45 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b380e3819236100b77e5f4e351663406.pdf 61d17ff824a0d0f4dd23a24aa432081e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Hayashida, Kenzo. 2021. “Yabitsu: A Medieval Port in Tsushima Island.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/669 Title A name given to the resource Yabitsu: A Midieval Port in Tsushima Island Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kenzo Hayashida Description An account of the resource The medieval port of Yabitsu is located in an inlet at the northwest end of Tsushima Island. Yabitsu is geographically closest to the Korean peninsula, separated by the Korea Strait. It is difficult to use its small isolated hinterland as a field for farming because in the inlet, some stone-built remains, which seem to have been quay and jetty are present. Although no description on Yabitsu has been found in any Japanese historical materials, a few Korean documents have been discovered in the Korean peninsula. From these literal evidences, the port of Yabitsu looks to have been used as an inlet for anchorage in the first half of the 15th century. The name of the inlet appeared in ‘Song Hui-gyeong’s Chronicle’ written in 1420, which was known as ‘老松堂日本行録’ in Japan. This chronicle refers to the port of Yabitsu as ‘也音非梁 (Ya-i-hi-ryo)’, which is on the way to the village of Waniura in Tsushima island. Seongjong of Joseon, the 9th king of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea, recorded this port as ‘也音非道浦 (Ya-i-hi-do-ho)’ in his Annals of Joseon Dynasty written in 1499. The survey in 2018 showed that the port of Yabitsu had a long history from the 4th to 17th centuries with early Haji wares, Sue wares, Goryeo potteries, Chinese white porcelains, and old Karatsu wares being found, However, the exact date when the stone remains in the inlet were constructed and their entire structure have not been known yet, because no full-scale survey has been conducted so far. Additionally, we have not known the exact reason why the port was chosen to be built at Yabitsu. The survey on this port could contribute to restoring the maritime cultural landscape in Tsushima island, as well. Asia-Pac Session 2 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/972e25a134b41b3b26a436e0e2971aac.pdf a6e1585e3cc5b42e4cd57e138f83284d PDF Text Text Si Satchanalai Ceramic Figurines from Klang Aow Shipwreck, Thailand: ideas, Functions and Their Roles Khongkamon Rattapat (Curator, National Maritime Museum in Chanthaburi) lonelymount@hotmail.com ABSTRACT Amongst the most remarkable commodities of Thailand on the maritime trade routes during the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries was Thai ceramics “Sangkhalok” (the ceramics characterised by green glazed, brown glazed, and underglaze black stoneware produced from Si Satchanalai and Sukhothai kilns). They were made in various shape, such as bowl, jar, plate and figurines. They are marked as one of the significant products found from shipwrecks around Thai waters. The figurines were originated from Pa Yang kilns as one group of kiln at the Si Satchanalai kiln complex; as it was also a dependency under the Sukhothai Kingdom (1238–1438) where the people made ceramics by local materials and applied local wisdoms and handicraft skills to the ceramics. The research materials for this paper focused on the 80 Si Satchanalai figurines recovered from the Klang Aow shipwreck. The shipwreck date (cal. 1305–1420 CE) is based on the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) result of a small bamboo sample stuck on the body of Si Satchanalai green glazed small bottle. This paper aims to find out what was the manufacture purpose of these figurines, as they played a major role in Southeast Asian and East Asian maritime trade networks during the fourteenth to the fifteenth centuries? The result indicates these figurines were created at the Pa Yang village of Si Satchanalai kiln in Sukhothai province during the late fifteenth to the sixteenth centuries, to meet the demand for religious activities and toys in folk theatre. List of Figures Figure 1 Seizing of Klang Aow shipwreck in 1992. Figure 2 The human figurines from Klang Aow shipwreck Figure 3 The animal figurines from Klang Aow shipwreck INTRODUCTION “Sankhalok” wares are one of the most remarkable commodities of Thailand dated to fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. Typically, this type of stoneware ceramic originates from kilns in Sukhothai province, especially Ko Noi and Pa Yang kilns. Located in Si Satchanalai city as a dependency under the Sukhothai Kingdom (1238–1438 CE). The kilns are well-known as Si Satchanalai or Sawankhalok kiln complex and Turiang or Sukhothai kiln located in Sukhothai city, capital of the Sukhothai Kingdom. All kilns are located outside of the city wall. Si Satchanalai kiln is located in the north along the bank of the Yom River. While the Turiang kiln is located in the north of the city beside the Turiang and the Phrapai Luang temples. Potters use the local clay as the main materials for ceramic production. These ceramics have various shapes: bowl, jar, plate, dish, human and animal figurines. These are decorated by slipping, incising, engraving, impressing, applying, painting and glazing. These ceramics were the products which made high profits for Siam or Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350– 1767 CE). Ayutthaya as the capital of the kingdom located in central Thailand along the Chao Phraya River, which linked to the Gulf of Thailand - played the role as the middleman who linked the ceramic productions and supplied the ceramics to maritime routes. Since the establishment of the kingdom, Ayutthaya maintained a close relation with China, with diplomacy and tributary trade. However, the international policies of Early Ming Dynasty affected the supply of Chinese ceramics for Southeast Asia and were insufficient (Brown 2009,69-70). The international trade block under the emperors’ decree of Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 CE) made space in the market for Southeast Asian states, 1 �especially Ayutthaya and Dai Viet (now northern Vietnam) who already had their own ceramic manufactures, to supply their products. A word “Sankhalok” is a mispronunciation from a word “Sung-chiao-lo” in Chinese Mandarin or “Sung ka lok” in Chinese Swatow (Shantou), but it is not possible to determine exactly when this word began to be used (Plaicharnjit 2002, 287). In the sixteenth century, a word “Sunkoroku” was mentioned in the Japanese records (Nelson 1965, 127). These words are mispronunciations that referred to the area called Sawankhalok district, Sukhothai province where kilns are located. According to fourteenth-century historical records of Ayutthaya Kingdom, Si Satchanalai referred to Sawankhalok (Kasetsiri 2002,8). The collection for this paper comprises of 80 human and animal ceramic figurines recovered from the Klang Aow shipwreck, which recently preserved in the storage of the National Maritime Museum in Chanthaburi and the National Museum Storage in Pathum Thani. The paper aims to explain the details of ceramic figurines, production sites and answer the research question: what was the manufacture purpose of these figurines, as they played a major role in Southeast Asian and East Asian maritime trade networks during the fourteenth to the fifteenth centuries? KLANG AOW SHIPWRECK The Klang Aow shipwreck was named after the location as a word “Klang Aow” meant the middle of the Gulf of Thailand located at the latitude 11°37’N and longtitude 100°59’E, which is approximate 60 nautical miles from the coastline of Sattahip district, Chonburi province, (Vilaikaew 1992,8-33). In February 1992, this shipwreck and its cargo were recovered by vessel named AHTS Australia Tide in the Gulf of Thailand as Thai exclusive economic zone and Thai task force included Royal Thai Navy, Thai Marine Police Division and the Fine Arts Department intercepted the vessel and seized 12,000 artifacts to be the national treasures of Thailand, protected by the National Act of Monuments, Artifacts, Art Objects and National Museums (firstly announced in 1961 and revised in 1992). The origins of these artifacts can be divided in to three different groups (Plaicharnjit 1992,34-37). i. ii. iii. Thai ceramics, especially Si Satchanalai, Sukhothai and Maenam Noi or Singburi ceramics (97 per cent of all artifacts) Vietnamese ceramics, especially Chu Dau blue-and-white wares (2.5 per cent of all artifacts) Chinese ceramics, especially Jingdezhen blue-and-white wares (0.5 per cent of all artifacts). The scientific date (1305–1420 CE from Beta Analytic Inc. 1999, Beta-134072) from Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) is from a small bamboo piece stuck on the body of the Si Satchanalai green glazed small bottle with two ring handles. This bamboo seems to be a part of ship structure or cargo hold because of the concretion when the Klang Aow sunk. This feature was also found on a Maenam Noi or Singburi jar. 2 �Figure 1 Thai task force on duty of seizing the recovered artifacts from Klang Aow shipwreck in 1992. (left) Recovered artifacts from Klang Aow shipwreck during the seizing in 1992. (right) (The Fine Arts Department of Thailand) SI SATCHANALAI CERAMIC FIGURES FROM KLANG AOW SHIPWRECK The human and animal figurines can be classified into four different types as follows. i. ii. A man figurine with 28.8 centimetre height in the form of a man sitting on one of his knees up and holding a poultry in the hands on the chest. His appearance shows a short hair with moustache and beard on man face, wearing of the Chinese style dress (possibly an overcoat), and holding of a poultry (possibly a bird or a cock) in the hands on the chest. Inside the figurine is hollowed with a hole on the top of man head and another hole as the poultry head. The glaze was eroded and concretion was occurred. Two women figurines with 21 centimetre height in the form of woman sitting on her knees and holding a basin on the shoulder. Her appearance shows a hair tied into the bun shape, women face, wearing of the tube skirt with no upper-body cloth, and holding of basin on the shoulder. The glaze was eroded and concretion was occurred. 3 �Figure 2 The human figurines from Klang Aow shipwreck, fourteenth to fifteenth centuries: [top] man and [bottom] woman. Chinese man carrying a poultry functioned as a water dropper. Woman carrying a basin functioned as a candle holder. (National Maritime Museum in Chanthaburi) iii. iv. 41 small poultry figurines (possibly a cock or a quail) with 6.8 centimetre height, standing on the rounded base. The head was sculpting as a beak, the eyes and wings were formed by sculpting and applying, some were incising the detail of wing, and a tail was also sculpting and applying. 34 small elephant figurines with 7.4 cm. standing. The figurines showed realistic details of a head, eye, ear, and trunk by sculpting and applying. 4 �Figure 3 The animal figurines from Klang Aow shipwreck, fourteenth to fifteenth centuries. (top) (National Maritime Museum in Chanthaburi) The figurine in the form of an elephant from Klang Aow shipwreck, fourteenth to fifteenth centuries. (left) The figurine in the form of a horse from Klang Aow shipwreck, fourteenth to fifteenth centuries. (right) (National Museum Storage in Pathum Thani) There are other animal figurines from the Klang Aow Shipwreck preserved in the National Museum Storage in Pathum Thani: an elephant and a horse. i. ii. An elephant figurine with 27 centimetre height with a mahout sitting on the neck, a howdah on the back, and four warriors holding a sword and a shield protect at the elephant feet. The glaze was eroded. concretion. A horse figurine with 27 centimetre height with a horseman sitting on the neck and a bowl affixing on the back, and four men holding a lotus flower standing at the horse feet. The glaze was eroded. concretion. Production site of figurines The production site of these figurines can be identified by the comparative study between the production, glazing and decoration techniques such as clay body textures, glazing characteristics, and decoration or design styles. The sources for comparative study are the figurines preserved and on display of the National Maritime Museum in Chanthaburi, National Museum, Bangkok (Chongkol 1999,91), Ramkamhaeng National Museum in Sukhothai, Sawanworanayok National Museum in Sukhothai (Srisumang 1992,39–40), and the figurines discovered at kiln sites of Si Satchanalai. Previous excavation at the kiln site by Don Hein (2001, 156–262) resulted the figurines and even the architectural ornaments were produced at Pa Yang kiln, Si Satchanalai kiln complex within specific kilns separated from other kilns for other utensils production. Additionally, the chronology of trade ceramics recovered from the shipwrecks around Southeast Asian waters by Roxanna Brown (2009) and Atthasit Sukkham (2016) suggest the figurines were supplied to maritime trade routes during the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries. Production process began by a preparation of local clay acquired from the riverbank nearby the kilns where materials were mixed with the sands or stone pebbles. They were formed into various shapes before they were decorated by slipping, incising, engraving, impressing, applying, and painting. 5 �The green or brown glaze was reactive of clay slip mixed with plant ash and silicate during firing in the cross-draught kiln with temperatures around 1,200–1,300 degree Celsius (Hein 2001). The evidence of these processes is supported by a large number of cross-draught kilns discovered in Ko Noi and Pa Yang village of Si Satchanalai kiln on the riverbank of the Yom River (Nithiarchakul, Rattanawong 2022,73-82). FUNCTIONS AND ROLES OF FIGURES Functions of figurines from literature review Generally, the manufacturing purposes of figurines produced at Si Satchanalai kiln can be reviewed as follows: i. Beliefs and religions: especially the ceramic figurines in the form of a Sukhothai style Buddha image in various postures, Ganesha (a deity in Hinduism influenced from Khmer Empire), a man riding a swan and Norasingh (the man with the lion head in Hinduism influenced from Khmer Empire) were produced related to this cultural aspect. These figurines also represented the Buddhism and Hinduism in Sukhothai Kingdom associated the both religious temples around the capital (Vudhaditya 1984,78-89). Some utensils were built in the same form of figurines or attached by sculpted figurines, especially an incense burner, kendi in the form of a deity riding on a swan, water dropper in the form of a man holding a jar or other animal, and a candle holder in the form of a cup or a basin attaching on the back of various kinds of animal. The incense burners, kendis, water droppers and candle holders can be considered to be the utensils used in religious activities, such as pouring a scared water or burning a candle in front of Buddha image (Sukkham 2016). Additionally, most common characteristic of figurines discovered from excavation is the figurines in the forms of a man or a woman with headless which was referred to the intention of the figurine head as a ritual practise for protecting from the sickness or bad spirits (Vudhaditya 1984). Some scholars also believed that this form of headless figurine was accidentally broken in the archaeological deposit because the part of figurine neck was softer than other parts (Sukkham 2016). ii. iii. Household items: some other cultural aspects may occur in the figurines, such as the figurines in the form of a man carrying a container on his head (Suzata and Srisuchat et al 2022, 290), a humpbacked elder carrying a jar by one hand beside the body as seen in the museum collection of Ramkhamhang National Museum in Sukhothai (Suzata and Srisuchat et al 2022,306). Playing equipment: the figurines can be used as toys or games for children. A piece of ceramic chess glazed by the white and brown color (Ram Khamhang National Museum exhibition) has been unearthed during an excavation at Si-Satchanalai old palace. Function of figurines from Klang Aow shipwreck The figurines from Klang Aow shipwreck can be considered as bespoke or on-demand manufacture. A lot of Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai ceramics were found in many shipwrecks sank around Southeast 6 �Asia. For example, the Turiang shipwreck sank near the coast of Malaysia there are approximately 3,735 of 6,475 ceramics identified to be Siamese ceramics included Sukhothai, Si Satchanalai, and Suphan Buri or also-called Bang Poon ceramics associated with Chinese and Vietnamese ceramics dated cal. 1305–1435 CE (Sjostrand 2001,101). Similarly, Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai ceramics have also been found in the shipwrecks sank in the Philippines waters, notable on the Pandanan, the Lena Shoal and Santa Cruz dated in the mid-fifteenth to early sixteenth centuries (Orillaneda 2016,85-88), and the San Isidro and the Kanduli dated in the sixteenth century (Orillaneda 2021). The excavation at Calatagan peninsula, Batangas province, Luzon Island in the Philippines revealed the Si Satchanalai jarlets in Calatagan burial site dated in the fifteenth century (Fox 1959,355). Moreover, the figurines in the form of an elephant were found in Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Kalimantan, Indonesia dated to the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries (Kerdpanyawat 1987,32). While fragments of glazed figurines in the form of an elephant were recovered from the Brunei shipwreck, dated late fifteenth to the early sixteenth centuries (Maidin 2017,173). A man figurine found in the Klang Aow is likely a Chinese man carrying a poultry. This style was possibly influenced from Chinese’s zodiac god figurines discovered in the Ming tomb, where the figurine in the form of Chinese man carrying a cock was found (The Barakat Gallery 2013,118) (Fig 3). Based on the characteristics of this figurine that has the hollow body, holes at the top of man and poultry heads, it can be indicated that the function of this figurine was the water dropper for pouring a sacred water. In Vietnam, there are the blue-and-white figurines with 28 centimetre height have been found. It illustrated the man sitting on knees and holding the vessel dated to the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries (Stevenson and Guy 1997,369). Other small blue-and-white figurines originated from kiln site in Vietnam was to be a rabbit or a frog with 3-4 centimetre height and 4-5 centimetre length. In the middle of figurine body has punched holes around 0.7-1 centimetre diameter. These Vietnamese figurines can be identified as a water dropper. The dating and function were related to the figurines found in the Klang Aow. The figurines in the form of a women carrying a cup on her shoulder, an elephant with a howdah on its back (Chongkol 1999,91) and a horse with a cup on its back (Watcharangkul 2002,129) (Figs 2, 3) show the traces of use that are probably functioned as a candle holder for using in the religious activity in the households or temples. All of them were attached a small cup that used to hold the candle. The figurines used as a candle holder or an incense burner previously appeared in Chinese ceramic figurines since Western Jin Dynasty (fifth to sixth centuries). This represented by sacred animals with some forms of vessel on their back (Valenstein 1989,52). There are some figurines from Si Satchanalai kiln were produced in the Chinese stylistics, such as a Chinese wearing officer hat, dressing the Chinese monk outfit (Sukkham 2016). These characteristics also appeared on the figurines found in the Klang Aow especially the appearances, postures, and outfits that can be considered to be Chinese style. According to this reason, figurine production at Si Satchanalai kiln has also been influenced by the Chinese craftsmanship. The duplication can also be seen on animal figurines in the form of a swan and an elephant from the Klang Aow (Figs 3). Those were indicated the mass production of these forms of figurine. Additionally, the animal figurines were formed as various kinds of animal in mass production scale, such as quail, 7 �ox, cow and monkey, for example, which discovered from archaeological sites and were transferred to display at the national museums around Thailand. Undoubtedly, they were recognised as a indigenous or domesticated animals, (Suzata and Srisuchat et al. 2022,301-304). Although these forms of figurine are commonly found especially in the terrestrial sites around central Thailand, they are found in small amount from the shipwrecks around Southeast Asia. According to the quantity in shipwreck context, these forms of figurine are probably gifts, souvenirs, or collectibles for their consumers at the ports of call or destination. Commercial role of figurines from Klang Aow shipwreck Since the fourteenth century the Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai ceramic trade was incorporated with Ayutthaya Kingdom. According to Ayutthaya historical records mentioned that the trade and diplomacy with other country were managed by Ayutthaya royal court. The trades in South China Sea and even Southeast Asian waters had directly manipulated by Chinese merchants and diplomats who were probably conducted a close connection with the Ayutthaya royal court under the Chinese-Ayutthaya tributary trade system (Kasetsiri 2002,42-43). According to the ban on the international trade in Early Ming Dynasty, many Chinese merchant junks active in the South China Sea stuck and smuggled in Southeast Asia. Some Chinese immigrants who stayed in Ayutthaya had received a job opportunity for high-ranked officers worked in Ayutthaya royal court. In the Ryukyu Kingdom, a trade archive named “Rekidai Hoan” (precious documents of successive generations) recorded that one of the royal letters mentioned the correspondence between Ayutthaya and Ryukyu was written in Chinese language by an overseas Chinese who stayed in Ayutthaya (Ichii and Yoshikawa 1999,42). Before the Ming ban, most of the Southeast Asian states consumed the ceramics from China for a long period of history. During the late fourteenth to the mid-fifteenth centuries, the Chinese ceramics were deemed for domestic market only. This was an important opportunity for the Sukhothai, Si Satchanalai, Vietnamese, and Burmese ceramics. It raised their supply to maritime trade routes in Southeast Asian market. The ceramics from Sukhothai, Si Satchanalai and others were acquired by those Chinese merchants because they knew well about market demands. Other reason is the Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai ceramic form and decoration had influence from Chinese and Vietnamese ceramic productions. The Ming Dynasty removed the ban for international trade and the Chinese ceramics were returned to Southeast Asian market from mid-fifteenth century onwards. Then, new forms and decorations of Si Satchanalai ceramics were created during the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries, such as the two-colour glazed wares, architectural ornaments, and especially the figurines. CONCLUSION The shipwreck contexts ceramic characteristics and quantity of the figurines from Klang Aow shipwreck demonstrated a context of figurines originated from Si Satchanalai kiln during the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries The AMS date result from the fourteenth to fifteenth century of the shipwreck suggested the dating of figurines between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. This also represented the cultural pattern on ceramic trade during this time. There was the mixed cargo between Chinese, Vietnamese, Maenam Noi or Singburi, Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai. Ceramics were spread around the South China Sea and the 8 �Islands of Southeast Asia. This is supported by several types of evidence, especially the ceramics recovered from both shipwrecks and terrestrial sites. According to the identification result of the sources of influence and functions for figurines found from the Klang Aow, it can be suggested that the figurines were used as the utensils and household appliances for some ritual practises. They were also considered that the Chinese and Vietnamese figurines were the sources of influence for Si Satchanalai figurine production and remarked that the figurine production was a new creation became a mass production to compete with the return of Ming ceramics to Southeast Asian market. Bibliography Beta Analytic Inc. Report of Radiocarbon Dating Analyses of BETA-134072 from Klang Ao, Thailand. Florida: Beta Analystic Inc., 1999. Boonma, Payup. The Guide to Ramkhamhaeng National Museum. Sukhothai: The 5th Archaeology Unit and the Office of National Museum Office, the Fine arts Department, the Ministry of Education, 2002. Brown, Roxanna Maude. The Ming Gap and Shipwreck Ceramics in Southeast Asia: towards a chronology of Thai trade ware. Bangkok: Siam Society, 2009. Chongkol, Jira. The Guide to National Museum Bangkok, 4th Edition. Bangkok: The Office Archaeology and the Office of National Museum, the Fine arts Department, the Ministry of Education ,1999. Fox, Robert B. “The Calatagan Excavations: Two 15th Century Burial Sites in Batangas, Philippines.” Philippine Studies 7, no. 3 (1959): 321-390. Hein, Don. “The Sawankhalok Ceramic Industry: from domestic enterprise to regional entrepreneur.” PhD diss., Deakin University, 2001. Ichii, Yoneo and Yoshikawa, Toshiharu. 600 Years Thai-Japan Relationship, 2nd Edition, edited by Chanwit Kasetsiri and Saicho Wannarat. Bangkok: The Foundation for the Promotion of Social Sciences and Humanities Textbooks Project, 1999. (In Thai) Kasetsiri, Chanwit. Siam Commerce: essay on trade and commerce of ancient Siam. Bangkok: Toyota Thailand Foundation, 2001. (In Thai) Kerdpanyawat, Boonchai. “The Export of Sangkhalok during 14th-17th Century.” BA thesis, Silpakorn University, 1987. (In Thai) Kunasarn, Pacharee and Sanorlum, Wachatanee. “Terracotta Figurines from Sri Mahosot.” Muang Boran Journal 16, no. 2 (1990): 141. (In Thai) Maidin, Hanapi Haji. “Thai Ceramics Found in Brunei Darussalam.” In Past, Present and Future of ASEAN Maritime Heritage, edited by Sira Ploymukda, Wongsakorn Rahothan, Kalangpangha Kiawmas and Napat Piromrak, 158-187. Chanthaburi: Underwater Archaeology Division, the Fine Arts Department, the Ministry of Culture, 2017. Nishioka, Hideo. A Chorological History between Japan and Thailand. Tokyo: Keio University Press, 1977 Nithiarchakul, Thaninthorn and Rattanawong, Varaporn. “Sisatchanalai Kilns and Sangkhalok Wares.” In The Endless Epic of Japanese-Thai Ceramic Relationship in the World's Trade and Culture, edited by Yukio Suzata and Amara Srisuchat et al.,73-81. Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department, 2022. Orillaneda, Bobby C. “Maritime Trade in the Philippines during the 15th Century CE.” Moussons 27 (special volume: The Sea Beyond all Borders: The Link between Southeast Asian Countries, 2016): 83-100. 9 �Orillaneda, Bobby C. “Thailand Sawankhalok Ceramics Found in Philippine Shipwrecks (dated from the 15th to 16th centuries CE).” Yodisphere, 9 February 2021. https://www.yodisphere.com/2021/02/Sawankhalok-Ceramics.html. Plaicharnjit, Sayan. “Current Movement of Underwater Archaeology in Thailand and Its Application to the History of Maritime Trade during the 13th to 18th Century A.D.” Silpakorn Journal 35, no. 2 (1992): 34-67. Saisingh, Sakchai. Dvaravati Art: the early of religious culture in Thailand. Bangkok: Muang Boran Press, 2019. (In Thai) Sjostrand, Sten and Barnes, Claire. “Turiang: a fourteenth-century Chinese shipwreck upsetting Southeast Asian ceramic history.” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 1, no. 280 (2001): 71-109. Spinks, Charles Nelson. The Ceramic Ware of Siam. Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1965. Srisumang, Surasak. The Guide to Sawanworanayok National Museum, 2nd Edition. Bangkok: The Office of National Museum, the Fine Arts Department, the Ministry of Education, 1992. Stevenson, John, Guy, John and Cort, Loiuse Allison. Vietnamese Ceramics: a separate tradition. Chicago: Art Media Resources, 1997. Stroeber, Eva. “Ceramic Water Dropper in the Collection of the Princessehof: fancy shapes, surprising uses.” Aziatische Kunst 46, no. 1 (2016): 41–49. Sukkham, Atthasit. “Si Satchanalai Figurines: a reconstruction of ancient daily life, beliefs and environment”. 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Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department, the Ministry of Education, 2001. (In Thai) 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 5: New Research Findings of Archaeological Ceramics from the Maritime Cultural Heritage of the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 5 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 5 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Si Satchanalai Ceramic Figurines from Klang Aow Shipwreck, Thailand: ideas, Functions and Their Roles Description An account of the resource Amongst the most remarkable commodities of Thailand on the maritime trade routes during the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries was Thai ceramics “Sangkhalok” (the ceramics characterised by green glazed, brown glazed, and underglaze black stoneware produced from Si Satchanalai and Sukhothai kilns). They were made in various shape, such as bowl, jar, plate and figurines. They are marked as one of the significant products found from shipwrecks around Thai waters. The figurines were originated from Pa Yang kilns as one group of kiln at the Si Satchanalai kiln complex; as it was also a dependency under the Sukhothai Kingdom (1238–1438) where the people made ceramics by local materials and applied local wisdoms and handicraft skills to the ceramics. The research materials for this paper focused on the 80 Si Satchanalai figurines recovered from the Klang Aow shipwreck. The shipwreck date (cal. 1305–1420 CE) is based on the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) result of a small bamboo sample stuck on the body of Si Satchanalai green glazed small bottle. This paper aims to find out what was the manufacture purpose of these figurines, as they played a major role in Southeast Asian and East Asian maritime trade networks during the fourteenth to the fifteenth centuries? The result indicates these figurines were created at the Pa Yang village of Si Satchanalai kiln in Sukhothai province during the late fifteenth to the sixteenth centuries, to meet the demand for religious activities and toys in folk theatre. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Khongkamon Rattapat Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rattapat, Khongkamon. “Si Satchanalai Ceramic Figurines from Klang Aow Shipwreck, Thailand: ideas, Functions and Their Roles. 2023.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Atthasit Sukkham. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1938 Asia-Pac Session 5 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Book of Travels [Safarnama]. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Khusraw Nasir-i Wheeler M. Thackston Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Mazda Publishers Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Khusraw Nasir-i Translator Wheeler M. Thackston Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Place CostaMesa, CA Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Mazda Publishers Title A name given to the resource Book of Travels [Safarnama]. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Tosa Diary Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ki No Tsurayuki William N. Porter Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tuttle Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-10-15 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Ki No Tsurayuki William N. Porter Item Type Book ISBN 0804836957 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005-10-15 Edition Bilingual Library Catalog Amazon.com Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tuttle Publishing Title A name given to the resource The Tosa Diary Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/28f3f2127c08145bdeb9105fa1205a5c.pdf cb6b8c4dcbeac076146ad93749afb8ea PDF Text Text An Equitable International Legal Framework: The Grotian Heritage Kim Browne1 Abstract The conservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) requires not only an understanding of the physical environment in which an object is located but also its legal environment needs to be considered. For example, what is the legal position with regard to claims on submerged wrecks and what are the guiding philosophical principles underpinning modern international sea law and UCH law? The doctrine of ‘freedom of the seas’, encompassing the natural law principles of consensus, equality, equity, reason and fairness, was advocated by the Dutch th jurist, Hugo Grotius, at the beginning of the 17 century. During this period, Europe was plagued by war and religious schisms as well as economic division arising from the rivalry between dominant maritime powers for the right to establish exclusive overseas trading empires in East Asia and the Americas. The volatile economic and political environments, along with the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire hegemony, created the need for rules of conduct between a large international community. The scholarly debates of the 17th century, often referred to as the ‘battle of the books’, provided a wealth of jurisprudence on international law, including settling ocean governance in favour of an ‘open sea’ policy as opposed to a ‘closed sea’ policy in respect to trade and navigation. Grotius’ writings on ‘consensus’ and the ‘social interdependence’ of nations are relevant in the 21st century as his writings expound the modern idea of State2 ‘cooperation’ whilst advocating navigational freedom. In promoting cooperation among States, the Grotian doctrine represents an effective means to combat transnational crime and commercial exploitation of underwater cultural resources. This paper concludes that the writings of Grotius on ‘consensus’ in decision making and interdependence of States are of increasing relevance, given that the global community is entering a period when questions are being raised over the role of international law concerning the conservation of UCH and the philosophical frameworks which shape ocean governance polices. The soul of the past is in deep water Phillipe Diole. Introduction The preservation of a shipwreck in situ is dependent upon the physical environment in which the wreck is located. A wreck which lies exposed on the seabed is affected by physical factors such as water currents, the chemical composition of surrounding water, the water’s oxygen content and temperature levels as well as microorganisms within the water. Apart from the physical environment, the legal environment in which a wreck is located is just as important for site preservation. In other words, apart from considering how best to protect a wreck from natural threats, one needs to consider how to protect the wreck from direct human impact, such as looting and commercial salvage, together with indirect interference arising from human activities including marine scientific research, deep seabed mining and marine genetic 1 BA, LLB, MA, LLM, MBus; Solicitor of the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory; PhD Candidate, Faculty of Law, University of Canberra, Australia; Lecturer in Law, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Australia. 2 The word ‘State’ is used to denote an international entity such as Australia or the United States. �bioprospecting3. The legal environment in which the wreck is located will determine a State’s ability to safeguard the site from both legal and illegal human activities. Therefore, knowledge is required of the governing international legal framework (international law) and jurisdictional issues, in particular, the maritime zones established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III) and related treaties such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNCPUCH). The UNCLOS III partitions the ocean into various legal environments, otherwise known as maritime zones. These zones are measured in distance from the coastal State’s shoreline. Depending on whether or not the wreck is located beyond national jurisdiction, its location will affect not only a State’s ability to legally protect the site from traditional threats, such as commercial salvage and criminal looting, but the distance from the shore will also determine the legal mechanisms that a coastal State is obliged to adhere too. Apart from formal treaties, another source of international law is customary international law. Under this law, provisions of treaties may become binding upon States not party to an agreement if there is evidence that a State has acquiesced to the legal rule. Furthermore, the juridical debates of the 16th and 17th centuries are paramount to ocean management together with the protection of UCH. Importantly, these debates continue to shape modern ocean customs, laws and State practices. Furthermore, the philosophy underpinning ocean governance policies can strengthen or weaken the existing legal framework, firstly by influencing the provisions in formal treaties, and secondly, by shaping customary state practices, thereby contributing to the growth of customary international law – this, in turn, can be used to supplement international treaties. UNCLOS III has been described as the ‘constitution of the ocean’4. It creates maritime zones in which differing rights and obligations exist in respect to living resources and non-living resources of the ocean. The purpose of the maritime zones is to define rights and obligations of coastal States, prescribe law making and law enforcement powers of coastal States over foreign vessels and nationals, define rights of foreign States, and define the rights of the international community. Under UNCLOS III, there are three categories of maritime zones: (i) zones under sovereignty of States; (ii) zones under sovereign ‘rights’ of States; and (iii), zones not subject to sovereignty or sovereign ‘rights’ of States. The first category includes the Internal Waters, Archipelagic Waters and the Territorial Sea (including the buffer zone, known 3 ‘Bioprospecting’ ‘involves collecting samples of marine species from the ocean and screening them for properties that may be of commercial value’ (Mossop 2007:286). As Louise Angelique de La Fayette (2009:228) states: ‘while there is no official definition, this contraction of ‘biological’ and ‘prospecting’ is generally understood as the scientific investigation of living organisms for commercially valuable genetic and bio-chemical resources’. Leary (2007:158-163) outlines the emergence of the biotechnology industry and the unique genetic and chemical properties of specific marine organisms and bacteria associated with hydrothermal vents. Mossop (2007:285) explains that scientists are interested in researching organisms in the deepest parts of the ocean due to their ability to survive extreme conditions and live from chemosynthesis (i.e. create food from chemicals rather than light). Also, see Beslier (2009:335) and Warner (2007:411) for an outline of the use of resulting patents. 4 Shingleton 1983:34. �as the Contiguous Zone). The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the Continental Shelf fall within the second category, whilst the High Seas and the Area (deep seabed) fall within the remaining category. In respect to UCH, UNCLOS III failed to stipulate how States should protect UCH beyond their contiguous zone, apart from declaring that all States had a legal obligation to cooperate5. The UNCPUCH adopts the maritime zones created by UNCLOS III and builds upon the UNCLOS III foundational norm of State cooperation in maritime affairs. The UNCPUCH successfully employs the mechanism of ‘State cooperation’ to overcome jurisdictional problems arising from the lack of sovereignty or sovereign rights within specific maritime zones, hence, an understanding of the law of the sea is necessary. Ocean Stakeholders As Robin Churchill and Vaughan Lowe (1999:3) claim, ‘the development of the law of the sea is inseparable from the development of international law in general’. In fact, the law of the sea is one of the oldest components of international law, given that nations have been relying on the ocean for resources, transport, trade and commerce for centuries. Humankind’s reliance upon the sea is evident in ancient texts and writings by Greek and Roman historians, ancient laws from kingdoms spanning the Mediterranean, ancient mosaics from Roman villas, and tomb paintings in Egypt6. Whether text based, such as the Rhodesian Maritime Law or the Justinian Institutes, or physical objects, such as Egyptian tomb paintings or figurine carvings, archaeological excavations demonstrate the existence of ships, seafarers, maritime traders and pirates very early in the history of ancient civilisations. As McGrail (2003:2) points out, there were ‘sailors before farmers and navigators before megalith designers’. Even in Neolithic times, archaeological evidence from campsites and caves located near protective bays and harbours indicate that groups of humans lived together and relied daily upon 5 UNCLOS III Article 303(1). See Lavery (2010:17-18) for photos and illustrations (i.e. a painted Athenian vase depicting the Greek hero, Heracles, traveling in a river craft and Athenian coins commemorating the th Greek victory in the Battle of Salamis, 480BC. Also, 18 century tomb reliefs from Thebes, in Egypt, often depict the deceased and family hunting or ‘fowling’ on a papyrus-reed raft on the Nile Delta (Lavery 2010:11). Evidence of ancient maritime laws include: The Code of Hammurabi (about 2200 BC) which contains rules regarding collisions at sea and the requirement for compensation of the injured party (rule 240); the ancient Rhodesian Maritime Law and the Law of Salvage which were inherited by the Romans; (Lobingier 1935). A passage in Polybius’ Histories makes reference to a treaty concluded between Carthage and Rome in 509-508BC in which the Historian states: ‘The Romans and their allies not to sail with long ships beyond the Fair Promontory unless forced by storm or by enemies: it is forbidden to anyone carried beyond it by force to buy or carry away anything beyond what is required for the repair of his ship or for sacrifice, and he must depart within five days nd (Polybius Book III, 22). Also, the text of the jurist, Marcianus, (2 century AD), preserved in the Digest of Justinian, refers to the sea and its products (fish) being common property for all (Fenn 1925:716). For historical accounts referring to trade, fishing and/or piracy, see the Homeric tales and voyages which highlight the Mycenaean sea power and might. See also the writings of Thucydides; the Historian states: ‘But after Minos had organised a navy, sea communications improved; he sent colonies to most of the islands and forced out the notorious pirates’ (Book I:8). Pliny writing in the 1st century AD states: ‘that cohorts of archers were carried on boats engaged in trade as protection against pirates’ (Natural History, VI, 23). 6 �the ocean for food and for their spiritual beliefs7. As the sea covers approximately 70% of land mass and holds natural resources such as fish stocks, minerals and oil, as well as being a highway for commerce and trade between nations, some form of rules governing the relationship of ocean users needed to evolve from very early on in history. Human ability to harness the sea’s resources for economic gain increased over the centuries, to the point where nations today are undertaking off-shore drilling for oil and dredging of the seabed for magnesium nodules; sophisticated rules, such as international treaties, have had to evolve as society’s use of the sea became more advanced. As the numbers of ocean stakeholders and interest groups increased, a central concern for contemporary ocean governance is State cooperation8. The need for nations to reach consensus upon diverse matters rising out of the varied uses of the world’s oceans is a growing concern for international sea law as evident in the increasing number of ocean regulations9. In responding to these increasing challenges, international law must continue to develop regulatory frameworks that are equitable and are based upon consensus between ocean users, rather than dictated by powerimbalances and exploitative political agendas. The need for an equitable international framework governed by consensus among nations (cooperation) is vital in safeguarding UCH in waters beyond national jurisdiction. Apart from dealing with issues of conservation and protection of the ocean and its natural resources, international sea law must also devise regulatory rules for commercial activities undertaken in international waters such as deep seabed mining and marine genetic bioprospecting. In order to secure consensus among the international community of States, the formulated rules must divide natural resources fairly and equitably among all nations. A further problem for drafters of modern international sea law is the potential for conflict between ocean stakeholders in comparison to earlier times. The lure of lucrative patents and intellectual property rights based upon discovered organisms in the depths of the oceans have the potential to create tension between different stakeholders. In respect to UCH, there is a potential conflict of interests between the activity of in situ management of UCH located around seamounts and ocean vents, and pharmaceutical companies undertaking genetic bioprospecting. 7 Curry 2006:1535; Johnson 2000:21-22; Galili & Rosen 2010:306. Morell 1992:10; 23. For example, Morell (1992:10) points out that despite the need to meet the challenges presented by the increasing number of nations utilising existing ocean rights and the increasing uses and users of the ocean, international rivalries and long standing diplomatic practices have been detrimental to progressive ocean policy development. Rothwell and Stephens (2010:1) refer to a number of emerging challenges such as climate change, regional management of strategic ocean spaces such as the South China Sea and bioprospecting to find new pharmaceutical products. Also, Rothwell and Stephens (2010:26) in discussing matters arising from climate change suggest that it may be necessary for nations to be prepared to renegotiate on existing treaties and be willing to negotiate new treaties to reflect the change in the environment. 9 Since 1884 more than 60 treaties have been enacted to cover a vast range of ocean governance issues ranging from navigation, sailors’ working conditions, and the slave trade, to more recent agreements pertaining to environmental protection and the protection of underwater cultural heritage (Elia 2000:43). Smith and Couper ((2003):25) identify three categories of ocean uses: (i) transport and communications including military and naval activities; (ii) fishing and resource uses; and (iii) leisure, marine research and education, and conservation. 8 �Today, the use of the sea continues to increase and a growing number of stakeholders are competing within the marine environment. Also, with the increased use of the sea, so the levels of pollution have increased along with waste disposal and exploitation of natural resources including minerals and living organisms. Therefore, it is important to understand not only the legal mechanisms and philosophical principles that the drafters of international sea law are utilising, but also the origins of specific regulatory tools adopted within UNCLOS III and the 2001 UNCPUCH. As international law is required to respond to diverse interests in the ocean as well as promote a more equitable distribution of natural resources, it is suggested that the writings of the jurist and philosopher, Huigh de Groot Hugo (Hugo Grotius) (1583-1648) are still relevant today. An Equitable International Legal Framework Hugo Grotius believed that ocean governance should be incorporated under an equitable international framework of natural law underpinned by ‘mutual consent’ in decision making by States (State cooperation) based upon the ideal of ‘equality’ between all States10. It is suggested that a move away from the Grotian tradition towards that of a closed sea regime or national enclosure, in which States legally own vast tracks of the ocean and seabed, has the potential to increase conflicts and discourage State cooperation11. Grotius’ doctrine of ‘freedom of the sea’ was not designed for the management of exhaustible natural resources such as living marine organisms and non-living resources including mineral deposits on the deep seafloor. Also, Grotius’ doctrine has the potential to create a finder’s keepers 10 th Hugo Grotius lived through the religious and economic upheavals of Europe during the 17 century and witnessed first-hand the horrors that the power-imbalances between empires and principalities caused both in terms of destruction of property and loss of life. Hence, Grotius was aware of the need to create a new world order no longer based on power-imbalances which existed during the medieval and feudal periods. In respect to ‘consent’, Grotius (1625: para.16) writes: ‘for the very nature of man, which even if we had no lack of anything would lead us into the mutual relations of society, is the mother of the law of nature. But the mother of municipal law is that obligation which arises from mutual consent; and since this obligation derives its force from the law of nature, nature may be considered, so to say, the greatgrandmother of municipal law’. Grotius (1609: para17) continues: ‘but just as the laws of each state have in view the advantage of that state, so by mutual consent it has become possible that certain laws should originate as between all states, or a great many states; and it is apparent that the laws thus originating had in view the advantage, not of particular states, but of the great society of states. And this is what is called the law of nations, whenever, we distinguish that term from the law of nature’. 11 The 1982 UNCLOS III in its creation of the 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zone is a move towards a closed sea policy (inconsistent with the Grotian heritage). However, Article 87 of UNCLOS III retains customary freedoms of the high seas such as trade and navigation and other high seas freedoms. The Convention is an intricate balance between coastal state sovereignty and sovereignty rights and high sea freedoms such as navigation. Zacher & McConnell (1990) provide an overview of the three major guiding principles underlying ocean law from the 17th century to the late 20th century: (i) freedom of the seas; (ii) national enclosure (zones of economic jurisdiction, or ‘national lakes’); and (iii) common heritage of mankind. Zacher & McConnell (1990:78) suggest that the Grotian principles of freedom of navigation predominated over national enclosure from the 17th to the early 20th century. Despite the rise of national enclosure philosophy and its incorporation into UNCLOS III there remains issues of inequalities with the doctrine (Zacher and McConnell 1990:91,95 & 97). �mentality in respect to UCH. However, provided that a narrow interpretation is given to the doctrine of ‘freedom of the seas’, including defining the doctrine’s parameters to the twin purposes of navigation and trade, the argument for an ‘open sea’ is persuasive. Apart from Grotius’ advocacy for freedom of navigation on the high seas, he was committed to the idea of the interdependence of States concerning trade and security matters together with territorial sovereignty and the legal equality of States12 - all of these concepts remain relevant today in the 21st century. The advantage of having an equitable international legal framework based upon ideals of justice, legal equality, and consensus in decision making between all States, is that it assists to counter State sovereignty and potential power imbalances. That is, an equitable international legal framework assists to prevent the development of an isolationist approach towards ocean governance, and furthermore, it affords a means to hold in check rogue States which may challenge formal international agreements by arguing legal loopholes13. Hugo Grotius is credited with being the founder of the ‘science’ of international law14. The ‘Grotian tradition’ refers to Hugo Grotius’ idea of a ‘society of States’15. He envisioned a ‘society of States’ bound by law and existing on an equal footing to how humans existed under the law of nature16. His starting point was with the Law of Nature (or the dictate of right reason). Within the framework of natural law, Grotius devised principles such as legal equality, territorial sovereignty, and the doctrine of interdependence of States17 which are all current key components of contemporary international law. Grotius highlights the political and economic power imbalances of the period and blames the exploitation of politically weak nations by powerful rulers of hegemonic empires as contributing to religious and civil unrest of the period. Grotius argues, that in nature there are no power imbalances, and hence, the exploitative practice of Spain and Portugal in monopolising trade in the ‘New World’ by restricting navigational rights was against the law of nature. Freedom of the Seas Why did Grotius desire to promote the freedom of the sea? The answer lies in the historical events of the preceding century. In 1492 Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas on behalf of Spain. This led to claims and counterclaims over colonies which ultimately fuelled conflict between the two leading 12 See generally Grotius’ writings on ‘The Freedom of the Seas’ and ‘Law of War and Peace’. See also Hershey 1912:32. 13 For example, as technology advances and treaties become dated there is the potential for legal loopholes to arise from technical interpretations of definitional clauses contained within treaties. For example, is marine genetic bioprospecting the same has marine research? The UNCLOS III failed to consider the issue of marine genetic bioprospecting, however, it does provide a regulatory system for marine research (Warner 2008:412). 14 Hershey 1912:30. 15 Christov 2005:564. 16 Christove 2005:564 states: ‘it is in Grotius’ commitment to the idea of a society of states that lies the distinguishing mark of what has been duly termed the “Grotian tradition”’. See also Grotius (1609: Preface, pp.1-2) ‘[God] had not separated human beings, as He had the rest of living things, into different species and various divisions, but had willed them to be one race and to be known by one name….He had drawn up certain laws….these law were binding on great and small alike…..’ 17 Hershey 1912:32. �maritime powers of the day, Spain and Portugal. These two nations approached Pope Alexander VI to make a ruling on ownership of discovered territories. In 1493 Pope Alexander drew a demarcation line to define the sphere of Spanish and Portuguese possessions in the New World - the line was 483 km west of Azores and Cape Verde Islands. The decision was enacted in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas18. As Fulton (1911:5) notes, ‘it was those preposterous pretensions to the dominion of the immense waters of the globe that caused the great juridical controversies regarding mare clausum and mare liberum, from which modern international law took its rise’. These juridical debates are known as the ‘battle of the books’19. Mare Liberum’s purpose is to secure free trade between States and to counter arguments of a ‘closed sea’ in terms of trade and navigation. However, due to social and political conditions, including the rise of colonial empires, a wider interpretation has often been applied to Grotius’ concept of ‘freedom of the sea’. This doctrine is not a general theory of ‘freedom of the seas’, but one confined to freedom of navigation and trade. The doctrine emerged as a response to the Church of Rome’s partitioning of the oceans between Spain and Portugal. Therefore, it would be a fallacy to view the doctrine as promoting a ‘free for all approach’ to ocean governance. If the doctrine of Mare Liberum is read in conjunction with Grotius’ commitment for an international ‘community of States’, in which all states are bound by the law of nations, as opposed to hegemonic rule, then the twin principles of trade and navigation emerge. For Grotius, the ocean is viewed as representing a highway between independent sovereign States and any efforts to restrict access to the ‘highway’, such as the attempt by Pope Alexander in 1492 to divide the world between Spain and Portugal, was an affront to natural law20. Grotius, in his argument against enclosure of the world’s ocean, draws a distinction between the regime of the ‘open sea’ and the sea under national jurisdiction. Clearly, the doctrine is not advocating open ended freedom of the seas which could be perceived today as being counterproductive to ocean governance, especially in respect to fisheries and enforcing the protection of UCH. In order to establish the principle of freedom of trade, Grotius recognises a principle which he relates to Roman law, that the sea is for use by all. Grotius argues that neither the sea itself, nor the right of navigation, can become the exclusive possession of a State. Grotius (1609:7) declares, ‘every nation is free to travel to every other nation, and to trade with it’. That is, by the law of nature, the sea is res communis, meaning the common property of all and not subject to unilateral appropriation. In putting forward an open sea policy in respect to commerce, Grotius is advocating the contemporary idea of 18 The Treaty of Tordesillas increased Portugal’s rights in the area which is now modern Brazil. However, opposition soon arose from other states. For example, Sir William Cecil (later Lord Burleigh) the Elizabethan statesman, told the Spanish Ambassador to England in 1562 that 'the Pope had no right to partition the world and to give and take kingdoms to whomsoever he pleased' (Williams, 1970:72). For a detailed historical account see Morell 1992:186-188; Steinberg 1999:255; Williams, 1970:72; Zacher & McConnell 1990:76-77). 19 Rothwell 2010: 3; see generally Vieira (2003) for an outline of the literary exchanges pertaining to sea policy of the period. 20 Grotius (1609: VI, 46) states: ‘it is a fact universally recognised that the Pope has no authority to commit acts repugnant to the law of nature. But it is repugnant to the law of nature, as we have already proved beyond a doubt, for anyone to have as his own private property either the sea or its use’. �State equality. Furthermore, in his remarks pertaining to nations having a right to freely trade with one another, there is evidence of the contemporary idea of interdependence of nations21. Of particular interest is Grotius’ sanctioning of the practice of nations forming binding agreements in order to protect or secure jurisdiction22. Furthermore, his writings sanction a number of international dispute resolution methods which are still used today including court judgments, damages and discussions (negotiations)23. State Cooperation Under UNCLOS III and the UNCPUCH, States are obliged to ‘cooperate’. The mechanism of State cooperation, contained in Article 2 of the UNCPUCH and the UNCPUCH’s foundational norm itself, can be traced to Article 303(1) of UNCLOS. Arguably, Article 303(1) can trace its origins to the ideas promoted by Grotius some four centuries earlier with his advocacy of consensus in decision making between nations and the concept of ‘territorial sovereignty’. If States are deemed to be equal under the law, plus possess territorial sovereignty, then, the only way to legally change the status quo is through ‘consensus’ in decision making (i.e. State cooperation). Although contemporary international law expressly advocates the legal mechanism of ‘State cooperation’ (the obligation to cooperate) together with the principle of ‘equality’ between States in respect to the ‘resources’ of the ‘Area’, there is also, under the UNCLOS III, a move towards a partitioned or closed sea. The UNCLOS III grants increased sovereignty rights to coastal States through the creation of the 200 nautical mile EEZ whilst allowing coastal States sovereign rights over their continental shelf, however, the UNCLOS III has also maintained the traditional Grotian freedoms of the high seas. In addition, the UNCLOS III has provided for a more equitable distribution of wealth resulting from seabed exploration in the ‘Area’. The advantage of an open sea policy based upon natural law principles of equality between nations and consensus in decision making between all States, as opposed to a closed sea policy, is that it promotes State ‘cooperation’ separate to the existence of any ‘positive’ law stipulating the obligation to ‘cooperate’. Conclusion In conclusion, the conservation of UCH requires not only an understanding of the physical environment in which an object is located but also its legal environment needs to be ascertained. The legal environment includes formal 21 ‘there is no State so powerful that it may not some time need the help of others outside itself, either for purpose of trade, or even to ward off the forces of many foreign nations united against it’ (Grotius:1625: 22). A modern example of an international declaration illustrating the idea of the inter-dependence of States is the 1974 Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order. The preamble declares: ‘based on equity, sovereign equality, inter-dependence, common interest and cooperation among all States’……It is important to note that one of the aims of UNCLOS is the implementation of the New Economic Order. 22 Grotius 1609: V, 35. Grotius is referring to agreements between States in respect to piracy, however, this reference indicates an early awareness of using bilateral and multilateral agreements for the purpose of protection and extending sovereign rights beyond national waters. Importantly, Grotius goes on to state that any such agreement does not make the delimited area of the sea the private property of anyone. 23 Grotius 1609: XIII, 75. �treaties, customary international law and the underlying philosophies of ocean governance. As previously discussed, the natural law concepts, such as equity, consensus and equality, are still relevant foundation norms for rules governing a contemporary international society of States. The UNCLOS III is a balance of the Grotian tradition of freedom of the high seas with that of increasing coastal state sovereignty and sovereign rights. Basically, coastal States are given increasing rights as the distance from the shore decreases, and conversely, flag States are given increasing freedoms as the distance from the shore increases24. However, the problem is that the use of the ocean is not static, but instead, it continues to evolve. Therefore, the challenge for international sea law is to balance the increasing and diverse interests within the marine environment whilst maintaining the traditional freedom of the sea. Since Grotius’ times, nations are more reliant upon one another in matters of ocean management. Undoubtedly, the 21st century will be a time when underwater discoveries will proliferate as advances in marine technology allow for greater exploration of the outer Continental Shelf and the ‘Area’ itself. The growth in marine technology, combined with an increasing need for nations to source natural resources, such as minerals and genetic organisms from the marine environment, will see increased marine scientific research, ocean floor mapping and exploration on the deep seabed. There is an increased potential for conflict in ocean governance given the diverse and conflicting interests within the marine environment. In particular, there is the potential for conflict between in situ preservation of wrecks and marine genetic bioprospecting25. In the past, the management of underwater sites had only to contend with traditional threats such as looting, salvage and pollution. However, an emerging threat is marine genetic bioprospecting with its potential to generate patents and intellectual property rights for pharmaceutical companies. When the UNCLOS III was drafted during the 1970s, a lot of the marine technology required for deep sea exploration and exploitation was not available. Furthermore, there was little awareness that the oceans held a wealth of genetic biodiversity. Hence, during the negotiations of UNCLOS III, no consideration was given to the activity of marine genetic bio-prospecting on seamounts, cold seeps, thermal vents and ocean ridges. However, given the potential for shipwrecks to be located in deep ocean trenches or around seamounts which sustain diverse genetic organisms, the potential for tension and conflict between these opposing maritime activities is likely to occur in the future. It is important to note, that under the UNCLOS III, there is an obligation to carry out marine research in the ‘Area’ in a manner which is not a threat to the overall marine environment. However, genetic bioprospecting is technically not marine research, and 24 Koschtial 2008:69; UNCLOS III, Article 8(1) Internal Waters; Article 33 Contiguous Zone; Article 56 Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ); Article 77 (1) Continental Shelf; Article 87 High Seas; Article 136 The Area. 25 Warner (2008:16) indicates that marine bioprospecting to find new patentable pharmaceutical products is already underway (unlike seabed mining (exploitation) in the ‘Area’ which is yet to commence). Furthermore, Warner (2008: 16) states that ‘bioprospecting has already eclipsed commercial interest in deep seabed minerals’. Leary (2007:229), whilst speaking in respect to the need to protect the genetic resources of the deep sea associated with hydrothermal vents, acknowledges the conflicting interests and diverse stakeholders in the ocean: Leary (2007: 16) states: ‘any future legal regime will need to accommodate multiple and at times conflicting uses and interests’. �therefore, may not be regulated by the UNCLOS III under its provisions for marine scientific research. Therefore, in order to ensure the continued protection of UCH and to prevent legal loopholes arising from technical interpretations of international agreements, an effective mechanism will be one of ‘State cooperation’ and the continuing adherence to an equitable international legal framework. Bibliography Beslier, S., 2009 Churchill, R. & Lowe, A., 1999 Christov, T., 2005 Colombos, C.J., 1959 Curry, A., 2006 Elia, R.J., 2000 Elias, T. O. , 1980 Fenn, P.T., 1925 Fulton, T., 1911 Galili, E. & Rosen, B., 2010 Grotius, H., 1609 Grotius, H., 1625 Guerin, U. and Egger, B., 2010 Hershey, A.S., ‘The Protection and Sustainable Exploration of Genetic Resources of the High Seas from the European Union’s Perspective’ in The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law Vol. XXIV, pp. 333-341. The Law of the Sea, 3rd ed, Manchester University Publishing, Manchester. ‘Liberal Internationalism Revisited: Grotius, Vattel, and the International Order of States’, in The European Legacy Vol. X, No.6, pp. 561-584. The International Law of the Sea. 4th ed. Longmann, Green and Co Ltd, London. ‘A Stone Age World beneath the Baltic Sea’, in Science, Vol. 314, No. 5805, pp.1533-1535. ‘US Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage Beyond the Territorial Sea: Problems and Prospects’, in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. XXIX No.1, pp.43-56. ‘The Doctrine of International Law’, in The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 74, No 2, pp. 285-307. ‘Justinian and the Freedom of the Sea’, in The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 716-727. The Sovereignty of the Sea, Blackwood, Edinburgh. ‘Preserving the Maritime Cultural Heritage of the Mediterranean, a Cradle of Cultures, Religions and Civilisations – the Holy Land Perspective’ in Journal of Coast Conservation 14 (4) pp. 303-315. The Freedom of the Seas - or the right which belongs to the Dutch to take part in the East Indian trade. Edition, J. Brown Scott, Trans. R. V. D. Magoffin, 1916 rep. Oxford University Press, New York. Prolegomena to the Law of War and Peace, tr. F.W.Kelsey,1925, rep. 1957, Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis. ‘Guaranteeing the Protection of Submerged Archaeological Sites Regardless of their Location: The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001)’, in Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 5, pp. 97-103 ‘History of International Law Since the Peace of �Westphalia’, in The American Journal of International Law Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 30-69. ‘The History of International Relations During Antiquity Hershey, A. S., and the Middle Ages’, in The American Journal of 1911 International Law, Vol. 5, No 4, pp. 901-933. The Odyssey, transl. R. Fagles, 1996, Penguin Books, Homer New York ‘For Keeping or For Keeps? An Australian Perspective on Johnson, C., 2000 Challenges Facing the Development of a Regime for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage’, in Melbourne Journal of International Law Vol. 1, pp. 19-34. Juda, L., ‘UNCLOS III and the New International Economic Order’, 1979 in Ocean Development and International Law Journal, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 221-255. Koschtial, U., ‘The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the 2008 Underwater Cultural Heritage: advantages and challenges’, in Museum International, Vol. 60, No. 4, pp.63-69. International Law and the Genetic Resources of the Deep Leary, D.K., Sea, Martinus Nijhoff, Leiden. 2007 ‘The Natural Environment of the Shipwreck Vrouw Maria Leino, M., Ruuskanen, A.T., (1771) in the Northern Baltic Sea: an assessment of her state of preservation’, In The International Journal of Flinkman, J., Nautical Archaeology, Vol.40 No.1, pp.133-150. Kaasinen, J., Klemela, U.E., Hietala, R. & Nappu, N., 2011 ‘The Maritime Law of Rome’ in Juridical Review, Vol. Lobingier, C.S., 1935 XLVII, No. 1, pp. 1-32. ‘A New Regime for the Conservation and Sustainable Use Louise, Fayette de La., of Marine Biodiversity and Genetic Resources Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction’, in The International Journal 2009 of Marine and Coastal Law, Vol. 24, pp. 221-280. Stars Beneath the Sea. The Extraordinary Lives of the Norton, T., Pioneers of Diving, Arrow, London. 2000 ‘The Sea and Archaeology’, in Historical Research, McGrail, S., Vol.76, No.191, p1. 2003 The Law of the Sea: The 1982 Treaty and Its Rejection by Morell, J. B., the United States. McFarland, Jefferson. 1992 ‘Protecting Marine Biodiversity on the Continental Shelf Mossop, J., Beyond 200 Nautical Miles’, in Ocean Development and (2007) International Law Vol. 38, No.3, pp. 283-304. ‘Introductory Statement’, In the International Law and the Pinto, M.C. W., Grotian Heritage. A Commemorative Colloquium held at 1983 The Hague on 8 April 1983 on the occasion of the fourth centenary of the birth of Hugo Grotius, published (1985) by T.M.C Asser Institute – The Hague. The Histories, transl. by W.R. Paton, 1922, Harvard Polybius 1912 �Rau, M., 2002 Rothwell, D. and Stephens, T., 2010 Scovazzi, T., 2004 Shingleton, B., 1983 Smith, H.D., and Couper, A.D., 2003 P. Steinberg 1999 Tanaka, Y., 2008 Thucydides Vieira, M.B., 2003 Warner, R., 2008 Williams, E., 1970 Zacher and McConnell 1990 Zenmanek, K., 1999 University Press, New York. ‘The UNESCO Convention on Underwater Cultural Heritage and the International Law of the Sea’, in Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, Vol. 6, pp.387472. The International Law of the Sea, Hart Publishing, Oxford. ‘Mining, Protection of the Environment, Scientific Research and Bioprospecting: Some Considerations on the Role of the International Seabed Authority’, in The International Journal of Marine & Coastal Law, Vol.19, pp. 383-410. ‘UNCLOS III and the Struggle for Law: The Elusive Customary Law of Seabed Mining’, in Ocean Development and International Law Journal, Vol.13, No.1, pp.33-63. ‘The Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage’, in Journal of Cultural Heritage, Vol. 4, pp. 25-33. ‘Lines of Division, Lines of Connection: Stewardship in the World Ocean, in Geographical Review, Vol. 89, No. 2, pp.254-264. ‘Reflections on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Genetic Resources in the Deep Seabed Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction’, in Ocean Development and International Law, Vol. 39, No.2, pp.129-149. History of the Peloponnesian War, transl. R. Warner, 1972 reprint, Penguin Books, London. ‘Mare Liberum vs. Mare Clausum: Grotius, Freitas, and Selden’s Debate on Dominion over the Seas’, in Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 64, No. 3, pp. 361-377. ‘Protecting the Diversity of the Depths: Environmental Regulation of Bioprospecting and Marine Scientific Research Beyond National Jurisdiction’, in Ocean Yearbook, Vol. 22, pp. 411-443. From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean, Andre Deutsch Limited, London. ‘Down to the Sea with Stakes: The Evolving Law of the Sea and the Future of the Deep Seabed Regime, in Ocean Development and International Law’, Vol. 21, pp. 71-103. Was Hugo Grotius Really in Favour of the Freedom of the Seas?, in Journal of the History of International Law, Vol. 1, pp. 48-60. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An Equitable International Legal Framework: The Grotian Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource The conservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) requires not only an understanding of the physical environment in which an object is located but also its legal environment needs to be considered. For example, what is the legal position with regard to claims on submerged wrecks and what are the guiding philosophical principles underpinning modern international sea law and UCH law? The doctrine of ‘freedom of the seas’, encompassing the natural law principles of consensus, equality, equity, reason and fairness, was advocated by the Dutch jurist, Hugo Grotius, at the beginning of the 17th century. During this period, Europe was plagued by war and religious schisms as well as economic division arising from the rivalry between dominant maritime powers for the right to establish exclusive overseas trading empires in East Asia and the Americas. The volatile economic and political environments, along with the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire hegemony, created the need for rules of conduct between a large international community. The scholarly debates of the 17th century, often referred to as the ‘battle of the books’, provided a wealth of jurisprudence on international law, including settling ocean governance in favour of an ‘open sea’ policy as opposed to a ‘closed sea’ policy in respect to trade and navigation. Grotius’ writings on ‘consensus’ and the ‘social interdependence’ of nations are relevant in the 21st century as his writings expound the modern idea of State ‘cooperation’ whilst advocating navigational freedom. In promoting cooperation among States, the Grotian doctrine represents an effective means to combat transnational crime and commercial exploitation of underwater cultural resources. This paper concludes that the writings of Grotius on ‘consensus’ in decision making and interdependence of States are of increasing relevance, given that the global community is entering a period when questions are being raised over the role of international law concerning the conservation of UCH and the philosophical frameworks which shape ocean governance polices. The soul of the past is in deep water Phillipe Diole. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kim Browne Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0857e6282ee61d068bb9b965c0cbb292.pdf 2270caf0aebf9aceea4ea4b0d8b92db1 PDF Text Text Study on Corrosion Factors of Iron Artifacts Recovered from the Middle West Sea Kim Taek-joon¹, Yoo Dae-young² and Lee Hyeon-ji² ¹Curator, Natural Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage ²Reseacher, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage ABSTRACT This study investigates corrosion process through analysis of corrosion products and desalination solution as a precedent study to present proper conservation treatment methods for iron artifacts collected from the middle West Sea. Depending on the environment where the iron artifacts were buried underwater, the corrosion patterns may be different. In order to treat the heritage stably and effectively for conservation, the major corrosion factors and information to remove or control the factors should be obtained. The underwater environment is rich in water, oxygen and salt, and it is very easy for iron artifacts to be corroded. In an environment where oxygen supply is little like seabed mud, anaerobic corrosion may occur. The iron artifacts in the seabed may be deeply buried in the mud or exposed on the surface of the seabed. This study intends to obtain information on the corrosion pattern of iron artifacts collected from the seabed surface of middle West Sea. In addition to those deeply buried in dense silt, there are also cases of recovering those exposed on the seabed or shallowly buried in the surface layer. In this study, we obtained information on the corrosion patterns of iron artifacts recovered from the seabed layer in the central West Sea.The samples used in the study were corrosion products from iron artifacts excavated from waters of Mado, Taean and of Seomeopbeol, Ongjin and desalination solution and the major components of corrosion products and anions of desalination solution were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Spectroscope (SEM-EDS) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Ion Chromatography (IC). The analysis result shows that major components including P, S and Mackiwanite (FeS) were identified as compounds related to it. In the desalination solution, high concentration of Cl- and SO42- was measured. It is expected that this study result can be utilized as essential data for establishing methods for effective and systematic conservation of iron artifacts excavated from underwater and it is intended to continue additional studies such as analysis on corrosion product of iron artifacts recovered from various waters and corrosion reproduction experiment through collaboration with various fields. Keywords: middle West Sea, iron artifacts, corrosion factor, corrosion product List of Tabless Table 1. Results of analysis on corrosion product of iron pot recovered from Mado (EDS, XRD) Table 2. Results of analysis of corrosion product of iron pot recovered from Seomeopbeol sea area (EDS, XRD) Table 3. Results of analyzing desalination solution of iron pot excavated from Mado (IC) Table 4. Results of analyzing desalination solution of iron pot excavated from Seomeopbeol (IC) INTRODUCTION Middle West Sea is a place where underwater cultural heritage is buried. Along the Taean coast Goryeo celadon was net-caught while fishing octopus by Ongjingun Seomeopbeol, Ansansi Daebudo and Hwaseongsi Jebudo in Korea. In particular, five shipwrecks from Goreyo and Joseon dynasties were discovered and surveyed in the Taean offshore of Chungcheongnam-do for eight years from 2007 to 2015 and historic ships from early and mid-eighth century was discovered in the waters of Seomeopbeol in Incheon in 2013. Iron pots, which were used as kitchenware by crew or carried as cargo, were lifted. Underwater environment is rich in water, oxygen and salt where iron artifacts are easily corroded. In addition, in an environment where oxygen supply is low like in the mud, anaerobic corrosion may occur by sulfate reducing bacteria. Therefore, the corrosion patterns of iron artifacts may be different in the underwater environment depending on each condition or various factors. In order to conserve damaged iron artifacts effectively and stably, information on how to remove or control major factors that influence corrosion should be obtained. 1 �CORROSION OF IRON ARTIFACTS IN UNDERWATER ENVIRONMENT Cl- and SO42- are dissolved in seawater at about 19 gr and 2.6 gr per 1 L (1 gr = 0.0684 g), and their high electrical conductivity promotes corrosion of iron artifacts (Baek Young-Nam and Yeo Woon-Hwan 1980, 673). Deposits formed on the surface of iron artifacts are removed by the high flow rate of the environment, and corrosion can be accelerated (Japanese Standards Association 1984, 33). Due to these various factors, iron artifacts are actively corroded in the seabed environment, concretion, a very hard foreign substance is formed on the surface. According to previous studies, the main component of concretion is CaCO3, and iron artifacts are corroded and it is the clump of organisms and shells and surrounding mud. Concretion is densely formed and corrods independently from the external environment and the process is as follows (North and MacLeod 1987, 76-78): 1. Reduction reaction occurs with the formation of cathode in an isolated water in the concretion. 2. An anode is formed on the surface of iron artifacts, releasing Fe2+ and Fe3+ with oxidation reaction, resulting in creation of acidic solution at pH 4-5. 3. Hydrolysis of Fe2+ + H2O → Fe (OH)+ + H+ by acidic solution. 4. FeCO3 is formed as part of Ca2+ in CaCO3 of concretion is interchanged with Fe2+. 5. Part of CaCO3 is dissolved by Ca (HCO3)2 that includes H+, increasing pH concentration of the surrounding environment. 6. As the pH concentration rises, oxides, hydroxides and hydroxide chlorides such as Fe2+and Fe3+ are gradually eluted. 7. During steps one to six, CaCO3 condensate is gradually dissolved and hard iron cementing is formed. In addition, anaerobic corrosion can occur in places where oxygen is scarce, such as deep in the mud of the seabed environment. The typical example of anaerobic corrosion of iron artifacts is corrosion by sulfide reduced by sulfate reducing bacteria (4Fe + SO42-+ H+→ 3Fe2++FeS + H2O). The resulting corrosion forms black iron sulfide, which is oxidized in red when exposed to the atmosphere (Fujii 2009, 50-51). METHODOLOGY In this study, desalination solution (Sodium Sesquicarbonate 0.1M aqueous solution) used during the conservation treatment of iron pots collected from Mado, Taean, Chungcheongnamdo and waters of Seomeopbeol, Ongjin, Incheon and corrosion products removed from the surface, were used as samples. The iron pots from the Mado were discovered through visual exploration of the sea bottom and part of the surface layer of the sea bottom by divers during wide-area exploration in 2011 (NRIMCH 2017, 27). Iron pots collected from Seomeopbeol were recovered from the sand and shell layer identified during the southeast Shingoji probe survey in the first underwater excavation survey in 2012 (NRIMCH 2014, 33-34). The components of corrosion product samples were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Spectroscope (SEM-EDS) and the external characteristics of the point where certain components (P, S) were detected were observed. Then they were powdered and the compound was identified through X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis. Concentration of desalination solution was measured using Ion Chromatography (IC) to measure concentration of anions (F-, Cl-, SO42, NO3-, PO43-) to identify the relationship between SEM-EDS and XRD analysis result. The number of corrosion product analysis samples was 16 in total (eight from Mado and the others from Seomeopbeo) and the points (55 points in Mado and 41 points in Seomeopbeol, 96 points in total) subjected to SEM-EDS analysis were selected with 40x magnification of stereoscopic microscope images were recorded using digital recording device attached. Conditions of SEM-EDS analysis include voltage of 15-20 kV, WD 10 mm, spot size 25, measurement time of 60 seconds and magnification up to 9,000 times. Conditions of XRD analysis for 16 powdered samples after 2 �SEM-EDS and one additional sample (corrosion product of iron pot from Mado shipwreck no. 4) were voltage of 40 kV, current of 30 mA, and target Cu. For desalination solution analysis, 16 samples (eight from Mado, the others from Seomeopbeol) were prepared and anion concentration was measured using IC. As Cl- concentration of the desalination solution sample was expected to be very high, it was diluted with ultrapure water 100 times and cellulose filter was used to remove impurities in the sample and then anion analysis was conducted. STUDY RESULTS Analysis of corrosion product When sulfate reducing bacteria is involved in the corrosion process, the high content of phosphorus and sulfur may be detected in the corrosion products (Lee Yong-deuk et al. 1996, 256), SEM-EDS analysis was conducted to check whether these two components are detected and their content. The results of analyzing corrosion products showed that sulfur was detected in 15 samples except for one sample from Mado (MD6). The maximum sulfur level was 63.61 wt per cent (MD8) in samples from Mado and 25.13 wt per cent (SE7) in samples from Seomeopbeol sea area and other samples contained 0.64~23.02 wt per cent. Among them MD8 is characterized by maximum sulfur content of 11.51 wt per cent and phosphorus content of 12.17 wt per cent. This result can be interpreted that sulfate reducing bacteria influenced the corrosion process of iron pots collected from Mado and Seomeopbeol. However, these compounds were identified with the identification of mackinawite (FeS) in MD1 and other samples identified iron oxides such as siderite (FeCO3) or goethite (FeOOH) formed by the influence of concretion. Table 1. Results of analysis on corrosion product of iron pot recovered from Mado (EDS, XRD) Sample Maximum content of major ingredient (wt per cent) Compound Name (Chemical Formula) P S Ca MD1 - 11.85 10.12 Magnetite (Fe3O4) calcite (CaCO3) mackinawite (FeS) MD.2 - 1.40 0.51 Magnetite (Fe3O4) siderite (FeCO3) MD3 - 2.53 - Siderite (FeCO3) MD4 - 6.65 - Siderite (FeCO3) MD5 - 1.54 - Magnetite (Fe3O4) quartz (SiO2) MD6 - - - Magnetite (Fe3O4) siderite (FeCO3) MD7 - 63.61 - Siderite (FeCO3) MD8 12.17 11.51 - Magnetite (Fe3O4) Table 2. Results of analysis of corrosion product of iron pot recovered from water Seomeopbeol sea area (EDS, XRD) Sample Maximum content of major ingredient (wt per cent) Compound Name (Chemical Formula) P S Ca SE1 - 0.64 1.36 Siderite (FeCO3) magnetite (Fe3O4) goethite (FeOOH) SE2 0.27 1.11 3.63 Siderite (FeCO3) SE3 - 2.96 0.48 Siderite (FeCO3) magnetite (Fe3O4) SE4 - 0.87 1.51 Siderite (FeCO3) goethite (FeOOH) SE5 - 8.48 4.09 Magnetite (Fe3O4) goethite (FeOOH) SE6 0.17 4.04 - Goethite (FeOOH) SE7 - 25.13 37.80 Siderite (FeCO3) magnetite (Fe3O4) SE8 - 23.02 31.61 Siderite (FeCO3) magnetite (Fe3O4) goethite (FeOOH) 3 �Iron sulfide such as Mackinawite or pyrite (FeS2) are formed together with oxides such as FeOOH, serving as the evidence to show corrosion by sulfate reducing bacteria (Lee Jae-ik and Seo Myeong-po 1992, 63), but this study did not obtain results with unique characteristics. However, according to previous studies, iron sulfide in a honeycomb structure, which is easily oxidized to calcium sulfate in the form of iron crystals, was observed in European old ships using iron nails (Kim Yong-han 1987, 151-152), SEM observation confirmed similar type of corrosion products in SE5 and SE7. In addition, samples from Seomeopbeol contain large amounts of Calcium and SE7 and SE8 showed high concentration of sulfur so it is considered to be the result of oxidation of iron sulfide. However, in the XRD analysis, the identification of relevant compounds (CaSO4, etc.) was not done and SEM observation did not confirm unique characteristics, requiring further research on this matter. Analysis of desalination solution Sixteen samples were collected from desalination solution from six pots, three from each area including MT64 and SE405 where corrosion product analysis sample was collected (red square in Table 3 and 4) to conduct anion analysis. The analysis results showed that Table 3 and 4 Cl- and SO42concentration was higher overwhelmingly than other anions and EDS ingredient analysis showed 20 ppm or higher PO43- in the MT64 sample where phosphorus was detected. PO43- was measured in the sample from primary desalination solution of YDS1 and YDS on December 4, 2013 once respectively but it was not identified in samples after that. Table 3. Results of analyzing desalination solution of iron pot excavated from Mado (IC) Sample (date) M3S262 (‘12.3.15) M3S262 (‘12.5.24) M3S262 (‘12.6.28) MS76 (’12.4.25) MS76 (’12.6.7) MS76 (‘12.7.12) MT64 (’12.3.22) MT64 (’12.5.16) Anion concentration (ppm) FClSO420.18 60.74 241.41 0.16 48.11 104.80 0.14 30.24 72.29 0.20 14.54 41.83 0.37 13.96 40.22 NO33.49 - PO43- 0.28 14.33 29.56 - - 0.28 0.25 223.83 109.66 271.22 194.79 - 25.44 22.64 Table 4. Results of analyzing desalination solution of iron pot excavated from Seomeopbeol (IC) Anion concentration (ppm) FCl- SO42- NO3- PO43- SE403 (‘14.1.7) 0.12 41.05 100.64 - - SE403 (‘14.3.5) SE403 (‘14.5.13) YDS1 (‘13.12.4) YDS1 (‘14.8.5) YDS1 (‘15.4.7) YDS4 (‘13.12.4) YDS4 (‘14.4.17) 0.27 0.07 0.77 0.01 0.01 0.46 0.05 13.62 10.79 1530.31 172.80 110.51 439.99 55.61 17.19 7.66 84.31 27.17 54.32 48.19 10.04 6.00 3.97 7.19 16.27 15.68 - Sample (date) As presented in Table 3 and 4, SO42- was clearly detected in the desalination solution from the two sites. Generally, Cl- dissolution is the focus in the process of stabilization considering the impact of sea water containing large amounts of salt for iron artifacts excavated from underwater but as shown in the result, whether SO42- remains or not should be checked mandatorily. 4 �CONCLUSIONS This study was conducted to obtain information on effective methods of conservation treatment by analyzing corrosion products of iron artifacts collected from the Middle West Sea and desalination solution. The iron artifacts recovered from waters included artifacts lifted by removing strong and dense mud layers and artifacts buried near the surface layer or exposed on the seabed surface. In order to find out the pattern of corrosion of iron artifacts, wide area exploration of waters of Mado, Taean and excavation survey in waters of Seomeopbeol, Ongjin were conducted and the corrosion product of iron pots lifted and desalination solution were used as samples for research. In the iron corrosion process, when sulfate reducing bacteria is involved, significant amounts of sulfur and phosphorus can be detected. Therefore, in this study, SEM-EDS analysis was conducted for the components of iron pot corrosion products from Mado and Seomupbeol. Previous studies on iron test piece corrosion by seawater, mud (collected from Mado) and Na2S water solution, ingredients such as Sulfur or Phosphorus were not detected at all (Kim Taek-joon 2013, 47-50). In our SEM-EDS analysis on corrosion products, a large amount of sulfur was detected in most samples and one sample from Mado contained 12.17 wt per cent of phosphorus. Sulfate reducing bacteria is confirmed in the process of iron pot from Mado and Seomupbeol. However, in the XRD analysis, there were no clear results except for the identification of mackinawite (FeS) in one sample. In the anion analysis of desalination solution, highly concentrated Cl- and SO42- were measured and it is considered to be related to the identification of sulfur as the main ingredient of corrosion products. Sulfur and SO42- were major factors that influence the corrosion of iron artifacts collected from the Middle West Sea. However, it was not possible to obtain specific information on how these factors are involved in corrosion of iron artifacts. Follow-up research will involve sulfate reducing bacteria and further analysis of corrosion products of iron artifacts collected from various sea areas. Acknowledgements I would like to thank people from the Conservation Science Lab of NRIMCH for helping with the analysis of samples. Bibliography Fujii, Tetsuo. Countermeasures against Corrosion of Metal Materials. Tokyo: Nikkan Industrial Newspaper, 2009 (In Japanese). Kim, Taek-joon. “Study of Corrosion Characteristics of Iron Objects Excavated from Taean Mado Waters.” Master’s thesis, Hanseo University, 2013 (In Korean). Kim, Yonghan, “Conservation and Restoration of the Shipwreck.” Conservation Studies 8 (1987): 123-148 (In Korean). Lee, Jae-ik. and Seo, Myeongpo. “Corrosion of metals by microorganisms.” Journal of Corrosion Science 21, no. 1 (1992): 50-66 (In Korean). Lee, Yong-deuk. Ryu, Seung-ki. and Kim, Youngho. “Microbially Influenced Corrosion of Stainless Steels.” Journal of Corrosion Science 25, no. 2 (1996): 249-259 (In Korean). Noboru, Masko. Anticorrosion Technique Manual. Tokyo: Sanbi Printing, 1984 (In Japanese). North, Neil A. MacLeod, Ian D. “Corrosion of Metals.” In Corrosion of Marine Archaeological Objects, edited by Colin Pearson, 68-98. London: Butterworths, 1987. NRIMCH. Waters off Taean-Mado Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 62. Taean: NRIMCH, 2017 (In Korean). NRIMCH. Incheon Ongingun Yeongheungdo Shipwreck Underwater Excavation, Series of Research Report of NRIMCH 35. Mokpo: NRIMCH, 2014 (In Korean). Paik, Yeongnam. and Yeo, Woonkwan. “A Study of Marine Corrosion Phenomena of Metals.” Theses Collection of Kyung Hee University 10 (1980): 673 (In Korean). 5 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 14: Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 14 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Study on Corrosion Factors of Iron Artifacts Recovered from the Middle West Sea Description An account of the resource This study investigates corrosion process through analysis of corrosion products and desalination solution as a precedent study to present proper conservation treatment methods for iron artifacts collected from the middle West Sea. Depending on the environment where the iron artifacts were buried underwater, the corrosion patterns may be different. In order to treat the heritage stably and effectively for conservation, the major corrosion factors and information to remove or control the factors should be obtained. The underwater environment is rich in water, oxygen and salt, and it is very easy for iron artifacts to be corroded. In an environment where oxygen supply is little like seabed mud, anaerobic corrosion may occur. The iron artifacts in the seabed may be deeply buried in the mud or exposed on the surface of the seabed. This study intends to obtain information on the corrosion pattern of iron artifacts collected from the seabed surface of middle West Sea. In addition to those deeply buried in dense silt, there are also cases of recovering those exposed on the seabed or shallowly buried in the surface layer. In this study, we obtained information on the corrosion patterns of iron artifacts recovered from the seabed layer in the central West Sea.The samples used in the study were corrosion products from iron artifacts excavated from waters of Mado, Taean and of Seomeopbeol, Ongjin and desalination solution and the major components of corrosion products and anions of desalination solution were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Spectroscope (SEM-EDS) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Ion Chromatography (IC). The analysis result shows that major components including P, S and Mackiwanite (FeS) were identified as compounds related to it. In the desalination solution, high concentration of Cl - and SO4 2- was measured. It is expected that this study result can be utilized as essential data for establishing methods for effective and systematic conservation of iron artifacts excavated from underwater and it is intended to continue additional studies such as analysis on corrosion product of iron artifacts recovered from various waters and corrosion reproduction experiment through collaboration with various fields. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kim Taek-joon Yoo Dae-young Lee Hyeon-ji Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Taek-joon, Kim, Yoo Dae-young, and Lee Hyeon-ji. 2023. “Study on Corrosion Factors of Iron Artifacts Recovered from the Middle West Sea.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1962 Asia-Pac Session 14 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cca90867dabc8b0985aaad9996064734.pdf e4b8e631ae3e447dbebe1ce5ba597037 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 13: Modern Trends and Applications of Maritime Archaeology Subject The topic of the resource Session 13 paper Description An account of the resource Abstract While it is important to discuss local and regional aspects of Maritime Archaeology, this session offers an opportunity to discuss the wider scope of the discipline by showing how other scholars, historians, curators, and agencies are using innovative technologies and theoretical concepts to develop new and exciting positions in the field. This session will host presenters from other regions of the world to present how they are using new trends and applications to further their scholarship, and will offer an opportunity to discuss and collaborate with regional representatives who may not have been previously aware of the work being done elsewhere. Papers on novel concepts of Theory, Scientific Analysis, Excavation, Public Outreach, Policy and Anthropology will be considered. Session Organizer: Brian Fahy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Development of Image Distortion Correction Software for Underwater Photographs Description An account of the resource A large quantity of various still and video images are generated in underwater archeological sites and research labs for record keeping and dimensional analysis. A variety of image capturing devices including underwater cameras are used. It is well known that underwater photographs are distorted due to the difference in refractive indices of air and (fresh or salt) water. Due to the lack of convenient image processing software capable of underwater image distortion correction, distorted photographic images are frequently used in various reports. We have conducted experimental studies on underwater photographic distortion as a function of geometry and distance between the window separating (clear or salt) water and a camera. Based on the simulating experimental photographing results, we developed distortion correction (compensation) algorithm for underwater photographic images. The newly developed function is added to the unified image processing software (PicMan from WaferMasters, Inc.) for convenient usage in underwater archaeological sites with ordinary notebook PCs. The unified image processing software, PicMan, can support various digital image formats (such as BMP, JPG, PNG, GIF, TIF, DM3, MOV, MP4, AVI, WMV etc.). In this paper, a newly added function for underwater image distortion correction (compensation) to the unified image processing software will be introduced. It will be demonstrated using a few digital photographic images from a laboratory simulating underwater conditions and underwater archaeological studies. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Woo Sik Yoo Kitaek Kang Yeongsik Yoo Young-Hwa Jung Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Yoo, Woo Sik, Kitaek Kang, Yeongsik Yoo, and Young-Hwa Jung. 2021. “Development of Image Distortion Correction Software for Underwater Photographs.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/697 Asia-Pac Session 13 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b501753de63f323578fb631cd3b3827f.pdf bc1c99ef6aa5ed29d43b31bb8377a6c9 PDF Text Text A Methodology for Accurate and Quick Photogrammetric Recording of Underwater Cultural Heritage Kotaro A.P.P.A.R.A.T.U.S. apparatus.japan@gmail.com Yamafune LLC Abstract In the past seven years, photogrammetry has become one of the main recording methods in maritime and underwater archaeology. The application of photogrammetry allows archaeologists to re-create underwater cultural heritage sites in 3D digital formats, and extract from these 3D digital models data and information required for subsequent scholarly research. The author has been using photogrammetry since 2014 and has successfully created nearly 40 underwater cultural heritage models on more than 10 archaeological projects. The projects have ranged in size, accessibility, and water clarity, introducing a number of variables to the photogrammetry of the artifacts. The variety of experiences gained on these projects have enabled the author to construct his own methodology and workflow for photogrammetric recording. In this paper, the author shares examples of his methodology and workflow for photogrammetric recording of various projects in different countries. Key words: UCH, photogrammetry, Photoscan Introduction Agisoft PhotoScan and other off-the-shelf photogrammetry software became available for archaeologists in 2010. By 2017, after only 7 years, photogrammetry has become a one of the most frequently used recording methods for UCH (underwater cultural heritage) sites. The author of this paper works as a professional maritime archaeologist and applied photogrammetric recording on more than 35 archaeological sites in more than 10 different countries. Because of its submerged circumstances of many shipwrecks, each site has different conditions: such as visibility and �colors of waters, depth, topography, water current and so on. Those different conditions create problems that requires different ways to solve those difficulties. Additionally, each project has different mission statement, or project’s goal. For that reason, each submerged site requires different types of methodologies for data-collection and data processing. Moreover, to use produced 3D digital models as archaeological data, it is important to create 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D models (Yamafune et al., 2016). Yet, to produce these accurate models, it is essential to takes a week to produce local coordinate system that gives scale and georeferenced on the model. To solve these lengthy problem, the author created a methodology that produces local coordinate system in short time (1 or 2 dives) yet provide fairly accurate results. In this paper, the author shall share his methodology of photogrammetric recording that he has developed and currently using. Literature Review and Terminological Confusion of Photogrammetry Before the author starts discussions regarding his photogrammetry methodology, there is an important point that must be noted. The point is a confusion related with the word ‘photogrammetry;’ ‘photogrammetry’ has been used repeatedly in history; probably the first time it appeared in/as a discipline of science was during the WWII. When airplane became widely available for military use, cameras were mounted on scouting airplanes; then photos taken from the mounted cameras where meticulously re-calibrated and composed to create a photomosaic, or a map, of enemy’s territories. In other words, ‘photogrammetry’ that were used first during the WWII was a technique to create accurately composed photomosaic (Burtch, 2008; Van Damme, 2015; Konecny, 2003). And it �was a well-known fact that Dr. George Bass and Dr. Frederick Van Doornick, well-known ‘first generation’ maritime archaeologists, used photogrammetry for their Yassiada underwater expeditions in 1960s; detailed site plans were produced based on photomosaic that were taken from a camera that was mounted on horizontally positioned rails on the seabed (Van Doorninck, 1967; Bass, 1972; Bass and Van Doorninck, 1982). In their publications, they used a word ‘photogrammetry;’ however, it must be noted that ‘photogrammetry’ in their article and ‘photogrammetry’ that produces 3D digital models today uses different systems and indicate different recording systems. Another terminological confusion related to a word ‘photogrammetry occurred in 1990s. In 1990s, maritime archaeologists started practice DSM (Direct Survey Method); many cases this system is referred as trilateration. DSM provides a local coordinate system/network to help production of 2D site plans of submerged shipwreck site. DSM is a method to directly measure distances in between control points and detailed/reference points to create positional networks. Consequently, DSM provides XYZ coordinates of control points and detailed points, and maritime archaeologists use these XY coordinates to produce 2D site plans (Holt 2003: Green and Gainsford 2003). When DSM became a popular method among maritime archaeologists as a mapping method in 90s, another method was also often used to produce 2D site plans; and this another method is also called ‘photogrammetry.’ This photogrammetry is known with the software Photomodeler. Photomodeler is a photogrammetry software; and this photogrammetry mainly applied for underwater excavations in 1990s and 2000s uses a meticulously calibrated camera and its images that captures at least three reference �points in one image. Thanks to meticulous calibration of the camera and its series of images, Photomodeler can calculate the XYZ coordinates of reference points; and these reference points are used to produce 2D site plans and 3D CAD drawings. Indeed, the data sets that DSM and this photogrammetry produced were very similar; both system provides XYZ coordinates of reference points on submerged sites. A few articles were published in 1990s and the early 2000s related to this photogrammetry that produce XYZ coordinates of reference points, or a local coordinate system (Green et al., 2002). However, photogrammetry that related Photomoder is different from photogrammetry that can produce 3D models. Confusingly, around 2010, when photogrammetry that can produce 3D models began to become popular recording methods, EOS system (the software company manufactures Photomodeler) released upgraded version of the software called Photomodeler Scanner. This Photomodeler Scanner can produce 3D models of subjects that uses similar system with ‘photogrammetry’ that the author will discuss in this paper. Nonetheless, it is important to be noted that Photomodeler that can provide XYZ coordinates of reference points and Photomodeler Scanner that can produce 3D models are different types of ‘photogrammetry.’ And a word ‘photogrammetry’ mainly referred in articles of maritime archaeology in 1990s and early 2000s were mainly focus on Photomodeler and its system that provides XYZ coordinates of reference points on archaeological sites. In 2010, Agisoft PhotoScan was released. While Autodesk 123D Catch, Photomodeler Scanner and other photogrammetry software that produce 3D digital models were also released around the same time, thanks to its georeferencing systems and user-friendly workflows, Agisoft Photoscan immediately became popular photogrammetry software among maritime �archaeologists are keen to apply quick and accurate recording methods on submerged sites. By 2017, many maritime archaeology projects enjoy this recording application. Nonetheless, another confusing terminological problem is happening. After 2010, almost all the time ‘photogrammetry’ indicates a system that produces 3D digital models; however, there are many different words were being used to indicate this one system. The author often hears SfM (Structure from Motion) in the United State and Japan, some articles including IJNA (International Journal of Nautical Archaeology) prefer Multi-image Photogrammetry, some Italian scholars sometimes use Close-range Photogrammetry, and scholars form northern European countries sometimes use Computer-Vision Photogrammetry. Yet all these words imply one system that produces 3D digital models based on digital images. Concluding this section, the word ‘photogrammetry’ implies different systems when it was used for maritime archaeology. From 1960s and 1980s, ‘photogrammetry’ implies a system that produced a photomosaic of sites; from 90s and 00s, ‘photogrammetry”’ implies a system that used calibrated digital cameras and its photos to calculate XYZ coordinates of reference points located on the site to produce 2D site plans and 3D CAD drawing (by connecting reference points). After 2010, ‘photogrammetry’ implies a system that produces 3D digital models. Furthermore, this ‘photogrammetry’ after 2010 that produces 3D digital models is called in different names, such as SfM, Multi-image Photogrammetry, Close-range Photogrammetry, Computer-Vision photogrammetry, and so on, yet these all names indicate only one system. In this paper, the author shall use a word “photogrammetry” in his discussions, and this “photogrammetry” indicates a system that produces 3D digital models. �Importance of Local Coordinate Systems Tying the site plan to a set of local coordinates is a key factor to create 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced photogrammetric 3D digital models. There are two reasons that creating a local set of coordinates is important. The first reason is to correct scale and distortion of the photogrammetric models and to geographically reference the site plan. One of the advantages of photogrammetry is that it does not require precise calibration of the camera. Although calibration is recommended, the software primarily uses pixel information to reconstruct a site, which means that the construction of the point clouds does not require manual calibration. Moreover, the software reads metadata from the camera and lens and minimizes the errors. Distortions are inevitable, however, and this possible error can be minimized by applying known distances and specific photo capturing sequences, or “flight path.” The second reason to establish local coordinate system is that unless tied to a system of coordinates, models float in unspecified tridimensional fields. To fix the models in the correct position, local coordinates must be included on the models. Without this, it is impossible to export the computer graphics files to mapping software with the correct position. Georeferenced information facilitates a straightforward workflow when models and orthophotos (high resolution photomosaic) are exported. Also, the processing and rendering capacity of the Agisoft PhotoScan software is limited by both software and hardware configurations. This constrains the maximum polygon count for the mesh (which makes up the surface of the model), and the maximum number and resolution of UV mapped textures (‘UV’ is a XY coordinates for texture), which are composed photomosaic on surfaces of mesh. Large data sets can be divided into smaller Chunks (PhotoScan’s term), which are separately �processed. These Chunks can be imported into a single PhotoScan file afterward without merging (Tool > Append) and other modelling and mapping software applications and merged without decimation (the reducing of the polygon count). When models and orthophotos are georeferenced, the merging process is automatic, and exported files are opened in their correct positions in other software. A set of local coordinates is paramount to ensure an accurate manipulation of models or orthophotos. Scale-bar Methods and DSM While local coordinates system that is produced by DSM can be used to scale-constrain photogrammetric model, Agisoft PhotoScan also allows the input of measurements in a different way. PhotoScan uses scale bars, or known distance, instead of importing local coordinates collected using DSM. At actual archaeological sites, establishing control points and local coordinates may take a week. This may not be suitable for a short-term survey project. The author had tested the both methods to fix distortions and scale of photogrammetric models. Measuring methods that will be discussed and compared are: trilateration (DSM) using 3H Site Recorder, and scale bars that are placed on the site. To compare and examine the accuracy both methods, local coordinates and known distances of both methods were applied to a photogrammetric model, and each different method was compared to control measurements. The control measurements were taken directly from the wooden model. For this test, the author used a 1:10 scale wooden model of a saveiro, a 20th-century Brazilian coastal sailing boat. In order to simulate an archaeological shipwreck site, the wooden model was laid down on its starboard side, �and its floor timbers were pulled slightly out so that its starboard futtocks lay on the bottom (See also Fig. 2 and 3). Direct Survey Method (Trilateration) The first method to discuss is trilateration, also known as Direct Survey Method (DSM). Trilateration (DSM) has been repeatedly used in underwater archaeological recordings. For this DSM, the author used 3H Site Recorder (Demo Version). In order to acquire coordinates of reference points, a control network first had to be established. The author placed eight control points around the wooden model, set all the control points to a congruent height (40 cm from the ground), and set this height as the surface of the water, or depth of 0 cm. To establish the positions of the control points, or a control network, 19 measurements were taken. The tolerance established for errors was set at 0.3 cm; therefore, all distance errors bigger than 0.3 cm were shown in red (shorter) and blue (longer). Only one distance (CP5 – CP7) showed a + 0.39 cm statistical error after the adjustment of the control points. After the control network, or positions of datum points, was established, 11 reference points were placed on the model. A total of 44 measurements were taken from the control points; each reference point was measured from the nearest four control points (Fig. 1). Two measurements indicated over 0.3 cm error; however, both errors were less 0.5 cm, which is within an acceptable range of error. �Fig. 1: The Local Coordinate Network of reference points and control points around the Saveiro Wooden Model (Top View: Horizontal Plane). Scale-bars Method Scale bars are often used when pictures of archaeological sites are taken. These scale bars can be extremely useful in photogrammetry. Scale bars give accurate scale information in archaeological photography, and when a site is being mapped using photogrammetry, they can be used to check measurements after other methods, such as DSM, were used to correct distortion and scale of a created photogrammetric model. However, distortions and dimensions can be fixed by using only scale bars, a feature that allows archaeologists to skip the time-consuming DSM system. To test the accuracy of this method, four scale bars were placed on the four sides of the saveiro model. In this particular case, considering the size of the model the four scale bars available were unnecessarily long. Therefore, seven 10 cm scale bars with markers were created on the existing scale bars. These smaller 10 cm bars were entered as fixed distances in the photogrammetric model (Fig. 2). �Fig. 2: Seven 10cm scale bars created on the Saveiro Photogrammetric Model for the Scale Bar Method. Comparison of DSM and Scale-bars Methods To test the accuracy of these two survey methods mentioned above, the measurements from all photogrammetric models of the saveiro were compared within a single set of control measurements. The control measurements were taken directly from the wooden model; 21 selected distances between reference points were taken for this purpose (Fig. 3). The control measurements were compared to the measurements obtained by the other methods (Table 1). �Fig. 3: The photogrammetric model of the Saveiro Wooden Ship Model and the measured distances between reference points for the comparison. �Table 1. Distances between reference points to compare different surveying methods to fix distortions and scales of the Saveiro Wooden Ship Model’s photogrammetric mModel The results suggest that scale-bar can be a more accurate scale-constrain method in a photogrammetric model. The measurements taken from the photogrammetric model with trilateration (DSM) coordinates display an average error of 0.39 cm. The more accurate results obtained were through the use of scale bars; the scale bars allowed an average error of 0.19 cm. The results of the experiments with two scale-constrain methods discussed show that the scale bars method provided better results in fixing scales from photogrammetry surveys. The main disadvantage of trilateration (DSM) is that it requires many measurements. For instance, �the saveiro model required 19 measurements to establish the control point network and 44 measurements to calculate the coordinates of reference points. On the other hand, the scale-bars method does not require any measurements. However, it is important to note that the scale-bars methods cannot establish a local coordinates system. This is a disadvantage when compared to the traditional trilateration (DSM) method; scale bars can fix distortion and scale of photogrammetric models, but they need a complementary method to establish local coordinates. The Recommended Method to Produce 1:1 Scale-constrained Georeferenced 3D Models Following is an experimental methodology that author composed and applied on several underwater shipwreck sites, and these photogrammetric models shows successful results. Testing Scale-bar Method on Larger Underwater Sites The author tested scale-bars method on various underwater shipwreck sites; including Operation Forager directed by Dr. Jennifer McKinnon and Dr. Toni Carrell (Saipan 2017: 8 wrecks), Fourni Underwater Survey Project directed by Dr. George Koutsouflakis and Dr. Peter Campbell (Greece 2017: 9 wrecks), and Converging the World Project directed by Nicholas Budsberg and Charles Bendig (the Bahamas 2017: 1 sites). While recording those submerged archaeological sites, the author positioned 4 – 8 scale bars on each site for photogrammetric recording. To test possible distortions in a larger submerged site (for instances �around 30m x 30m), the author intentionally scale-constrained only one corner with a 1m scale bar using the Scale-bars method, and check calculated distance using a 1m scale bar on the opposite site. The result showed that the distance error of the 1m scale bar on the opposite side is 2.5mm. And this result stay same with other photogrammetric models of other sites (errors varies in 0.5mm – 3mm). In other words, if a 3D digital model is scaled by one side of the 30m x 30m coverage area, distance error (or distortion) can be less than 2.5mm anywhere if an archaeologist tries to measure 1m-long areas; and it also means that possible maximum positional errors from one end to the other end of the 30m-long site (if this distortion occurs in linier manner) is 7.5cm. Again, the biggest advantage of the scale-bars methods is its simplicity and speed. It doesn’t require any tape measurements; scale-bars can be simply positioned around the sites. More importantly, once ‘Scale Bars’ are created in Agisoft Photoscan, camera locations and scale of the created model can be fixed based on known distances by ‘Optimize Cameras’ command (open ‘reference tab’ > input known distances on ‘Scale bar’ > ‘Update’ > ‘Optimize Cameras’). Using this ‘Optimize Cameras’ command, distance errors on the 1m can be 0.5mm or less. This means possible distance error of 30m-long site is 1.5cm. Importance of the ‘Flight Path’ To obtain good/accurate results with minimum distortions on created photogrammetric models discussed above, the author strong believes that his distinctive “flight path” is the key factor. The author originally developed his flight path to ensure successful rate in “Align Photos” process. Photo alignment is the most important phase in photogrammetric modeling. To maximize the probability of creating successful photo �alignment, the author developed a flight path for sequences of photo shooting. The best results have been achieved by capturing surrounding area first to lock the site. Then, photographs are taken perpendicularly to capture a top view of the site with appropriate overlap. After complete photo shooting in both transversal and longitudinal paths, additional photographs must be taken with the camera tilted to capture vertical surfaces of rich tridimensional structures (Fig. 4). Actual ‘flight path’ of archaeological sites can vary depending on multiple factors; therefore, meticulous planning of a flight path is an important part of successful photogrammetric recording. Most important factor of flight path is its interwoven manner; sometimes the diver who use photogrammetry only apply transversal path without the longitudinal path and the locking paths. In other words, if only one direction of flight path is applied, directional distance/length of from one point on one side to another point on the opposite side shall be long, and distortions on images will be accumulated. However, if three paths (Locking path, transversal path, and longitudinal path) are properly operated, distance from one side to the opposite side will be shorter hence the distortion can be minimized. For that reason, the author strongly recommends that photo-shooting sequences, or ‘flight path,’ for photogrammetry have to be practiced with interwoven manners. �Fig. 4: Recommended flight path for photogrammetric recording. Applying Local Coordinate System on Scale-bars Method Next step to create a 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D models is to apply a local coordinate system on a created 3D digital model. As it was discussed earlier, scale-bars methods can produce fairly accurate scaleconstrained 1:1 models; however, these models cannot carry georeferenced/positional information. Having a georeferenced/spatial information is essential for archaeologists to use 3D photogrammetric models as scientific data for their analysis. In order to apply/generate a georeferenced data on a created 3D model, it only requires XYZ coordinates of three control points within a site. The author uses distances between three control points placed on the archaeological site to establish a temporal XY coordinates on the three points. A triangle can be created if distances between three points are known. To obtain these distances from a created scale-constrained 3D model, control point must be created/placed on the model. Control point can be created easily in Agisoft PhotoScan as markers by double clicking on the respective position on the mode (these markers can be created on the photos by right clicking and choose ‘create markers’ in Agisoft PhotoScan). Then scale-bars were �created between these three points to extract calculated distances between the points (choose two respective markers on reference pane > right click on selected markers > create ‘scale bars’ > click ‘view estimated’). Using these distances between three points, a triangle can be created using 3D CAD software such as Rhino 3D. Then orientation of the triangle must be adjusted based on depth-measurements of these control points collected by diver’s dive computer (Fig. 5). This adjusted triangle and positions of its three corners give new/adjusted XYZ coordinates of the three points; the author uses these coordinates to adjust angle of these three control points on the 3D model in Agisoft PhotoScan (open reference tab > input XYZ coordinates of the corner of the adjusted triangles > ‘update’). Once these adjusted coordinates were applied, the 3D photogrammetric model shall contain georeferenced information. Fig. 5: Adjustment of the coordinate triangle (The blue triangle is a temporal triangle that was created based on distances between control points. And the red one is the adjusted triangle; its orientation was adjusted based on depth-measurements of the three control points. Then new coordinates were collected from corners of the red triangle). �Using a 1:1 scale constrained photogrammetric model as new local Coordinate System On the Conversing the World Project, the team of maritime archaeologists excavated an early sixteenth century Spanish shipwreck in the Bahamas during the summer 2017; this shipwreck is also known as the Highbourne Cay Shipwreck. The author is in charge of photogrammetric recording of the shipwreck site, and he applied the combination of scale-bars and triangle geo-referencing methodology explained above to create 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D digital models. Furthermore, once a 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D model of the site was created in Agisoft PhotoScan, it is easy to extract coordinates of any possible points on the 3D model by creating markers (right click on the model or a photo > ‘create makers’ > ‘view estimated’). This means that when 3D models are created on the same area or smaller areas within the site in following day, coordinates of reference points/markers can be collected from the first 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced model, and apply these coordinates on newly created 3D models. This means once a local coordinate system is generated within the first model, archaeologists can use this coordinate system to both scale-constrain and geo-reference following photogrammetric models. The author prefers to call this first 1;1 scale constrained georeferenced 3D model as ‘Mother Model’, and following 3D models that receive coordinates from Mother Model as Child Models. In other words, the Mother Models itself works as a local coordinate system of the site, and archaeologists can extract XYZ coordinates of any reference points form the Mother models to create another 1:1 scale constrained georeferenced 3D digital models. �Conclusion Past 7 years, photogrammetry became one of the most frequently used recording applications on UCH (Underwater Cultural Heritage). However, if archaeologists use these 3D digital models as scientific data, it is vital to create 1:1 scale-constrained georeferenced 3D digital models. Once a 3D digital model carries/contains correct/real scale and georeferenced information, archaeologists are able to extract dimensional information, section profiles, DEM (Digital Elevation Models) and contour maps, orthomosaics (high resolution photomosaic), 2D siteplans, and other scientific data. The author’s methodology uses simple scale bars placed on site and a triangle created in 3D CAD software based on distances in between three control points. This methodology provide accurate results in a short-term (for instances, if a site is 30m x 30m in size and 20m deep, it will be 0.5mm possible error in 1m, or 1.5cm possible error in 30m, with the optimization, and it takes only 3 - 4 dives with one diver). Once the first model, or Mother Model, is created, following photogrammetric models from the campaign can take advantage of a local coordinate system of Mother Model. In other words, photogrammetric recording processes can be much faster, so that archaeologists are able to create series of 3D digital models during the same excavation campaign. Consequently, maritime archaeologists can obtain enough dataset to study a shipwreck site with layers of information and study stratigraphy of shipwrecks. References Bass, G. F. and Van Doorninck, F. H., 1971. A fourth-century shipwreck at Yassi Ada. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 75(1): 27–37. �Bass, G. F. and Van Doorninck, F. H., 1982. Yassi Ada, Vol. 1: A Seventhcentury Byzantine Shipwreck. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. Burtch, R., 2008. History of photogrammetry. Lecture Notes on the History of Photogrammetry. Ferris State University, Big Rapids (https://spatial.curtin.edu.au/local/docs/HistoryOfPhotogrammetry.pdf, Last Updated 2008, Accessed 11/24/2015). Green, J. and Gainsford, M., 2003. Evaluation of underwater surveying techniques. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 32: 252-261. Green, J., Matthews, S. and Turanli, T., 2002. Underwater archaeological surveying using photomodeler, virtualmapper: different applications for different problems. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 31: 283-292. Holt, P., 2003. An assessment of quality in underwater archaeological surveys using tape measurements. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 31(2): 246-251. Konecny, G., 2003. Geoinformation Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry and Geographic Information Systems. Taylor & Francis, London. Van Doorninck, F. H., 1967. The Seventh-century Byzantine Ship at Yassi Ada; Some Contributions to the History of Naval Architecture. PhD Thesis, University of Pennsylvania. Van Damme, T., 2015. Computer Vison Photogrammetry for Underwater Archaeological Site Recording: A Critical Assessment. MA Thesis, University of Southern Denmark. Yamafune, K., Torres, R. and Castro, F., 2016. Multi-image photogrammetry to record and reconstruct underwater shipwreck site. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 17-3-2016 (online). . �Biography Kotaro Yamafune received his Bachelor of Arts degree in history from Hosei University in Tokyo in 2006. He entered the Nautical Archaeology Program in the Anthropology Department at Texas A&M University in September 2009 and received his Master of Arts degree in August 2012. He continued his studies in the Texas A&M University Nautical Archaeology Program and earned his doctorate in May 2016. His research interests include shipbuilding in Medieval Europe and the European Age of Discovery, and ship reconstruction. He also focuses on photogrammetric recording of submerged cultural heritage, including ship � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Methodology for Accurate and Quick Photogrammetric Recording of Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource In the past seven years, photogrammetry has become one of the main recording methods in maritime and underwater archaeology. The application of photogrammetry allows archaeologists to re-create underwater cultural heritage sites in 3D digital formats, and extract from these 3D digital models data and information required for subsequent scholarly research. The author has been using photogrammetry since 2014 and has successfully created nearly 40 underwater cultural heritage models on more than 10 archaeological projects. The projects have ranged in size, accessibility, and water clarity, introducing a number of variables to the photogrammetry of the artifacts. The variety of experiences gained on these projects have enabled the author to construct his own methodology and workflow for photogrammetric recording. In this paper, the author shares examples of his methodology and workflow for photogrammetric recording of various projects in different countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Yamafune Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Kotaro Yamafune Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b9289d86897ce8fb8377070c26fb8c6c.pdf fd02242cb2a6259f3ace223f5079cf84 PDF Text Text Portuguese Naus on Namban Screens: A study of the first European ships on paintings from the late 16th to early 17th centuries in Japan Kotaro Yamafune Texas A&M University, College Station USA 77843 Email: goldfloor@tamu.edu Abstract Namban screens, a well-known Japanese art form, were painted by skillful Japanese artists from the late 16th century to the 17th centuries. Approximately 90 of these screens have been handed down up to the present. Not only they show some important historical scenes of European commercial activities in the Far East for the first time, but they also depict representational pictures of Portuguese ships during the Age of Discovery. Although the ships’ images on the screens are roughly acceptable, the details are often strangely anachronistic. The same images could be found in some Western maps in the 16th century. Judging from the similarity, perhaps, Japanese painters, who had never seen actual ships themselves in ports, did manage to copy the images from ones on those maps, which were brought to Japan by the wellknownTensho embassy. This was the first Japanese embassy that was sent to Europe; the diplomats left Japan in 1582 and arrived at Portugal in 1584. They met with Pope Gregory XIII and his successor, Pope Sixtus V, in Rome, and then returned back to their homeland in 1590. In the following year the embassy members succeeded in seeing HideyoshiToyotomi, who was the leading political ruler in Japan at that time. They gave him some souvenirs from Europe, including the maps. It seems that some official court painters had a chance to see those gifts, from where Japanese artists could have obtained an idea of the ships’ images that appear in the Namban screens. Keywords:Namban Screen, Japan, Portugal, Ships, Naus, Introduction In the early 14th century, Japan was introduced to the European world as an Island of Gold by the Venetian explorer Marco Polo. Portuguese sailors finally reached these far away lands in 1543, more than 200 years after Marco Polo’s first publication and the introduction of Zipangu. In the following century, Portuguese merchants enjoyed the lucrative Japanese trade. Today, we know a lot about this first interaction between the Europeans and Japanese from both contemporary Latin and Japanese chronicles and journals; however, among all primary sources, the most intriguing and visually-pleasing information appears on Namban screens, a famous Japanese art form, which was 1 �produced at the end of the 16th century throughout the and 17th century in Japan (Fig. 1). Namban screens are regarded as the first Japanese artworks that depicted Europeans and their ships visiting Japan. The original goal of the author’s research was to identify the Portuguese ships that travelled to the Far East and to illuminate Fig. 1 Namban Screen: Version A of Kyushu National Museum their nature and the details (Important Cultural Property). Top is Right Panel and Bottom is Left Panel (154.5 X 363.2 cm each). (M. Sakamoto) of their upper structures. However, during this research, the author recognized that the ships that were depicted on many of the screens were implausible representations of oceangoing ships, and that some of the ships represented on the screens looked very similar to the ships represented in contemporary European art. While considering these facts, the author realized that one important historical event might be the 16th century link between Japan and Europe. Namban Screens Namban screens were produced by various artists from the end of 16th century and throughout 17th century (Sakamoto, 2008). The word “Namban” was derived from the old Chinese worldview. In ancient China, its inhabitants considered their country to be the center of the world, and the only civilized nation on earth. Chinese people called surrounding regions “Hokuteki”, “Toui”, “Seikai”, and “Namban”; or Northern Savages, Eastern Savages, Western Savages, and Southern Savages (Sakamoto, 2008). By the 16th century, these terms were also in use in Japan, and the Europeans who came to Japan from the southern sea were called Namban people. 2 �The Namban people first met the Japanese in 1543, when three Portuguese merchants drifted into one of the southwestern small islands of Japan on a Chinese junk. Soon after the discovery of Marco Polo’s legendary islands, European merchants and missionaries began to visit Japan regular bases. This interaction with the Western World caused cultural changes far beyond the introduction of firearms. One important realm where European influence can be observed is that of the Japanese art. New trends in Japanese art appeared at the end of the 16th century and throughout the 17th century (Sakamoto, 2008). In addition, many Japanese artists drew Portuguese people and ships in their paintings. Namban screens were a part of this. More than 90 screens survive, produced primarily between the end of the 16th century and throughout the 17th century. Some of the earliest screens were painted by well-known artists, known as the Kano-school (Sakamoto, 2008). In 2008, the most complete inventory so far was published in a book, NambanByobu Shusei (Sakamoto, 2008). Ships Portuguese Nau The most important element relevant to this study that can be seen on Namban screens are the European ships, the main subject of the present research. The ships on the screens represent Portuguese merchantmen; Portuguese naus was probably the most common type of European merchant ship to sail in Asia at that time, and were employed in the China and Japan trade (Okamoto, 1955; Sukeno, 1960). Naus grew in size during the 16th century and were engaged on the East India route. By the beginning of the 17th century the overall size of the East India naus was larger than ever, at about 1,100 tons of displacement, while bow and stern castles were lowered for better sailing performance (Castro, 2005). Ships on the Namban Screens From the 90 surviving Namban screens, we can discern several different typologies of ships. As often happens in the art of the western world, it appears that Japanese artists sometime drew their Namban ships based on ships that they saw on other Namban screens, rather than from seeing the actual ships (Russell, 1983). An analysis of the collection of screens suggests that through a sequence of copying older images, the accuracy and detail of the Namban ships gradually deteriorated. Fortunately, several 3 �scholars of Japanese Art History and connoisseurs of Japanese art have studied all known Namban screens and completed brief timelines of screen production (Sakamoto, 2008). The timelines are based on the screen’s historical accounts and the styles of painting. Fig. 2 NambanShips on Namban Screen (Version aof Kobe City Museum, Naizen Version [Late 16th – Early 17th century] by Kano Naizen). (M. Sakamoto) When analyzed in this light, most images of ships on the screens seem to be copies of previous images, often from other screens. The author made a catalog of all 73 ship images known, and classified them according to their quality and date of production. Fifteen groups or families were identified, seemingly 15 strings of copies of 15 original images. Once it was completed, this catalog allowed the author to make a surprising statement: none of these 15 ship types seems to have been painted directly from observation of actual European vessels in Japanese ports. Questions Question1: Why are the Depictions of the Ships so Inaccurate? The first and biggest question about the origin of the Namban screens pertains to the inaccuracy of the ship representations. The most conspicuous mistakes are the implausible widths of the hull planks, which when scaled properly sometimes reach approximately two meters in width (Fig. 2). No less inconspicuous are the rigging arrangements. Although most ships display masts, yards, sometimes sails, and most times some standing rigging supporting the masts, the quality of the rigging 4 �representations is always bad and diminishes in time. For instance, ships represented after the 1630s rarely display ratlines. Running rigging is rarely represented, and in a few cases ships do not even have masts and yards. Other interesting mistakes can be observed on the representations of gun ports. By the 16th century, most European merchant ships were armed. The primary weapons of these vessels were heavy guns, since naval battles were shifting from hand-to-hand combat into bombardment battles, and indeed many of ships display cannons. However, these are represented as simple pipes protruding from the hull planking, instead of the muzzles of cannons and gun ports represented in contemporaneous European iconography. These are gross mistakes that are in obvious contrast with the quality of the representations of houses, trees, or persons, in the same screen. Namban ships seem to be depicted with less attention to accuracy than many other features in these screens. Most Japanese scholars explain this lack of accuracy by saying that Namban ships were not an important portion of the screens and that artists might stylize the ships because it did not really matter much for the end result (Okamoto, 1955; Sakamoto, 2008). However, this explanation is not acceptable because all other features on the screens were depicted in minute detail, as we can see for instance on people’s faces, houses, trees, and even the waves of the sea. Moreover, many of the early screens were produced by the Kano school, one of the most famous groups of artists in Japanese history. The Kano school was composed predominantly of the master Kano’s lineage. Their painting techniques and styles were only taught to close family members and other relatives (Matsuki, 1994; Takeda, 1995). The Kano school appeared in the 15th century and continued until the 19th century. During these 400 years its artists produced many works of art that have been labeled National Treasures and Important Properties of Japan (Yamashita, 2004). Kano school masters served many Tennou, Daimyo, Taiko, Shogun, and other powerful authorities in each period of Japan’s history. The fame of the Kano school reached its peak in the Azuchi-Momoyama Era (15671600), when Nobunaga Oda and HideyoshiToyotomi ruled Japan. The Japanese culture of this era was named the Azuchi-Momoyama Culture, and the paintings produced by Kano school artists represent masterpieces ofAzuchi-Momoyama arts 5 �(Kano, 2007). The Kano school’s art is characterized by precision and attention to details, and precisely for this reason it is interesting to analyze the reasons behind the poor representations of ships on their screens. Question 2: Anachronism: Beginning of the Production Another relevant question that arose during the analysis of the Namban screens concerns the period of their production. Specialists believe that one of the earliest pieces may have been produced as early as the 1590s. Nonetheless, the Portuguese had begun their Japanese trade in the 1550s, and there are good documental sources that suggest that they used Portuguese-built ships. In the later part of 16th century, the Portuguese visited Nagasaki and Hirado annually, sometimes even other ports around Kyushu. Japanese people, including artists, had many opportunities to see actual Portuguese vessels. Nobody knows why there are no contemporary depictions of European ships by Japanese artists until the Namban screens appeared. Moreover, most of the surviving Namban screens were actually produced between the 1620s and the 1640s. By this time more than half of foreign trading vessels had been replaced by Japanese Shu-in Ships, and Chinese cargo carriers. Both Japanese and Chinese merchants used junk-type vessels on this trade (Nagazumi, 2001). The conception, structure, and configuration of the junks were very different from those of European vessels (Green and Kim, 1989; Green and Burningham, 1998). Moreover, when Ieyasu opened his country to foreign trade, he concentrated it in Nagasaki and Hirado, in order to manage all the incoming and outgoing vessels. This fact certainly limited the number of people who actually saw European ships at anchor with their own eyes, even though large numbers of Namban screens were produced during this period. Several more screens were painted after the third Shogun Iemitsu prohibited all foreign trade, except that with Dutch and Chinese merchants at Dejima. Originality of the Ships on Namban Screens These circumstances suggest that the ships represented in Namban screens were not drawn from the real ships, but copied from illustrations of ships. The later representations seem to have been largely copied from earlier, similar screens, but the origin of the earlier depictions, represented on the screens produced by the Kano school in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, are harder to pinpoint. For the reasons 6 �exposed above, it seems likely that Portuguese ships were a rare sight in Japanese harbors most of the time. By the time they were first painted, these were largely unknown in Japan. The author has seen, however, vessels similar to those represented on the Namban screens on other contemporary images: European maps of the Age of Discovery. Hypothesis: From European Maps to Namban Screens The author has studied world maps produced in Europe during the 16th and early 17th centuries, and found vessels similar to each one of the types shown on the screens as depictions of Namban ships (Fig. 3). The similarities between these drawings are often worth notice, sometimes striking, and it appears likely that all European vessels represented on Namban screens were copied from the decorative ships shown on late 16th century European maps. In the 16th century cartography encompassed a number of disciplines that aimed at the production of accurate maps, and many of these disciplines were scientific in their nature. In this period maps were updated regularly, every time explorers returned from their voyages with news of discoveries. But knowledge of the world was incomplete and the blank spaces were often illustrated with appropriated drawings, depicting the flora and fauna, or the peoples inhabiting the lands represented, and often the seas were embellished with representations of the ships of their time (Unger, 2010). The trend of depicting ships on maps became fashionable in the middle of 16th century, and the fashion reached its zenith in the work of the competent French cartographers of the Dieppe school. From this period onwards, the oceans of most of the world maps were filled with small ships and imaginary creatures (Swift, 2006; Wigal, 2007). This fashion continued well into the 17th century, when the greater amount of geographic information available produced a style shift into precise depictions of the interior of continents. European artists drew good and bad images of ships on the maps being made in their time. Sometimes the quality of the ships represented on 16th century maps is excellent, other times ships maps are simplified and stylized, often for lack of space. The rigging was especially simplified due to the small scale at which it was sometimes represented. It is almost certain that Japanese artists copied these images, often without ever having seen the actual ships, let alone understanding the complex arrangement of the rigging. 7 �This fact explains the mistakes on Namban screen paintings described in previous sections of this work, especially in the rigging of the Namban ships. Fig. 3 Iconography of Ships from 16th Century’s European Maps. Author: M. Swift. (A) From Ortelius’s 1595 Map of Japan; (B) From Ortelius’sAmericaeSive Novi Orvis, Nova Descriptio; (C) From Hondius’sMap of the Islands of the East Indies; (D) From Ortelius’sAmericaeSive Novi Orvis, Nova Description; (E) From John Goghe’sMap of Ireland, 1567; (F) From Ortelius’ TheatrumOrbisTerrarum, 1595; (G) From Pierre Desceliers’s (Cartographer of the Dieppe-school) Map of the World, 1550; (H) From John Goghe’sMap of Ireland, 1567; (I) Diego Homen’sMap of the Indian Ocean, 1558; (J) From Ortelius’s 1595 Map of Japan; (K) From Pierre Desceliers’s (Cartographer of the Dieppe-school) Map of the World, 1550; (L) Johannes and Martin’s Map of Americas, 1520. 8 �Discussion: The Origin of Namban Screens We know that many European art works were brought to Japan once trade with Portuguese merchants began (Nishimura, 1958). The primary purpose of this influx of European artworks was to spread Christianity. Missionaries brought European religious paintings and non-religious paintings to Japan and some taught European art techniques to Japanese artists, in order to help the Japanese paint religious figures themselves. In 1583, the Jesuit missionary Giovanni Niccolo came to Japan and opened a European Art School (Nishimura, 1958). As a result, Japanese Christian painters developed a particular style and imitating European painting became an art form between 1592 and 1615 (Nishimura, 1958). Some of the pieces of art produced in this period survive today. Well known examples are: Taisei-Oko-Kiba-Zu (drawing of the western kings on horses), Yonkakoku-Tojo-Byobu (screen with pictures of four capitals),Rebanto-Kaisen-Zu (screen with the battle of Levant), or Sekaizu-Byobu (World map screen) (Fig. 4). It is likely that a large number of European paintings and prints came to Japan around the period in which the Namban screens were produced. Moreover, Japanese painters also produced world maps around this time. Today, 20 of those world map screens survive in Japan (Kirishitan Bunka Kenkyukai, 1964), and three or four display small ships. Since Japan did not have the knowledge to produce original world maps based on the sea voyages or its own mariners, it is certain that these maps were copies of European world maps. According to Taku Nakamura (Kirishitan Bunka Kenkyukai, 1964), a scholar who carefully studied Namban world map screens, they were all produced from the late 16th century and throughout the 17th century. Fig. 4 Sekaizu-Byobu (Kobe City Museum Version). (T. Miyoshi,and K. Onoda) 9 �Nishimura believes that this influx of European artworks was largely a result of the Tensho Embassy (Nishimura, 1958). The Tensho Embassy was welcomed by Pope Gregory XIII and by many Italian city states, because their arrival in Rome meant that Christianity had reached the edge of the known world (Wakakuwa, 2008). On the way back to Lisbon from Rome, the Embassy visited Padua. While there, a nobleman presented four expensive books to them. Two of these books were CivitatesOrbisTerrarum and TheatrumOrbisTerrarum (Nishimura, 1958; Fróis et al., 1941). CivitatesOrbisTerrarum (Cities of the World) is a book that compiles drawings of cities, maps of several regions of the world, and its people (Braun et al., 2008) (Fig. 5). TheatrumOrbisTerrarum is the so-called first world atlas (Broecke, 1996) (Fig. 6). Both books have hundreds of depictions of small ships, most very accurate and seemingly typical of each region. The Tensho Embassy returned to Japan in 1590. However, they had to stay in Nagasaki for three years before Hideyoshi permitted them to visit the capital in 1593. While they were staying in Nagasaki, many Daimyos and merchants visited them to hear stories of the travels to Rome. Fróis noted that the visitors enjoyed the European maps and globes Finally, allowed (Wakakuwa, in to 1593, visit they 2008). were Hideyoshi’s palace. This visit was the march of Capitão-mor and the scene Fig. 5: CivitatesOrbisTerrarum. (A) Lisbon. (B) Venice. (C) that is depicted Rome. (D) Constantinople. (G. Braun,F.Hogenberg, S.Fussel, Namban Screens. and B.Taschen) 10 on many �An interesting additional fact is that Naizen Kano, who drew one of the earliest Namban Screens, served as Hideyoshi’s painter (Yamashita, 2004; Kano, 2007). Perhaps he witnessed the reception of the returning Tensho Embassy? Or perhaps Taiko Hideyoshi asked him to paint the original screen? These are merely the author’s hypotheses, but they would tie these important events and artwork together in a simple way. Fig. 6: TheatrumOrbisTerrarum. (A) World Map, 1570. (B) World Map, 1586. (C) Americas, 1570. (D) Italy, 1570. (E) Northern Europe, 1570. (F) Asia, 1567 and 1570. (M. P. R. V. D. Broecke) 11 �Conclusion Not all the Namban ships were necessarily based on ships from CivitatesOrbisTerrarum and TheatrumOrbisTerrarum. We don’t know what other European sources were available in Japan at the time. The members of the Tensho Embassy were invited to many Italian cities, for instance, Florence, before Rome, and after that other cities, including Milano, Venice, Padua (where they received the books already mentioned). There were many printed books and images in Italy at the time. As mentioned above, maps with drawings of cities and ships were common as a result of the flourishing of the Dieppe-school decades earlier. It is likely that the four Japanese members of the Tensho Embassy purchased or were given maps and paintings for their Christian fellows in Japan and for Japanese rulers, like Hideyoshi. And it is likely that other European missionaries and merchants also brought maps and paintings to Japan. Historical records tell us that the members of the Tensho Embassy brought maps and globes to Nagasaki, Japan, although there are no historical accounts describing the members of the Tensho Embassy presenting maps to Hideyoshi. The records say that “among the gifts, Hideyoshi liked an Arabian horse.” But it is a fact that it was after this visit that Hideyoshi’s personal artist and his school produced the first Namban screens. Whether or not this is true, the Namban screens are still rightly considered Japanese Important Cultural Property and records of the first interactions between Europe and Japan, between West and Eastern Christians, and represent an interesting symbiosis between Renaissance European and Japanese traditional arts. References Braun, G., Hogenberg, F., Fussel, S., and Taschen, B., 2008.CivitatesOrbisTerrarum = Cities of the World: 363 Engravings Revolutionize the View of the World: Complete Edition of the Colour Plates of 1572-1617. Taschen, Colongne. Broecke, M. P. R. V. D., 1996. Ortelius Atlas Maps: An Illustrated Guide. HES Publishers, Utrecht. Castro, F. V. D., 2005. The Pepper Wreck: a Portuguese Indiaman at the Mouth of the Tagus River. Texas A & M University Press, College Station. Frois, L., Okamoto, Y., Bernard, H., and Pinto, J. A.,1941 Kyushu Sanko Keno Shisetsu Koki (The Travel of the Tensho Embassy). Toyodo, Tokyo (in Japanese). 12 �Green. J., and Kim Z.G., 1989. The Shinan and Wando Sites, Korea: Further Information. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 18 (4): 33-41. Green.J., and Burningham, N., 1998. The Ship from Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People’s Republic of China. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27 (4): 277301. Kano, H., 2007. MomoyamaKaiga no Bi: Tensai,Isai, Kisai no KareinaruSekai (The Beauty of Momoyama Paintings). Heibonsha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Kirishitan Bunka Kenkyukai., 1964. KirishitanKenkyu Dai 9-shu (Study of The Japanese Christian). Yoshikawa Kobunkan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Matsuki, H., 1994. Goyoeshi Kano-ke no Chi to Chikara (Power and Lineage of KanoSchool). Kodansha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Miyoshi, T., and Onoda, K., 1999.ZusetsuSekaiKochizuKorekushon(Collection of Cartography). KawadeShobo Shin-sha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Nagazumi, Y., 2001. Shuin-sen (Red-Seal Ships). Yoshikawa Kobunkan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Nishimura, T., 1958.NanbanBijutsu (Namban Arts). Kodan-sha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Okamoto, Y., 1955. NanbanByobuko (Namban Trade). Sho Shin-sha, Tokyo (in Japanese). Russell, M., 1983.Visions of the Sea: Hendrick C. Vroom and the Origins of Dutch Marine Painting. Leiden University Press, Leiden. Sakamoto, M. (Ed.), 2008.NanbanByobu Shusei (Inventory of the Namban Screens). Chuo KooronBijutsuShuppan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Sukeno, K., 1960. KirishitanFudoki. BekkanKenkyuhen (Study of Japanese Christians). Hobunkan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Swift, M., 2006.Mapping the World.Chartwell Books, Edison. Takeda, T., 1995.Kano-ha Kaigashi (Arts of Kano-school). Yoshikawa Kobunkan, Tokyo (in Japanese). Unger, R. W., 2010. Ships on Maps: Pictures of Power in Renaissance Europe. Houndsmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, New York. Wakakuwa, M., 2008.KuatoroRagattsi: TenshoShonenShisetsu to Sekai Teikoku 2 (The Tensho Embassy and the Portuguese World Empire). Shuei-sha, Tokyo (in Japanese). 13 �Wigal, D., 2007.Historic Maritime Maps.Confidential Concepts, New York. Yamashita, Y., (Ed.), 2004. Kano-ha Ketteiban (Art of Kano-school).Heibon-sha, Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese). Biography Kotaro Yamafune completed his BA in History at Hosei University (Japan) in 2006 and started his MA in the Nautical Archaeology Program at Texas A&M University in 2009and completed his MA in 2012. His research interests are Portuguese shipbuilding and seafaring in the 16th and the 17th centuries and the reconstruction of the Medieval and Post Medieval shipwrecks. He is currently (2014) enrolled in the Nautical Archaeology Program as a PhD student. His dissertation focuses on the 3D reconstruction of Portuguese India trading ships of the 16th and 17th centuries. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Portuguese Naus on Namban Screens: A study of the first European ships on paintings from the late 16th to early 17th centuries in Japan Description An account of the resource Namban screens, a well-known Japanese art form, were painted by skillful Japanese artists from the late 16th century to the 17th centuries. Approximately 90 of these screens have been handed down up to the present. Not only they show some important historical scenes of European commercial activities in the Far East for the first time, but they also depict representational pictures of Portuguese ships during the Age of Discovery. Although the ships’ images on the screens are roughly acceptable, the details are often strangely anachronistic. The same images could be found in some Western maps in the 16th century. Judging from the similarity, perhaps, Japanese painters, who had never seen actual ships themselves in ports, did manage to copy the images from ones on those maps, which were brought to Japan by the wellknownTensho embassy. This was the first Japanese embassy that was sent to Europe; the diplomats left Japan in 1582 and arrived at Portugal in 1584. They met with Pope Gregory XIII and his successor, Pope Sixtus V, in Rome, and then returned back to their homeland in 1590. In the following year the embassy members succeeded in seeing HideyoshiToyotomi, who was the leading political ruler in Japan at that time. They gave him some souvenirs from Europe, including the maps. It seems that some official court painters had a chance to see those gifts, from where Japanese artists could have obtained an idea of the ships’ images that appear in the Namban screens. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Yamafune, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/eed1593b3e75fedc02c5fbd4b3478c8c.pdf 0d57e324a1194ea90d132c64c15915b2 PDF Text Text Conserving Ropes from the Phanom-Surin Shipwreck in Thailand: Case Study on Storage and Exhibition at the National Museum of Thailand Natchaya Pattanasuttirata , Kunthida Chimmab , Puangporn Srisomboon, and Monchalus Pitisinchoochai Conservation Science Division, Office of National Museum, The Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture, Thailand a Natchaya.peary@gmail.com, bChimma.kun@hotmail.com ABSTRACT There are several important factors to consider when studying appropriate conservation methods for fibers in museum exhibitions or storage. This research focused on investigating the potential of using Trehalose and polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG4000) as treatments for shipwreck rope fibers in Thailand's museums. The efficacy of these treatments was evaluated by using a twisted fiber thread to tie the torpedo jar. The initial desalinated fibers were subjected to three groups: untreated rope was dried at room temperature, ropes conserved with Trehalose, and ropes conserved with PEG4000. Identical concentrations of both the Trehalose and PEG4000 solutions started at a concentration of 25 percent brix then increased progressively to 40 percent and 60 percent brix. We employed four different analyses. We used scanning electron microscopy to study morphological properties. Prior to treatment and after treatment we compared numerical evaluation of the colour change using ΔE* values (CIE L*a*b* system). We recorded reflectance using wavelengths of white light ranges (380-780 nm). We used differential scanning calorimetry technique for thermal properties. The results indicate the Trehalose fibers had a melting temperature of 192.8°C and exhibited less change in colour and reflectance compared to the others. The PEG4000 fibers had a melting temperature at 59.3°C. Trehalose had higher thermal properties compared to PEG4000. Thus, Trehalose is an appropriate conservation material for ropes and other fiber-based materials that are stored or displayed in environments with high humidity and temperature, such as the case in Thailand. Keywords Phanom-Surin Shipwreck, conservation of rope (fiber), Trehalose, PEG4000 List of Figure Figure 1 The twisted fiber used for tie Torpedo jars Figure 2. Untreated fiber. a) Cross-sectional, b) Cross-sectional lumen, c) Longitudinal Figure 3. PEG4000 fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal Figure 4. Trehalose fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal Figure 5. Fresh sugar palm fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal Figure 6. Twisted rope. (a) Untreated rope, (b) Trehalose-treated rope, (c) PEG4000-treated rope Figure 7. Graph of reflectance comparison results between untreated fiber, Trehalose fiber, and PEG4000 fiber. Figure 8. DSC thermogram of untreated fibers (a), pure Trehalose (b), pure PEG4000 (c), Trehalose fibers (d), and PEG4000 fibers (e): 1st Heating. 3 5 5 5 6 6 6 8 List of Table Table 1 shows the results of the L*a*b* colour space data for untreated rope, rope treated with Trehalose, and rope treated with PEG4000 7 1 �1. INTRODUCTION The Phanom-Surin shipwreck was discovered at Samut Sakhon, Thailand in September 2013. The shipwreck is dated to the 9th century CE (1stROFAD 2016). We narrow our discussion to the excavated rope fibers. Our literature review on rope fiber or “Tao” fibers identified them as Arenga pinnata, commonly known as the sugar palm or Arenga palm (Mahaphol 2013). For centuries sugar palm fibers were used as ropes for ships due to their exceptional strength, durability, and resistance to saltwater (Ishak et al. 2012, 700). Our study expands from this literature review to focus on the conservation of twisted rope/fiber, used to tie Torpedo jars (Figure 2), with a specific emphasis on museum exhibition and storage purposes. In this study, we compared conservation of fresh sugar palm fibers in PEG4000 and Trehalose, which demonstrated superior properties compared to the non-treated fibers. We examined moisture absorption, which the fibers treated with Trehalose (henceforth Trehalose fiber) showed lower moisture absorption than the fibers treated with PEG4000 (henceforth PEG4000 fiber). We compare the physical characteristics of the fibers that underwent conservation treatment (in either PEG4000 or Trehalose) by the changes in reflectance, colour and heat resistance. Our results are intended for use to design a conservation plan for the appropriate environment for museum display, storage, and conservation. Figure 1 The twisted fiber used to tie Torpedo jars 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials On the Phanom-Surin shipwreck ropes were used to tie Torpedo jars. PEG4000 (M w ≈ 3500 - 4000) was purchased from Loba ChemieTM, India. Trehalose (TREHA®) was purchased from Hayashibara Co.Ltd., Japan. 2.2 Samples preparation We prepared the fiber samples by flushing with deionized water until the electrical conductivity (EC) of the solution was below 100 μS. The fibers were divided into three groups, dry at room temperature, soaked with Trehalose or PEG4000. We tightly covered the fibers while soaking to prevent water evaporation. i. ii. Untreated - The untreated fibers were dried at room temperature. Soaked with Trehalose - The fibers were immersed in Trehalose starting with 20 percent brix at room temperature (34°C). The solution was heated, while the Trehalose concentration increased from 40 percent to 60 percent brix. The controlled temperature did not exceed 80°C, and the fibers were immersed for 24 hours. Once the fibers reached the (20, 40, 60) percent brix constants the fibers were dried with an electric-fan until completely dried. The fibers were cleaned with warm water to remove any residual Trehalose and dried until a constant weight is obtained. 2 �iii. 2.3 Soaked with PEG4000 - The immersion process in PEG4000 follows the same procedure as immersion in the Trehalose solution, but the fibers were left to dry at room temperature. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) After sample preparation (see above for details) all fibers were immersed in liquid nitrogen, broken up and stored in a desiccator to absorb moisture for one day. Each were coated with gold (Au-Coating) through an auto fine coater (Smart Coater, DII-29030SCTR) for 4 minutes. Analysis was conducted with a benchtop scanning electron microscope (JCM-7000, JEOL) at 5 kilovolts (kV). 2.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) After sample preparation and SEM all fibers underwent thermal analysis with the Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) technique (Mettler Toledo brand). Five milligrams (mg) of sample were sealed hermetically in the aluminium crucible. Nitrogen gas was purged at a flow rate of 20 millilitres per minute (mL/min). At a heating rate of 10 °C/min across a range from -20 to 200°C to 50 to 230°C. 2.5 Spectroradiometer After sample preparation, SEM and DSC all fibers underwent spectroradiometer (Konica Minolta CS2000), with wavelengths from 380 to 780 nanometers (nm) range. The samples were prepared by twining and thickening the ropes, three random points were selected for spectroradiometer at a 0.2 aperture in the (CIELAB) (Commission Internationale de l´Eclairage, L*, a* and b* represent each of the three values the CIELAB color space uses to measure objective color and calculate color differences. L* represents lightness from black to white on a scale of zero to 100, while a* and b* represent chromaticity with no specific numeric limits. Negative a* corresponds with green, positive a* corresponds with red, negative b* corresponds with blue and positive b* corresponds with yellow). Under the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) commonly used D65 - D series of illuminants portray standard illumination conditions at open-air in different parts of the world measurements were taken and the reflectance values were averaged. The data was then analyzed for colour variability. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Our study focuses on the conservation of waterlogged fiber in Trehalose and PEG4000 that was used to tie Torpedo jars in the Phanom-Surin shipwreck (Figure 2), for the purpose of museum exhibition and storage. 3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy Microscopic examinations of fibers treated with Trehalose and PEG4000 show structural differences compared to untreated rope samples. Untreated rope displayed severe degradation, collapse of cells, and the longitudinal section had a hole where the silica had come off (Figure 4-c). Fresh sugar palm fibers retain silica (Figure 7-c). Cross-sections of PEG4000-treated and Trehalose-treated ropes appeared similar to each other. PEG4000-treated rope had a smoother longitudinal surface (Figure 5c), while Trehalose-treated rope exhibited an orthorhombic crystal form (Figure 6-c). These differences indicate distinct effects of the different immersive treatments of conserved fibers. Trehalose and PEG4000 conserved fibers of twisted rope show surface cracks due to SEM sample preparation. The micrograph of these twisted fibers (Figure 8) show reduced bend and twist resistance. Specifically, Trehalose exhibits lower twist resistance than PEG4000. In previous research the conserved fibers improved tensile strength (Mahaphol 2013). Trehalose, with its rigid crystalline structure, demonstrates higher tensile strength than PEG4000 and untreated rope. 3 �Silica Body (a) (b) Hole of Silica Body (c) Figure 2. Untreated fiber. a) Cross-sectional, b) Cross-sectional lumen, c) Longitudinal (a) (b) (c) Figure 3. PEG4000 fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal (a) (b) (c) Figure 4. Trehalose fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal Silica Body (a) (b) (c) Figure 5. Fresh sugar palm fiber. (a) Cross-sectional, (b) Cross-sectional lumen, (c) Longitudinal (a) (b) (c) Figure 6. Twisted rope. (a) Untreated rope, (b) Trehalose-treated rope, (c) PEG4000-treated rope 4 �3.2 Reflectance (percent) Figure 7. Graph of reflectance comparison results between untreated fiber, Trehalose fiber, and PEG4000 fiber. The results of the reflectance (percent) measurements indicate that both PEG4000 and Trehalose conserved fibers increased reflectance compared to the non-treated fiber. Pointedly, the PEG4000 fiber exhibited higher reflectance percentage than the Trehalose fiber. This suggests that PEG4000 treatment may have more significant impact on enhancing the fiber's reflective properties. PEG4000 fiber (Figure 5-c) surfaces were coated with a layer of silica so the longitudinal surface reflection was smoother and more uniform, which resulted in regular reflection of incident light. In contrast, the Trehalose fiber (Figure 6-c) have rough surfaces with irregularly shaped rectangular features and thickness varies, which leads to scattered reflection of incident light. The diffused light in multiple directions is disordered and does not exhibit regular reflection. This causes a decrease in the detected signal. 3.3 Colour measurement ΔE* Table 1 shows the results of the L*a*b* colour space data for untreated fiber, Trehalose fiber, and PEG4000 fiber. L* ± SD a* ± SD b* ± SD ΔE* No-treatment (PSF ) 14.17±2.20 0.66±0.21 2.20±0.23 - PSF/PEG4000 15.85±3.05 0.56±0.77 1.03±0.44 2.05 PSF/Trehalose 14.12±4.49 0.98±0.53 2.03±0.98 0.37 No-treatment (Currently) 23.53±4.59 1.89±0.60 7.33±0.45 10.74 Treatment a Note: a PSF refers to Phanom-Surin fiber The untreated fiber has a low L* value of 14.17, indicating a relatively dark colour. The positive a* value of 0.66 and positive b* value of 2.20 suggests the colour of the untreated fiber has a slightly reddish-yellow hue. The PEG4000 fiber increased the L* value to 15.85, indicating a brighter colour. The a* value decreased slightly to 0.56, indicating a slightly greener hue, while the b* value decreased significantly to 1.03, indicating a more blueish hue. The Trehalose fiber resulted in a similar L* value as the untreated fiber at 14.12, but a higher positive a* value of 0.98 and a higher positive b* value of 2.03. This suggests that the Trehalose fiber colour has a more reddish-yellow hue than the untreated fiber. The CIE L*a*b* colour system allowed us to evaluate the colour change of the fiber. The colour difference (ΔE*) was calculated by comparing the colour values of the treated and non-treated fibers. ΔE* value greater than one was considered visually detectable. 5 �The results of the colour measurement ΔE* for PEG4000 fiber (2.05) and Trehalose fiber (0.37) (non-treated fiber so there is no ΔE* value) indicate that the addition of PEG4000 to the fiber caused a significant colour change, while Trehalose fiber minimally changed. These findings suggest that the Trehalose treatment more effectively preserves the colour stability of the sugar palm fiber than PEG4000. The cause of colour change requires further investigation. 3.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Figure 8. DSC thermogram of untreated fibers (a), pure Trehalose (b), pure PEG4000 (c), Trehalose fibers (d), and PEG4000 fibers (e): 1st Heating. We investigated the thermal properties of fibers following preservation with Trehalose and PEG4000 treatment, which resulted in changes in the thermogram characteristics of the fibers. Figure 10 (a) and (d) show the relationship between Fiber and Fiber/Trehalose. DSC thermogram: peaks at 96.11°C and 139.73°C for Fiber, and 92.27°C and 149.44°C for Fiber/Trehalose. The first peak corresponds to water evaporation. Fiber/Trehalose has more easily evaporated water due to the attributed hydroxyl groups in the cellulose structure, which make it difficult to bond with water. The presence of a hydroxyl group of Trehalose in Fiber/Trehalose also binds to the cellulose of the fiber, causing a decrease in the amount of bonding between water and cellulose. At 149.44°C, the melting temperature (Tm) of Fiber or Fiber/Trehalose occurs. In fact, Trehalose's melting temperature is at 192.80°C, which causes the crystals of the Trehalose chain to fold into lamellae this absorbs heat energy from surroundings and causes vibrations until the intermolecular attraction is overcome. As a result, the crystals dissociate into randomly spaced Trehalose chain molecules. The second peak of Fiber/Trehalose (Figure 10 (b)) covers Trehalose's melting peak and has a wide range. The temperature transition from glassy state to rubbery state (T g) occurs at 106.50 °C, where Trehalose chains in the amorphous region absorb heat energy, which increase distance between chains and free up space for volume. Comparison of the DSC of Fiber and Fiber/Trehalose, Trehalose treatment raised the second peak temperature, this indicates higher melting temperature and improved high-temperature resistance. Figure 10 (a) and (c) show the relationship between Fiber and Fiber/ PEG4000. From and (c), the first peak observed at 54.36°C (Figure 10e) corresponds to the melting temperature (T m) of PEG4000. A lower melting point than Trehalose. PEG4000 is composed of repeated units of ethylene glycol, which 6 �enable it to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. In comparison, Trehalose is composed of a cyclic glucose disaccharide that forms strong hydrogen bonds due to the two glucose molecules being linked by an α,α-1,1-glycosidic bond. These structures when compared result in Trehalose’s higher melting temperature than PEG4000. Based on the thermal investigation, Trehalose-treated rope showed superior thermal stability and less moisture absorption than PEG4000. 4. CONCLUSION We demonstrated the use of Trehalose and PEG4000 in the conservation of twisted fiber used to tie the torpedo jars on the Phanom-Surin shipwreck. The results showed the Trehalose fibers had less change in colour, reflectance and higher thermal properties compared to the PEG4000 fibers. We conclude Trehalose is an effective conservation material for fibers in high humidity and temperature environments. The use of Trehalose as a conservation treatment for sugar palm fibers created a barrier between the cellulose structure and water, which reduced the amount of water that can evaporate from the fibers. The experiments in this study are informative and favour Trehalose as the preferred fiber treatment for museum display and storage in high humidity and heat environments, such as Thailand. Acknowledgements The authors sincerely thank Mr.Sanae Mahaphol and Ms.Sopit Panyakhan, Scientists from conservation science division, and The Fine Arts Department of Thailand for their help and constant encouragement. Thanks Ms.Sirin Yuanyaidee, Director of Kanchanaphisek National Museum and staff. Thank you Assoc.Prof.Dr.Mantana Opaprakasit and Dr.Intatch Hongrattanavichit from Faculty of Science Chulalongkorn University for their support with the analysis instruments and their advice. Moreover, we’re grateful to the Sumitomo Foundation, Japan and Ms.Umaporn Kruekamwang, Director of Office of National Science Museum Thailand for the support. Bibliography Ishak, M.R., S.M. Sapuan, Z. Leman, M.Z.A. Rahman, U.M.K Anwar, and J.P. Siregar. "Sugar palm (Arenga pinnata): Its fibres, polymers and composites." ELSEVIER (2012): 700. Mahaphol, Saneh. "The conservation of ropes from the Phanom-Surin Shipwreck Site, Thailand." Academia (2013): 1-16. The 1st Regional Office of Fine Arts Department, Ratchaburi Fine Arts Department (1stROFRD). Study of Phanom-Surin Shipwreck, Phanthai Norasing Sub-district, Meuang District, Samut Sakhon Province (2013-2015). Bangkok: Bangkok in House, co., 2016. 7 �8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 14: Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 14 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Conserving Ropes from the Phanom-Surin Shipwreck in Thailand: Case Study on Storage and Exhibition at the National Museum of Thailand Description An account of the resource There are several important factors to consider when studying appropriate conservation methods for fibers in museum exhibitions or storage. This research focused on investigating the potential of using Trehalose and polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG4000) as treatments for shipwreck rope fibers in Thailand's museums. The efficacy of these treatments was evaluated by using a twisted fiber thread to tie the torpedo jar. The initial desalinated fibers were subjected to three groups: untreated rope was dried at room temperature, ropes conserved with Trehalose, and ropes conserved with PEG4000. Identical concentrations of both the Trehalose and PEG4000 solutions started at a concentration of 25 percent brix then increased progressively to 40 percent and 60 percent brix. We employed four different analyses. We used scanning electron microscopy to study morphological properties. Prior to treatment and after treatment we compared numerical evaluation of the colour change using ΔE* values (CIE L*a*b* system). We recorded reflectance using wavelengths of white light ranges (380-780 nm). We used differential scanning calorimetry technique for thermal properties. The results indicate the Trehalose fibers had a melting temperature of 192.8°C and exhibited less change in colour and reflectance compared to the others. The PEG4000 fibers had a melting temperature at 59.3°C. Trehalose had higher thermal properties compared to PEG4000. Thus, Trehalose is an appropriate conservation material for ropes and other fiber-based materials that are stored or displayed in environments with high humidity and temperature, such as the case in Thailand. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Natchaya Pattanasuttirat Kunthida Chimma Puangporn Srisomboon Monchalus Pitisinchoochai Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Pattanasuttirata, Natchaya, Kunthida Chimmab, Puangporn Srisomboon, and Monchalus Pitisinchoochai. 2023. “Conserving Ropes from the Phanom-Surin Shipwreck in Thailand: Case Study on Storage and Exhibition at the National Museum of Thailand.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1908 Asia-Pac Session 14 2023