46 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7b54e17076654610d62193fb40ffd1f9.pdf 5f378906707f18454f7a94125912455a PDF Text Text In Search of the Larpent’s Survivors – Hazards and Securities of Sailing about Taiwan Kuo-tung Chen Institute of History and Philology Academia Sinica Taipei, Taiwan e-mail: kchen@asihp.net Abstract The British bark Larpent left Liverpool for the Far East in May 1850, and was lost in the China seas the year next. Three of its survivors were rescued, and both Great Britain and the United States sent agents to search other possible survivors in Taiwan. The efforts of the British and the Americans have produced a bundle of information about the sailing issues near the island. The paper will explore these materials, and in the meantime, trace the few earlier European observations about the sailing conditions by or around the island, such as the records Lord’s Anson’s and De la Perous’s voyages. The Larpent event, in fact, has something to do with the overture of lighthouse building in and around Taiwan Straits in the second half of the 19th century. By studying the sailing facilities in the Taiwan area before the mid-nineteenth century, the paper will also trace back the pagodas and old-style lighthouses used by the Chinese to guide navigators in the 16-18th centuries. Key words: Taiwan, sailing, structures Introduction In 1883, the Eluanbi (South Cape) lighthouse started to work. It greatly helped improve the safety of navigation in the vicinity of that area. Most researches on the causes of its construction emphasize the effects of two events. They believe that the shipwreck of American bark The Rover brought up the issue of the necessity of building a lighthouse in South Cape of Taiwan, and then, another event happened in 1874 created the �conditions of so doing. Such reasoning is, in fact, not quite in accordance with historical facts. The reason of appealing for a lighthouse lies prominently in the frequent shipwrecks occurring in the neighborhood of Southern Taiwan about 1850 and thereafter. The reasons of incessant shipwrecks were like these: (1) Exportation of Chinese laborers to America. Great Britain abolished slavery in 1833 produced a vacuum of working force, and Chinese laborers were sought to fill the gap. From 1845 onwards, the British firm Tait & Co., basing on Amoy, commenced to ship out coolies to South America. A few years later, gold mines were discovered in California, and the need of laborers was enhanced. In consequence, shipping between China and America grew phenomenally.1 (2) Another reason is, even before the opening of treaty ports in Taiwan, foreigners eagerly sought commercial opportunities down there. Even it was not legal at all, more and more foreign vessels came to Taiwan for trade, and even tacitly permitted by local officials.2 (3) A third reason is that in Northern Taiwan, in the area of Keelung, coal was abundant. Foreign steamers came to refill their tanks or just ship off coals for profit. While shipping increased, number of shipwrecks naturally grew up. It is the reason of navigational disaster that made the necessity of some sorts of navigational aids apparent. Thus the captain of the Science, an illegal trading ship operating in the harbor of Takao (nowadays Kaohsiung), went into an agreement with the Circuit Intendant (Taotae) of Taiwan in written document. In that agreement, the Intendant “permits him to place lights at the entrance of the port on a flag-staff erected for such a purpose, and station buoys on the bar.”3 This is the earliest instance of erecting lights in a Taiwan port at the urge of foreigners. In addition to the “lights”, “station buoys” were also �consented to set up. However, such kinds of port facility to render aids to shipping vessels were not entirely new to Taiwan. Therefore, the Intendant was not reluctant to give his permission. Before the first modern lighthouse (the Xiyu Pagoda Light or the Fishermen’s Island Lighthouse) was built up in Taiwan region, there were already two predecessors: one stood in the very site of the Xiyu Pagoda Light, and the other in the estuary of Tamsui River on Northern Taiwan.4 As for buoys, probably due to the influence of the Dutch occupation in the period of 1624-1662, the harbor of Taiwanfu (Tainan) was provided with lines of spar buoys to guide the operators of vessels. The buoys were called “dangying 盪纓,” and recorded in many sources. “Dangying” means “swinging tassel,” describing the motion of spar buoys in the waters.5 Anyway, in the second half of the 19th century, records of shipwrecks were plenty. Giving some examples, there are the wrecks of the Kelpie (1848), Sarah Trottman (1849), the Larpent (1850), Lady Evelyn (1853), The Rover (1867), and so on. A detailed list can be made with the data provided by James W. Davidson (1872-1933).6 According to this authority, between 1850 and 1894, some 90 ships encountered bad lucks, two on average each year. During this period, Taiwan was bestowed an embarrassing name – the “Inhospitable Shores (Coast).”7 In the unfortunate The Kelpie, there was Thomas Nye on board. His cousin Gideon Nye (1812-1888) was a famous (or infamous) China trader of those days. Gideon pressed very hard to the Chinese authorities for rescuing his relative, but to no avail. In fact, none of the survivors of the Kelpie was found, and the whereabouts of Thomas Nye was uncertain. It had to wait for a few years when three survivors of the Larpent made their appearance in Shanghai that aroused a general concern among the westerners. �The Larpent Event and Aftermath The Larpent event has been quite well told in James W. David’s book about half a century after the tragedy.8 However, supporting by more complete sources, we are now enabled to enquire into much more details. The new data come from different corners. First, the survivor’s testimony reported in the Treaty Ports newspapers, including the Hong Kong Register and the North China Herald, etc. Second, the men sent to Taiwan to distribute rewards to those who had helped the wreckers and to get information about any other detained foreigners. The British bark Salamander took them to Taiwan. Among the people involved, Mr. (later Sir) Harry Smith Parkes (1828-1885) was present as the interpreter. Although he did not publish his own observations, the Salamander’s officers did have their reports. In the meantime, the American envoy to China, the Rev. Peter Parker, also caused a Chinese agent to be sent to Taiwan for information gathering, and this man’s report was translated into English and available to concerned parties. A couple of years later, when the British vessel the Inflexible was ordered to go to Taiwan for conducting a coastal survey, Robert Swinhoe (1836-1877) was on board to interpret. He and Inflexible’s captain, as well as the assistant surveyor, all had their reports. Adding to that, we will also make use of the U.S. government papers for documentation. Here follows is a concise summary of the Larpent’s story. The Larpent was built in Moulmein, Myanmar, owned by a Mr. Thomas Ripley. It left from Liverpool on May 18, 1850, commanded by Captain Gilson. News of its anticipated arrival at Shanghai appeared times and again in the North China Herald. But ultimately it failed. After a voyage of 116 days, it came to the waters off Island Botel Tobago near Taiwan. The waves and surfs were not heavy, and the sky was somewhat clear. Unexpectedly, it ran �aground on the edge of Southeastern Taiwan coast. The captain and seven others took the gig, while the 23 rest crews took the long-boat to escape. Later on, the gig was lost. The long-boat, after many hazards, reached a Sugar-loaf Rock in the southern tip of Taiwan. The men on board started to land, but were shot by the natives with matchlocks. Some of them died on the spot, and the rest were forced to disperse. They were not heard for about eight months. Then, in the beginning of May, 1851, three survivors were rescued by an American vessel, the Antelope, and brought to Shanghai via Hong Kong. The British consul at Shanghai, Sir Rutherford Alcock (1809-1897) took the matters into his own hands. In the meantime, the Shanghai foreign community also took some steps to help the survivors.9 The story of the unfortunate Larpent was duly taken down and published, not only in the North China Herald based on Shanghai, but also in the Canton-based The Chinese Repository. In consequence the news was widely circulated in the treaty ports along the China coast.10 Therefore, when Charles Shaw11 stood out to raise funds on behalf of the crew of the Larpent, many people came forward. In a few days, a sum of 865 dollars was collected. A list of the contributors is available from the pages of the North China Herald. The British decided to dispatch the steam boat Salamander to Taiwan, with part of the money raised for distributing to the good-hearted Taiwanese. Apart from Harry Parkes, there were Captain Ellman and Lieutenant Lambert on board. Surprisingly, an unnamed employee of the Tait & Co. also went along together. His purpose is obscure. As for the rescued survivors of the Larpent, two (Alexander Berries and William Blake) also joined the mission. The last one, James Hill, being indisposed, was absent. With some difficulty, the Salamander got a pilot en route in the Pescadores and dropped anchors between �Xiaoliuqiu Island (the Lamay Is.) and Taiwan mainland. Some of the members successfully landed on the coast of Fangliao (“Pongle” as appears in the source materials) by a bamboo raft. They were informed by local people: it is most advisable to pay a visit to a person by the name Lin Wanzhang (Wancheang, or Bancheong). He lived not far from the landing place, and he wielded strong influence upon the aborigines in the neighboring area. An appointment was duly made and the two parties met in Lin’s residential compound in Neiliao (or Lailiao), just a few kilometers away. From the conversation, it is confirmed that Lin Wanzhang did know the case quite well. Lin admitted that he had seen Blake and Hill in person in March of the same year (1851). He said he would have helped the two to get free but their master wanted them to stay a bit longer, arguing that if they stayed longer they would learn that his villagers were different from those who attacked them and killed their companions. Blake and Hill escaped later with the assistance of Berries and his master. Lin pointed out straightforwardly that the tribe who had committed the crime was Koalut. It was a small tribe of about 200 people. Out of them, only 60 or so could fight. Had it not been there were in want of consensus among other villagers in the area, it would have been crashed. He added that if the British party wanted to attack the Koalut, he could provide at least 400 matchlock-men. Thereafter, Lin Wanzhang sent a subordinate to accompany them to Langjiao for giving out the rewards. Lin also wrote a letter for them to be delivered to a “towkay” (headman) in a village near Langjiao. �Fig. 1: The Location of Koalut. The Salamander’s men arrived at Langjiao on August 17, 1851. On the next day, rewards were distributed through the hands of Berries and Blake. A man by the name Kewah or Kenah received a large share ($225), because he was the very person who made the final stage of their liberation and escape possible. Kewah’s relative Chako received $50. He was quite handsomely rewarded because his wife gave Kewah the information of Berries’s detention. Chako’s wife was an aborigine woman whose village had detained Alexander Berries before Kenwah ransomed him. Some others had also given hands to the Larpent’s survivors and were duly rewarded. The village head of Sheliao (near Langjiao), who Lin Wanzhang wrote to, was given some money, too. He was said to have some influence on “the wilder tribes”.12 As for the information about any other shipwrecks and possible survivors, the Salamander team was not able to get solid information. The Salamander then went to the South Cape for surveying the Koalut area, and finally returned to Shanghai. �More than one decade later, Sir Harry Parkes made a statement in the meeting of the Royal Geographic Society. Though his memory is not completely sound, he did give a short account about the mission: “The South Cape was about the very worst point for a vessel to get on shore; for on that extreme point of the island there was a particular aboriginal tribe, numbering 200 or 300 individuals, who had an unfortunate passion for human heads, and it was a habit with them to murder any foreigner that came in their way. He had occasion to make the acquaintance of these people about twelve years ago, when one of our vessels were lost on that point, and he was sent over by Her Majesty’s Government to make some inquiries respecting the missing crew. They succeeded in rescuing two of the men, who were in the hands of another tribe on the western point, the wreck having taken place on the eastern point of the said Cape. These two men had been bought by the Chinese at 6 dollars a head, and had been in captivity with them six months.” 13 As Harry Parkes was the interpreter, he was responsible for transmitting the information. However, probably time weakened his memory, he made the mistake to say only two men were rescued. Probably he was confused by the fact that only two out of the three were accompanying the Salamander to visit Taiwan. The money paid for ransoming those men was seven dollars each for Hill and Blake, although Berries was six. Blake and Hill were detained by aborigines for 4 months (not 6 months) and then purchased by a Chinese, who kept them with him for another four months until they escaped to Berries’s place. Berries’s master (Kewah) then arranged them to reach the Antelope and leave Taiwan. In the beginning, the Americans also tempted to send a gunboat to Taiwan, but after learning of the commission of the Salamander arranged by the British, they dispatched a Chinese agent, by the name Oo-sian, �instead. This Oo-sian took a Chinese junk on August 8 in Amoy and arrived at Donggang, Taiwan, in the evening of the 11th. When still in the harbor, he encountered a typhoon and lost almost all his belongings. He spent a couple of days in Donggang and then went to Neiliao (Lai-liao) to pay Lin Wanzhang a visit. There he learned that the men of the Salamander had already been to. Oo-sian and Lin Wanzhang met on the 17th of August. The latter ascertained that there were no more Western fugitives. He himself knew the whole southernmost area well. And, he added, if there were any more Westerners in captivity, they must have been found out for rewards owing to the Salamander men had given such a promise. Before going to see Lin Wanzhang, Oo-sian had also collected information from local folks. It was said Lin Wanzhang owned a watch, a spyglass, and a sextant, apparently from certain wrecks. Oo-sian mentioned this to Lin Wanzhang for clarification. Lin Wanzhang replied that they were brought to him by some aborigines about four years ago for sale, so he exchanged some goods for them. Sometimes later, a mandarin shew his interest in these objects and Lin Wanzhang just gave them away. Lin Wanzhang expressed that he did not know anything more about the origin of those objects. According to Oo-sian’s report, he visited the South Bay where the attackers of the unfortunate sailors lived, then he went to some hillside places, several harbors in the southwestern coast of Taiwan, and even the Pescadores, but no more important information was gathered.14 Time elapsed for a couple of years, then, in 1858 another British steam ship the Inflexible, came to Taiwan for surveying the coast of that island. Robert Swinhoe, who later became the first vice-consul to Taiwan and �was renowned for his discovery of several endemic species of flora and fauna, was on board to render interpretive service. Swinhoe, as well as the commander of the Inflexible and an assistant surveyor all reported this visit. The Inflexible left Amoy on June 7, 1858 for Taiwan via the Pescadores. After visiting a few harbors to distribute proclamations in search of surviving ship wreckers and seeing some dignitaries, it arrived at the road of Fangliao on June 14, 1858. The men took bamboo raft to land, and went directly to see Lin Wanzhang (spelt as Bancheang in Swinhoe’s paper). On the way to Neiliao, Swinhoe found that Fangliao was at odd then with Neiliao, but they were not molested, anyway. Upon arrival, he found there were two Chinese characters written on the door lintel, reading as “wan ke”.15 Douglas Fix thinks the original words for “wan ke” must be “wanji萬記”16 – some sort of house name –, but I would like to put it as “Fange 番割” – broker with the aborigines –, which we will dwell upon a little bit more later in this paper. As the group of men from the Inflexible had read Oo-sian’s (spelt as Urian) report beforehand, they also asked about the instruments Lin Wanzhang once in possession, and he gave the same answer as what to Oo-sian. Lin Wanzhang added that he did not hear any news about shipwreck after the event of the Larpent. Lin Wanzhang: In the Vacuum of Government Power The men of the Salamander, Oo-sian, and the officers of the Inflexible all paid Lin Wanzhang visits when they came to Taiwan for finding out information about Western ship-wreckers. Then, who is Lin Wan Zhang? And, why should they do so? Swinhoe describes his impression of Lin Wanzhang: “The Hero in his house we found, not as we expected to meet him, a dashing Robin Hood, �but a thin stooping elderly man, with bad teeth.” He also records that Lin Wanzhang was married to an aborigine woman, and guesses that Lin Wanzhang might have learned tribal language from her.17 In another publication, he has more about this man: “……When circumnavigating the island in 185718, I had the pleasure of seeing a few women, who were married to Chinese at Pongle and Langkeaou. They were much browner than ordinary Chinese, and had their hair plaited and entwined with red cotton after the manner of their people, but they were otherwise dressed like Chinawomen. At Laileaou a Chinaman named Bancheang, of large landed property, traded with the Kalees of the hills, and was on very friendly terms with them. He was constantly at variance with the Chinese authorities who had outlawed him, but could not touch him, as he was so well defended by his numerous Chinese dependents and the large body of Aborigines at his beck. This man was wedded to a Kalee, but she was shy and would not show during our visit. He evidently considered himself vastly superior to Europeans, for he evinced to us none of that formal civility characteristic of a Chinese gentleman.”19 Again, as we see before, Lin Wanzhang was married to an aborigine woman, and here Swinhoe describes here of the Kalee tribe. The family records of Lian Wanzhang’s descendants disclose that this woman (named Talimaraw Sauniyaw) belongs to the Paiwan ethnic group living not far from Neiliao where Lin Wanzhang resides. This is an important clue to ascertain that the words written on the lintel of his house should be “fange” instead of “wanji”. In fact, an Intendant of Taiwan, by the name Xü Zonggan, once wrote “Lin Wanzhang (is) a fange 番格 (Those who married to aborigine woman is called a fange). His family serves as Yimin 義民 for generations.”20 Fange was the kind of person who stood between Chinese and aborigines as liaison person, but mainly for the purposing of �exchanging materials. A fange was usually a Chinese, or a man descended from a Chinese father and an aborigine mother. In the latter case, he is called a tushezai or tushenan, meaning a “mestizo”.21 The commander of the Inflexible, G. A. C. Brooker, was not failing to mention Lin Wanzhang’s involvement in trading with the aborigines: “Mancheong (Lin Wanzhang) is in the habit of trading with some of the aborigines through some of his people; and he assures me, from what he knew of their fierce, savage disposition and thirst for blood, no European’s life would be spared if one fell into their hands. He says, they are more savage in some parts of the island than in others, especially in the South. I left several proclamations with Mancheong, who would have them conveyed and explained to the savages, whose language is quite distinct to the Chinese, and totally different in sound. I heard there were many Chinese settled among these wild inhabitants of the woods, and had great influence with them, because they were the means of procuring articles from the Chinese which the aborigines themselves could not obtain.”22 Lin Wanzhang had proficiency in aboriginal language, traded with the aborigines, and wielded influence upon the latter, hence was a suitable person to contact. This explains why everybody directed the Westerners to visit Lin Wanzhang when they came to Taiwan for shipwreck issues. One thing also merits mentioning. Swinhoe noticed the forces possessed by Lin Wanzhang, and could commandeer aborigines to fight for his cause. G. A. C. Brooker also observed: “This Mancheong has upwards of five thousand men under his control, whom he employs tilling the land, of which he possesses a large extent in the neighbourhood of the hills where he resides. Consequently he commands great influence with the people, and at times sets the authority of the Mandarins at defiance, and presents so formidable an appearance that the latter have more than once retired from an attack they have made on Mancheong for the purpose of extorting money from him.”23 �Robert Swinhoe told a much vivid story in his report. After seeing Lin Wanzahng, they left Neiliao and passed the village of Fangliao where they called upon the tiny military officer stationed there. Swinhoe found the Chinese officer and soldiers were much afraid of Lin Wanzhang, because they were defeated by him not long times ago. According to Swinhoe, the Chinese authorities sent an army of a thousand men to invade the area under Lin’s control. When they came near, “Bancheang himself loaded a gun and discharged it at the invaders, knocking over eighteen men at one discharge. The Imperialists were bewildered and immediately made good their retreat…”24 The event described by Swinhoe happened in 1855. Why the authorities had taken troubles to attack Lin Wanzhang? It is not clear, but we can guess. In the previous passages, we cite Xü Zonggang’s description about this man. Xü Zonggang wrote in his diary that the family of Lin Wanzhang “serves as Yimin 義民for generations.”“Yimin” (literally “righteous person”) were those men who stood on the government’s side to fight against rebels. Lin Wanzhang did help the government in quelling some social unrest. However, he was implicated in a rebellion occurred in 1853 which his relatives got involved. He was not indicted after the 1853 event was over. Probably the authorities postponed taking action until 1855 for a better timing, although still failed. Anyway, all these facts reflect that Lin Wanzhang was too strong to be controlled. To sum up the observations of British visitors about the person Lin Wanzhang, we have no doubt that he is an influential local bully. He wielded power over the local people in the neighborhood of Fangliao, both the Chinese and the aborigines through his role as a fange. As he owned his own force, he was also daring to offend the authorities, even fought �and defeated their armies. Why the Qing government performed so badly then? It is because that the southernmost past of Taiwan was declared “Forbidden Land” (jindi 禁地) after a fierce rebellion occurred in 1721 and the government force withdrew from the territory south of Fangliao. Fangliao became the last point with a very small army (no more twenty soldiers) and in fact, the southernmost region was left uncontrolled by the government. Several ethnic groups of aborigines occupied that region. Although the Qing government prohibited and dissuaded Chinese to enter into that region, it was not successful at all. As a result, besides the aborigines, there were other ethnic groups consisting of Fujianese Chinese, the Hakkas, and identifiable mestizos. They also took on their own hands to protect their own interests. Lin Wanzhang was one of such ethnic leaders, and probably the strongest. This explained why he was named to visit by local informants to western visitors. Shipwrecks and the Safety of Survivors However, it is still quite a distance from Fangliao to the very end of the Island. On the area near the southeast tip of Taiwan lived the Koalut tribe who was accused by Lin Wanzhang and others as the bloodthirst killers of the wreck survivors. Although Lin Wanzhang boasted that if the British wanted to attack that tribe, he would be happy to provide more than 400 men with matchlocks, no party was interested so to do at that moment. Later on, in 1867, due to the incident of the wreck of the American bark the Rover, Le Gendre – U.S. consul at Amoy – came to Taiwan. He was successful to reach an agreement with the common leader of the league of aborigines in the southernmost region, Tok-e-tok. Killing or harassment against ship wreckers did not happen again, at least in the area under Tok-e-tok’s sway. But there was still another issue waiting to be solved. It is the improvement of sailing security. �The most dangerous threat to navigation is the Vele Rete Rocks. The group of rocks and shoals lie about 10 kilometers south of the South Cape (the southeast corner of Taiwan). Citing the result of Capian Ross’s investigation, James Horsburgh has the following description about the Vele Rete Rocks: “This is a mass of rocks, several of them a little detached from each other, and even with the surface; some of them are above water, and may be seen 9 or 10miles. The channel betwixt this danger and the South end of Formosa, is about 4 leagues wide, and very safe. But very turbulent ripplings are often experienced in this, and the neighbouring channels, which Capt. Ross observed to extend in a N. E. and S. W. direction, and running so high, that the breakers resembled the sea beating furiously over a dangerous shoal.”25 It is confirmed that the Rover broke up on the Vele Rete Rocks and the unfortunate survivors were murdered by the Koalut.26 The landing place of the survivors was in Dawan (now the famous resort of Kenting) within the sphere of the Koalut. In the time of Le Gendre, what occupied his thought was the safety of the survivor, not the navigational security. In consequence he pressed hard to the Chinese authorities to build up a fort in the southwestern tip of the southern end of Taiwan (now called Maobitou). Although the idea of a lighthouse to guide the sailors existed in his mind, he did not emphasize the importance and the urgent need of such a construction.27 Although Robert Hart, in cooperation with the Qing government, started to launch lighthouse-building along the China coast in 1867, a lighthouse in the neighborhood of the Vele Rete Rocks was not in his plan.28 �Fig. 2: The Location of Dawan in Kualut Sphere. The construction of a lighthouse in the southern tip of Taiwan still had to wait for decades. In 1874, the Japanese invaded Taiwan in excuse for revenging on behalf of the Ryukyuans, whose compatriots were killed after a shipwreck in 1871 by the tribes a bit north of the former league under Tok-e-tok. In the negotiation between China and Japan, the question of navigation safety was raised, and setting up a lighthouse was brought forward.29 One year after, it started. In January 1875 the engineerin-chief of the Customs, David Marr Henderson, trekked to the Southeast tip for a survey.30 Thereafter, Michael Beazeley, an assistant engineer of the Customs in Takao (Kao-hsiung), went to the South Cape to purchase a piece of land for the use of erecting a lighthouse with local chieftain. The place he acquired, he pronounced, is Wo-lan-pi, now styled as Eluanbi.31 A temporary screw-pile lighthouse was erected soon after, but the permanent one took a long time to come out. When the lighthouse was first lighted in 1883, it turned out to be an unusual, fortified lighthouse. 32 �Its chief engineer John Reginald Harding had in fact called it a “fightinglighting machine”. Navigation security and personal safe were all taken into consideration in designing and building the lighthouse. What can do better? Endnotes Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Port Era, 1840-1943 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 20150, pp. 17 and 27;Tan Chee-Beng ed., Routledge Handbook of the Chinese Diaspora (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon. And New York: Routledge, 2013), p. 76. Cf. Elizabeth Sinn, Pacific Crossing: California Gold, Chinese Migration, and the Making of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2013). 1 2 James W. Davidson, The Island of Formosa, Past and Present: History, People, Resources, and Commercial Prospects (London, New York: Macmillan; Yokohama: Kelly & Walsh, 1903), p. 172. 3 Jules Davids ed., American Diplomatic and Public Papers: The United States and China, Series 1: The Treaty System and the Taiping Rebellion, 1842-1860 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1973), vol. 12, p. 218, Document no. 26, “Agreement entered into between the Intendant of Formosa and George A. Potter on Carrying on Trade in the Island.” Please see Stephen Davies’s wonderful paper for this conference:“China’s first purpose designed and built lighthouse: findings from the analysis of a long lost but recently rediscovered photograph of the Xiyu Pagoda Light (李西山塔晚燈, Lixishanta Wangdeng)”. 4 5 Cf. Wang Bichang 王必昌, Xüxiu Taiwanxian Zhi 續修臺灣縣志 (Taipei: Bank of Taiwan, 1961), pp. 35-36. 6 James W. Davidson, The Island of Formosa: Past and Present (London and New York: Macmillan , 1903), pp. 180-182 and 216-218. 7 For example, the commander of the American fleet in China, Captain W. S. Walker, wrote to U.S. chargé d’affaires Peter Parker, reporting the British motion after hearing the case of the Larpent on July 14, 1851. In that letter, Captain Walker writes: “any of the missing vessels (of whatever nation) having been wrecked on this inhospitable coast….” See Jules Davids ed., American Diplomatic and Public Papers: The United States �and China, Series 1: The Treaty System and the Taiping Rebellion, 18421860 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1973), vol. 12, p. 56. 8 James W. Davidson, The Island of Formosa: Past and Present, pp. 110112. 9 North China Herald, May 17, 1851. Cf. The Chinese Repository, vol. 20 (1851), pp. 490-492. 10 For the influence of newspapers published in the treaty ports, please refer to Marlon Zhu, “Diplomatic Intelligence and Inter-port Journalism: The News of Japanese and Chinese Troop Steamers during the Formosa Incident of 1874,” Bulletin of the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, no. 93 (September 2016), pp. 1-39. 11 Mr. Shaw is one of the proprietors of the Shaw, Bland and Co. Cf. The Chinese Repository, vol. 15, p. 8. 12 The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, October 1851, pp. 520525, “Salamander’s Visit to Formosa.” 13 Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. VIII (25th Feb., 1864), p. 27. Oo-sian’s report was translated and published in the July 1851 issue of The Chinese Repository, pp. 490-492. It seems available to many interested persons. In G. A. C. Brooker, “Journal of H.M.S. Inflexible on a Visit to Formosa in Search of Shipwrecked Seamen,” in The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, vol. XXXVIII, no. 1 (January 1859), pp. 911, a “Translation of a Report by Urian, who was sent to Formosa by the United States Consul at Amoy, to search for missing Europeans”is also included. The content is almost the same with a little variance only. However, for unknown reason, Oo-sian was spelt as Urian. 14 Robert Swinhoe, “Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. I, no. ii (May 1859), pp. 149-150. 15 16 費德廉(Douglas Fix)、羅效德編譯，《看見十九世紀臺灣――十四位西 方旅行者的福爾摩沙故事》（臺北：如果出版，2006）, pp. 21-22. Robert Swinhoe, “Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. I, no. ii (May 1859), p. 150. 17 �18 Swinhoe makes the mistake to record it in 1857, in fact, it was taken place in 1858. Robert Swinhoe, “Notes on the Island of Formosa,” in Henrietta Harrison ed., Natives of Formosa: British Reports of the Taiwan Indigenous People, 1650-1950 (Taipei: Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines; SMC Publishing, 2001), pp. 66 and 74. 19 “林萬掌，番格也（娶番婦為室，謂之番格），世為義民。” See Xü Zonggan’s “Diary of 1853” in his Suweixinzhai zalu 斯未信齋雜錄 (Taipei: Bank of Taiwan, 1960), pp. 84-85. 20 See Kuo-tung Ch’en, “Chinese Frontiersmen and Taiwanese Tushengnan in the Local Economy of Taiwan before 1900,” in Wang Gungwu and Ng Chin-keong, eds., Maritime China in Transition, 17501850 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2004), pp. 139-149. 21 G. A. C. Brooker, “Journal of H.M.S. Inflexible on a Visit to Formosa in Search of Shipwrecked Seamen,” The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, vol. XXXVIII, no. 1 (January 1859), pp. 4-5. 22 G. A. C. Brooker, “Journal of H.M.S. Inflexible on a Visit to Formosa in Search of Shipwrecked Seamen,” The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, vol. XXXVIII, no. 1 (January 1859), p. 4-5. 23 Robert Swinhoe, “Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. I, no. ii (May 1859), p. 150. 24 25 James Horsburgh, India Directory, or Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies, China, New Holland … , vol. ii (London, 1827 third edition), p.384. 26 James W. Davidson, Formosa Past and Present (London and New York: Macmillan, 1903), p. 115. In the letter from Anson Burlingame to William H. Seward, Secretary of State, U.S.A. (Peking to Washington, April 23, 1867), it is clearly stated that the place of tragedy is “evidently the Vele Rete rocks.” See, United States Department of State, Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives, during the second session of the fortieth Congress, 1867-’68, China, pp. 477 and 499. �27 Douglas L. Fix and John Shufelt eds., translation of Charles Willian Le Gendre’s Notes of Travel in Formosa (Tainan: National Museum of Taiwan History, 2013) , pp. 314-318. 28 United States Department of State, Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives, during the third session of the fortieth Congress, 1868-69, Vol. I (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1868-1869), pp. 467-470. 29 Edward Howard House, The Japanese Expedition to Formosa (Tokyo: 1875). 30 Robert Bickers, The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914 (London: Penguin Books, 2011), p. 266. M. Beazeley, “Notes of an Overland Journey through the southern part of Formosa, from Takow to the South Cape, in 1875, with an Introductory Sketch of the Island,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, no. 7 (January 1885), p. 5. 31 32 John King Fairbank, Katherine Frost Bruner, Elizabeth MacLeod Matheson eds., The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868-1907 (Cambridge, Mass. : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975), pp. 355-356. References “林萬掌，番格也（娶番婦為室，謂之番格），世為義民。Suweixinzhai zalu 斯未信齋雜錄, 1960. Taipei: Bank of Taiwan. Beazeley, M., 1885. “Notes of an Overland Journey through the southern part of Formosa, from Takow to the South Cape, in 1875, with an Introductory Sketch of the Island,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, No. 7 January 1885. Bichang, W., 王必昌, Xüxiu Taiwanxian Zhi 續修臺灣縣志, 1961, Taipei: Bank of Taiwan, pp. 35-36. Bickers, R., 2011. The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914, London, Penguin Books. �Brooker, G. A. C., 1859. “Journal of H.M.S. Inflexible on a Visit to Formosa in Search of Shipwrecked Seamen,” in The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, January 1859, Vol. XXXVIII (1): 9-11. Ch’en, K., 2004. “Chinese Frontiersmen and Taiwanese Tushengnan in the Local Economy of Taiwan before 1900,” in Wang Gungwu and Ng Chin-keong, eds., Maritime China in Transition, 1750-1850, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, pp. 139-149. Chee-Beng, T., ed., 2013. Routledge Handbook of the Chinese Diaspora (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon. And New York: Routledge. Davids, J., ed., 1973. American Diplomatic and Public Papers: The United States and China, Series 1: The Treaty System and the Taiping Rebellion, 1842-1860. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, Vol. 12: 218. Davidson, J.W., 1903. The Island of Formosa, Past and Present: History, People, Resources, and Commercial Prospects. London, New York: Macmillan; Yokohama: Kelly & Walsh. Davies, S. “China’s first purpose designed and built lighthouse: findings from the analysis of a long lost but recently rediscovered photograph of the Xiyu Pagoda Light (李西山塔晚燈, Lixishanta Wangdeng)”. Document no. 26, “Agreement entered into between the Intendant of Formosa and George A. Potter on Carrying on Trade in the Island.” Edward Howard House, 1857. The Japanese Expedition to Formosa, Tokyo. Fairbank, J. K., Bruner, K. F., Matheson, E.M., eds., 1975. The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868-1907, Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Fix, D.L., and Shufelt J., eds., 2013. Translation of Charles Willian Le Gendre’s Notes of Travel in Formosa, Taiwan, National Museum of Taiwan History. �Horsburgh, J., 1827. India Directory, or Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies, China, New Holland… , Vol. ii, third edition, London. Nield, R., 2015. China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Port Era, 1840-1943. Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press. North China Herald, May 17, 1851. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1864. Vol. VIII, 25 February 1864, p. 27. Sinn, E., 2013. Pacific Crossing: California Gold, Chinese Migration, and the Making of Hong Kong. Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press. Swinhoe, R., 1859. “Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. I(ii): 149-150. Swinhoe, R., 2001. “Notes on the Island of Formosa,” in Henrietta Harrison ed., Natives of Formosa: British Reports of the Taiwan Indigenous People, 1650-1950, Taipei, Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines; SMC Publishing. The Chinese Repository, 1851. Vol. 15: 8. The Chinese Repository, 1851. Vol. 20: 490-492. The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, “Salamander’s Visit to Formosa.” pp. 520-525, October 1851, United States Department of State, Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives, during the second session of the fortieth Congress, 1867-’68, China. United States Department of State, Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives, during the third session of the fortieth �Congress, 1868-69, Vol. I, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1868-1869). Zhu, M., 2016. “Diplomatic Intelligence and Inter-port Journalism: The News of Japanese and Chinese Troop Steamers during the Formosa Incident of 1874,” Bulletin of the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, No. 93 September 2016: 1-39. 費德廉(Douglas Fix)、羅效德編譯，《看見十九世紀臺灣――十四位西方 旅行者的福爾摩沙故事》（臺北：如果出版，2006. pp. 21-22. Biography Kuo-tung CH’EN received his Ph.D. degree from Yale University in 1990, is now affiliated with the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica. His previous publications in English, among others, include: The Insolvency of the Chinese Hong Merchants, 1760-1843 (Taipei: The Institute of Economics, Academia Sinica, 1990), etc. His works in Chinese language are three books, in addition to several papers on the Chinese practice of bottomry loan (marine insurance), Chinese adoption of Vietnamese terms for sandbars, sea routers and landscape guide for Chinese mariners, observations on underwater archaeology, and so on. He is at present working with Paola Calanca of EFEO in a Taiwan-France joint project: “Maritime knowledge for China Seas”. The main themes include: Nautical and navigation knowledge, Port governance and infrastructure, and Seafaring language. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 9: Maritime/Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Southeast Asia (SEA) has been rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) over a long period, from ancient pre-history, through the age of commerce, into the World War II era. Recently, UCH research, survey, and mapping activities; preservation and management efforts; as well as human capacity building programs show the promising progress in SEA countries. However, various threats to UCH preservation and some shortcomings still can be found in many SEA countries, for instance, lack of funds, inadequate technology, limited human resources, and also lack of public and government attention to UCH legal protection and its long-term preservation. This session will highlight some topics, including current status of UCH preservation; current research or investigation on maritime heritage or UCH in SEA countries; maritime history in SEA; current legislations; recent human and natural threats to UCH in SEA countries; raising awareness and public education programs; in-situ preservation of UCH; sustainable shipwreck tourism development and balancing preservation efforts with economic benefit; community and general public engagement in UCH management plan; regional capacity building in Southeast Asia; as well as collaboration opportunities among stakeholders and SEA countries in researching, protecting, preserving, and managing UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig, Mc Gill University Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In Search of the Larpent’s Survivors –Hazards and Securities of Sailing about Taiwan Description An account of the resource The British bark Larpent left Liverpool for the Far East in May 1850, and was lost in the China seas the year next. Three of its survivors were rescued, and both Great Britain and the United States sent agents to search other possible survivors in Taiwan. The efforts of the British and the Americans have produced a bundle of information about the sailing issues near the island. The paper will explore these materials, and in the meantime, trace the few earlier European observations about the sailing conditions by or around the island, such as the records Lord’s Anson’s and De la Perous’s voyages. The Larpent event, in fact, has something to do with the overture of lighthouse building in and around Taiwan Straits in the second half of the 19th century. By studying the sailing facilities in the Taiwan area before the mid-nineteenth century, the paper will also trace back the pagodas and old-style lighthouses used by the Chinese to guide navigators in the 16-18th centuries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kuo-tung Chen Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Kuo-tung Chen Language A language of the resource English Asia-Pac Session 9 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Japanese Piracy in Ming China During the 16th Century Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kwan-wai So Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Michigan State University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Kwan-wai So Item Type Book ISBN 0870131796 Call Number DS753 .S57 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1975 Library Catalog 128.125.253.52 Library Catalog Num Pages 251 Place East Lansing Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Michigan State University Press Title A name given to the resource Japanese Piracy in Ming China During the 16th Century China Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f71092b942841828e289d4a7c288b14c.pdf 991a1b4e7124d03dd1b8bb1e42a6be8c PDF Text Text 3D Recording Process of the Underwater Excavation Site in Waters of Sinchang-ri, Jeju Lee Jeonghee, (Curator, Buyeo National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT The paper fits in session 2, as focusing on the survey of underwater cultural heritage at Jeju-do in Korea. The underwater stie of Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do was reported by Haenyeo1 for golden artifacts in 1980s, and, further survey recovered Chinese celadon printed with ‘河濱遺范’, ‘金玉滿堂’ in 1990s. However, it was not until 2018 that consistent investigations were begun by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. Exploration is to search artifacts exposed on the bottom surface without any dredging, which is necessary for understanding distribution of artifacts under the surface. With targeting the area which could include as many artifacts as possible to be dredged, actual excavations were conducted for three seasons from 2019 to 2021. The objective of underwater investigation is to find the area of intensive distribution of artifacts and understand their contents. Then, how the environment of underwater sites can be documented by areas? Waters off Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do have relatively fine visibility, comparing to other sites in Korea. Thus, for the first time, attempts to document the targeted area in the 3D model with pictures, which is assumed to suggest more accurate timelines and coordinates than plans, were conducted. Recoding process is begun with taking pictures which is also the starting point of traditional investigation. Accuracy is the most emphasized. Methashape of Agisoft is used. Not only are topography of underwater but exact coordinates of hundreds of artifacts identified. Environment limitation for underwater excavation in Western coasts in Korea exists, such as strong currents and bad visibility. 3D documentation should be consistently tried, however, as one of the most important things in archaeological excavation is to locate the shipwrecks and artifacts and document them. Keywords: Jeju Island, Metashape, recording List of Figures Figure 1 Indication of the locations of the excavated artifacts after soil removal (3D mapping used) Figure 2 Grid photograph alignment (Metashape) Figure 3 Grid mesh generation (Metashape) Figure 4 Taking photographs ENVIRONMENT OF INVESTIGATION WATERS OF SINCHANG-RI AND OVERVIEW OF THE The underwater remains in Sinchang-ri, Jeju, are located in the western part of Jeju-si and are a coastal area near the beach. In March 1983, haenyeos collecting seaweed found a golden artifact in the form of a headpiece, and the remains were unveiled. Based on the discovery report, the Cultural Heritage Administration at the time conducted an underwater investigation for 10 days from April 13 to 22 and confirmed two additional golden artifacts. As the seabed in the Sinchang-ri is composed of sand and basaltic bedrock, the investigation could not have keep continuing. Later, in December 1996, in an underwater investigation conducted by Jeju Island and Jeju National University Museum to produce video materials related to marine trades in the Jeju area, Chinese celadons with imprinted phrases, ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’ were found. The National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage (NRIMCH) explored waters of Sinchang-ri from August 29 to September 4, 2018. As a result of the exploration in 1997, about 500 pottery pieces were found, including celadons with the phrases ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’. It was judged that detailed excavations were required because of the large number of artifacts being discovered, and the underwater excavations were conducted from April to June 2019 (first) and from May to July 2020 (second). The artifacts excavated through the exploration and excavations include many potteries from the Southern Song Dynasty in China with the phrases ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’ which allow us to understand the era of the remains, celadon comb-patterned dish, celadon floralpatterned bowl, etc. Waves, etc., damaged most of the excavated potteries, and only the thick bases 1 Female divers -1- �remained. Only a few of them had complete shapes. Also, two seals, one seal box, one anchor stone, four coins, etc., were found. CONTENTS OF INVESTIAGION IN WATERS OF SINCHANG-RI The underwater investigation aims to find the points where artifacts scattered on the seabed are intensively buried and to understand the nature of the remains clearly. In the previous investigation of the Shinchang-ri and the exploration in 2018, only the artifacts exposed to the seabed were checked without removing the soil on the seabed. Therefore, the need to identify the distribution pattern of artifacts under the seabed through an investigation after removing soil was raised and the excavations were conducted three times from 2019 to 2021 by setting the area around the spot where relatively many artifacts were found during the exploration as the section of investigation with soil removal. The following introduces the exploration in 2018 and excavations from 2019 to 2021 conducted by the NRIMCH: Exploration in 2018: The offshore of Sinchang-ri has an underwater visibility of higher than 10 m and a depth of around 2-5m, therefore, it is significantly affected by surge caused by wave soil. Also, reefs are located everywhere, so Nurian (290 tons) and Sea Muse (18 tons), dedicated underwater excavation ships, cannot approach. Therefore, small boats were used to approach the point, which was conducted in parallel with the underwater exploration through diving and the metal detector investigation. Most artifacts exposed on the seabed were found as fragments of bases and some parts of bodies. An unmanned submersible was used to identify the area where it is estimated that an old ship was sunk (50 m deep), but nothing was found. The first excavation in 2019: The underwater excavation aimed to find where artifacts scattered on the seabed were intensively buried and identify the nature of the remains. The purpose of the investigation in 2019 was to re-explore the area where artifacts were discovered in the exploration in 2018, remove soil from the spots where exposed artifacts are concentrated, confirm the underwater topography, and find spots where artifacts were intensively buried and traces of the sinking of an old ship. The investigation area with soil removal was about 500 m west of Sinchang-ri Port and about 430 m northwest of Mariyeo Lighthouse. A grid was installed in the investigation area at a distance of 30 m from north to south and 10 m from east to west using a 5 mm thick rope. Inside the grid, relatively large stones and sand were mixed, and the artifacts exposed on the seabed were found to be stuck between rocks. The soil removal for the sand was about 10-30 cm, which was not so deep. Underneath, basaltic bedrock was found, along with many pottery pieces. As mentioned above, recovered artifacts were found in rock crevices and under the sand. Among them were about 400 pieces of celadons, accounting for the largest number. For the celadons, the celadon bowl inscribed with ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’ which were found in the exploration in 2018, were confirmed as identical, and potteries that appeared to have been produced at the same time with them were found. Also, two wooden seals and a piece of metal box were found during the soil removal. One wooden seal was square-shaped embossed with letters of the seal script, and the traces of the stamping ink remained. Another was also square-shaped seal embossed with letters that stand for happiness. Around the seals, pieces of seal boxes were found. Notably, in the first excavation, after taking several pictures inside the grid, the location of the artifacts and the underwater topography were recorded in drawings using a 3D program. The second excavation in 2020: In the second underwater excavation, the east of the area of the first investigation with soil removal was set as the investigation area. The investigation was based on soil -2- �removal and conducted by installing a 10 x 10 m grid in the north-south direction to the east of the area of the first investigation with soil removal. The average depth of soil removal was about 70-80 cm, and brownish basaltic bedrock was found under the sand. Recovered artifacts were 200 pieces, including Chinese celadons found in the previous exploration and excavation, coins, and an anchor stone split into two pieces. The total length of the anchor stone was 3.1 m. It had a shape of a trimmed Chinese-style anchor stone with a thick middle and thin both ends. The third excavation in 2021: The third investigation of the waters of Sinchang-ri in Jeju aimed to identify the nature of the Sinchang-ri underwater remains as an extension of the first and second excavations. The investigation was conducted six times for 60 days, each for ten days, and the investigation with soil removal was conducted by installing 10 x 10 m grids to the west and north of the point where the anchor stone was found in the second excavation in 2020. The seabed is composed of sand and basaltic bedrock, and in the last sixth investigation, a trench survey was also conducted on the sandy seabed around the sections of the previous first to third excavation investigations. Figure 1. Indication of the locations of the excavated artifacts after soil removal (3D mapping used) For the recording and handling of the artifacts, the investigation team attempted to clarify the location of the artifacts underwater using the 3D mapping introduced in the first investigation. At this time, a marker with a diameter of 3.5 cm was made, placed next to an artifact, and photographed so that the position of the artifact could be identified on the photograph. The result was printed on transparent tracing paper, carried underwater, and given an artifact number. In the third investigation, 600 artifacts were found, most of which were pottery. Among them, 500 pieces were celadons, which were the most. Celadon bowls with the phrases ‘河濱遺范’ and ‘金玉滿堂’ which were found in the previous investigations, were found again in this time, revealing that the artifacts include celadons from the Southern Song Dynasty in China. In addition, potteries that seemed to have been produced simultaneously, such as the Celadon Lily-patterned Bowl and the White Porcelain Box Lid Embossed with Phoenix Patterns, were found. 3D RECORDING OF INVESTIAGED AREA IN THE WATERS OF SINCHANG-RI Unlike other underwater remains, waters of Sinchang-ri in Jeju had clear underwater visibility. Therefore, the investigation area could be recorded in 3D model for the first time. The recording process will be introduced. The investigation was conducted in the following steps. First, a 10 x 10m grid was installed with a disc weight and a rope. Next, photographs were taken to record the underwater view before soil removal. The photography's most focused part was capturing the underwater topography and scattered artifacts as clearly as possible. As a result of trying various -3- �methods, Agisoft's Metashape was used. The program recommends using a standard lens with a focal length of about 50 mm with less distortion. In the waters of Shinchang-ri, a lens with a 16 mm focal length was used based on a full-frame-sized sensor. Photography was done by walking around, not swimming, to get close to the subject. In this case, the distance to the subject was approximately 0.5-1 m. In the waters of Shinchang-ri, the image had to be created considering the curves, so the photos were taken in a slightly inclined diagonal line. At a point where many rocks were piled up, about 900 photos were created. After taking photographs, the artifacts exposed on the seabed before the soil removal were handled, and then soil removal was started. As mentioned earlier in the investigation contents, most of the artifacts were found during the investigation process with soil removal. Thus, after the final soil removal, the sand was removed, the changed underwater topography and artifacts could be photographed, and the artifacts could be handled. To record in 3D in earnest, Metashape was used. It proceeds in the steps of Photograph Alignment → Dense Point Group Generation → Mesh Generation → Texture Expression. The step of photograph alignment starts from the ‘Key Point’ extraction. Check the same key point in multiple photos to create connection points. For the waters of Sinchang-ri, photos taken in 5 x 5 m units were each aligned. Dense point group generation extracts points based on the camera's location. The quality of the generated data can be chosen. If set to ‘High’, a memory shortage problem occurs, so the points were extracted by setting it to ‘Medium’. The next step, mesh generation, is a process of making 3D data based on the generation of a dense point group. This process is essential to obtain a 3D image. After that, the texture expression is a step to add texture to the data created in the previous step and make a photo-like effect. Figure 4. Grid photograph alignment (Metashape) Figure 2. Taking photographs Figure 3. Grid mesh generation (Metashape) -4- �Recording the locations of discovered artifacts clearly is very important in archaeological excavations. However, it is not easy to record the locations of many artifacts when there are no actual survey drawings. In Metashape, orthophotographs can be easily created. It plays the same role as a floor plan, which greatly helped to handle the artifacts. First, orthophotographs or 3D results were printed on transparent tracing papers, which do not get wet in water, and images that only indicate the artifact locations were also printed. Then, the artifacts were handled by referring to the printouts of orthophotographs or 3D results printouts underwater. At the same time, the artifact numbers were written on transparent tracing paper, which indicated the artifact locations. The precise locations of hundreds of artifacts could be recorded using this method. CONCLUSIONS The report will be concluded by briefly summarizing the meaning and achievements of the exploration and underwater excavation conducted at Sinchang-ri. In the exploration in 2018, the investigations using submergence and geophysical exploration equipment allowed us to see the underwater topography of the area and handle potteries from Southern Song Dynasty, which were stuck in rock crevices. Therefore, the time of the remains could be identified, and the core point and the distribution range of the scattered artifacts could be found. In the first to third excavation investigations conducted after that, 10 x 10 m grids were installed centering on the concentrated distribution point of the artifacts, and the investigations were conducted by expanding the range. By removing soil, a large amount of Chinese pottery pieces was found, as well as two wooden seals, a seal box, and coins. Excavated Chinese celadons are estimated to be produced in Longquanyao (龍泉窯) in China in the late twelfth century during the Southern Song Dynasty. The pottery artifacts discovered in Sinchang-ri remains were also discovered in Dazaifu in Fukuoka and Kurakizaki in Kagoshima in Japan. The same potteries from the Southern Song Dynasty found in Sinchang-ri remains, and Japan has examples that reveal the maritime trade in the past, along with the anchor mentioned above the stone. Especially the Chinese-style anchor stone, a ship accessory found in the second excavation investigation, allowed us to secure important data in estimating the nature of the Sinchang-ri underwater remains. A wide area of Sinchang-ri underwater remains is covered with sand, and the area where the soil removal investigations were done is only a small part of the remains. Therefore, continuous excavation investigations will be required in the future. Bibliography Heo, Munnyeong, “3D Recording of Underwater Remains in Sinchang-ri Sea Area in Jeju Using Photography”, The Fourth Underwater Cultural Heritage Research Institutes’ Research Case Conference, 2020 (In Korean) . NRIMCH, “Summary Report of the First Underwater Excavation Investigation of Sinchang-ri Sea Area in Jeju.”, 2019 (In Korean). NRIMCH, 2020, “Summary Report of the Second Underwater Excavation Investigation of Sinchang-ri Sea Area in Jeju,” 2020 (In Korean). NRIMCH, “Summary Report of the Third Underwater Excavation Investigation of Sinchang-ri Sea Area in Jeju”, 2021 (In Korean). -5- � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 3D Recording Process of the Underwater Excavation Site in Waters of Sinchang-ri, Jeju Description An account of the resource The paper fits in session 2, as focusing on the survey of underwater cultural heritage at Jeju-do in Korea. The underwater stie of Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do was reported by Haenyeo1 for golden artifacts in 1980s, and, further survey recovered Chinese celadon printed with ‘河濱遺范’, ‘金玉滿堂’ in 1990s. However, it was not until 2018 that consistent investigations were begun by the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage. Exploration is to search artifacts exposed on the bottom surface without any dredging, which is necessary for understanding distribution of artifacts under the surface. With targeting the area which could include as many artifacts as possible to be dredged, actual excavations were conducted for three seasons from 2019 to 2021. The objective of underwater investigation is to find the area of intensive distribution of artifacts and understand their contents. Then, how the environment of underwater sites can be documented by areas? Waters off Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do have relatively fine visibility, comparing to other sites in Korea. Thus, for the first time, attempts to document the targeted area in the 3D model with pictures, which is assumed to suggest more accurate timelines and coordinates than plans, were conducted. Recoding process is begun with taking pictures which is also the starting point of traditional investigation. Accuracy is the most emphasized. Methashape of Agisoft is used. Not only are topography of underwater but exact coordinates of hundreds of artifacts identified. Environment limitation for underwater excavation in Western coasts in Korea exists, such as strong currents and bad visibility. 3D documentation should be consistently tried, however, as one of the most important things in archaeological excavation is to locate the shipwrecks and artifacts and document them. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lee Jeonghee Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jeonghee, Lee. 2023. “3D Recording of Underwater Sites: The Case of Shinchang-ri, Jeju-do.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1924 Asia-Pac Session 2 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/97326f2ea3c7832e2f42d01c64c6ae80.pdf c53d43ebfe56a3fcd6312668a84021a3 PDF Text Text Study on Records of Underwater Excavations Utilizing Geophysical Equipment Lee Young-hyun (Curator, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT This study intends to examine the records of underwater excavations utilizing sound waves at the underwater sites with bad visibilities. Marine geophysical exploration equipment was operated and method of investigation and record using it was examined. First, in the underwater excavation of waters of Dangmpo, Taean, side-scanning sonar, multi-beam echo sounder, and scanning sonar were used to record the soil investigation section in order to find out which maritime geophysical exploration equipment is suitable for underwater excavation survey. As a result, it was found that side scanning sonar showed relatively high resolution when using a frequency of 1250 kHz, but there was a problem in that distortion occurred during the investigation process. The multi-beam echo sounder did not cause significant distortion, but the resolution was poor. The scanning sonar had relatively little distortion and had good results, so it was suitable for recording soil removal survey section. In order to review the usability of scanning sonar for the underwater excavation conducted in turbid environment, images of scanning sonar of underwater excavation in the waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwan and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo were used to make drawings for survey. By conducting this experiment, it was confirmed that it was possible to make more effective records than drawings made in existing underwater excavation survey when scanning sonar is used for turbid underwater site. Keywords: sound wave, geophysical exploration, scanning sonar, underwater excavation List of Figures Figure 1 Mosaic image of scanning sonar for Area A of underwater excavation of waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwang Figure 2 Mosaic image using reflector (frequency 675 kHz, measurement range 25 m, ○ reflector) INTRODUCTION The methods of recording artifacts and remains during underwater excavations are not that different from that of land ones. Drawings are created with actual measurements and photos and videos are taken. However, when the water is turbid, it is often difficult to record basic information. The water is turbid due to the presence of many floating objects, which block light and obscure the visibility, hindering actual measurement and recording. In underwater archeology, marine geophysical exploration equipment is mainly used to find artifacts under the surface of the water such as old shipwrecks. The purpose of this study is to find a way to complement produced records with marine geophysical survey equipment to underwater excavation and at the same time to improve the utilization of physical survey equipment in underwater archeology. To this end, marine geophysical exploration equipment was compared and reviewed in waters of Dangampo, Taean in 2017 and the underwater excavation recording method using the exploration equipment was studied in waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwang and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo between 2018 and 2019. This paper intends to present methods for recording underwater excavations using marine geophysical survey equipment by organizing the contents and results of these field experiments. COMPARATIVE REVIEW ON MARINE GEOPHYSICAL EXPLOARTION EQUIPMENT APPLICALBE TO UNDERWATER EXCAVATION Comparative study of marine geophysical exploration in waters of Dangampo, Taean In the underwater excavation of waters of Dangampo, a side scan sonar, multi beam echo sounder, and scanning sonar were used to record the underwater survey for areas temporarily designated as historical site and soil removal section. As these exploration devices use sound waves to investigate the seabed, it was expected that they would be able to record changes in the seabed caused by excavation. 1 �Survey using side scan sonar Survey using side scan sonar in waters of Dangampo was carried out before removing soil. DSME's S150 was used, and this model can use frequencies of 400kHz and 1250 kHz. Since the side scan sonar has a relatively small volume and a simple configuration, temporarily designated historical site (500 m × 200 m) was investigated using a rubber boat. A frequency of 400 kHz was used, and the swath which is a range that can survey the seabed at once, was set to 105 m. The swath was wide and the entire designated site could be surveyed by going back and forth three times in the east-west direction and overlapping the scan width by more than 100 per cent. Regarding the soil removal section, the frequency of 400 kHz and swath of 105 m and the frequency of 1250 kHz and swath of 75 m were used repeatedly several times to obtain high-quality results. Survey using multi beam echo sounder The multi beam echo sounder survey was conducted, before the soil removal on the same day. R2Sonic's Sonic2024 was used, and this model generates 256 sound waves of 400 kHz at a time from the transducer and receives the sound waves reflected on the seabed and returned. After installing a multi-beam echo sounder in Seamuse (18 tons), the survey was conducted before and after high tide, the highest sea level during the day. The swath of a multi beam echo sounder installed on the ship varies depending on the water depth, and is usually about 4 times the depth. Since the water depth of waters of Dangampo is about 4 m to 10 m, the multi beam echo sounder's swath is about 16 m to 40 m. Therefore, the survey measurement line was set at intervals of 10 m from north to south, and the seafloor was surveyed while going back and forth 7.5 times in the east-west direction. Survey using scanning sonar Kongsberg's 1171 model was used by selecting a frequency between 600 kHz and 1200 kHz and the measurement range is 0.5 m to 100 m. In the temporarily designated historical sites, the survey was planned only in the range of 260 m × 180 m. The reason why the entire temporarily designated historical site was not covered was due to the limitation of the survey time. Scanning sonar should be moved and installed several times in order to acquire high-quality data for a certain area and this process is expected to take a lot of time. A method of irradiating a wide range at once by increasing the measurement distance can be considered, but it is not effective because the longer the measurement range, the lower the resolution as the reflectivity of sound waves decreases. A frequency of 675 kHz was used and the measurement range were set at 30 m and 50 m. As a result of operating the scanning sonar for two days, data could be obtained only from 8 places out of 24 points planned for acquiring data. This is because it took more time than expected to accurately position the scanning sonar at the target point, and the high tide time available for investigation was not long. The scanning sonar survey of the soil removal section was conducted during the soil removal. Data were obtained after placing the transducer adjacent to the soil removal section. A frequency of 675 kHz and a measurement range of 25 m were used. Results of experiments using maritime geophysical exploration equipment Results of marine geophysical exploration in survey sea area In the image acquired by the side scan sonar, the area where the soil removal was conducted was distinguished from the area where soil was not removed or showed clear differences in shade due to the trace of soil removal. Comparing the results obtained with frequencies of 400 kHz and 1250 kHz, only the range of the soil survey section was identified at the frequency of 400 kHz, and it was difficult to check the inside of the soil removal section. On the other hand, at a frequency of 1250 kHz, the changed seabed due to the soil removal could be clearly identified. In the image acquired by the side scan sonar, the overall shape of the soil removal section was distorted rather than straight. This distortion is because the towfish did not maintain constant speed, water depth, direction, etc. in the water. Therefore, in order to obtain high-quality results, it was repeated several times to examine the area around the soil removal section, but it was difficult to obtain an image of an accurate shape. 2 �The multi beam echo sounder survey results showed that the soil survey section had a bumpier appearance than the surrounding seabed, and unlike the side scan sonar results, the overall appearance was straight and not distorted. This is because factors that may cause distortion were corrected through the post-correction process mentioned above. However, the appearance of the inside of soil removal survey section was not expressed as delicately as expected. It is similar to the result of 400 kHz side scan sonar using the same frequency, and the resolution is lower than that of 1250 kHz side scan sonar. The image acquired by the scanning sonar had little error or distortion in the result even without special post-correction, so it was possible to clearly check the soil removal survey section. Although it was not possible to distinguish 5 m × 5 m grid accurately, it was possible to distinguish the 10 m × 10 m square initially set up when the grid was installed. In addition, in the survey line shortly after the completion of the earthwork investigation, it was confirmed that the seabed had changed like ridges and furrows due to the soil removal. Review on results of marine geophysical exploration In order to use marine geophysical survey equipment for underwater excavation survey, several conditions should be met. First, the changes in seabed caused by soil removal should be clearly identified as soil removal at seabed is conducted for underwater excavation. Next, the error due to distortion must be small. Marine geophysical survey equipment which may cause distortion in the results depending on the characteristics of the equipment, operation method, and surrounding environment and severe distortion makes it difficult to check soil removal survey area. Being able to check the results quickly is helpful for survey. Considering these conditions, as a result of reviewing three exploration equipment operated in waters of Dangampo, it was judged that the scanning sonar was the most suitable for the underwater excavation survey record. In the case of the side scan sonar, as it is found in the survey, it can survey a wide range in a short time, and when using a frequency of 1250 kHz, it showed high resolution for the soil removal section. However, repetitive surveys were required to obtain high-quality results, distortions frequently occurred during the survey process and correction was not easy. Since the multi beam echo sounder provides 3D images, it is effective in checking the seabed topography over a wide range, and has the advantage that distortion is hardly visible in the soil removal section. However, it was not suitable for recording the soil removal section due to its low resolution compared to other exploration equipment, and it took a relatively long time to obtain the result because it had to go through post-correction. The scanning sonar showed good resolution for the soil removal section and was effective in recording the soil removal section with little distortion without special post-correction. This is because, unlike the previous two exploration equipment, it is fixed on the seabed to acquire data, and there are few factors that can adversely affect the results except for tide. However, the scanning sonar had the disadvantage of requiring a lot of time to investigate a wide range. 3 �Usage of scanning sonar for underwater excavation in turbid and wide range The experiment conducted in waters of Dangampo, Taean concluded that the scanning sonar is suitable for recording the soil removal section. However, since the waters of Dangampo had a relatively good underwater visibility, it was necessary to check whether it was possible to make a record using a scanning sonar in turbid water. To this end, the scanning sonar was operated in the underwater excavation of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwang and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo. Survey using scanning sonar in waters of Nakweoldo , Yeonggwang In an experiment conducted in waters of Dangampo, it was difficult for the scanning sonar to investigate a wide range due to limited time. In the second underwater excavation survey in Dangampo, it was possible to create a single image by connecting three scanning stations or data. This means that with enough time, one large scanning station or image can be produced over a wide area. If the change of the seabed is recorded after the completion of the excavation, it is very likely the seabed changed from the time of investigation, such as reburial of the soil removal section investigated in the early stage of the excavation. Therefore, it is more effective to record seabed changes from time to time during the survey process and connect them. Figure 1. Mosaic image of scanning sonar for Area A of underwater excavation of waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwang The frequency used was 675 kHz, and the measurement distance was 50 m. In addition, 11 data acquired from each point were connected to create a single image of the seabed in Area A. Finally, a grid was drawn on this image to create an excavation survey plan (Figure 1). Waters of Myeongnyangdaecheopro, Jindo survey using scanning sonar In waters of Myeongnyangdaecheopro, a reflector was installed on the seabed to accurately connect multiple sonar images. The reflector was made in a hemispherical shape with a diameter of 20 cm by referring to the shape of a radar reflector used in ships, and was attached to the handle of a probe rod to Figure 2. Mosaic image using reflector (frequency 675 kHz, measurement range 25 m, ○ reflector) 4 �be fixed to the seabed. Reflectors (small circles in image) were placed at 10 m intervals along the prospecting trench (figure 2), and the height from the seabed to the reflectors was about 50 cm. The scanning sonar was operated down from the barge to the seabed, and the seabed was repeatedly surveyed. The frequency was 675 kHz and the measurement range was between 25 m and 40 m. The sonar images obtained from Myeongnyangdaecheopro show that the point where the reflector is installed reflected sound waves more strongly than the surroundings. Reflectors are identified in the scanning sonar images so multiple sonar images could be easily attached using the reflector as a reference point. In this way, sonar images were prepared for the entire survey area of the sixth underwater excavation survey in the waters of Myeongnyangdaecheopro, Jindo. It is shown that going further south, the trenches are installed slightly tilted to the west. This is different from at the time of diving investigation when it was understood the trench was installed due south. In other words, understanding of the survey site can be improved by using a scanning sonar in an environment where it is difficult to check the survey status due to turbid underwater vision. In addition, as the data obtained along with the installation of the trench was attached, rather than operating the scanning sonar after the completion of the prospective excavation, the north side of the trench cleared at the beginning of the excavation was also recorded as it was at the time of the investigation. CONCLUSIONS In the archaeological excavation, the most important thing is the record. However, it is hard to make record due to environmental constraints in the underwater excavation. This paper examines the method of recording underwater excavations by using marine geophysical exploration equipment that uses sound waves to overcome such limitations. Generally, higher resolution is expected in case of using high frequency sound wave compared to low frequency, but it makes measurable distance shorter. The way of operating exploration equipment could lead to different results. In underwater excavation survey in 2017 at waters of Dangampo, Taean, side scan sonar, multi-beam echo sounder, and scanning sonar results were compared. Upon using frequency of 1250 kHz, side scan sonar showed relatively high resolution but distortion in results due to variables that occur in the operation process. In addition, multi beam echo sounder was not easy to record soil removal due to poor resolution. Lastly, scanning sonar showed soil removal section relatively clearly without significant distortion. This is because factors that could impact the result except for tide were little thanks to operation type fixed to the seabed. However, the results were distorted due to variables that occurred during the operation process. In addition, the multi-beam echo sounder had a low resolution and was not easy to record soil surveys. Lastly, the scanning sonar relatively clearly showed the survey section without major distortion. This is because there are few factors that affect the outcome other than tides due to the operation method fixed to the seabed. This study began with the idea that using sound waves to record information in turbid water could be effective. However, the experiment conducted in this paper has a limitation in that all of them were aimed at places where underwater heritage is scattered over a wide area. While the distribution area of artifacts is wide, the area where ancient/historical shipwreck is located is relatively narrow, so a study is needed to prepare for the case where such shipwrecks are discovered in an environment where measurement or taking photo are difficult like the case of Sinan shipwreck. For example, the way of utilizing ultrasound cameras or 3D scanning equipment can be considered. I hope that continuous research on underwater archaeological recording methods will be conducted to develop various survey methods that can overcome adverse conditions in the future. 5 �Bibliography Baek, Hyuk. Jun, Bong-Huan. Park, Sung-Woo and Lee, Pan-Mook. “Seabed Mapping Using MS-1000 Sensor Image” Ship and Marine Technology, no. 51 (2011): 65-72 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Waters off Jindo Myeongnyangdaecheop-ro [Ave.] Underwater Excavation, I, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 49. Mokpo National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2015 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Waters off Jindo Myeongnyangdaecheop-ro [Ave.] Underwater Excavation, II, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 49. Mokpo: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2015 (In Korean). NRIMCH, A Report on Underwater Excavations in the Marine Area of Yeonggwang Nakwoldo Island, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 52. Mokpo: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2019 (In Korean). NRIMCH, Waters off the Taean Dangampo Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage 53. Taean: National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, 2019 (In Korean). Shin, Changjoo. Jang, In-Sung. Kim, Kihun. Choi, Hyun-Tack and Lee, Seung-Hyun. “Performance Analysis of Sonar System Applicable to Underwater Construction Sites with High Turbidity” Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society 14, no. 9 (2013): 4507-4513 (In Korean). 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Study on Records of Underwater Excavations Utilizing Geophysical Equipment Description An account of the resource This study intends to examine the records of underwater excavations utilizing sound waves at the underwater sites with bad visibilities. Marine geophysical exploration equipment was operated and method of investigation and record using it was examined. First, in the underwater excavation of waters of Dangmpo, Taean, side-scanning sonar, multi-beam echo sounder, and scanning sonar were used to record the soil investigation section in order to find out which maritime geophysical exploration equipment is suitable for underwater excavation survey. As a result, it was found that side scanning sonar showed relatively high resolution when using a frequency of 1250 kHz, but there was a problem in that distortion occurred during the investigation process. The multi-beam echo sounder did not cause significant distortion, but the resolution was poor. The scanning sonar had relatively little distortion and had good results, so it was suitable for recording soil removal survey section. In order to review the usability of scanning sonar for the underwater excavation conducted in turbid environment, images of scanning sonar of underwater excavation in the waters of Nakweoldo, Yeonggwan and Myeongryangdaecheopro, Jindo were used to make drawings for survey. By conducting this experiment, it was confirmed that it was possible to make more effective records than drawings made in existing underwater excavation survey when scanning sonar is used for turbid underwater site. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lee Young-hyun Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Young-hyun, Lee. 2023. “Study on Records of Underwater Excavations Using Geophysical Equipment.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1925 Asia-Pac Session 2 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Did Zheng He Set Out to Colonize Southeast Asia? Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tan Sen Leo Suryadinata Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Zheng He Society ; Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Tan Sen Editor Leo Suryadinata Item Type Book Section ISBN 9789812303295 Book Title Admiral Zheng He & Southeast Asia Call Number DS753.6.Z47A365 2005 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Extra Portion of title: Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia Item info: Place Hold Portion of title: Admiral Zheng He and Southeast Asia Physical description: xviii, 168 p. : ill., maps ; 22 cm Bibliography note: Includes bibliographical references LCCN: 2005436826 Control Number: ocm61445159 Library Catalog lib-app3.usc.edu Library Catalog Place Singapore Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Zheng He Society ; Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Title A name given to the resource Did Zheng He Set Out to Colonize Southeast Asia? China Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2c9cbfa92956afba174668da5ca9fedf.pdf 77bf4dab13ec4aff60c85768aaa97573 PDF Text Text Research on the removal of calcareous and iron concretions from marine finds Zhang Zhiguo, Ma Qinglin, Li Naisheng, and Tian Xingling Department of Conservation Science and Technology for Underwater Cultural Relics Center for Cultural Relic Restoration and Training Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage No. 2 Gao Yuan Street, Chao Yang District, Beijing 100029 China Email: zzgwys@126.com Liu Wei University of Science and Technology, Beijing China Abstract In recent years, several shipwrecks have been found in the South China Sea, such as Huaguang Jiao I and South China Sea I, shipwrecks from the Southern Song Dynasty (12-13c AD) and Nan’ao I, a wreck from the Ming Dynasty (14-17c AD). Many ancient archaeological iron objects were found the site. Usually, calcareous and iron concretions exist on these iron objects and some iron objects are concreted together very tightly. This paper discusses methods to remove calcareous and iron concretions from archaeological iron objects found from the sea and separation methods for the concreted iron objects recovered from the Huaguang Jiao I and South China Sea I shipwrecks. Key words: Huaguang Jiao, South China Sea I shipwreck, Iron objects; Calcareous; Iron concretions; Removal techniques Introduction The most striking feature of iron corrosion in a marine environment is the formation of thick concretions. Concretions form on iron buried beneath the seabed and on that exposed to seawater. In both cases the concretion is formed by the iron corrosion products interacting with material adjacent to the iron. Iron is not a biologically toxic material and any iron immersed in seawater is rapidly colonized by marine organisms. These organisms build up a layer of skeletal material, predominantly calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The subsequent diffusion of iron II ions (Fe2+) and iron III ions (Fe3+) from the 1 �underlying corroding iron produces chemical changes in this biological material (North, 1976). In the concretion, Fe2+ ions interchange with calcium ions (Ca2+) in the CaCO3, to produce ferrous carbonate or siderite (FeCO3). Some of the CaCO3 is also dissolved by the hydrogen ions (H+) forming calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2], which causes the pH of the solution to increase. The increasing pH then results in the gradual precipitation of Fe2+ and Fe3+ as oxides, hydrated oxides and hydroxy chlorides. These fill holes and pores in the concretion and so form an iron cementing matrix to replace the original calcite matrix, which is slowly dissolving. Under the concretion, in areas of low oxygen content, reactions between iron ions and sulphide ions (S2-) ions produced by sulphate reducing bacteria result in the formation of iron (II) sulphides (FeS) and elemental sulphur (S). The end result of these processes is that the inner concretion becomes a replica of the marine growth but with the CaCO3 of the marine organisms virtually entirely replaced by iron corrosion products (North, 1976). The outer layer of the iron concretions is approximately the same composition as the marine growth on inert materials. The major differences are the presence of up to 2% iron and small, but significant amounts of inorganic CaCO 3. When iron is continuously buried beneath the seabed, negligible marine growth occurs but a hard concretion can still be formed provided the seabed material contains CaCO 3. The mechanism here appears to be basically the same as for exposed iron. As the iron-rich acidic solution diffuses into the surrounding seabed material it dissolves some CaCO3 and precipitate iron compounds which act as a binding cement. Further out from the object the previously dissolved calcium reprecipitates, due to increasing pH, and forms a second cementing layer. As a result any material in the seabed next to the corroding iron is incorporated into the concretion. Magnetite (Fe3O4) is the main iron oxide component of buried concretions compared with iron oxy hydroxides (FeOOH) and haematite (Fe2O3) in exposed concretions (North, 1987a). The concretions from the Batavia shipwreck site in Australia mainly contained FeOOH, Fe3O4, FeCO3 and iron hydroxy chlorides (FeOCl), minor constituents were CaCO3, quartz (SiO2), FeS and S and sometimes contained traces of sodium chloride (NaCl) and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) (North, 1976). North (1982) compared the chemical compositions of concretion and iron corrosion products from the Day Dawn shipwreck 2 �site in Australia, the concretions consisted of 46.1% iron (Fe), 0.34% sodium (Na), 7.9% calcium (Ca), 0.33% magnesium (Mg), 2.2% SiO2 and less than 0.05% chlorine (Cl), but the iron corrosion products consisted of 60.8% Fe, 0.06% Na, 0.11% Ca, 0.03% Mg and 6.1% Cl (North, 1982). Concretions found within marine sediment, where oxygen is relatively scarce, contain higher proportions of lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH), Fe3O4, and the magnetic sulphide, pyrrhotite (Fe1-xS). Other compounds, which are unstable under atmospheric conditions, and thus difficult to identify, may also by present (Cronyn, 1990). The main method of concretion removal is by mechanical methods, such as toothpick, dental drill, riveting gun, hammer and sand-blasting machine (Hamilton, 1999; Mardikian and David, 1996; North 1987b; Rees-Jones, 1972). Chemical methods, such as 20% phosphoric acid (Rees-Jones, 1972) and hot soda baths (Pearson, 1972), have been used, especially for seriously corroded fragile iron, but concreted iron objects cannot be soaked for a long time. Liquid nitrogen (MacLeod, 1987) and electrolytic methods (Montlucon, 1986) can also be used for concretion removal. The liquid nitrogen method is effective in removing thick calcium carbonate layers on iron surfaces. Hydrogen produced by the electrolytic method may cause damage to the surfaces of ancient iron objects. The concretions on some marine iron recovered from three shipwrecks excavated from the South China Sea, HuaguangJiao I and South China Sea I, wrecks from the Southern Song Dynasty (12-13c AD) and Nan’ao I, a wreck from the Ming Dynasty (1417c AD), were analysed using multiple scientific techniques to determine the composition and structure of the concretions. The concretions from the three wrecks are composed primarily of two different types; calcareous/iron concretions or coral and siliceous concretions. The different types of concretion from the three wrecks were comparatively analysed. The results indicated that the concretions from South China Sea I contain calcareous and siliceous concretions, mainly SiO2, mixed calcareous concretions, FeS2, and FeCO3. And concretions from HuaguangJiao I were analogous to those from Nan’ao I except the composition of the iron concretions from the former consisted primarily of Fe3O4, goethite (α-FeOOH), lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH), Fe2O3 and akaganeite (β-FeOOH), while FeS, FeCO3 and β-FeOOH were the main minerals present in the Nan’ao I iron concretions (Liu et al., 2011). This paper discusses methods 3 �to remove calcareous and iron concretions from marine archaeological ancient iron objects and tests some separation methods for the concreted iron objects from the HuaguangJiao I and South China Sea I shipwrecks. Results and Discussion Removal of the Calcareous Concretions by Chemical Methods Figure 1 shows the white calcareous concretions on the iron object, HTQ-9 from the HuaguangJiao calcareous I concretions shipwreck. are The usually composed of two layers, an outer and inner layer. Two samples of the different layers were collected using a scalpel. The outer Fig. 1 Iron object (HTQ-9) from the HuaguangJiao white surface layer consisted of calcite I shipwreck. (Z. G. Zhang). (Mg0.1Ca0.9CO3) and aragonite (CaCO3) and the inner white layer consisted of kutnahorite (Ca1.11Mn0.89 (CO3)2 and CaCO3. Figures 2a and 2b show the XRD spectrums of the outer and inner layer samples. The calcareous concretions of two layers are both very hard, and the inner layer is harder than outer one. About 0.4g of the white calcareous concretion, removed from the outer and inner layer of iron object HTQ-9, was soaked in a 10% EDTA disodium salt solution (EDTA-2Na), pH value was about 10. Figure 3 shows the transformation process of the concretion sample. The sample had completely dissolved after 102 hours. This experiment demonstrates that 10% EDTA-2Na can remove these types of white calcareous concretions present on this marine iron object. Removal of the Iron Concretions by Chemical Methods The iron object of HTQ-17 from the HuaguangJiao I shipwreck was sectioned into five sub-samples. The size of each sample was about 3.0 square centimeters. The red brown iron concretion on their surface was analysed by XRD. Figure 2c shows the XRD spectrum. The analysis result indicated the concretion mainly consisted of β-FeOOH, γFeOOH, Fe3O4 and α-FeOOH. Five solutions; 5% oxalic acid, 10% oxalic acid, 9.35% aminoacetic acid, 9.35% aminoacetic acid sodium salt and 9.35% mercaptoacetic acid sodium salt, were tested to dissolve the red brown iron concretions on five samples of 4 �HTQ-17. Figure 4 shows the transformation of the red brown iron concretions of HTQ17 in 9.35% mercaptoacetic acid sodium salt. The results of the experiment demonstrated that the dissolution rate of the red brown iron concretions in each solution in decreasing order was: 9.35% mercaptoacetic acid sodium salt, 9.35% aminoacetic acid, 9.35% aminoacetic acid sodium salt, 10% oxalic acid, 5% oxalic acid. So the 9.35% mercaptoacetic sodium salt was the best solution to dissolve the iron concretions. Removal of the Iron Concretions by Mechanical Methods Laser blasting, sandblasting and ultrasonic cleaning methods are effective techniques to remove concretions from marine iron objects (Hamilton, 1999). However, the laser method has the disadvantage that the power is difficult to control; it is an expensive technique and is not suitable for large areas and/or thick concretion layers. Sandblasting is appropriate for the more fragile iron objects with thin concretion layers. Ultrasonic cleaning, such as an ultrasonic dental tool, is useful for deconcreting small areas covered in thin concretion layers, which are not particularly hard and the power is easily controlled. Mechanical and chemical methods are commonly used in combination to remove concretions from marine iron objects. Figure 5a shows a concreted iron nail recovered from the South China Sea I shipwreck. The concretion was removed using a combination of mechanical and chemical techniques, i.e. a solution of EDTA-2Na in conjunction with a chisel and scalpel were used to remove the concretion from this object. Figure 5b shows the iron nail after concretion removal. Separation of a Group of Concreted Iron Objects Figure 6a shows a group of four concreted iron objects, HTQ-2 recovered from the HuaguangJiao I shipwreck. Some mechanical tools, such as an electric drill, an engraver, a chisel and a small hammer were used to mechanically separate the iron objects. Special care was taken during the separation process to avoid any fracture or breakage. When the electric drill was used for separation, the appropriate diameter drill bit was chosen and the power should be controlled according to the extent of corrosion and the distance between the concreted iron objects. Figure 6b shows the four iron objects after separation. 5 �Conclusion This paper presented some experimental results on a variety of removal methods for calcareous and iron concretions from marine archaeological ancient iron objects. Based on the analytical data, 10% EDTA-2Na can remove the white calcareous concretions on marine iron objects and 9.35% mercaptoacetic acid sodium salt solution can dissolve the red brown iron concretions successfully. Commonly combinations of mechanical and chemical techniques can remove block concretions on marine iron objects and separate groups of concreted iron objects. Mechanical techniques are still the most common and reliable method for concretion removal. 6 �Fig. 2 XRD spectrum of HTQ-9 (a = outer layer; b = inner layer) and HTQ-17 (c). (Z. G. Zhang) 3a 3b 3c 3d Fig. 3 Transformation of calcareous concretions from HTQ-9 in 10% EDTA disodium salt after (a) 0 hours, (b) 6.5 hours, (c) 54 hours, (d) 102 hours. (Z. G. Zhang) 7 �Fig. 4 Transformation of the red brown iron concretions from HTQ-17 in 9.35% mercaptoacetic acid sodium salt after (a) 24 hours, (b) 72 hours, (c) 144 hours. (Z. G. Zhang) Fig. 5 Iron nail from the South China Sea I shipwreck. (a) Before deconcretion, (b) After concretion removal. (Z. G. Zhang) Fig. 6 Concreted group of iron objects, HTQ-2 from the HuaguangJiao I shipwreck (a) Pre-separation, (b) After separation. (Z. G. Zhang) 8 �Acknowledgements We would like to thank Mr. Qiu Gang, Director of Hainan Museum, who supplied the marine iron samples. We would also like to thank Prof. Zhan Changfa and Dr. Shen Dawa for their assistance with the analysis and research. This research project was financially supported by the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage (CACH). References Cronyn, J. M., 1990. The Elements of Archaeological Conservation. Routledge Press, Britain, 181. Hamilton, D. L., 1999. Methods of Conserving Archaeological Material from Underwater Sites. Nautical Archaeology Program. Department of Anthropology. Texas A&M University. College Station, Texas, 54-55. Liu, W., Wang, J. L., and Zhang, Z. G., 2011. Scientific analysis of the concretion on ancient marine iron recovered from three shipwrecks in South China Sea. Journal of National Museum of China, Vol. 2: 145-156. Mardikian, P., and David, R., 1996. Conservation of a French pistol from the wreck of Le Cygne (1808). Studies in Conservation, Vol. 41: 161-169. MacLeod, I. D., 1987. Conservation of corroded iron artefacts - new methods for on-site preservation and cryogenic deconcreting. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, Vol. 16 (1): 49-56. Montlucon, J., 1986. Electricity: A new implement in archaeology. In J. W. Foster and O. S. Sheli (Eds.), 17th Conference on Underwater Archaeology. Sacramento, California, January 8-12, 1986, Facsimile Reprint by Coyote Press: 75-78. North, N. A., 1987a. Corrosion of metals. In C. Pearson (Eds.), Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects, London, Butterworths: 77-78. North, N. A., 1987b. Conservation of Metals. In C. Pearson (Eds.), Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects, Butterworths, London, 209-211, 223-227. North, N. A., 1982. Corrosion products on marine iron. Studies in Conservation, Vol. 27: 75-83. North, N. A., 1976. Formation of coral concretions on marine iron. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, Vol. 5 (3): 253-258. 9 �Pearson, C., 1972. The preservation of iron cannon after 200 years under the sea. Studies in Conservation, Vol. 17: 102. Rees-Jones, S. G., 1972. Some aspects of conservation of iron objects from the sea. Studies in Conservation, Vol. 17: 39-43. Biography Zhiguo Zhang received his BSc (2001) and MSc (2004) in Chemistry from Shandong University and Tsinghua University, respectively and attained a PhD (2011) in history of science and technology from the University of Science and Technology, Beijing, China. His research field comprises the analysis and conservation of museum objects and the protection of marine cultural relics, such as ancient Chinese pigments, metals, stone, and wooden shipwrecks. Since 2004, he has worked on the conservation and research of ancient objects at the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage (CACH) in Beijing. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 7: Preservation and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials and Site Management Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 7 chairs Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from freshwater, marine and wet terrestrial sites. The main purposes of this session are to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as the development of conservation networks throughout the region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas: • In situ preservation of marine archaeological materials, including reburial practices • Conservation management of shipwreck sites, including on-site monitoring • Conservation treatment case studies • Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials • Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region • Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs Suggestions for additional topics are welcomed by the session organizers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Research on the removal of calcareous and iron concretions from marine finds Description An account of the resource In recent years, several shipwrecks have been found in the South China Sea, such as Huaguang Jiao I and South China Sea I, shipwrecks from the Southern Song Dynasty (12-13c AD) and Nan’ao I, a wreck from the Ming Dynasty (14-17c AD). Many ancient archaeological iron objects were found the site. Usually, calcareous and iron concretions exist on these iron objects and some iron objects are concreted together very tightly. This paper discusses methods to remove calcareous and iron concretions from archaeological iron objects found from the sea and separation methods for the concreted iron objects recovered from the Huaguang Jiao I and South China Sea I shipwrecks. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zhang Zhiguo Ma Qinglin Li Naisheng Tian Xingling Liu Wei, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 7 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Money and Credit in China: A Short History Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lien-sheng Yang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1952 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Lien-sheng Yang Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1952 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph Series Number 12 Title A name given to the resource Money and Credit in China: A Short History China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/432af427947dccb9b5ad175773098259.jpg 97dbdec1110d132dc516cb5a039248da Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poster Session 2014 Description An account of the resource Posters presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Original Format If the image is of an object, state the type of object, such as painting, sculpture, paper, photo, and additional data Poster Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Re-examining the Butuan Boats Pre-colonial Philippine Watercraft Subject The topic of the resource Poster Session Description An account of the resource Poster presented at the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ligaya Lacsina Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/9/2014 Asia-Pac Poster 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/59728da96eba5bc125b182b48dd6e43a.pdf 6cfd54f1008a83d369c939149c859f4c PDF Text Text Traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft in Philippine archaeological sites Ligaya S.P. Lacsina1 Abstract The seas of island South East Asia have long been an aid rather than a hindrance to movements within the region and among close neighbours. Many shared cultural traits show evidence of maritime connections within the region. As has been revealed by archaeology, historical accounts and ethnography, a boatbuilding tradition likewise emerged out of island Southeast Asia. At least three examples of such watercraft have been identified in Philippine archaeological sites, all of which predate Spanish colonization. While the remains of these sites were documented and recorded, little comprehensive research has so far been done from these sites to form a cohesive study on the ancient maritime culture in the Philippines and interactions with its Southeast Asian neighbours. This paper seeks to present the known examples of Southeast Asian boats in the archaeological record, ethnographic and regional parallels, and discuss the potential of future inquiries into revealing more of the Philippines’ maritime past. Introduction The seas of island South East Asia have long been an aid rather than a hindrance to movements within the region and among close neighbours. Archaeologists have revealed ample evidence of the active maritime networks in the region that existed from at least 5,000 years ago, at the beginning of the Austronesian migration that spread throughout all of insular Southeast Asia and most of the Pacific (Bellwood 1985; Bellwood 1991; Bellwood 1995; Bellwood and Dizon 2005; Horridge 1995; Reid 1988; Ronquillo 1998; Scott 1994; Solheim 1988; Solheim 2006). As pointed out by linguists, archaeologists, and anthropologists, shared cultural traits such as language, agriculture, animal husbandry, and pottery-making are evidence of the Austronesian maritime connection. Likewise a boatbuilding tradition emerged out of island Southeast Asia but scarcely addressed in archaeology and history subjects. Based on a 17th account by a Spanish priest in the Philippines, Alcisco Alcina (1668 translated by Horridge 1982), boatbuilding at the time was shown to favour the shell-first technique of joining planks edge-to-edge using wooden dowels and lashed lugs. Similar construction techniques are in evidence from regional neighbours, such as southern Taiwan (Hornell 1920; Horridge 1982), Indonesia (Horridge 1982), and Malaysia (Evans 1927; Manguin 1993). In some parts of Indonesia the tradition still persists despite the presence of modern influences (Horridge 1982). In the Philippines at least three sites have been discovered which confirm the historical information and show that this technique was used in the archipelago hundreds of years prior to the European contact in the 16th century Common Era (CE). 1 Museum Researcher I, Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines �This paper seeks to present the known examples of Southeast Asian boats in the regional parallels of the archaeological and ethnographic record, as well as discuss the potential of future inquiries into revealing more of the Philippines’ maritime past. Traditional island Southeast Asian Watercraft Studies have shown that active trading networks within island Southeast Asia began during the Neolithic period at least 5,000 years ago (Bellwood 1985; Bellwood 1991; Bellwood 1995; Bellwood and Dizon 2005; Horridge 1995; Reid 1988; Ronquillo 1998; Scott 1994; Solheim 1988; Solheim 2006). Long distance sailing technology in the region must have appeared much earlier, with the peopling of Australia through Southeast Asia some 40,000 years ago (Green 2006). Early insular Southeast Asian vessels were built shell first (Manguin 1993). Their construction used the lash-lugged technique to fasten ribs to planks. The planks were joined to each other by either sewing or edge pegging with wooden dowels. Pierre-Yves Manguin (1993) has posited that plank sewing was an earlier technology that was eventually replaced by dowel edge pegging. A decade earlier, Adrian Horridge (1982:56-57) argued the need for metal tools to drill the holes needed for edge pegging with dowels while the sewing technique did not. Doweling was thus a later development. We see however, that in several instances plank sewing still persisted at the time the practice of dowelling had been established. Metal was not used for joinery in traditional Southeast Asian boats (Horridge 1982; Manguin 1993; Scott 1981). Historical accounts Very few historical accounts have been found to exist describing the boats in the Southeast Asian region, much less the techniques utilized in their construction. An 8th century Chinese text by a Chinese monk described a large sailing kunlun bo (Southeast Asian ship) more than fifty meters long and carrying more than 1,000 people (Manguin 1993:262). The kunlun bo used several layers of planks and coconut bark fibres to bind its parts together (Manguin 1993:262). A 14th century CE Chinese document written by Wang Ta-yuan observed boats in Madura that used split rattan to fasten the wood together and cotton wadding to plug seams (Scott 1981:6). More detailed accounts were produced with the coming of the Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries CE. Portuguese 16th century CE accounts described Sumatran trading ships, referred to as jong (or jonque) as being larger than their own and able to carry 1,000 passengers (Manguin 1993). The planks and frames of the jong were fastened exclusively by wooden dowels. The ship’s hulls were sheathed, had multiple masts and used quarter rudders (Manguin 1993). Antonio Pigafetta, who chronicled Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage to Southeast Asia, wrote in 1521 of outrigger boats using wooden dowels (Pigafetta MS 1522 in Blair and Robertson vol 33:225; Scott 1981:6). In 1526, Andres de Urdaneta described rowers positioned over the outriggers that extended over the sides of the vessels (Scott 1981:6, 16-17) . The most comprehensive account of boatbuilding techniques of the time was by Alcina, who in his 1668 writings described the step by step shell-first construction of a large plank boat in the Visayas, Philippines (Alcina 1668 in Horridge 1982:5-29; Scott 1981:11-17). After preparing a keel connected by mortise to the stem and stern posts, �carved planks with protruding lugs were attached edge to edge by wooden dowels. The shape of the garboard strakes determined the size and form of the boat. When several strakes were attached the partial boat was allowed to dry completely for one to two months. After this period, the boat was dismantled and refitted tightly. Flexible ribs were lashed to drilled holes in the lugs and to thwarts which were added to strengthen the boat crosswise. Alcina described plank boats that used bamboo outriggers, at least one tripod mast and quarter rudders. During that period Alcina noted that the use of double outriggers was seen only in the Philippines though single outriggers were used with canoes of the Pacific islands (Horridge 1982:22, 56-57). The Alcina manuscript is a valuable resource for the thorough descriptions of boat construction methods, boat types, tools, and terminologies used in 17th century Philippines. Archaeology The oldest example of a Southeast Asian boat in the archaeological record was discovered in Pontian in the Malay Peninsula and dated to 260-430 CE. The Pontian boat is characterized as being sewn-planked and lash-lugged(Manguin 1993:256). Wooden dowels were also used, presumably to keep the strakes from sliding. Manguin (1993) considers the combined Pontian boatbuilding techniques of sewn planks, dowelling and lashed lugs to be of a transitional boatbuilding tradition between the earlier tradition of sewn planks and lashed lugs and the later tradition of edge pegging and lashed lugs. Other examples of sewn plank boats were found in Indonesia, particularly in Medan, North Sumatra and Sambirejo and Kolam Pinisi in South Sumatra (Manguin 1993:). Recovered from the sites were badly degraded planks. The boat in Medan was dated to the 12th-14th centuries CE based on associated ceramics (Manguin 1993). The Sambirejo timber was radiocarbon dated to 610-775 CE. Wood remains at Kolam Pinisi were radiocarbon dated to 434-631 CE (Manguin 1993). Numerous types of boats have been noted throughout the islands of the Philippines since the historical period (see Orillaneda and Ronquillo this volume). Boat and ship remains found and studied in Philippine archaeological sites however have predominantly been of South China or European origin. Only a few remains have been found to display characteristics of island Southeast Asian design. Butuan boats In the mid-1970s, the so-called Butuan Boats were discovered under flood deposits in Butuan City, southern Philippines (Peralta 1976). According to reports and articles over the years, a total of nine Butuan boats were found accidentally during infrastructure works or by the probing rods of pot hunters in search of wooden coffins containing valuable grave goods (Clark et al. 1993; Green et al. 1995; Ronquillo 1987; Ronquillo 1997; Salcedo 1998; Scott 1981). An additional two boats may have since been found (Cembrano 1998) though this has yet to be confirmed. �Figure 1. The remains of Butuan Boat 1 on display at the Balangay Shirine in Butuan City (photo by author). Only three of the boats have been studied archaeologically and recovered: boat no. 1 (figure 1), currently on display in the Balangay Shrine in Butuan City which is adjacent to where it was recovered; boat no. 2, which has been partially reconstructed and is on exhibit at the National Museum in Manila; and boat no. 5, which is currently undergoing restoration and conservation treatment at the Balangay Shrine. A few timbers and broken planks of boat no. 4, which were recovered by pot hunters, are also stored at the Shrine. Most of boat no.4 however remains in situ. The three archaeologically excavated boats were radiocarbon dated to 320 CE, 1250 CE, and 1215 CE, respectively (Ronquillo 1987). While the 900 year disparity of boat no.1 with �boats no.2 and no.5 has been cause of some uncertainty. The Butuan boats are undoubtedly the oldest water craft in Philippine archaeology (Cuevas, et al. n.d.; Ronquillo 1987; Salcedo 1998). Though the remains of the vessels are incomplete, they are calculated to average fifteen to twenty meters in length, three to five meters in beam, and exhibit several of the building techniques described by Alcina with edge joined planks and lashed lugs (Alcina in Horridge:9-14; Scott:13-14). Planks of the Butuan boats were cut and carved from a single piece of timber and attached by scarfed joints to winged stem or stern pieces (Clark et al. 1993; Cuevas et al. n.d.). Though round or flat bottomed and using a center plank, they are frequently referred to as balangay (or balanghai), which use a true keel or dug-out keel (Scott 1981). Gujangan wreck The heavily looted Gujangan wreck was found in the waters off Gujangan Island, Sulu province, southern Philippines (Cuevas, et al. n.d.). The wreck, dated to the 15th-16th century CE based on its ceramic cargo, was only briefly inspected by archaeologists in 1998 (Cuevas, et al. n.d.). Plank remains show drilled holes along its sides and bored lugs, indicating the edge pegging and lashed-lug construction technique. They are remarkably similar to the Butuan boat planks (figure 2).The Gujangan hull was left in situ, though several pieces of timber were recovered for sampling. Figure 2. Gujangan wreck plank showing a drilled lug and holes for dowels (Photo by author). San Isidro wreck In 1996, in the waters of San Isidro, Zambales province in the northwest Philippines, a vessel approximately 15 metres long carrying Ming Dynasty Chinese ceramics (circa 16th century CE) was discovered. It was postulated that the San Isidro acted as transport service for larger vessels that were unable to moor closer to shore. Though much of the hull was obscured by cargo and concretions, small pins were observed (Cuevas et al n.d.). The San Isidro plank remains (figure 3) indicate that it may have �been clinker built with dowels and sewing (Santiago 1996). This, however, needs to be verified by additional site inspections. Figure 3. Drawing of San Isidro plank remains (Goddio 1996). The San Isidro keel and planks were recovered for documentation, but returned to the site and reburied due to the difficulty of waterlogged wood conservation (F. Goddio pers. comm. 2011; Rey Santiago pers. comm. 2010). Other sites Preliminary studies are underway for the remains of a round bottomed boat recently exposed by erosion in Caoayan, Ilocos Sur in the Northern Philippines (see Faylona et al. this volume). Interviews with the local community indicate that the boat is a biray (or viray), a traditional sewn-plank boat of northern Luzon estimated to be around 100 years old (Pamela Faylona pers. comm.; Germelina Goulart pers. Comm. 2011). At least two other underwater sites in Mindoro and Marinduque in southern Luzon are reported to be balangays (Brian Homan pers comm 2010), but have not been fully examined. Contemporary examples A few island Southeast Asian boat builders have continued practicing traditional techniques long after the introduction of western-boat and shipbuilding practices (Horridge 1982). It has been through the study of contemporary Indonesian boat builders (Horridge 1982: 49-55), for example, that numerous clues were taken to help interpret the fragmented and deteriorated timber found in archaeological sites (Horridge 1982; Manguin 1993; Scott 1981). �In Batanes, the northernmost Philippine province, the tataya is built shell first. Ricardo Galang (1941) described it as carvel built without the use of any iron nails. It is edge pegged and fastened by lugs to frames with rattan lashing. The tataya is remarkable in contemporary Philippine boats because it does not make use of outriggers. Austronesian speakers of southern Taiwan make use of the same boat technology, demonstrating the continuing cultural ties between the two locations (Cuevas et al n.d.; Galang 1941; Horridge 1982). Recently, in a project called Voyage of the Balangay, a group of Filipino adventurers sailed replica balangays modelled partially after the Butuan boat remains and built by traditional Sama-Badjao boat builders of the southern Philippines (Voyage of the Balanghai 2010). The first replica, named the Diwata ng Lahi, was completed in less than two months in mid-2009 using traditional tools with the exception of electric powered drills. The Diwata ng Lahi travelled from Manila to Mindanao sailing along the country’s western coast. Two more balangays were built, and the three vessels, sailing without outriggers, travelled throughout the southern Philippines, before sailing to the rest of Southeast Asia and back. The entire voyage was completed in early 2011. The Diwata ng Lahi is currently on display at the National Museum in Manila. The balangays were built using dowels to fasten planks together. However, unlike the Butuan boats which used one piece of wood for each plank, the balangays used several scarfed timbers to form the strakes. This was due to the scarcity of suitable hardwoods (Rey Santiago pers. comm. 2011). Consequently, dowels or metal fastenings, rather than lashings were needed to directly join the frames to the planks to increase strength. Unlike the Butuan boats, the balangays were built with keels and used stem- and sternposts rather than winged ends. During the voyage, when repairs were needed and wooden dowels were unavailable, iron fastenings were used. Many traditional boat builders of island Southeast Asia have begun to adapt modifications to their building techniques, as illustrated in the Voyage of the Balangay project, either out of necessity or to simplify work. Traditional boatbuilding in the region is thus rapidly declining. In the Philippines, it is interesting to note that where traditional boatbuilding has persisted are in the remote extreme northern and southern parts of the country (Abrera 2009; Cuevas, et al. n.d.). Future research Future research should involve the re-examination of traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft remains in Philippine archaeological sites. Specific goals should include the radiocarbon dating of the unexcavated Butuan boats, precise recording and documentation of the unexcavated Butuan boats and the hulls of the San Isidro and Gujangan wrecks; and to make a thorough comparative study of the remains. Field research would entail, at least, partial excavation of the sites in order to expose portions of the hulls enough for documentation. There is however, the inclination by a number of groups, to recover at least one of the remaining Butuan boats for the purpose of exhibition and raising public awareness on the importance of the boats in the Philippines’ maritime heritage. If this is the case, a tremendous amount of resources for the treatment and conservation of waterlogged wooden remains is required. Discussions with the Butuan branch museum staff suggested that boat no. 4 would be �the best option for excavation and recovery based on observations made when it had been partially exposed by pothunters (Lacsina 2011). The other boats may be test excavated to determine their condition and to assess whether more extensive excavation is merited. As the remaining sites are not monitored and within private land, boats no.7, no.8, and no.9 have likely been greatly damaged by pothunters or during fishpond construction, illustrating the dangers of leaving known boat sites unprotected. A significant amount of knowledge can still be attained with the archaeological study of the remaining Butuan boats. Thorough documentation and recording of the hull remains would entail the excavation of the sites in order to expose portions of the hulls. Wood samples would have to be taken for dating purposes as this could confirm or refute the early 320 CE date of boat no.1. The greatest challenge in archaeological excavation in the Butuan area is the high water table, which is less than 1 meter from the ground surface. In previous excavations, water pumps were utilized almost continuously. There is also the considerable problem of determining the exact locations of the remaining boats. A recent site visit showed that exact and precise locations could not be confirmed as this was attempted by memory (see Stead and Dizon this volume). At least two of the boats, no.6 and no.8, were either inaccessible due to heavy vegetal growth or had been disturbed when fishponds were constructed in the area. The location of boat no. 9 is not marked on site maps and is likewise unknown to the present staff of the branch museum. The site of boat no.7 bore evidence of pot hunting activities, with a number of open excavation pits visible. Probing the ground with the use of metal rods or sonda, as practiced by pothunters when the boats were first found in the 1970s and 1980s can be used to confirm the presence and extent of the sites in preparation for archaeological excavation. Remote sensing technology may also be utilized for more accurate results but at a much greater expense. Neither the Gujangan nor San Isidro sites have been re-examined since the initial investigations more than ten years ago. At this point, their present conditions are unknown. The boat remains off the Mindoro and Marinduque islands must also be located and examined, as with other reported old boat sites. Surveys may be taken throughout the Philippines for finding other instances of traditional watercraft remains. Discussion Philippine maritime archaeology has thus far focused on international trade networks and ceramic studies, having put much emphasis on preserved cargo of which thousands of pieces have been found from single sites. The study of Philippine ship and boat technology from archaeological sites, however, is a topic that can benefit from more thorough studies. In spite of the presence of archaeological resources, very little research has been done with the aim of comprehensively investigating the traditional Southeast Asian boats in the Philippines. The existing research on the Butuan Boats, for example, was meant to be only preliminary in nature, pending more comprehensive studies in the future that have yet to occur. The San Isidro and Gujangan wrecks have likewise not been suitably utilised to enrich knowledge of Philippine maritime culture. �The data that will be generated from the research will add significant understanding to indigenous Philippine and island Southeast Asian boatbuilding techniques. Bibliography Abrera, B., 2009 Alcina, A., 1668 Bellwood, P., 1985 Bellwood, P., 1991 Bellwood, P., 1995 "Keeping a Sama Tradition Alive", in Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila, June 6, 2009. Historia De Las Islas Eindios De Bisayas, Muñoz transcript. Biblioteca de Palacio, Madrid. “A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins”, in Asian Perspectives XXI. “The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages” in Scientific American Vol. 265 70-75. “Austronesian Prehistory in Southeast Asia: Homeland, Expansion and Transformation” in: Bellwood, P., Fox, J. J., and Tyron, D., (Eds.), The Austronesians. Australian National University, Canberra. and “The Batanes Archaeological Project and the ‘Out of Taiwan’ Hypothesis for Austronesian Dispersal”, in Journal of Austronesian Studies, 1,1, pp.1-32. The Philippine Islands, CD-ROM edition, E.A. Defensor 2000. Bellwood, P., Dizon, E., 2005 Blair, J.A., and Roberson, E.H. 1903 Clark, P., Green, J., Vosmer, T., and Santiago, R. 1993 Cuevas, M. A., Ronquillo, W., and Santiago, R., n.d. Evans, I. H. N., 1927 Galang, R.E., 1941 Goddio, F., 1996 Green, J., 2006 Green, J., Vosmer, T., Clark, P., Santiago, R., and Alvarez, M., 1995 “The Butuan Two Boat Known as a Balangay in the National Museum, Manila, Philippines”, in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 22. Boat Building Traditions in Pre-18th Century Philippines, ASEAN-COCI, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 20. “Notes on the Remains of an Old Boat Found at Pontian” in Journal of the Federated Malay States Museum 12, 93-96. “Types of watercraft in the Philippines” in Philippine Journal of Science, 75,3, pp.287-304. San Isidro ’97: Excavation;s preliminary report and ceramics study “Nautical Archaeology in Australia, the Indian Ocean and Asia” in (eds.) Mark Staniforth and Mike Nash, Maritime Archaeology: Australian Approaches, Springer, pp. 97-109. “Interim Report on the Joint Australian-Philippines Butuan Boat Project, October 1992”, in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 24, pp.177-188. �“The Outrigger Canoes of Indonesia”, in Madras Fisheries Bulletin 12, pp.43-114. The Lashed-Lug Boat of the Eastern Archipelagoes, the Alcina Ms and the Lomblen Whaling Boats, Trustees of the National Maritime Museum. “Austronesian Conquest of the Sea”, in The Austronesians: Horridge, G.A., Historical and Comparative Perspectives, ANU Press, pp.1431995 160. Butuan Boats Site Visit, report, National Museum of the Lacsina, L., Philippines 2011 Manguin, P.Y., “Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding 1993 Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian Trade Networks” in Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 36, pp.253-280. Balanghai:Ancient Asian Boats Unearthed, report, National Peralta, J., 1976 Museum of the Philippines, Manila. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680: Volume Reid, A., One: The Lands Below the Winds, Silkworm Books. 1988 Ronquillo, W. P., “The Butuan Archaeological Finds: Profound Implications for Philippines and Southeast Asian Prehistory” in Man and 1987 Culture in Oceania, pp.71-78. “Butuan Boats” in Delgado, J. P., (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Ronquillo, W. P., underwater and maritime archaeology, British Museum Press, 1997 London, pp. 79. “The Austronesian Connection” in Kasaysayan. The Story of Ronquillo, W. P., the Filipino People, Asia Publishing Company Limited, Hong 1998 Kong, pp. 261-274. “The Ingenious Filipino Boat” in Kasaysayan. The Story of the Salcedo, C. G., Filipino People, Asia Publishing Company Limited, Hong 1998 Kong, pp. 207-219. Preliminary Observation (San Isidro Wreck). National Santiago, R. A., 1996 Musuem of the Philippines, Manila. Scott, W. H., “Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic Philippine Society” in Anthropological Papers 9. 1981 Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Scott, W. H., 1994 Ateneo de Manila Press, Quezon City. Solheim, W. G., “The Nusantao Hypothesis: The Origin and Spread of Austronesian Speakers” in Asian Perspectives XXVI, pp.771988 88. Archaeology and Culture in Southeast Asia: Unraveling the Solheim, W. G., Nusantao, University of the Philippines Press, Quezon City. 2006 Voyage of the " Voyage of the Balangay", last accessed August 10, 2011 on Balanghai the World Wide Web address: http://www.balangay20 voyage.com/index.php. Hornell, J., 1920 Horridge, G. A., 1982 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Traditional island Southeast Asian watercraft in Philippine archaeological sites Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource The seas of island South East Asia have long been an aid rather than a hindrance to movements within the region and among close neighbours. Many shared cultural traits show evidence of maritime connections within the region. As has been revealed by archaeology, historical accounts and ethnography, a boatbuilding tradition likewise emerged out of island Southeast Asia. At least three examples of such watercraft have been identified in Philippine archaeological sites, all of which predate Spanish colonization. While the remains of these sites were documented and recorded, little comprehensive research has so far been done from these sites to form a cohesive study on the ancient maritime culture in the Philippines and interactions with its Southeast Asian neighbours. This paper seeks to present the known examples of Southeast Asian boats in the archaeological record, ethnographic and regional parallels, and discuss the potential of future inquiries into revealing more of the Philippines’ maritime past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ligaya S.P. Lacsina Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1a998882def4719a29729a35d110c954.pdf 109ba92ad732ad752e8068cb3a296555 PDF Text Text Analysis of UNESCO Best Practices of Underwater Cultural Heritage from the perspective of marine sustainable development and challenges in 2022 New Chinese UCH Regulations Liu lina Associate Professor in Xi’an Jiaotong University, PhD. Master's Supervisor. Research interests in cultural heritage law, international law, IP law. Email:liulina@ xjtu.edu.cn ABSTRACT The topic of this paper fits best within this Session17, the 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ ,because it summarizes the ways in which underwater cultural heritage contributes to the sustainable development as a Marine resource through its own inheritance and development, and suggests that China should change its legislative idea of underwater cultural heritage. The case studies under consideration are the latest 13 Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, which are analyzed in three aspects: 1) legal protection based on the legislative concept of marine resource law, 2) protection of cultural heritage resources through long-term monitoring and dynamic classification, and 3) sharing the benefits of cultural resources and environmental economic development. The resources available to conduct the work include the list of Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and China's newly revised version of Regulations on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2022. The research questions are how underwater cultural heritage can contribute to the sustainable development of the oceans through its own inheritance and development, and how China should change its legislative idea of underwater cultural heritage. The research approaches are case review and legal text analysis. The results are the legal protection of underwater cultural heritage in international law with the concept of resource law, and China’s responses. Keywords: Underwater Cultural Heritage; Best Practices; sustainable development; UNESCO 1 �1. INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within this Session 17, the 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’, because the newly revised Chinese Regulations on the Protection and Administration of Underwater Cultural Relics is implemented in April 2022. The protection of underwater cultural heritage (hereinafter referred to as “UCH”) in China is facing a historical opportunity of rapid development of environmental and resource protection. This paper proposes the rule of law that environmental resources should be used to promote the sustainable development of underwater cultural heritage, through the evaluation and analysis of the current UNESCO "Best Practice of Underwater Cultural Heritage". And this paper lays out that China should change the concept of governance of underwater cultural relics - from the protection of cultural relics themself only to the governance of environmental resources. 2. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (hereinafter referred to as “the 2001 UNESCO convention”). In 2015, the Meeting of States Parties (hereinafter referred to as “MSP”), by its Resolution 4/5MSP adopted at its fifth session, wished to strengthen cooperation among States Parties by inviting them to submit examples of Best Practices in the implementation of the Convention. To submit a Best Practice example to the Conference of States Parties, heritage must1: ● i）fall within the definition of Article 1 of the 2001 Convention or is at least 100 years old, but is classified as underwater cultural heritage under national legislation, ii) be adequately protected both legally and practically, in particular through the implementation of the Rules concerning activities directed at underwater cultural heritage of the Convention, iii) respect responsible and non-intrusive access, iv) have a framework for sustainable management. These Best Practices are evaluated by the Scientific and Technical Advisory Body (hereinafter referred to as “STAB”), which makes recommendations to the MSP 1 https://en.unesco.org/underwater-heritage/best-practices 2 �regarding their designation. Until May 2023, this establishes a register of 13 Best Practices for use by all States Parties to the 2001 UNESCO Convention. After consideration, the reasons are analyzed in three aspects. 2.1 The establishment of national legal frameworks for UCH protection First of all, the Best Practice encourages countries to ensure their legal protection for UCH archaeology, conservation, and management by establishment of national legal frameworks for UCH protection. There are 6 Spain’s UCH practices2 selected into the list of Best Practices, benefiting from a series of special laws. For example, the Historical Heritage Act (law 16/1985 of 25 June, on Spanish Historical Heritage ) and the Andalusian Historic Heritage Law (Law 14/2007 of 26 November on the Historical Heritage of Andalusia). Secondly, the Best Practices encourages countries to make specific laws that define their own underwater cultural heritage. According to the Portuguese law "Decree No. 164/97 on underwater archaeological activities[3]", underwater heritage is recognized on the basis of its cultural value, not on the basis of 100 years. Spanish law believes the value of underwater heritage reflects the memory and identity of the marine community, which is more important than age. In 2009, the National Museum of Underwater Archaeology of Spain (ARQUA) launched The National Plan for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (the Green Book), which aims to the adoption of a series of specific measures for the protection, conservation and diffusion of this rich heritage in waters to create awareness, in a coordinated way, for all the departments and public government bodies involved in this protection.in Spain. Finally, Protection and fight against commercial exploitation by law. One of the six Best Practice, the Nuestra Senora de las Mercedes Project, Spain4 is an excellent example for UCH protection by effectively combating illegal commercial salvage activities on an international level and resolving ownership issues through judicial means. And the de las Mercedes cargo was definitively deposited in the 2 Such as “Andalusian Underwater Heritage Conservation Project,Spain”, “Cap del Vol and Cala Cativa shipwrecks, Spain”，“Deltebre I shipwreck, Spain”, “the Bou Ferrer Shipwreck, Spain”, “the Nuestra Senora de las Mercedes Project, Spain”, “The National Museum of Underwater Archaeology（ARQUA）,Spain” 3 UNESCO.List of National Cultural Heritage Laws, https://en.unesco.org/cultnatlaws/list/last-update-august-2015?page=50&order=title_field&sort=asc 4 On May 18, 2007, the US company Odyssey Marine Exploration announced in the media that it had transported a cargo of 500,000 gold and silver coins to the United States but did not give any information about the identity of the wreck from which the extraction originates or the exact location of the extraction.The Spanish government, in the face of suspicion that a Spanish ship could be treated,decides to wage a legal battle against the treasures haut company in the courts of United States, Finally, on February 14, 2012, the US courts give the final reason to the Spanish State to  return the cargo to Spain in 2022. More information on website: https://www.culturaydeporte.gob.es/mnarqua/en/colecciones/yacimientos/ns-mercedes.html 3 �National Museum of Underwater Archeology in 2012. 2.2 To promote the appropriate conservation of UCH through long-term monitoring and dynamic classification The best practice also emphasizes long-term monitoring and dynamic protection models of UCH. Firstly, it shows how to establish UCH databases to improve the electronic information management. Compared with the cultural heritage on land, information of UCH is more difficult to collect. In 2004, the government of Andalusia in Spain established the Management and Information System of Cultural Assets of Andalusia (MOSAICO), which systematically manages hundreds of historical shipwrecks in the region. Secondly, the daily management of UCH requires multiple and dynamic monitoring. For example, Portugal has formed a conventional management model with multiple departments, interdisciplinary personnel to protect UCH in the Cascais region: the UCH management is carried out by the Cascais City Council. Underwater archaeologists have dedicated their time and effort to locate those sites, by drafting an archaeological map. Besides, the Directorate General of Cultural Heritage, the National Maritime Authority, and the Cascais Port Authority, which are responsible for different protection issues. Lastly, a dynamic and continuous model of UCH conservation should be developed. For example, the "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Chinchorro Bank, Mexico" was selected as Best Practice in 2019, developed interdisciplinary studies to understand the formation and the transformation processes of submerged archaeological contexts. The Sub-Directorate of Underwater Archaeology of the Mexican National of Anthropology and History Institute (INAH) has been conducting investigations and evaluations of 69 underwater sites recorded in the region's underwater cultural resources database since 2006. 2.3 Increase public awareness, recognition and protection of heritage Best practices encourage responsible and non-intrusive public access to underwater cultural heritage in accordance with Articles 2.55 and 2.106 of the Convention, because public awareness can prompt regional economic growth and protect UCH. Several examples of Best Practices have shown that UCH protection and economic development are mutually reinforcing. First of all, local governments can develop 5 Articles 2.5: The preservation in situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage. 6 Articles 2.10: Responsible non-intrusive access to observe or document in situ underwater cultural heritage shall be encouraged to create public awareness, appreciation, and protection of the heritage except where such access is incompatible with its protection and management.  4 �non-intrusive and diverse UCH tourism activities which have demonstrated the protection of cultural resources and environmental development complement each other. For example, the “underwater archaeology Museum in Ferte de san Jose El Alto, Mexico7” One of two locations of this Museum of Campeche is in Playa Bonita, which strengthen the visibility of UCH and promote economic growth through various public hands-on activities. Another example is the "the Barge Arles-Rhône 3, France8" was taken out of the waters of the Rhône in 2011 to be restored and it thus joined the very exclusive club of boats found complete (or almost) in excavations, and presented in The Departmental Museum of Arles Antique in 2013. This Museum was expanded in order to exhibit these wrecks since 2013. Hence, it is also a good demonstration of boosting economic growth by constructing an underwater archaeological museum, which can share and display the submerged underwater heritage to the public. 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include the list of Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention9 (which have been analyzed above) and latest revised version of Regulations of the People's Republic of China on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Relics in 202210. In the 1980s, China began to pay attention to the importance of marine resources and underwater cultural relics. In order to protect the marine resources, and reasonable and effective use of water resources, the State Council has successively promulgated Marine Environment Protection Law of the People's Republic of China and the Water. In order to manage the protection of underwater cultural relics, the Regulations of the People's Republic of China on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Relics”(hereinafter referred to as the "The Chinese UCH Regulation") were promulgated in 1989. Since then, China's UCH protection has developed with laws to follow, and China has become one of the few countries in the world to formulate 7 https://www.inah.gob.mx/red-de-museos 8 https://www.arlesantique.fr/le-musee/lhistoire-du-musee 9 Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention: https://en.unesco.org/underwater-heritage/best-practices 10 Regulations on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2022 version), https://www.doc88.com/p-41999417420347.html 5 �specialized legal regulations for UCH. Since the implementation of 1989 Chinese UCH Regulation for 30 years, the close relationship between UCH and other marine resources has become deeply realized by Chinese legal experts. UCH in China (such as sunken ships and submerged towns and villages) serve as stable and long-term habitats for marine life. The Chinese UCH Regulation revised in 2022 is mindful of the concept of coordinated and integrated management of UCH as an important marine resource. 4. FRAMEWORK The research questions are how Chinese UCH can sustainably develop as a marine resource, through the change of Chinese legislative idea of UCH after analysis of the UCH best practices in 2001 UNESCO Convention. The research approaches are case review and legal text analysis of the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version）. The Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version）was implemented in April 2022. Drawing on 13 UCH best practices of 2001 UNESCO Convention. China needs to change the legal idea from the protection of UCH itself to the management of a kind of marine resource along with promotion of the high-quality development of UCH. The approach of rule of law presents 3 aspects. Firstly, according to different types of underwater heritage, enhance the capacity building of China UCH as marine cultural resources. For example, the duty of "other relevant departments of governments" as the coordinating authority is clarified in the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version）. It takes into account the need to consider the development and utilization of UCH in the use of sea area, and the need to pay attention to the protection of underwater resources in the development of fisheries and port operations, and the need not to neglect UCH in port security and military use of the sea area. Article 4(2)5 provides that “other relevant departments of the people’s governments at or above the county level shall be responsible for the work concerning the protection of underwater cultural relics within the scope of their respective scope of responsibilities”, which clarify the responsibility of “other government departments” as the coordinating authorities. 6 �Secondly, adhering to sustainable development of UCH, Chinese legal protection of UCH need to formulate a dynamic and long-term management instead of only the establishment of UCH databases. Taking protection of UCH as an example of marine use, the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version）adds a consultation mechanism for the delimitation of the protected zone of UCH. The Article 7(2) states that “for the delimitation and adjustment of underwater cultural relics reserves, the opinions of relevant departments and holders of rights to use water areas should be solicited, advice of experts and the public shall be taken, and the opinions of relevant military organs shall also be solicited where military administrative areas and military use of seas are involved”5. Thus, it is clear that UCH, as a type of water resource, should be consulted through the mechanism of delimitation and adjustment of UCH protection areas, the relevant departments and the right to use the waters should be consulted. Thirdly, UCH, as a kind of non-renewable marine cultural resource, so the the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version) shall increase public awareness and participation, and encourage UCH protection coordinated with economic development. Art. 16 is a new article that is “the competent cultural relics departments, cultural relics collection entities, and other entities shall, by holding exhibitions, visits, scientific research, and other means, fully maximize the role of underwater cultural relics, strengthen the publicity and education of Chinese excellent traditional culture and the legal system for the protection of underwater cultural relics, and improve the awareness of the whole society for protection of underwater cultural relics and the enthusiasm for participating in the protection of underwater cultural relics”5. Take the “Nanhai No.1 shipwreck11” for example, in 2007, China Central Television（CCTV) broadcasted the entire salvage of the "NanhaiNo.1 shipwreck", which attracted public attention. The construction of the Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck Museum, also called “The Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum”. Nowadays, Hailing Island, where the “The Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum '' is located, is already Top 10 most popular islands in China, with beautiful scenery and cultural relics accompanying it. 11 No.1 Nanhai shipwreck,a shipwreck dating back to the Song Dynasty (960 A.D.-1279 A.D.),. The excavation the ancient shipwreck was listed by China in its top 10 archaeological discoveries for 2019. More information on website: https://www.msrmuseum.com/Home/Enindex 7 �5. RESULTS The results are that from the perspective of marine sustainable development, protection UCH under the Chinese UCH Regulation (2022 version) faced new challenges. On the basis of a clear and complete UCH database formed, regular monitoring and continuous dynamic management should be established for specific UCH projects. Flexibly utilizing UCH, such as non-intrusive tours, on the other hand should be invested in the conversation of UCH with economic growth After analyzing the new developments of UCH legal protection in China, it becomes obvious that isolated national UCH legal systems still face the problems in the effective protection of the UCH. The 2001 UNESCO Convention provides for its States Parties an effective international cooperation scheme. It is beneficial for a state, like China, to protect its national UCH under the legal instrument of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. BIBLIOGRAPHY 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 17: The 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ Subject The topic of the resource Session 17 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 17 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Analysis of UNESCO Best Practices of Underwater Cultural Heritage from the perspective of marine sustainable development and challenges in 2022 New Chinese UCH Regulations Description An account of the resource The topic of this paper fits best within this Session17, the 2001 Convention: from ‘constructive ambiguities’ to ‘destructive misunderstandings’ ,because it summarizes the ways in which underwater cultural heritage contributes to the sustainable development as a Marine resource through its own inheritance and development, and suggests that China should change its legislative idea of underwater cultural heritage. The case studies under consideration are the latest 13 Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, which are analyzed in three aspects: 1) legal protection based on the legislative concept of marine resource law, 2) protection of cultural heritage resources through long-term monitoring and dynamic classification, and 3) sharing the benefits of cultural resources and environmental economic development. The resources available to conduct the work include the list of Best Practices of UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage and China's newly revised version of Regulations on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2022. The research questions are how underwater cultural heritage can contribute to the sustainable development of the oceans through its own inheritance and development, and how China should change its legislative idea of underwater cultural heritage. The research approaches are case review and legal text analysis. The results are the legal protection of underwater cultural heritage in international law with the concept of resource law, and China’s responses. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Liu lina Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Lina, Liu. 2023. “Analysis of UNESCO Best Practices of Underwater Cultural Heritage from the perspective of marine sustainable development and challenges in 2022 New Chinese UCH Regulations.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Mariano Azna. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1912 Asia-Pac Session 17 2023