroded. In an environment where oxygen supply is little like seabed mud, anaerobic corrosion may occur. The iron artifacts in the seabed may be deeply buried in the mud or exposed on the surface of the seabed. This study intends to obtain information on the corrosion pattern of iron artifacts collected from the seabed surface of middle West Sea. In addition to those deeply buried in dense silt, there are also cases of recovering those exposed on the seabed or shallowly buried in the surface layer. In this study, we obtained information on the corrosion patterns of iron artifacts recovered from the seabed layer in the central West Sea.The samples used in the study were corrosion products from iron artifacts excavated from waters of Mado, Taean and of Seomeopbeol, Ongjin and desalination solution and the major components of corrosion products and anions of desalination solution were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Spectroscope (SEM-EDS) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Ion Chromatography (IC). The analysis result shows that major components including P, S and Mackiwanite (FeS) were identified as compounds related to it. In the desalination solution, high concentration of Cl - and SO4 2- was measured. It is expected that this study result can be utilized as essential data for establishing methods for effective and systematic conservation of iron artifacts excavated from underwater and it is intended to continue additional studies such as analysis on corrosion product of iron artifacts recovered from various waters and corrosion reproduction experiment through collaboration with various fields. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kim Taek-joon Yoo Dae-young Lee Hyeon-ji Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Taek-joon, Kim, Yoo Dae-young, and Lee Hyeon-ji. 2023. “Study on Corrosion Factors of Iron Artifacts Recovered from the Middle West Sea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1962 Asia-Pac Session 14 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/97326f2ea3c7832e2f42d01c64c6ae80.pdf c53d43ebfe56a3fcd6312668a84021a3 PDF Text Text Study on Records of Underwater Excavations Utilizing Geophysical Equipment Lee Young-hyun (Curator, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT This study intends to examine the records of underwater excavations utilizing sound waves at the underwater sites with bad visibilities. Marine geophysical exploration equipment was operated and method of investigation and record using it was examined. First, in the underwater excavation of waters of Dangmpo, Taean, side-scanning sonar, multi-beam echo sounder, and scanning sonar were used to record the soil investigation section in order to find out which maritime geophysical exploration equipment is suitable for underwater excavation survey. As a result, it was found that side scanning sonar showed relatively high resolution when using a frequency of 1250 kHz, but there was a problem in that distortion occurred during the investigation process. The multi-beam echo sounder did not cause significant distortion, but the resolution was poor. The scanning sonar had relatively little distortion and had good results, so it was suitable for recording soil removal survey section. In order to review the usability of scanning sonar for the underwater excavation conducted in turbid environment, images of scanning sonar of underwater excavation in the waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwan and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo were used to make drawings for survey. By conducting this experiment, it was confirmed that it was possible to make more effective records than drawings made in existing underwater excavation survey when scanning sonar is used for turbid underwater site. Keywords: sound wave, geophysical exploration, scanning sonar, underwater excavation List of Figures Figure 1 Mosaic image of scanning sonar for Area A of underwater excavation of waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwang Figure 2 Mosaic image using reflector (frequency 675 kHz, measurement range 25 m, ○ reflector) INTRODUCTION The methods of recording artifacts and remains during underwater excavations are not that different from that of land ones. Drawings are created with actual measurements and photos and videos are taken. However, when the water is turbid, it is often difficult to record basic information. The water is turbid due to the presence of many floating objects, which block light and obscure the visibility, hindering actual measurement and recording. In underwater archeology, marine geophysical exploration equipment is mainly used to find artifacts under the surface of the water such as old shipwrecks. The purpose of this study is to find a way to complement produced records with marine geophysical survey equipment to underwater excavation and at the same time to improve the utilization of physical survey equipment in underwater archeology. To this end, marine geophysical exploration equipment was compared and reviewed in waters of Dangampo, Taean in 2017 and the underwater excavation recording method using the exploration equipment was studied in waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwang and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo between 2018 and 2019. This paper intends to present methods for recording underwater excavations using marine geophysical survey equipment by organizing the contents and results of these field experiments. COMPARATIVE REVIEW ON MARINE GEOPHYSICAL EXPLOARTION EQUIPMENT APPLICALBE TO UNDERWATER EXCAVATION Comparative study of marine geophysical exploration in waters of Dangampo, Taean In the underwater excavation of waters of Dangampo, a side scan sonar, multi beam echo sounder, and scanning sonar were used to record the underwater survey for areas temporarily designated as historical site and soil removal section. As these exploration devices use sound waves to investigate the seabed, it was expected that they would be able to record changes in the seabed caused by excavation. 1 �Survey using side scan sonar Survey using side scan sonar in waters of Dangampo was carried out before removing soil. DSME's S150 was used, and this model can use frequencies of 400kHz and 1250 kHz. Since the side scan sonar has a relatively small volume and a simple configuration, temporarily designated historical site (500 m × 200 m) was investigated using a rubber boat. A frequency of 400 kHz was used, and the swath which is a range that can survey the seabed at once, was set to 105 m. The swath was wide and the entire designated site could be surveyed by going back and forth three times in the east-west direction and overlapping the scan width by more than 100 per cent. Regarding the soil removal section, the frequency of 400 kHz and swath of 105 m and the frequency of 1250 kHz and swath of 75 m were used repeatedly several times to obtain high-quality results. Survey using multi beam echo sounder The multi beam echo sounder survey was conducted, before the soil removal on the same day. R2Sonic's Sonic2024 was used, and this model generates 256 sound waves of 400 kHz at a time from the transducer and receives the sound waves reflected on the seabed and returned. After installing a multi-beam echo sounder in Seamuse (18 tons), the survey was conducted before and after high tide, the highest sea level during the day. The swath of a multi beam echo sounder installed on the ship varies depending on the water depth, and is usually about 4 times the depth. Since the water depth of waters of Dangampo is about 4 m to 10 m, the multi beam echo sounder's swath is about 16 m to 40 m. Therefore, the survey measurement line was set at intervals of 10 m from north to south, and the seafloor was surveyed while going back and forth 7.5 times in the east-west direction. Survey using scanning sonar Kongsberg's 1171 model was used by selecting a frequency between 600 kHz and 1200 kHz and the measurement range is 0.5 m to 100 m. In the temporarily designated historical sites, the survey was planned only in the range of 260 m × 180 m. The reason why the entire temporarily designated historical site was not covered was due to the limitation of the survey time. Scanning sonar should be moved and installed several times in order to acquire high-quality data for a certain area and this process is expected to take a lot of time. A method of irradiating a wide range at once by increasing the measurement distance can be considered, but it is not effective because the longer the measurement range, the lower the resolution as the reflectivity of sound waves decreases. A frequency of 675 kHz was used and the measurement range were set at 30 m and 50 m. As a result of operating the scanning sonar for two days, data could be obtained only from 8 places out of 24 points planned for acquiring data. This is because it took more time than expected to accurately position the scanning sonar at the target point, and the high tide time available for investigation was not long. The scanning sonar survey of the soil removal section was conducted during the soil removal. Data were obtained after placing the transducer adjacent to the soil removal section. A frequency of 675 kHz and a measurement range of 25 m were used. Results of experiments using maritime geophysical exploration equipment Results of marine geophysical exploration in survey sea area In the image acquired by the side scan sonar, the area where the soil removal was conducted was distinguished from the area where soil was not removed or showed clear differences in shade due to the trace of soil removal. Comparing the results obtained with frequencies of 400 kHz and 1250 kHz, only the range of the soil survey section was identified at the frequency of 400 kHz, and it was difficult to check the inside of the soil removal section. On the other hand, at a frequency of 1250 kHz, the changed seabed due to the soil removal could be clearly identified. In the image acquired by the side scan sonar, the overall shape of the soil removal section was distorted rather than straight. This distortion is because the towfish did not maintain constant speed, water depth, direction, etc. in the water. Therefore, in order to obtain high-quality results, it was repeated several times to examine the area around the soil removal section, but it was difficult to obtain an image of an accurate shape. 2 �The multi beam echo sounder survey results showed that the soil survey section had a bumpier appearance than the surrounding seabed, and unlike the side scan sonar results, the overall appearance was straight and not distorted. This is because factors that may cause distortion were corrected through the post-correction process mentioned above. However, the appearance of the inside of soil removal survey section was not expressed as delicately as expected. It is similar to the result of 400 kHz side scan sonar using the same frequency, and the resolution is lower than that of 1250 kHz side scan sonar. The image acquired by the scanning sonar had little error or distortion in the result even without special post-correction, so it was possible to clearly check the soil removal survey section. Although it was not possible to distinguish 5 m × 5 m grid accurately, it was possible to distinguish the 10 m × 10 m square initially set up when the grid was installed. In addition, in the survey line shortly after the completion of the earthwork investigation, it was confirmed that the seabed had changed like ridges and furrows due to the soil removal. Review on results of marine geophysical exploration In order to use marine geophysical survey equipment for underwater excavation survey, several conditions should be met. First, the changes in seabed caused by soil removal should be clearly identified as soil removal at seabed is conducted for underwater excavation. Next, the error due to distortion must be small. Marine geophysical survey equipment which may cause distortion in the results depending on the characteristics of the equipment, operation method, and surrounding environment and severe distortion makes it difficult to check soil removal survey area. Being able to check the results quickly is helpful for survey. Considering these conditions, as a result of reviewing three exploration equipment operated in waters of Dangampo, it was judged that the scanning sonar was the most suitable for the underwater excavation survey record. In the case of the side scan sonar, as it is found in the survey, it can survey a wide range in a short time, and when using a frequency of 1250 kHz, it showed high resolution for the soil removal section. However, repetitive surveys were required to obtain high-quality results, distortions frequently occurred during the survey process and correction was not easy. Since the multi beam echo sounder provides 3D images, it is effective in checking the seabed topography over a wide range, and has the advantage that distortion is hardly visible in the soil removal section. However, it was not suitable for recording the soil removal section due to its low resolution compared to other exploration equipment, and it took a relatively long time to obtain the result because it had to go through post-correction. The scanning sonar showed good resolution for the soil removal section and was effective in recording the soil removal section with little distortion without special post-correction. This is because, unlike the previous two exploration equipment, it is fixed on the seabed to acquire data, and there are few factors that can adversely affect the results except for tide. However, the scanning sonar had the disadvantage of requiring a lot of time to investigate a wide range. 3 �Usage of scanning sonar for underwater excavation in turbid and wide range The experiment conducted in waters of Dangampo, Taean concluded that the scanning sonar is suitable for recording the soil removal section. However, since the waters of Dangampo had a relatively good underwater visibility, it was necessary to check whether it was possible to make a record using a scanning sonar in turbid water. To this end, the scanning sonar was operated in the underwater excavation of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwang and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo. Survey using scanning sonar in waters of Nakweoldo , Yeonggwang In an experiment conducted in waters of Dangampo, it was difficult for the scanning sonar to investigate a wide range due to limited time. In the second underwater excavation survey in Dangampo, it was possible to create a single image by connecting three scanning stations or data. This means that with enough time, one large scanning station or image can be produced over a wide area. If the change of the seabed is recorded after the completion of the excavation, it is very likely the seabed changed from the time of investigation, such as reburial of the soil removal section investigated in the early stage of the excavation. Therefore, it is more effective to record seabed changes from time to time during the survey process and connect them. Figure 1. Mosaic image of scanning sonar for Area A of underwater excavation of waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwang The frequency used was 675 kHz, and the measurement distance was 50 m. In addition, 11 data acquired from each point were connected to create a single image of the seabed in Area A. Finally, a grid was drawn on this image to create an excavation survey plan (Figure 1). Waters of Myeongnyangdaecheopro, Jindo survey using scanning sonar In waters of Myeongnyangdaecheopro, a reflector was installed on the seabed to accurately connect multiple sonar images. The reflector was made in a hemispherical shape with a diameter of 20 cm by referring to the shape of a radar reflector used in ships, and was attached to the handle of a probe rod to Figure 2. Mosaic image using reflector (frequency 675 kHz, measurement range 25 m, ○ reflector) 4 �be fixed to the seabed. Reflectors (small circles in image) were placed at 10 m intervals along the prospecting trench (figure 2), and the height from the seabed to the reflectors was about 50 cm. The scanning sonar was operated down from the barge to the seabed, and the seabed was repeatedly surveyed. The frequency was 675 kHz and the measurement range was between 25 m and 40 m. The sonar images obtained from Myeongnyangdaecheopro show that the point where the reflector is installed reflected sound waves more strongly than the surroundings. Reflectors are identified in the scanning sonar images so multiple sonar images could be easily attached using the reflector as a reference point. In this way, sonar images were prepared for the entire survey area of the sixth underwater excavation survey in the waters of Myeongnyangdaecheopro, Jindo. It is shown that going further south, the trenches are installed slightly tilted to the west. This is different from at the time of diving investigation when it was understood the trench was installed due south. In other words, understanding of the survey site can be improved by using a scanning sonar in an environment where it is difficult to check the survey status due to turbid underwater vision. In addition, as the data obtained along with the installation of the trench was attached, rather than operating the scanning sonar after the completion of the prospective excavation, the north side of the trench cleared at the beginning of the excavation was also recorded as it was at the time of the investigation. CONCLUSIONS In the archaeological excavation, the most important thing is the record. However, it is hard to make record due to environmental constraints in the underwater excavation. This paper examines the method of recording underwater excavations by using marine geophysical exploration equipment that uses sound waves to overcome such limitations. Generally, higher resolution is expected in case of using high frequency sound wave compared to low frequency, but it makes measurable distance shorter. The way of operating exploration equipment could lead to different results. In underwater excavation survey in 2017 at waters of Dangampo, Taean, side scan sonar, multi-beam echo sounder, and scanning sonar results were compared. Upon using frequency of 1250 kHz, side scan sonar showed relatively high resolution but distortion in results due to variables that occur in the operation process. In addition, multi beam echo sounder was not easy to record soil removal due to poor resolution. Lastly, scanning sonar showed soil removal section relatively clearly without significant distortion. This is because factors that could impact the result except for tide were little thanks to operation type fixed to the seabed. However, the results were distorted due to variables that occurred during the operation process. In addition, the multi-beam echo sounder had a low resolution and was not easy to record soil surveys. Lastly, the scanning sonar relatively clearly showed the survey section without major distortion. This is because there are few factors that affect the outcome other than tides due to the operation method fixed to the seabed. This study began with the idea that using sound waves to record information in turbid water could be effective. However, the experiment conducted in this paper has a limitation in that all of them were aimed at places where underwater heritage is scattered over a wide area. While the distribution area of artifacts is wide, the area where ancient/historical shipwreck is located is relatively narrow, so a study is needed to prepare for the case where such shipwrecks are discovered in an environment where measurement or taking photo are difficult like the case of Sinan shipwreck. For example, the way of utilizing ultrasound cameras or 3D scanning equipment can be considered. I hope that continuous research on underwater archaeological recording methods will be conducted to develop various survey methods that can overcome adverse conditions in the future. 5 �Bibliography Baek, Hyuk. Jun, Bong-Huan. Park, Sung-Woo and Lee, Pan-Mook. “Seabed Mapping Using MS-1000 Sensor Image” Ship and Marine Technology, no. 51 (2011): 65-72 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Waters off Jindo Myeongnyangdaecheop-ro [Ave.] Underwater Excavation, I, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 49. Mokpo National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2015 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Waters off Jindo Myeongnyangdaecheop-ro [Ave.] Underwater Excavation, II, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 49. Mokpo: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2015 (In Korean). NRIMCH, A Report on Underwater Excavations in the Marine Area of Yeonggwang Nakwoldo Island, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 52. Mokpo: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2019 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Waters off the Taean Dangampo Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 53. Taean: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2019 (In Korean). Shin, Changjoo. Jang, In-Sung. Kim, Kihun. Choi, Hyun-Tack and Lee, Seung-Hyun. “Performance Analysis of Sonar System Applicable to Underwater Construction Sites with High Turbidity” Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society 14, no. 9 (2013): 4507-4513 (In Korean). 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Study on Records of Underwater Excavations Utilizing Geophysical Equipment Description An account of the resource This study intends to examine the records of underwater excavations utilizing sound waves at the underwater sites with bad visibilities. Marine geophysical exploration equipment was operated and method of investigation and record using it was examined. First, in the underwater excavation of waters of Dangmpo, Taean, side-scanning sonar, multi-beam echo sounder, and scanning sonar were used to record the soil investigation section in order to find out which maritime geophysical exploration equipment is suitable for underwater excavation survey. As a result, it was found that side scanning sonar showed relatively high resolution when using a frequency of 1250 kHz, but there was a problem in that distortion occurred during the investigation process. The multi-beam echo sounder did not cause significant distortion, but the resolution was poor. The scanning sonar had relatively little distortion and had good results, so it was suitable for recording soil removal survey section. In order to review the usability of scanning sonar for the underwater excavation conducted in turbid environment, images of scanning sonar of underwater excavation in the waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwan and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo were used to make drawings for survey. By conducting this experiment, it was confirmed that it was possible to make more effective records than drawings made in existing underwater excavation survey when scanning sonar is used for turbid underwater site. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lee Young-hyun Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Young-hyun, Lee. 2023. “Study on Records of Underwater Excavations Using Geophysical Equipment.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1925 Asia-Pac Session 2 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/30be8c594a6dcf9b9795653867c8c44c.pdf f1201a47b83389a459e6091035bf016d PDF Text Text Submerged Archaeological Sites in the Lake Biwa, Japan Hisashi Nakagawa University of Shiga Prefecture Hikone Japan, 522-8533 Email: nakagawa134@gmail.com Abstract Lake Biwa, the largest in Japan, is in the heart of Shiga Prefecture, occupying an area of 670 square kilometers. Because the lake has about 4,000,000 years of history, it has been closely related to local people's everyday lives which have largely depended upon its freshwater and fishery resources. In addition, it has served as a strategic zone for waterborne transportation for many years in Japanese chronicles. According to an old proverb, those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world. Geologically, on the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakeside has frequently caused large-scaled landslides by earthquakes, as well as the high fluctuation of the water level and strandline due to climate change; many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. At present, as many as 90 underwater archaeological sites have already been identified in the Lake Biwa by the researchers. Those sites vary in type; from shell mounds during the prehistoric era to material remains of dwellings or bridge piers of the modern period. As a leading research body, the Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage and academic organizations such as the University of Shiga Prefecture have long investigated and researched these areas. Here we present the newest research results with some future plans for preserving the archaeological sites around Lake Biwa in order to inform the world academic circle of them. Keywords: Japan, Underwater archaeology, Lake Biwa, Shiga, Earthquake Introduction Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan. It occurred in the Ueno basin approximately 60 km away from where it lies today, moved by sedimentation and diastrophism over 4 million years ago. About 400,000 to 300,000 years ago, it arrived at its current position. The Lake had never been connected to the sea in history, and a rich and unique ecosystem exists. There are more than one thousands of animals and plants that inhabit the ecosystem and the many endemic species exist here now. Many people gathered these resources for a long time. More than 90 underwater archaeological sites are known (Fig. 1), and it becomes approximately 120 sites if 1 �incorporated with lakefront ones. About half of those sites is from the Jomon period (Prehistoric era in Japan). Huge shell mounds are found here therefore people at the time strongly depended upon the Lake. In the historical age, Lake Biwa comes to play a socially important role due to its geographical characteristics. Mainly, it links the capital city (Kyoto) to the eastern and northern country. One must travel through the Shiga Prefecture to go between the two areas and cross the “Kara-bridge”. In many cases, the bridge was often reconstructed over the years, and it is Fig. 1 Distribution Map of the Sites. discovered through excavation and old historical (H. Nakagawa) documents. However, water transport was the most important means for carrying supplies and materials, therefore, many ports flourished and a lot of people and information came through here from all over the country. From such a social importance, it was said that those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world and persons of power always put this lake under their control. For example, the ancient government constructed large barrows (an ancient burial mound, square at the front and rounded in the rear) near the lake, and made it local symbols (Youda, 2007). Nobunaga Oda (1535-1582) who was the most famous person living in the Age of Civil Wars constructed the Azuchi-Castle in the shore mountain as a base of the national unification. Similarly, he made vassals construct castles (Sakamoto-Castle, Nagahama-Castle, and Oomizo-Castle), and ruled the water transport (Nakai, 1997). Of course, many ordinary people gathered and established villages and engaged in fishery and transport and others. On the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakesides has frequently caused large-scale landslides by earthquakes and many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. In addition, approximately 460 rivers flow into this lake, but its only discharge is the Seta-River; therefore, the water level is greatly fluctuated by the sedimentation situation of riverbed. 2 �The History of the Underwater Archeology around Lake Biwa In Japan, underwater archaeology lags behind compared with other maritime nations. However, the Shiga Prefecture is known as an area where the concern is exceptionally high. The history of the Shiga Prefecture’s underwater archaeology can be divided into 3 terms. Term Ⅰ: Pioneering Studies (From Early Modern times to 1960s) In Japan, concern about underwater cultural heritage goes back to the Edo period. The Edo period is the early modern times of Japanese history (1603-1868). Mr. Sekitei Kiuchi was a collector of unusual stones and came from Shiga Prefecture. While recording the collected stones in his writings a stone spear was given to him. The spear was raised by fisherman, and this record is the first concern about the underwater cultural heritage of Japan. The first academic concern is in 1928. Prof. Sadahiko Shimada had been set out to examine the origin of underwater archaeological sites; for example, the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site is well-known (Shimada, 1928). After that, Ph.D. Yoshio Oe rendered distinguished service. He was from Shiga Prefecture and made an effort for prevention of the scattering of relics raised from the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site. Moreover, he introduced underwater archeology to Japan for the first time, and typified underwater archaeological sites (Oe, 1950). As a result of these achievements, he is known as the "Father of Underwater Archaeology of Japan". As previously stated, the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site attracted attention most in those days. This site is unique; it is at a depth between 10 and 80 m, but almost all of other sites are between 1 and 10 m. Incidentally, the water level is converted into the standard water level (T. P: 84.371 m) because it keeps changing every day in Lake Biwa. In 1924, at the end of the Taisho period, Jomon wares (straw-rope pattern pottery) were raised by fisherman, which interested archaeologists. In addition, Yayoi period potteries and ancient potteries, dating between approximately 2,800 to 900 years ago, were raised. Approximately 140 potteries were recovered presently, and many complete shapes are included. Various hypotheses about origin of this site are suggested. For example, (a) The hypothesis that land sites were washed out by a rise in water level, (b) The hypothesis of pottery being thrown away that was used in facilities on the lakefront, (c) The hypothesis to be burial at sea, (d) The hypothesis that the ground sank by an earthquake, however, the 3 �issue is not yet settled (Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum, 2009). TermⅡ: Progress of the Investigation and Study with Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program (Since 1972 to 1997) The Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program was carried out for the purpose of exploring water resources and the maintaining the social infrastructure. They constructed a breakwater and dredged for a lake-line. However, it was evident that many underwater archaeological sites will be destroyed by these developments; therefore, many investigations were carried out by Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage. Many techniques were accumulated in these investigations, for example, excavation via airlift, and underwater photography greatly contributed to the development of underwater archaeology in Japan. The investigation method was to make the underwater sites dry up using steel boards and a drainage pump, labelled as the "Lake Biwa method" produced especially good results (Fig. 2). Finally, more than 200 investigations were carried out over a total excavation l area of 240,000 square kilometers. Fig. 2 Excavating by "Lake Biwa Method" in The Awazu-bottom site is one of the most Harie-Shore Site. (Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum) famous sites that were excavated at this time by the "Lake Biwa method". This site is the largest fresh water shell mound in Japan, and located in depth of water of approximately 2 to 3 m. Three shell mounds are known, but only the No. 3 shell mound was excavated. All shells, earth and sand were sorted by floatation; therefore, small remains were collected in this manner. The site is mainly attributed to the early phase of the middle of Jomon period (ca. 4,500 BC). As well as shellfish and animal bones, many foodstuffs were excavated. For example, there are nuts such as chestnut and buckeye, plants such as gourd and perilla which form a layer, therefore a lifestyle of hunting and gathering was restored. In addition, organic materials such as net baskets, lacquering products and earthenware vessels of various parts of Japan were recovered. As a result, the Awazu-bottom site became an historical source of the highest value in the Jomon period (Shiga Prefectural Association for 4 �Cultural Heritage, 1997). The Kara-bridge site located on the bottom of Seta-River is the only river flowing out of the lake. Excavation and research was carried out by the "Lake Biwa method". The bridge piers were discovered during this excavation research, and as a result of studying, it was found that the remains of that stage are from the Zinshin-Civil-War (672 AD); it was the biggest war in Japanese ancient history. After that, other remains were confirmed off the coast and a full-scale excavation by the diving team was carried out from a view of flood prevention and the ship navigation. As a result of this, the bridge piers, including the Nara period (710-794 AD), the Kamakura period (1185-1333 AD), the Muromachi period (1336-1573 AD), and the Edo period were excavated. This bridge was a strategic point which connects the eastern and northern country to the capital city (Kyoto) since ancient times, and old historical documents inform us that the bridge was a battle setting many times over; these descriptions were supported by excavation and research (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1992). The Harie-shore site, located 200 to 400 m off of the lakefront, was considered mainly an early Yayoi period site. The Yayoi period (ca. 300 BC-250 AD) is one of the prehistoric eras in Japan next to the Jomon period. In the investigation, a full picture of village was excavated and the discovery of the earthquake traces attracted attention. The earthquake was estimated at a magnitude of approximately 7.5, with sand boiling and liquefaction phenomena destroying the remains; this is regarded as reason for the village extinction (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1990). The Akanoi-bay sites locate from lakefront to bottom of the lake. Approximately 80 pieces of tiles, old coins, and other items were excavated from the lakefront, and these remains date to the Asuka period (592-710 AD). It is thought that this site resembles a loss of cargo or a sinking of the ship were made this situation since almost all tiles were unused and heaped up. There are few sunken ships in this Lake except for the prehistoric times; therefore, this site is important for looking into ancient water transport (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1998). 5 �TermⅢ：After the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program (Since 1992 ～) A variety of investigative organizations did work here after the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program. In particular, the investigation conducted by the University of Shiga Prefecture is important. Lake Biwa has legends; villages and settlements that once existed here yet now submerged on the bottom of the lake. PhD Hiromichi Hayashi had legends since 1992. investigated the For example, the Naoesengen site was portrayed in old drawing in 1291 (Kamakura period), and it was traced to the Edo period (Fig. 3). Currently, a part of the land disappeared, therefore it is said that it sank down by an Fig. 3 Old Drawing of Naoesengen Site and its earthquake. In his research, for example, Environs. (T. Hayashi and others) pottery and tiles of the 12th century were recovered. In addition, a barrow from the 7th 8th centuries and the wreckage of the stone wall in the 18th century was discovered from a depth between of 1.4 m to 4.1 m. The existence of barrows were portrayed in the old drawing, therefore the discovery was the important evidence for proving the legend. At the same time, PhD Toshitaka Kamai (Disaster Prevention Research Institute Kyoto University) and Assoc. PhD Tsuyoshi Hraguchi (Graduate School of Science / Faculty of Science Osaka City University) carried out the joint investigations, and as a result of this, traces of the earthquake were confirmed from on the land and bottom of the lake. The same traces were confirmed from other sites, for example Shimosakahamasengen site and Mitsuyasengen site. It made clear that many underwater archaeological sites on the bottom of Lake Biwa were formed by local landslides (Lateral Flow – Ground flow due to liquefaction) that occur due to earthquakes. In addition, these investigations were important activities for educational institutions. Currently, there are few institutions where students can learn underwater archaeology in Japan. Nevertheless, students have participated as staff in these investigations, and the 6 �author received a degree in the discipline since a university admission. As a result of such steady instructional activity, a research group with which author acts as a representative continues this investigation. As other example, Okinoshiraisi, a remote and lonely rock island, was investigated by ARIUA (Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology) and Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology. The island is located at the center of Lake Biwa, therefore, sailors had regarded it as traffic sign since ancient times. Currently, the clear archaeological remains have not been found, yet future study on the island is expected. In addition, a joint-investigation by PhD Kenichi Yano (Archaeology) and PhD Sadao Kawamura (Engineering) of Ritsumeikan University was carried out in the Tsuduraosakibottom site. It attracted a significant amount of attention since the investigation is connected with advanced robot development and technology. Fig. 4 The Exhumation Situation of Glazed Pottery of the Early 10th Century. (H. Nakagawa) Fig. 5 The Exhumation Situation of a Part of FiveRing Pagoda. (H. Nakagawa) A Short Study of the Legends of Submerged Villages The East Japan Earthquake Disaster, which occurred on March 3, 2011 made scholars research the remains of the disaster and investigate old historical documents about the natural disaster. Because of this, the legends of submerged villages attract attention. I would like to show materials based on the latest investigation, and perform a short study. The Society for Underwater Archaeological Sites in Lake Biwa, was inaugurated in 2011 by graduate and university students, and has been dedicated to the investigation of the Nishihamasengen site. The site has a legend; a village called Nishihama existed here 7 �once, but it was submerged in the bottom of Lake Biwa by a severe earthquake between 1460 to 1466 CE. We performed the site survey by scuba diving and skin diving, and finally, investigated offshore 250 m, a range of lakefront line approximately 800 m, at a depth of approximately 1 to 2 m. At present, more than 200 pieces of pottery (Fig. 4), the wreckages of pillars, and a graveyard of the medieval period have been found. The pillars are considered to be what once was fences and sheds (Nakagawa, 2012) (Nakagawa, 2013). The fences were made not only with timbers but with bamboo, and the buildings were made with only timber. Additionally, all of timbers were thin; less than 10 cm in diameter, which is a notable peculiarity. As the reason for this, it is believed that the buildings were not houses, but were sheds. We will carry out an additional investigation in the near future, to examine it in greater detail. The extent of graveyard area is 38 m in the east-west direction and 26 m in the north-south direction, and there are approximately 16 simple graves and that were constructed by rocks and stones. The stone statue, Amitabha Tathagata and a part of Five-ring pagoda (Fig. 5) was found, made by granite and a small plate of unglazed earthenware was offered on the graves. In addition, household goods, big earthenware pots and earthenware mortars and other material were excavated. The materials indicating the last period of this site are earthenware goods and stone statues; the last settlement patterns date the site to is the latter half of 15th century to early 16th century. From these result, I would like to examine the origin of this site. The water level in the 15th century to 16th century is considered to be 84 m to first half of 85 m (Hayashi, H., Kamai, T., and Haraguchi, T., 2012). The graveyard and pillars are located at 83.1 m above sea level or less, in addition, the remains of the houses built on piles in lakes are not prevalent in this region. Therefore, same as the legend, it is regarded that this village, which was on the land, was submerged via ground change caused by an earthquake. However, the year that an earthquake occurred seems to be different from the legend. According to the legend, the Nishihamasengen site submerged into bottom of the lake in the middle of the 15th century, yet, relics of the 16th century were recovered. Because of this, when we corroborate the old historical documents, a severe earthquake which is estimated to be magnitude 7.8 in 1586 was written down; swas called the Tensho-Severe-Earthquake, and occurred on January 18, 1586 (Iida, 8 �1987). According to the documents, there were 1000 houses in this region. Half of the houses were destroyed by fire, and the other half were destroyed by collapse, therefore it is assumed that the Nishihamasengen site was caused by this earthquake. Many sites which were damaged by this earthquake were investigated. For example, the Shimosakahamasengen site, located to southeast 2.2 km of the Nishihamasengen site, was caused by the earthquake and in past investigations and old photographs, remains of submerged wells, and withered Japanese cedar via submergence were observed. Additionally, a part of the Nagahama-Castle, located between Nishihamasengen site and Shimosakahamasengen site, was submerged by this earthquake, and was recorded in old historical documents. As a result of these, the possibility that a largescale landslide occurred over more than 2.2 km of the lakefront line and more than 500 m offshore is arguable. However, such a historical disaster record is not reflected by former disaster prevention plans. This is an important problem about the disaster prevention for not only Shiga Prefecture but also all of Japan due to our large shoreline. Problems and Prospects As mention above, many sites have been investigated for many years in Lake Biwa, and Shiga Prefecture is admired as an advanced area of underwater archaeology in Japan. However, the area still has many problems. Some examples will be highlighted below, as well as addressing some of the future plans for the area. At first, the problems about the research organization exist. There is no public research organization and technically no research worker who works on the underwater archaeology in Shiga prefecture now. In other words the current investigations are carried out by a few university teachers and graduate students. In connection with this, educational problems exist. There are few universities which teach underwater archaeology in Japan, and there is even no course offered in Shiga Prefecture. The investigation by the University of Shiga Prefecture is outside the regular academic Fig. 6 Current Condition of Nagasone-Port Site. curriculum, and it is carried out by the author 9 (H. Nakagawa) �and volunteer students; therefore the longevity of the program is in danger. The legal recognition of sites is a concern as well. For example, the initial sites survey is a basic excavation for material and research when sites are threatened by development. Sites that are not registered as such, excavation cannot be conducted. In Shiga Prefecture, many underwater archaeological sites are registered more than other local self–governing bodies; nevertheless, there is an imbalance between registered and unregistered sites. For example, most of the port sites which can be dated to a period by old historical documents are not registered. One example among many is the Nagasone-port site located in Hikone City. There is at least one breakwater remnant and five pier remnants 1 kilometer away from Hikone Castle. We can confirm their appearances easily when we look around Lake Biwa from the lakefront (Fig. 6). It is considered that a part of these were constructed in the early Edo period from the old historical documents, but it is not recorded on the site register. Needless to say, Japan has not ratified the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage; therefore there are many positions between each local self–governing bodies where they recorded on modern period sites. Registering sites dated to after the early modern times are entrusted to local self–governing bodies. Nevertheless, Hikone City aims at making Hikone Castle a World Heritage, and it was asserted that they are a castle town as well as a castle (Hikone City HP). However, it is problem that even the Nagasone-port site, which is clearly part of castle town, was not recorded as a site. It is clear from this example that underwater archaeological sites are held to a lower regard than land sites. Yet all is not lost, things look like they are moving forward positively. For example, associated old historical documents about Lake Biwa are being compiled, and research is being conducted. Many sites exist in the shallows at a depth between 1 and 5 meters. Because of this, we are able to investigate these sites easily by skin diving or beach diving. The shallower the water, the more we can ensure safety, meanwhile, the basic techniques do not change with the depth. Accordingly, I think Lake Biwa a great area to learn the technical aspects of underwater archaeology. The establishment of a longterm study system by the public institution is necessary in the future, and a cooperation system with an organization inside and outside of the prefecture will be necessary, as 10 �well. Conclusion Until recently, underwater archaeology had not been recognized sufficiently as a field of archaeology, in Japan. However recently, it is attracting attention because of the discovery of sunken Mongolian Invasion Ships in the Takashima-Kouzaki site. Taking advantage of this, it is expected that Japanese underwater archaeology will develop greatly. Lake Biwa is the field which has been known since the old days in Japan but it is almost obscure worldwide. However, many sites exist in the area, therefore it an indispensable field for developing the Japanese underwater archaeological program. It is an unexpected delight if I can tell the attraction of Lake Biwa to world researchers through this paper. Acknowledgment I wish to express my appreciation for Prof. Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi, Prof. Tatsuya Nakada, and the Publications Committee of APCONF 2014, as they gave me the opportunity of writing this article and of presenting it in Hawaii. References Hayashi, H., Kamai, T., and Haraguchi, T., 2012. The Sunken Villages on the Bottom of Lake by Earthquakes. Sunrise-shuppan, Shiga (in Japanese). Iida, K., 1987. The Archives of Tensho-Severe-Earthquake. Nagoya-daigaku- shuppankai, Nagoya (in Japanese). Nakagawa, H., 2012. Summary Report of Nishihamasengen Site. In Kamei, W., Takeda, S., Yamane, S., Hirose, J., and Oohashi, M (Eds.), Human Cultures, Vol. 31. The University of Shiga Prefecture School of Human Cultures, Shiga (in Japanese): 60-69. Nakagawa, H., 2013. Natural Science Analysis of Nishihamasengen Site. In Kamei, W., Miyao, M., Hirose, J., Oguri, Y., and Oohashi. M., (Eds.), Human Cultures, Vol.33. The University of Shiga Prefecture School of Human Cultures, Shiga (in Japanese):73-82 Nakai, H., 1997. The Castles in Omi. Sunrise-shuppan, Shiga (in Japanese). Oe, Y., 1950. Introduction into Prehistoric Potteries on the Bottom of Lake Biwa. Gakuzidou-shuppan, Kyoto (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1990. Excavation Research in 1989, Shiga (in Japanese). 11 Summary Report of �Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1992. Kara-Bridge Site. Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1997. Awazu-Bottom Site No.3 shell mounds, Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1998. Akanoi-Bay Site. Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum., 2009. The World of Underwater Archaeolog,. Shiga (in Japanese). Shimada, S., 1928. The Prehistoric Omi. Meicho-shuppan, Tokyo, (in Japanese). Youda, M., 2007. The Barrows and the Many Groups of Barrows Surround with Lake Biwa. Sunrise-shuppan (in Japanese). Hikone City (2013). Hikone City Homepage. Retrieval December 15, 2013. From http://www.city.hikone.shiga.jp/hikonejo/heritage/houkoku.html. Biography Hisashi Nakagawa was born in Aichi Prefecture in 1988. During the undergraduate level, he learned underwater archaeology and was supervised by Prof. Hiromichi Hayashi at the University of Shiga Prefecture (2007-2011). Prof. Hayashi did study underwater archaeology from Prof. Yoshio Oe, who is respected as the "Father of Underwater Archeology in Japan". With the retirement of Prof. Hayashi, he has succeeded to the research around Lake Biwa since 2011. In 2013 he completed the master program (Human Culture) at the University of Shiga Prefecture, and then since 2013 he has been a PhD candidate in the same university, and a Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Submerged Archaeological Sites in the Lake Biwa, Japan Description An account of the resource Lake Biwa, the largest in Japan, is in the heart of Shiga Prefecture, occupying an area of 670 square kilometers. Because the lake has about 4,000,000 years of history, it has been closely related to local people's everyday lives which have largely depended upon its freshwater and fishery resources. In addition, it has served as a strategic zone for waterborne transportation for many years in Japanese chronicles. According to an old proverb, those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world. Geologically, on the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakeside has frequently caused large-scaled landslides by earthquakes, as well as the high fluctuation of the water level and strandline due to climate change; many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. At present, as many as 90 underwater archaeological sites have already been identified in the Lake Biwa by the researchers. Those sites vary in type; from shell mounds during the prehistoric era to material remains of dwellings or bridge piers of the modern period. As a leading research body, the Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage and academic organizations such as the University of Shiga Prefecture have long investigated and researched these areas. Here we present the newest research results with some future plans for preserving the archaeological sites around Lake Biwa in order to inform the world academic circle of them. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hisashi Nakagawa, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2da7a0bab7c0cf6b00f1bbc4ded9efaf.pdf 96d5a6c7df7514df044a383bf84d8240 PDF Text Text Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines 1 Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta (National Museum of the Philippines, Museum Researcher; University of the Philippines School of Archaeology) 2 Bobby C. Orillaneda (National Museum of the Philippines, Museum Curator) ABSTRACT Many sites in the Philippines had been battlegrounds during World War II (WWII) that resulted in substantial sinking of American and Japanese naval vessels. Advanced technology has significantly helped in locating these shipwrecks and documenting their current condition. However, many of these underwater cultural resources have not yet been subject to proper scientific examination. Navigea, Ltd., in collaboration with the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Division of the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) has located and photo-documented WWII shipwrecks in Subic Bay, Surigao Strait, and Ormoc Bay which only comprise a small percentage of the total number of shipwrecks. These sunken vessels are considered war graves which are regarded with certain sanctity particularly for the nations they fought for. They possess intrinsic, scientific, educational, monetary, and cultural values, thus should be extensively investigated to effectively plan for their protection against threats such as natural processes and human intervention. Archaeological studies of sunken warships can also provide insight on the events during the naval battle and clarify information from written sources. This paper presents a status update and results of research activities in the WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. It also outlines the challenges in managing these sites and proposes potential plans and measures for their long-term management and preservation. KEYWORDS: shipwreck, World War II, warships, Philippines, underwater cultural heritage LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. ROV image capture of a) Asagumo’s bridge, b) Fuso’s portside inboard propeller, c) Michishio’s dual gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 2. MBES sonar images of a) Yamashiro, b) Michishio, c) Yamagumo. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 3. ROV image capture of a) USS Ward’s bow section, b) USS Cooper’s side launchers, c) IJN Shimikaze’s gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 4. MBES sonar images of a) USS Ward, b) USS Cooper. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 5. Documentation of the El Capitan’s rudder. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 6. MBES sonar image of Oryoku Maru. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 7. MBES sonar image of USS New York. Courtesy of RV Petrel. INTRODUCTION The Philippines played an important role during the Second World War (WWII). Some sites such as in Subic Bay, Zambales Province in Luzon served as naval fortresses because of their strategic location (Anderson 2006, 189-204). The Battle of Surigao Strait is viewed as the last pure battleship-tobattleship engagement in WWII. It was also part of the larger Battle of Leyte Gulf, which is considered to be the largest naval battle in WWII (Tully 2009, 13). The Battle of Ormoc Bay was a sequence of naval battles between the American and Japanese forces, which prompted the latter to strengthen their forces in Leyte (Pinak 2017, 252). As many of the sites that resulted from these engagements are war graves for American and Japanese troops, the shipwrecks are regarded with a certain sanctity, particularly for the nations they fought for. They embody both tangible and intangible cultural heritage, apart from intrinsic historical significance. While vivid accounts of WWII were provided by numerous eyewitnesses, investigation of material evidence is still important to determine a site’s historical significance and formulate plans for its preservation (Lacsina 2017, 7-8). These wreck sites are part of our underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and are currently vulnerable to a wide range of threats from human activities and natural processes. Wrecks in shallow waters are expected to collapse and deteriorate in the next few years. The advancement of technology has also made the wreck sites more accessible to divers and salvors. The stability and condition of these underwater cultural resources are largely affected by the activities of sports divers and fishermen using surface supplied air diving (hookah system) (King et al 2019, 3). 1 �There is also reported looting on some shipwrecks through the salvage of ship metal parts or structures for commercial exploitation purposes (King et al 2019, 11-12). Moreover, volcanic deposits and sediments have been observed covering the surface of certain shipwrecks which may affect their condition (Cuevas 1994, 2). With these emerging issues, the management of underwater cultural heritage and progress of underwater archaeology is a priority, as well as a challenge. As the leading government agency tasked with the protection of the country’s UCH, the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) is constantly seeking ways to improve and develop the management of underwater archaeological resources through the help and coordination with local governments, archaeological organizations, and other stakeholders (King et al 2019, 2). The surveys of the wrecks may be used as a tool to reconstruct events from the past and clarify some conflicting memories of eyewitnesses. WORLD WAR II SHIPWRECK SURVEYS AND EXPLORATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES A. The Surigao Strait Shipwrecks The Battle of Surigao Strait took place on 25 October 1944 when the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) forces attempted to regain control over Leyte from American and Australian forces (Tully 2009, 2570). This is the last pure battleship-to-battleship engagement that ever took place and is thus a significant event in the world of naval history (Lacsina 2017, 2). The IJN Southern Force, led by Admiral Shoji Nishimura, sailed from Brunei towards Leyte. The fleet was joined by the two battleships Yamashiro and Fuso, the heavy cruiser Mogami, and four destroyers Shigure, Michisio, Assagumo, and Yamagumo (Lacsina 2017, 2). However, USN Admiral Jesse Oldndorf anticipated their approach and commanded six battleships, four heavy cruisers, 28 destroyers, and 39 motor torpedo boats to trap and overwhelm them. The IJN Force was overpowered, with only Mogami and Shigure able to retreat south. Mogami was eventually sunk by aircraft. In 2017, NMP coordinated with Navigea to confirm the locations of the IJN ships that sunk in Surigao Strait. Using Navigea’s research vessel Petrel and its state-of-the-art equipment, the conditions and exact locations of the Yamashiro, Asagumo, Fuso, Michishio, and Yamagumo were found. Figure 1 shows the image captures from the live video footage of Argus 6000 Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). Sonar images were also obtained using Multibeam Echosounder (MBES) sonar (Figure 2). Figure 1. ROV image capture of a) Asagumo’s bridge, b) Fuso’s portside inboard propeller, c) Michishio’s dual gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. 2 �Figure 2. MBES sonar images of a) Yamashiro, b) Michishio, c) Yamagumo. Courtesy of RV Petrel. B. The Ormoc Bay Shipwrecks Air and sea battles between American and Japanese forces were fought from 11 November to 12 December 1944 for the Battle of Ormoc Bay. USS Ward is a destroyer that was lost in the battle during the IJN air raid of the US Naval base. Another American ship, Summer-class destroyer USS Cooper was less than a year old when it was hit by a Japanese destroyer and then sunk at a depth of 193 meters (Lacsina 2017, 2). In 2017 to 2018, the NMP continued the project with Navigea to confirm the locations of the ships that sunk during the Battle of Ormoc Bay. Using Navigea’s RV Petrel and its equipment, the conditions and exact locations of USS Ward, USS Cooper, IJN Shimikaze, IJN Naganami (suspected), and IJN Wakatsuki (suspected) were found. Figure 3 shows the image captures of the parts of the wrecks from the live video footage of Argus 6000 ROV. Sonar images were also obtained using MBES sonar (Figure 4). Figure 3. ROV image capture of a) USS Ward’s bow section, b) USS Cooper’s side launchers, c) IJN Shimikaze’s gun turret. Courtesy of RV Petrel. Figure 4. MBES sonar images of a) USS Ward, b) USS Cooper. Courtesy of RV Petrel. C. The Subic Bay Shipwrecks Subic Bay is known to contain a large number of historical ship, aircraft, and vehicle wrecks. It is located on the west coast of the island of Luzon in Zambales, Philippines, about 100 km northwest of Manila Bay. Its strategic location makes it an ideal shelter for vessels. The Spaniards discovered the natural, deep and strategically located harbor of Subic Bay and later built their naval fortress that served as a battlefield during the Spanish-American war in 1898. After the Americans took control over the Philippines, Subic Bay was designated as a military reservation from 1900 to 1941 and then again from 1945 to 1991, ultimately relinquished to the Philippines in 1992 (Anderson 2006, 194-204; King et al 2019, 1). Moreover, throughout WWII, Japanese forces took control and maintained a shipbuilding facility in Subic Bay (King et al 2019, 2). 3 �Currently, 14 shipwrecks are identified in Subic Bay to date, excluding aircraft and vehicle wrecks (King et al 2019, 2). This reflects the rich maritime and underwater cultural heritage of the area. One of the most accessible and popular diving sites in Subic Bay is the USS Majaba, more commonly known as the El Capitan. El Capitan was deployed between Hawaii Islands in the South Pacific to bring supplies for the American forces and was torpedoed on the starboard side at the Solomon Islands while unloading (Bennett 2010, 155). After undergoing repair, it was returned to Subic Bay and was placed out of service, then decommissioned in 1946. The ship sunk at its dock that same year (Bennett 2010, 155). The NMP has conducted field explorations and surveys on different Subic Bay shipwrecks since the 1990’s as part of its Cultural Heritage Management responsibilities. In 2019, surveys were conducted on El Capitan to document and monitor its condition for the protection and management plan of the Subic Bay shipwrecks. El Capitan is situated approximately 10-22 meters below sea level (King et al 2019, 8). The absence of obvious explosive damage confirmed historical records that the ship did not sink in action, but more likely due to collision. Parts of the shipwreck such as the rudder and a possible forward gun platform was also measured and documented for further research (Figure 5). Figure 5. Documentation of the El Capitan’s rudder. One known ‘hell ship’ that wrecked in Subic Bay is the Japanese Fleet Carrier Ship Oryoku Maru. In December 1944, the Oryoku Maru carried around 1,622 Prisoners of War (POW) to be taken to Japan to work in labor camps (Bennett 2010, 139). Several POWs died through injuries, starvation, suffocation, and other brutal causes. As the ship proceeded to Olongapo across Subic Bay, it was relentlessly bombed by American planes from USS Hornet causing it to sink. Some prisoners were able to swim to the shore, however, about 270 POWs reportedly died onboard (Bennett 2010, 139). In 2019, the NMP coordinated with RV Petrel to conduct preliminary surveys of Subic Bay shipwrecks, including the Oryoku Maru, using MBES. The data (Figure 6) obtained shows that the wreck is laying on the port side in a deteriorated state as its location is also a shipping area. The wreck lies 17–25 m deep, 400 m from Alava Pier (Bennett 2010, 139). There is poor visibility on the site and the wreck has reportedly undergone extensive scuttling. Currently, the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA), the primary authority over the Subic Bay Freeport Zone (SBFZ), has closed the site for all diving activities. 4 �Figure 6. MBES sonar image of Oryoku Maru. Courtesy of RV Petrel. One of the most dived wrecks in Subic Bay is the USS New York, also known as USS Rochester. The ship was a veteran flagship of the Spanish-American War in Cuba in 1898 and the leading battleship of the Asiatic Fleet when it came to the Philippines in 1901 (Bennett 2010, 35). In December 1941, orders came to destroy the Naval Yard at Subic Bay on the advancement of the Japanese. The ship was towed out into the bay and then sunk as depth charges were set off to avoid the Japanese forces from taking advantage of the ship’s powerful 200 mm guns (Bennett 2010, 35). Currently, the wreck lies on the Subic Bay seabed with a maximum depth of 30 meters. The decks, forward rear gun turrets, and one large eight-inch gun can be observed in the wreck (Bennett 2010, 35). The USS New York is also part of the Subic Bay shipwreck survey in 2019 with RV Petrel using MBES sonar. The sonar image (Figure 7) shows the USS New York lying on her port side and in fairly good condition. The data obtained from the surveys will be used for the cultural heritage management of Subic Bay shipwrecks. Figure 7. MBES sonar image of USS New York. Courtesy of RV Petrel. CHALLENGES IN THE WWII SHIPWRECK MANAGEMENT Underwater cultural heritage has become more accessible to the public and has been vulnerable to exploitation as well as natural conditions (Manders 2012, 3). These make the management and protection of UCH more difficult. Historical shipwrecks, especially those on shallow waters, are one of the most vulnerable sites since they are constantly exposed to a number of threats such as impacts of climate change, climactic conditions, and damage from human activities including looting, anchoring, and coastal or offshore development (Steyne 2010, 50). The NMP through its MUCH Division, is the lead agency in the management and research on WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. Lim et al (2021) outlines the challenges of UCH management in the Philippines. These include lack of adequate funds and qualified personnel, weak legislation and policy enforcement, and insufficient communication and demonstration of significance (Lim et al 2021, 49). 5 �A. Lack of manpower and qualified personnel The amount of discovered and reported shipwrecks are continuously growing and there is a need for more trained and qualified personnel to conduct archaeological research and excavation. Currently, there are only 11 personnel in the NMP MUCH division: three researchers, six technicians, one laboratory aide, and one administrative officer. Nine of these personnel are licensed SCUBA divers; only one has an extensive background in archaeology. The other researchers have backgrounds in marine science and chemistry, but both are currently pursuing a Diploma Course in Archaeology. With the upsurge of newly discovered sites, as well as the sites that need re-examination, more support is needed. B. Inadequate funds and equipment Archaeological surveys, exploration, and excavation of wrecks is very costly, as it requires special equipment necessary to ensure safety of the divers and to be able to conduct the work accurately. It is also crucial to spend a long time underwater for assessment and documentation of wrecks thus, one field season is generally not enough to complete the survey and study of a site. The NMP has acquired SCUBA diving capabilities in recent years, including equipment such as dive computers, metal detectors, a rigid inflatable boat for surveys, and a side scan sonar. However, due to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the safety restrictions, underwater research has been hampered and most equipment has not yet been used. Most equipment such as the dive computer and buoyancy compensator (BC) must be regularly maintained, which also requires additional funding. More advanced equipment is also needed for deeper sites and unstable environmental conditions – the latter are typically very expensive and also need regular maintenance. C. Issues on policy enforcement and legislation The major challenge in cultural heritage management is treasure hunting, illicit trade, and antique collecting, which result in the loss of significant information of our history. There has been reported salvaging of small ship parts and objects from WWII shipwrecks as souvenir items and the dynamiting of metal structures for commercial purposes (King et al 2019, 11-12). The regulation of treasure hunting permits is authorized by the National Commission of Culture and the Arts (NCCA), in coordination with the NMP. However, these activities still adversely impact cultural heritage resources. Most of the reported underwater wreck sites have already been looted before the authorities can excavate or survey the site. The illegal trade of cultural objects provides an opportunity for lowincome locals to earn money for their livelihood, thus it is a problem that is difficult to control or resolve, especially as there is no clear penalty for the violation of some laws. Moreover, some excavations such as the Tagbita Bay and Mangsee shipwrecks, were unfinished due to insufficient funding, while the investigation of thirteenth to sixteenth century CE wreck sites and WWII remains in Scarborough Shoal was halted due to territorial and maritime dispute between the Philippines and China in the West Philippine Sea (Lim et al 2021, 44-45). The management of WWII-related UCH involves specific issues such as repatriation of human remains, unexploded ordnances, and potential pollution by oil spills (Takahashi 2018, 11). Many of these sites are war graves and regarded with respect for the troops and the countries for which they fought for. Apart from their historical significance, these wrecks embody our cultural heritage. For the repatriation of human remains, international laws and code of ethics must be considered. WAYS FORWARD Although faced with challenges, the NMP MUCH division continues to be proactive by conducting programs that promote understanding and appreciation of the significance of cultural heritage. A. Raising awareness Raising awareness is one of the best ways to preserve cultural heritage for future generations. Presently, the museum is increasing the public awareness program through social media educational 6 �posts, Museum from Home programs, Virtual Gallery Tours, and soon the digitization of records and databases to make the collections and their study more accessible to the public. The research conducted by MUCH is continuously published in different journals and presented on local and international conferences. It is the agency’s objective to strengthen the relationship of the museum with stakeholder communities and share updates on archaeological research and museum works. Information on WWII shipwrecks has been published on NMP’s official website and social media pages. Strengthening these programs promotes the appreciation of the public not only on historical shipwrecks but for all the country’s cultural heritage as well. B. Personnel development There is a need to increase the workforce in the MUCH division, especially personnel that specialize in archaeology. Training workshops and programs on SCUBA diving, proper archaeological methods, conservation, and relevant skills must be developed to produce more competent cultural heritage workers. C. Linkages and collaborations The task of managing UCH is a multifaceted process that should not be assigned to archaeologists alone (Manders 2012, 15). Cooperation among concerned stakeholders is therefore essential. Examples are the diving communities who are establishing their own shipwreck databases and are actively involved in discussion forums regarding their environment. The museum’s role as the leading agency in the protection of UCH is to facilitate and influence the discussions regarding research, protection, and site accessibility. Priority should also be given to the establishment of partnerships or collaborations for museum works and archaeological research, such as with archaeological institutions, national government agencies involved in cultural heritage and underwater preservation, and other international research institutions. Presently, the NMP has signed with a Memorandum of Understanding with the Philippine Coast Guard. Other national agencies that the NMP is pursuing collaboration with are the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) and Philippine Navy. These agencies have the necessary and more advanced equipment for the survey and documentation of shipwrecks. For instance, NAMRIA has four survey vessels equipped with multi beam and single beam sonars. They also have side scan sonars used in survey activities at shallow waters. They have experienced hydrographers on board that analyze the data from the surveys. According to NAMRIA representatives, they conduct a survey over each reported wreck site every five years. Through collaboration and a Memorandum of Agreement with the agency, their data can be shared with NMP which will be valuable in the protection and management of the wreck sites. Strengthening of linkages with local and international institutions is also important in the protection and preservation of UCH including historical shipwrecks. These include the continuous collaboration with local institutions such as Kapisanan ng mga Arkeologist sa Pilipinas, Inc., University of the Philippines School of Archaeology, and the NCCA. In the international venue NMP collaborates with the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization, and other cultural agencies. D. Policy implementation There is a lack of understanding on the laws governing the underwater cultural heritage of the Philippines. A strict implementation of policies must be established to discourage looters and treasure hunters. There should also be clear designation of roles for all the cultural agencies involved in the preservation of UCH. A regular focus group to address all the issues in the management of UCH can help in ensuring that the policies are properly disseminated to the public. 7 �CONCLUSION The NMP has been working continuously on the research and preservation of historical shipwrecks. Notable progress on the WWII shipwreck management in the Philippines was demonstrated by the undersea surveys at Subic Bay, Ormoc Bay, and Surigao Strait conducted in collaboration with Navigea’s RV Petrel. The data obtained from the surveys can be used to document the sites and record their conditions to help plan their protection and preservation. The museum also works on the development of educational programs to raise awareness of the archaeological and historical significance of UCH. Major issues include lack of qualified personnel, inadequate funds and equipment, policy enforcement and legislation, and ethical concerns over exploitation of UCH. These issues can be addressed by strengthening the programs on raising awareness, creating more job opportunities and training workshops for cultural heritage workers, developing new partnerships and strengthening the links between different local and international institutions, as well as strict implementation of UCH policies. It is recommended to publish a book or catalogue explaining the significance of the historical wrecks in the Philippines and also to educate and update the public on the archaeological research activities on these shipwrecks. There should also be involvement and coordination with local diving communities on the promotion of safe and enjoyable diving of wreck sites, while creating a scheme to protect the UCH. The management of WWII shipwrecks must follow a holistic approach, which includes long term measures and monitoring for the protection and sustainability of the shipwrecks. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Gerald R. Subic Bay from Magellan to Pinatubo: The History of the US Naval Station, Subic Bay. Gerald Anderson, 2009. Bennett, Tom. World War II Wrecks of the Philippines: WWII shipwrecks of the Philippines. Happy Fish Publications. Milford Haven Wales, 2010. Cuevas, Maharlika. “Subic Bay Underwater Archaeological Project: Second Preliminary Report”. Field Report, National Museum of the Philippines (1994). King, Catherine P., Bobby C. Orillaneda, Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta, and Nero M. Austero. “Examining the potential of underwater cultural heritage preservation and management in the Philippines: The Subic Bay shipwrecks”. Paper presented at the Proceedings at the International Archaeological Conference, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia, 24–30 September 2019. Lacsina, Ligaya. “Field Report: Navigea’s Survey for World War II Shipwrecks in the Surigao Strait and Ormoc Bay (November 20-December 5, 2017)”. Unpublished Field Report. National Museum of the Philippines (2017). Lim, Kristine Kate A., Bobby C. Orillaneda, and Catherine P. King. "People and the sea: A values perspective in the conservation management of maritime heritage in the Philippines." International Journal of Asia Pacific Studies, IJAPS 17 (2021): 39-73. Manders, Martin. “Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage”. In Training manual for the UNESCO foundation course on the protection and management of underwater cultural heritage in Asia and the Pacific, 2-20. Thailand: UNESCO Bangkok, 2012. Pinak, Eugen "Ormoc Bay naval battle on December 3, 1944–The last victory of IJN surface ships." Американська історія та політика 3 (2017): 252-259. Takahashi, Akatsuki. "Safeguarding Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Pacific: Report on good practice in the protection and management of world war II-related Underwater Cultural Heritage." (2017). Tully, Anthony P. Battle of Surigao strait. Indiana University Press, 2009. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines Description An account of the resource Many sites in the Philippines had been battlegrounds during World War II (WWII) that resulted in substantial sinking of American and Japanese naval vessels. Advanced technology has significantly helped in locating these shipwrecks and documenting their current condition. However, many of these underwater cultural resources have not yet been subject to proper scientific examination. Navigea, Ltd., in collaboration with the Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Division of the National Museum of the Philippines (NMP) has located and photo-documented WWII shipwrecks in Subic Bay, Surigao Strait, and Ormoc Bay which only comprise a small percentage of the total number of shipwrecks. These sunken vessels are considered war graves which are regarded with certain sanctity particularly for the nations they fought for. They possess intrinsic, scientific, educational, monetary, and cultural values, thus should be extensively investigated to effectively plan for their protection against threats such as natural processes and human intervention. Archaeological studies of sunken warships can also provide insight on the events during the naval battle and clarify information from written sources. This paper presents a status update and results of research activities in the WWII shipwrecks in the Philippines. It also outlines the challenges in managing these sites and proposes potential plans and measures for their long-term management and preservation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rachelle Anne Geline P. Ureta Bobby C. Orillaneda Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ureta, RachellenAnne Geline P., and Bobby C. Orillaneda. 2023. “Submerged Battlefield: Examining the Status and Challenges of World War II Shipwreck Management in the Philippines.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1901 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023