44 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/71370ad13bac87073e6e6674f0b09da8.pdf c7baa8179255d64d143c47cb35c86169 PDF Text Text Seabee Junkyard: A holistic and locally inclusive approach to site management and interpretation Kalle Applegate Palmer University of Guam, University of Guam Marine Lab, Mangilao, Guam 96923 Email: kalleerin@gmail.com Bill Jeffery Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, South Australia Email: billjeffery@gmail.com Abstract The United States of America (U.S.) Navy’s Construction Battalion called ‘Seabees’ were born in January 1942 from the demand for a unique set of both engineering and combat skills: “We Build, We Fight”. The Seabees were instrumental in the Pacific theater, and played a significant role in rebuilding Guam. Known as the Seabee Junkyard due to the dumping of Seabee materials and equipment after the war, the site located within Apra Harbor, Guam is a popular dive site amongst local and visiting divers. Research on the significance of the site has revealed that it also represented the rapid demobilization of U.S. Navy after World War II (WW II). In July 2012, the University of Guam conducted a Nautical Archaeology Society maritime archaeology training course funded by the Guam Preservation Trust, which resulted in the material identification and surveying of the site. Further site investigations have taken a holistic and locally inclusive approach to the management and interpretation of the site. This includes non-disturbance wreck diving and underwater cultural heritage education in association with developing site preservation strategies, and compilation of a nomination to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Additional activities in promoting the site and educating the diving public will include underwater dive guides, development of a comprehensive site plan and an underwater cultural heritage trail. Engagement with various government agencies and community groups are being implemented to gauge their various levels of interest and assistance in managing and interpreting the site. Baseline environmental assessment surveys are to be conducted to determine the differences in natural communities with significant man-made substrates and those without. Further outreach proposals are being investigated to see if it can fulfill a role as an Educational and Interpretive Park. Key words: Seabees, Apra Harbor, Guam, Marianas archipelago, Micronesia Introduction Guam is the largest and most populated island of the Marianas archipelago. Exposed to European contact since the 1500’s and administered by the U.S. since 1898, the island has been heavily influenced by its colonizers. During WW II, Guam came under the 1 �possession of Japan from 1941 until 1944, at which time the U.S. rapidly developed its military facilities on the island including Advanced Base Guam. Largely responsible for this build-up were the U.S. Navy Construction Battalions, popularly known as the Seabees. With the Seabees came vast amounts of equipment required to conduct such a massive and rapid build-up. At the end of the war, equipment was arriving on island in its largest quantities (Hammer, 1947). When the war ended, men on the front and families at home demanded their immediate return. Large amounts of equipment were dumped in the jungles and oceans of Guam. One dump site known as the Seabee Junkyard contains a large and dense area of submerged equipment in seemingly good condition. The site is positioned at the end of the Glass Breakwater of Apra Harbor; of which the building was one of the highest priority projects undertaken by the Seabees upon repossession in 1944. Little is known about the specifics of when and how the equipment was dumped. Much of the material was unidentified until a July 2012 site survey. The large quantity of man-made substrate provides an opportunity to describe and monitor the natural environment in contrast to other sites lacking the unnatural substrates but with otherwise comparable environmental conditions. The site provides a unique opportunity for a first of its kind holistic management and interpretative project on Guam as it is regularly accessed by recreational divers and exposed to commercial and military activities. Sites on Guam are protected from looters and salvagers today through recent legislation, but they have been plagued by them since the end of WW II. The state of such sites is of concern on the island but difficult to manage because of the ease of access to them and lack of on-site regulatory management. The holistic management and interpretative approach would be inclusive of educational outreach, a U.S. National Register of Historic Places nomination pending the confirmation of its historical significance, as well as the establishment of environmental and site baseline monitoring. Historical Overview The Marianas archipelago is a chain of 15 islands in the Pacific which includes Rota, Saipan and Tinian. Anthropological and archaeological evidences support the biological and cultural diversity of pre-contact Micronesia from around 3,500 BCE, which includes the Chamorro group of people (Dixon et al., 2013). Ferdinand Magellan’s arrival in 1521 2 �marked the beginning of Guam’s European contact and colonization. Spain officially claimed Guam in 1565 and occupied the island until the U.S. took possession in 1898 following the Spanish, American War (Rogers, 2011). A seaplane base was established in Apra Harbor, in 1921, where the most suitable anchorage was located (Hammer, 1947) (Fig. 1). In 1938, the Hepburn report recommended Guam as a location for an advanced base, a fortified base with airfields and naval facilities that could be used to keep combatant forces on the move during future wars (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947). The development of Apra Harbor was prioritized, including building a breakwater along the northwest side of the harbor to protect it from exposure to the natural environment and potential attacks (Hammer, 1947). A mile of the breakwater had been completed when the Japanese bombed Guam on December 8, 1941. The attack resulted in the Japanese occupation. Advanced base work was halted (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947) and pre-existing U.S. documents on the island were destroyed by the Japanese (R. Glass, personal communication, 2013). Fig. 1 Apra Harbor including the location of Seabee Junkyard and Sumay Village. (Sean Newsome, 2012) 3 �Guam was liberated on July 21, 1944 and occupational a Japanese presence on the island ended officially on August 10. The liberation of Guam marked the beginning of the end for Japanese forces. Arriving with the Marines and Army Corp of Engineers were conceived to the Seabees, support combat Fig. 2 Seabees at work on Guam in the 1940‘s. (Bill Jeffery, forces while building advanced 2013) bases in military-active areas (Hammer, 1947). Seabees were organized in ‘Lions’ which provided all support needed to build an advanced base, including multiple battalions and great quantities of equipment. Lion Six, the Lion responsible for work in Guam, began movement on May 1, 1944 (Hammer, 1947). Liberation marked the beginning of a rebuilding period for Guam that resulted in the largest base west of Pearl Harbor and the second largest base in the world (Hammer, 1947). Possession of Apra Harbor was among the invasion objectives. The harbor developments resulted in the 17,000 linealfoot breakwater, 7,500,000 cubic feet of inner harbor dredging and 26,000 lineal-foot quay wall (Fig. 2). The Seabees can be credited with 75 percent of the total construction on Guam with 37,000 construction troops used in the completion of the Advanced Base Guam (U.S.N., 1946). Much of the Seabee’s work did not appear to be the product of any pre-planning and consequently was completed regardless of property lines particularly with the production of Marine Corp Drive (one of Guam’s main and longest roads) (Rogers, 2011). Much of the land used by the military was private land and was not properly rented or paid for by the military. Previous occupants of Sumay village actually remained in refugee camps during this time (Rogers, 2011). The ’Magic Carpet’ operations to get troops home began shortly after the end of the war due to demand and public outcry that forces were not needed any longer (Hammer, 1947). The result was a rapid pace and scale 4 �demobilization resulting in disorganization, misconceptions and infighting. The Truman administration sought post war foreign policy aimed at establishing economic not military power. Truman avoided the increase in deficits and military expenditures, prioritizing the balancing of the budget and ’dismantling the military machine’ (Pollard, 1985). At the time of the end of the war, Seabee equipment was being shipped out to the Pacific in its highest quantities and could not be sent back without contributing to the chaos (Hammer, 1947). As they demobilized on Guam, the Seabees dealt with their equipment by dumping tractors in the jungle and tearing roofs off storage sheds, exposing it to the elements and hastening deterioration (Hammer, 1947). Seabees ruined their material for two reasons. The first was that it was too expensive to ship home; many of the Seabee locations during WWII were very far from the U.S. mainland. The second was that not returning it home created the demand for continued production in the domestic market; returning tractors and dozers that could be re-purposed after their use in the war effort did not stimulate the economy (J. Sprengle, Personal Communication, 2013). The Seabees were among those severely reduced in the post war period. By 1946, more than half of the men on Guam had been sent home and the Naval Operating Base was falling apart (Hammer, 1947). At least thirty-one known locations of submerged material are in Apra Harbor. Among them are two Nationally Registered Historic Places (NRHP) and Guam Register of Historic Places (GRHP), Tokai Maru, a Japanese passenger-cargo freighter struck down by a U.S. submarine in 1943 and SMS Cormoran, a German ship destroyed in 1917 (Dixon, personal communication, 2013). A number of sites in the area qualify as NRHP and or GRHP but have not yet been nominated. Natural Environment Guam is 32 miles long and varies from 4 to 8 miles wide. It differs in its natural environment with a higher Fig. 3 Unidentified material at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) 5 �limestone plateau occupying the northern half and red clay volcanic soil in the southern half which is vulnerable during the regular heavy rains. The island is surrounded by a reef system (Bureau of Yards and Docks, 1947). Changes in the natural environment have occurred since WW II. Apra Harbor has been predominantly used by the U.S. Navy for the naval station and naval supply depot but is also accessed commercially and recreationally. Commercial uses include the Port Authority, the Cabras power plant and recreational uses include diving, snorkeling, fishing, and jet skiing. Recreational, military and commercial activity in the area can be considered a human disturbance that may affect coral reef health. Currently, 27% of the world’s coral reefs are at high risk and 31% at moderate risk due to human disturbance (World Resources Institute, 2013). Confirmed disturbances that are factors at the Seabee Junkyard include coastal development, port installation, recreational activities, tourist facilities, and nuclear activity (Chabanet et al., 2005). The Seabee Junkyard is located at a depth of eight meters, 200 meters inside of Apra Harbor along the Glass Breakwater (Fig. 1). The site covers an estimated two acres of benthic surface area which includes four tractors, an amtrac, ten pontoon outboard motors, cranes, vehicle remains and hundreds of meters of one steel piping (Figs. 3-5). Fish found at the site can include Porcupinefish, Diodon nicthemerus; Moorish idols, Zanclus cornutus; Blue chromis, Chromis cyanea; and Yellow tangs, Zebrasoma flavescens. Invertebrates at the site may include Day octopi, Octopus cyanea; blue Linckia, Linckia laevigata; and Cnidarians including jellyfish and corals. The coral community at the site appears to differ in diversity, quantity and size from those at similar sites without material but this has not yet been confirmed quantitatively. Existing Underwater Archaeological work Since 2002, the National Park Service gave WW II sites a threatened status as a result of the ’significant deterioration, vandalism and looting’. WW II sites on Guam comprise about 20 percent of the islands submerged cultural heritage sites (Jeffery, 2013). Natural and cultural processes at submerged sites ’intermingle’ with each other and may be interpreted and managed simultaneously. Environmental processes which affect a site are specific to the environment they are located in and are inclusive of regional 6 �biology, water movement and quality (Keith, 2004). Multidisciplinary studies surrounding mid-20th century underwater cultural resource sites and the hazards to the environment are emerging. A study on the USS Arizona which was sunk during the battle of Pearl Fig. 4 One of four dozers at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) Fig. 5 Unidentified material at the Seabee Junkyard in 2012. (Bill Jeffery, 2012) Harbor in 1941 was geared towards monitoring the rate of oil release into the ocean as well understanding the nature of and rate of deterioration of the vessel (NPS, 2013). Baseline monitoring was designed and completed to quantifiably assess the changes 7 �over time. Diverse disciplines of research were investigated simultaneously; each related directly or indirectly to overall project objects (Russell et al., 2004). Similarly, an Earthwatch Project in 2006-2008 was completed in Chuuk comparing reef communities, coral and fish diversity, at natural sites with shipwrecks (Jeffery, 2012). Guidelines for monitoring the natural and cultural attributes of submerged historic sites were for the National Historic Preservation Office (HPO) Federated States of Micronesia, Pohnpei (Jeffery et al., 2007). They were intended for use throughout Micronesia and aimed to promote education and training so that additional culturally significant sites could be studied using the same guidelines. Guidelines encompass maritime archaeology, marine biology, corrosion surveying, site conservation and conservation components and stress regular, locally based monitoring for the best management. The development of a database with files on each submerged site was also among the recommendations from the report (Jeffery et al., 2007). There is no existing comprehensive framework for assessing risk and managing polluting wrecks although a series of regional frameworks exist according to Landquist (2013) which sought to analyze risk assessment methods and suggest a framework for risk assessment. Factors in coral reef and resource decline include complications inhibiting abandoned vessel removal as well as vessel impact resulting from contact with reefs according to a 2003 National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration Damage Assessment Center by Smith et al., 2003. The study promotes the need for a data collection identifying abandoned vessels linked to a Geographic Information System. Risks from WW II wreck pollution exist and continue to increase. Thirteen million tons of vessels are reflected in the Pacific WW II information database that consists of 3,800 shipwrecks. Pollution results from leaking oil, fuel, chemicals and unexploded ordinance. Many of these sites are rapidly deteriorating. The Pacific Ocean Pollution Prevention Program of the South Pacific Regional Environment Program (SPREP) developed a regional strategy to investigate ways of minimizing environmental damage resulting from these sites while also preserving site sanctity (Monfils et al., 2006). Creating artificial reefs by sinking de-fouled ships or other materials has been increasingly popular. The Victorian Artificial Reef Society in Australia scuttled the ex HMAS Canberra in 2005 to develop an artificial reef dive site. A biological assessment 8 �of the site conducted in 2006 established that the wreck may still be less diverse than the natural reef in the area nearby although home to multiple fish and invertebrate species. The study was intended as a baseline study for which future assessments could be compared (Schlacher-Hoenlinger et al., 2006). Project Focus In July 2012, the Seabee Junkyard was mapped and surveyed by a Nautical Archaeology Field School at the University of Guam funded by Guam Preservation Trust. The field school recommended the distribution of the site plan (Fig. 6) as well as community outreach, and further historical research to improve site interpretation and management. The site survey resulted Fig. 6 Seabee Junkyard Site Map. (Bill Jeffery, 2013) in the positive identification of WW II Seabee material at the site. Funded by Guam Preservation Trust, an intensive program of community and stakeholder engagement was conducted in July 2013. The program collected feedback on potentially renaming the site as well as further developing it as an underwater educational and interpretive park. This project is being conducted in conjunction with the program. Outcomes from stakeholder engagement included the production of educational and recreational tools for divers, tourists and community members. This project will take a holistic approach to in situ interpretation and management that incorporates the site history, site value, and environmental baseline studies of sites. This will promote protection of both the history and the environment with nondisturbance diving techniques promoted throughout the region. The easy accessibility of the site and diversity of substrates, both man-made and natural as well as its exposure to human disturbances in a relatively protected natural environment provides a unique opportunity for research, monitoring and education. Gaining a better understanding of the natural environment at the site can give insight as to the impacts of the WWII 9 �material on the environment. Studying the secondary depositional process of the salvage of a site after wreckage, predominantly by looters, which alters the archaeological record left since the primary depositional process of the actual wreckage of the material can complement interpretation of the site (Keith, 2004; Muckelroy, 1978). At the site, there is little to no material that may be lifted by hand with much of it removed by local and visiting looters (M. Beggs, Personal Communication, 2013). Local management of these sites has not been effective in preventing the extensive looting from cultural sites and damage to both natural and cultural heritage. In contrast, in Chuuk, dive guides generally help in curbing looting and there for the protection of these submerged cultural heritage sites (Jeffery, 2012). There is some legal protection in place; permits administered by Guam Historic Preservation Office are required to recover material under Title 21 (Real Property) Chapter 76 (Historical Objects and Sites). The U.S. protects the sovereignty of sunken government vessels, aircraft and spacecraft. Recovery of such craft is not allowed without permission (Federal Register, 2004). The U.S. Navy does not allow recovery or disturbance of the material nor alteration of the site which is on land managed both by either the U.S. Navy or the Guam Historic Preservation Office. Studies carried out on the Seabee Junkyard have to be approved by both entities. Methods Establishing and conducting the environmental baseline assessment requires preliminary surveys of the water column and the benthic community will be conducted. The assessment for all categories will record down to the lowest taxon possible. The water column study will be conducted using the Stationary Point Count (SPC) method which is optimal for monitoring large and mobile species. Three cylindrical areas in the research site and the control site will be assigned and fish, mobile invertebrates, and mega fauna will be tallied in the area. The cylindrical area will be five meters in diameter and data collected will reflect all fish in the entire water column with only those penetrating the area recorded for species. Surveying will start with five minutes of observation and species listing before counting for five minutes (Ayotte et al., 2011). Data collected will also include bottom current, visibility, transect depth and 10 �slope. Rugosity measurements will be made dissecting the SPC monitoring zones along a 10 m transect tape. The benthic community survey data will be collected using quadrats and line-intersect transects. Data collected will be in two parts: the substrate type, and what is on the substrate. Categories for substrate type are man-made or natural. Man-made substrates include wood, metal, plastic. Natural substrates include pavement, dead coral, sand patches, rubble, and rock. Growth on substrate may be categorized as live hard coral, soft coral, coraline algae, macroalgae, other, recently killed/dead coral, rubble, pavement, and sand. Benthic community data will be statistically analyzed using a one-way ANOVA and a Cluster Analysis, hierarchically grouping data by similarity, will be applied for the results of the SPC survey. This preliminary analysis is a question driven monitoring framework which will assist in determining the survey design (Houk and van Woesik, 2013). Conclusion In order to meet the project objective of holistically interpreting and managing the site in situ, the following outputs are being developed: U.S. National Register of Historic Places Nomination, Environmental Baseline Assessment, and development of public outreach and education including a dive map, presentations to schools and tourism operators. Research to produce a NRHP nomination for Seabee Junkyard is being conducted to ascertain the site’s historical significance. Interpreting and nominating the site promotes awareness about the lasting effects of WWII dumping, moving undesirable goods out of sight and out of mind at the likely expense of the natural environment. Revealing the site’s history helps to understand the site’s value, which may be utilized as an educational and tourism oriented asset for present day Guamanians. The baseline environmental assessment will provide a snapshot (Chabanet et al., 2005) of the site by describing the benthic community, invertebrate populations, and fish populations. Findings from the site will be compared to that of another site without material but similar conditions, depth and proximity along the Glass Breakwater. Information obtained from the assessment includes fish community descriptors, coral morphological diversity, and the ratio of dead and live standing coral on man-made as 11 �opposed to natural substrates. This comparison which is yet to be undertaken will help to understand the impact of the manmade material on the environment as well the impact of the environment on the material. Questions to be investigated also include the quantity and diversity of species at the site as well as the settlement success of coral on the man-made material. The assessment is intended to establish a method for surveillance monitoring (Houk and van Woesik, 2013) of the site that can be conducted with its continued management. This assessment would be the first of its kind conducted on submerged cultural heritage sites on Guam and can act as a model for future monitoring design on other sites on island and in the region. Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge my graduate advisor, Dr. Laurie Raymundo with the University of Guam Marine Lab and graduate committee member, Dr. John Peterson, Director of the University of Guam Micronesian Area Research Center. Additional thanks to the Guam Preservation Office for funding the July 2012 underwater archaeology course resulting in the detailed survey of the Seabee Junkyard. References Ayotte, P., McCoy, K., Williams, I., and Zamzow, J., 2011. Coral Reef Ecosystem Division Standard Operating Procedures: Data Collection for Rapid Ecological Assessment Fish Surveys. Pacific Island Fish. Sci. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Honolulu, HI. Pacific Islands Fish. Sci. Cent. Admin. Rep. H-11-08, 24, accessed online 17 October 2013, <http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov/library/pubs/admin/PIFSC_Admin_Rep_11-08.pdf> Chabanet, P., Adjeroud, M., Andrefouet, S., Bozec, Y., Ferraris, J., Garcia-Charton, J., and Schrimm, M., 2005. Human-induced physical disturbances and their indicators on coral reef habitats: A multi-scale approach. Aquatic Living Resources, Vol. 18: 215-230. Department of the Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks. 1947. Building the Navy’s Bases in World War II: History of the Bureau of Yards and Docks and the Civil Engineer Corps, 1940-46, accessed online <http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/Building_Bases/index.html> 28 February 2013. 12 �Department of State, 2004. Federal Register 69-24, 5 February 2004. Federal Register online via the Government Printing Office, accessed online <www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2004-02-05/html/04-2488.htm> 1 September 2013. Dixon, B., Gilda, L., and Mangieri, T., 2013. Archaeological Identification of Stone Fishweirs Mentioned to Freycinet in 1819 on the Island of Guam. The Journal of Pacific History, Vol. 48 (4): 349-368, DOI: 10.1080/00223344.2013.856666. Hammer, D, H., 1947. Lion Six. United States Naval Institute. Menasha, Wisconsin. Houk, P., and van Woesik., 2013. Progress and Perspectives on Question-Driven CoralReef Monitoring. BioScience, Vol. 63 (4): 297-303. Jeffery, B., Beger, M., MacLeod, I., Richards, V., Hengeveld, M., and Carpenter, J., 2007. Guidelines in Recording and Monitoring the Natural and Cultural Attributes of Submerged Historic Sites in the Federal States of Micronesia. National Historic Preservation Office Federated States of Micronesia Pohnpei, September 2007. Jeffery, B., 2012. The future of Chuuk Lagoon’s submerged WWII sites. Bulletin of the Australiasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 36: 15-30. Jeffery, B., 2013. Concept Plan, Seabee Underwater Heritage Park. Unpublished Report for Guam Preservation Trust, Hagatna, Guam. Keith, M., 2004. A Model for Studying Wolrd War Ii-era Lcms in the Archaeological Record. Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations. Paper 3240, accessed online <http:diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd> 12 Dec 2013. Landquist, H., 2013. Environmental risk assessment of shipwrecks: A fault-tree model for assessing the probability of containment release. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, Vol. 9-3: 537-538. Monfils, R., Gilbert, T., and Nawadra, S., 2006. Sunken WWII shipwrecks of the Pacific and East Asia: The need for regional collaboration to address the potential marine pollution threat. Ocean and Coastal Management, Vol. 49: 779-788. Muckelroy, K., 1978. Maritime archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. National Park Service. 8 September 2013. World War II Valor in the Pacific Frequently Asked Questions, accessed online <http://www.nps.gov/valr/faqs.htm> 30 September 2013. 13 �Pollard, R, A., 1985. Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945-1950. Columbia University Press, New York: 20-23, accessed online <https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pollard.htm> 12 September 2013. Rogers, R. F., 2011. Destiny’s Landfall: A history of Guam. University of Hawaii Press, (First edition 1995), Guam. Russell, M. A., Murphy, L. E., Johnson, D. L., Foecke, T. J., Morris, P. J., and Mitchell, R. 2004. Science for Stewardship: Multidisciplinary Research on USS Arizona. Marine Technology Society Journal, Vol. 38 (3): 54-63. Schlacher-Hoenlinger, M. A., Walker, S. J., Johnson, S. T.A., and Hooper, J. N. A., 2006. Final Report on Biological baseline survey of the ex-HMAS Brisbane artificial reef. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): 110. Smith, A., Helton, D., and Zelo, I., 2003. Developing a Database to Support and Prioritize the Removal of Abandoned Vessels Impacting Coral Resources. International Oil Spill Conference: Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration- Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, American Petroleum Institute publication No. I 4730 B: 575-578. World Resources Institute. 2013. Status of the world’s coral reefs. Washington, DC, accessed online <www.wri.org/publication/content/8354> 30 September 2013. Biography Kalle Applegate Palmer is a Master of Science student in the University of Guam Environmental Science Management Program completing her work through the Marine Laboratory. She completed her undergraduate degree at the University of Washington, College of Architecture and Urban Planning in 2006 majoring in Community, Environment and Planning and minoring in History and Finnish Language. Kalle received a certificate in Aquarium Science from Oregon Coast Community College in 2010 and has worked at Oregon Coast Aquarium, Birch Aquarium and Underwater World Guam. She is a PADI Open Water SCUBA instructor, American Academy of Underwater Sciences Certified Diver and currently working on her Level Three Nautical Archaeology Certification. Bill Jeffery has been working as a maritime archaeologist for over 30 years. Bill formulated and coordinated a maritime heritage program for a state government agency, Heritage South Australia from 1981-2001. He went onto working with the Federated States of Micronesia National Historic Preservation Office and completing a PhD in maritime archaeology at James Cook University. He is a consulting maritime archaeologist to ERM Hong Kong, the CIE-Centre for International Heritage Activities 14 �and the Hong Kong Maritime Museum and has implemented various types of archaeological and heritage management programs in Australia, the Pacific Islands, Hong Kong, Sri Lanka and various countries in Africa. He has conducted maritime archaeology field schools with the Flinders University, University of Guam and James Cook University in addition to teaching Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS) training programs in nine different countries. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development Subject The topic of the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 with links to the papers presented in Session 3. Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Seabee Junkyard: A holistic and locally inclusive approach to site management and interpretation Description An account of the resource The United States of America (U.S.) Navy’s Construction Battalion called ‘Seabees’ were born in January 1942 from the demand for a unique set of both engineering and combat skills: “We Build, We Fight”. The Seabees were instrumental in the Pacific theater, and played a significant role in rebuilding Guam. Known as the Seabee Junkyard due to the dumping of Seabee materials and equipment after the war, the site located within Apra Harbor, Guam is a popular dive site amongst local and visiting divers. Research on the significance of the site has revealed that it also represented the rapid demobilization of U.S. Navy after World War II (WW II). In July 2012, the University of Guam conducted a Nautical Archaeology Society maritime archaeology training course funded by the Guam Preservation Trust, which resulted in the material identification and surveying of the site. Further site investigations have taken a holistic and locally inclusive approach to the management and interpretation of the site. This includes non-disturbance wreck diving and underwater cultural heritage education in association with developing site preservation strategies, and compilation of a nomination to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Additional activities in promoting the site and educating the diving public will include underwater dive guides, development of a comprehensive site plan and an underwater cultural heritage trail. Engagement with various government agencies and community groups are being implemented to gauge their various levels of interest and assistance in managing and interpreting the site. Baseline environmental assessment surveys are to be conducted to determine the differences in natural communities with significant man-made substrates and those without. Further outreach proposals are being investigated to see if it can fulfill a role as an Educational and Interpretive Park. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kalle Applegate Palmer Bill Jeffery, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 3 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ca521fbf9871fd5ccea14958a5342eab.pdf 50a2da2b93919375039998fd8e24370c PDF Text Text Seamanship and Navigation: Seafarers on Board Daily Skills in Chinese Junk Xu Lu Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society xuluxm2013@yahoo.com Yu Long Fa Xiamen Old Fishing Port 13666084562@163.com Abstract Chinese sailing traditions changed a little through time; sailors inherited their onboard skills, expertise, and experience by orally imparting others with physical instruction. But these daily skills were rarely recorded or studied in the past. For seafarers, how to operate and maneuver a Chinese junk was their daily work; and apart from sparse historical documents such as Phing-Chou Kho Than (Yu, 1117), Shi Liu-Qiu Lu (Xiao and Xia, 1580) (Fig. 1), and preliminarily observations by G.R.G. Worcester, Joseph Needham, Thomas Hoppe, and others, seamanship and navigation were kept in the minds of surviving successions of living sailors. In 2004, the author had an opportunity to sail on a nearly 100 year old Jin Hua Xin as an apprentice sailor for her last voyage. Several months of onboard experiences provided a rare field investigation to approach the complex mechanism of crew, their organization and their daily work. This experience led the authors to raise a marine ethnographic field investigation project along Fujian coast. Experimental archaeology creates effective scenes for realistic performance of past systems. A small full-size replica LanTay II was built for a series of archaeological voyages; the data gathered from the traces of past sailing routes will verify and add some knowledge for understanding the real daily work of Chinese seafarers onboard. In this paper, the authors shall present combined researches on historical documents, past observations with lively oral materials achieved by marine ethnographic field investigation on traditional sailing ports along South Fujian coast; throughout this research, the authors approach the knowledge about seafarers onboard daily skills and try to present the research about the sailors methods to maneuver the junk and its navigation system by means of a combination of instinct, eyesight, memory, and skill. �Key words: Chinese junk, seafaring, ethnography Fig. 1: One of the Earlier Documents to Record the Compass Bearing Direction for Sailing Routes between Fu-Chow to Ryukyu in 1580. Introduction In 2004, the author had opportunity to sail on the three-masted Jin Hua Xin as an apprentice sailor for her last voyage, this long voyage from Dong Shan Bay of southern Fujian to Zhu-Hai of Canton took 9 days and covered 330 nautical miles. Jin Hua Xin was the last working traditional sailing junk in China coast; nearly 100 years old (Xu, 2010). Several months of onboard investigation voyage provided a rare field experience to approach the complex mechanism of crew, their organization, and their daily work; and this experience led the author to raise a subject of seafarers with a marine ethnographic field investigation project along the Fujian coast in 2001. The details of seafarers daily work on Chinese junks are little known by outsiders previously; yet the last successors of sailors and fishermen recollected their past stories piece by piece. Experimental archaeology creates an effective scene for realistic performance of past systems by sailing a full-scale reconstruction boat. A small full-size replica LanTay II is planning an archaeological voyage to cross the Taiwan Strait, the data gathered from the traces of past sailing routes will verify and add some knowledge for understanding the real daily work of Chinese seafarers onboard. Previous Researches �The studies on seamanship for operating and maneuvering Chinese junks have not yet been explored in detail. To improve productivity, safety and speed standards of the traditional water transport industry, a unique official field investigation and iconographies collected for Chinese cargo junks had been engaged in Fujian during 1958-1959. These works were restrictedly published in book in 1960，also a reference for sail design and use was attached in its appendices. This may be the only short description in Chinese for sailing practices. Sometime in the early 20th century, European scholars tried to understand the composition of Chinese junk. A brief description about the structure and working principle of yuloh has been included in G.R.G. Worcester’s marine ethnographic field investigation (1947). Joseph Needham (1971) also had a brief introduction about the action of wind on a Chinese junk under sail, and the principles of tacking and wearing. There are also a few references about the performance of Chinese sails under different angles of apparent wind in Thomas Hoppe’s English manuscript in 2004. One of the earlier European scholars who observed Chinese traditional navigation is G. R. G. Worcester (1947). He noticed some important details and technical logic that others had not found before; his description is a following: “In former days, lighted joss sticks suspended from the deck head were the only timepieces…the cheap alarm chock has greatly simplified navigation for the junk master. The junks carry no charts of any kind. The laodahs find their way by means of a skillful combination of sea instinct, keen eyesight, good memory, and an instinct for direction nearly as a homing pigeon…they stand in for the land, depending entirely upon their knowledge of its appearance and the depth and nature of the soundings to give them position, for to them the bottom of the sea has its hills and valleys like the land, and they acquire an intimate acquaintance with its contours and the type of bottom to be expected in each locality.” �Another European scholar, Joseph Needham, noted the joss sticks used by Chinese seafarers (1971): “…(besides sand-glass,) Burning incense in stick-like form is a practice which goes far back into China’s Middle Ages, and it would have been very easy to measure time approximately enough with the ‘joss-sticks’.” Needham (1971) also categorized the history of navigational methods into three periods: (a) primitive navigation (b) quantitative navigation (Measurement): +900 A.D. in East Asia (c) mathematical navigation: +1500 A.D. In 2008, an original map of the China Seas region was rediscovered in the Bodleian Library Special Collections in Oxford by Robert K. Batchelor (2014) and Timothy Brook (2013). The Selden Map is a detailed map of Southern China dated the mid-16th century; it appears that the old Xiamen port is the beginning of all the sea routes on the map, it also labeled the trade routes departing from Xiamen. A recent paper summarized the navigation and religion in traditional Chinese junk have listed several historical materials and demonstrated with two collections of sounding lead in Quan-Zhou (Lin, 2015). Historical Contexts A boat under sail is a very complex historical mechanism; the vessel consists and represents a naval architecture system, as the tools for different functions, as a space to reflect the weather, the waves and the currents, and as a society for the composition of crew and their daily life. In his encyclopaedic work, Heavenly Creations (chapter on boat, Tian- �Gong-Kai-Wu), Song Yingxing (1637) divided the Chinese vessels into sea-going, river and other craft; and then, he classified these for many types according to their different sailing environment. This classification may be applied even today because Chinese sailing traditions have changed little through time, and the last sailors and fishermen of wooden sailing junk still survive/alive. This paper focuses on Sha-Po-Wei, the main area of old Xiamen port until the first half of the 20th century, the ages when wooden sailing boats shuttle in the Taiwan Strait. Sha-Po-Wei, along with adjacent coast lines, was an ideal port for seafarers due to its location on the sea route connecting East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Taiwan (Fig. 2). The demand of marine transportation and ocean fishery brought seafarers from coastal regions of Quan-Zhou and lower Zhang-Zhou River. Seafarers of Sha-PoWei divided into two types: crews and fishermen. The crews mainly migrated from Hui-An county of Quan-Zhou, while fishermen moved from Zhang-Zhou river basin belong to Hai-Chen county. Fishermen of Sha-Po-Wei called themselves ‘sea beggars,’ and it is subdivided into several groups according different fishing method, namely types and lengths of fishing vessel. Those groups (between fishermen and local resident, fishermen and crews, even between different groups of Sha-Po-Wei fishermen) were rarely communicating each other. Furthermore, both fishermen and crews lived in their own enclosed social space to avoid troubles with others; many of them have not even walked several miles out to countryside in whole their life. �Fig. 2: A Map of South Fujian and Old Amoy Port Sha-Po-Wei. Organization To learn composition of crews is the first step to approach their daily life. In general, 15-20 tons deadweight trade vessel with two sails allocated 56 sailors, 30-35 tons also two sails would be 7-8 sailors, 55-65 tons with three sails has 12-13 sailors. Crews were temporary employed between by the ship owner; however, in addition to their lower wage, every sailor was allowed to carry a few private cargo up to 250 kilograms, and usually the ‘laodahs’ (equivalent to captain in Western) had doubled weight and doubled payment more than other crews. There are five chief positions in Chinese trade vessel; these were laodah, (and vice laodah, which is �equivalent to helmsman in the western world), mast head, sampan, foreboard, and supply chief (besides the ‘chu-hai’ who served as ship owner's representative also in charge of accounting and port to call for loading and unloading cargo). The crews were on duty during the day and in two shifts in the night; they changed shifts in midnight. Laodah and vice laodah keep working throughout the voyage until they cast the anchor. Chuhai did not participate in onboard works. For a local long-line fishing vessels crew size was much bigger than a corresponding-sized merchant ship. Lodah and vice laodah had to work day and night during the deep-sea fishing voyage; there were no chief positions for other sailors, hence there were no arranged shifts. After vessel dropped the long liner fishing, sampans were lowered one by one along the fishing route; 3-4 sailors on each sampan were taking back the hooks. This hard work usually lasted all day long. There is a small shrine at the aft area of the poop deck containing the effigy of the junk’s patron saints, Goddess of Mercy, Matsu, Guandi, etc. The laodah or vice laodah of trade vessel burned incense in stick-like ‘joss-stick’ one by one throughout the voyage to keep alight in the shrine where the compass laid also. For fishing junks, it was same but joss-stick only burned one in morning and one in evening, as well as some important occasions and critical times. Many local long liners have one ‘tong-ki’, a trance-state man while intercommunicated oracles onboard; he would give advice in case of an emergency. The tong-ki was a fisherman in normal times, and they did not receive extra payment. A living room/quarters was located at the aft area of the ship, or the lower area of the quarter-poop deck; laodah’s bunk on the back on the left, opposite side was for chu-hai. In Chinese junk, portside also named yuloh side while starboard called sail side. Ice butt and stove located in the sail �side, toilet and water bin were in the yuloh side. Sailors carried water in a bin contained 30 ‘dan’, or 1500 kilograms. Seamanship The bamboo strip sails had been adopted in Chinese junks since the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), and used up until the early 20th century. However, the last successors of seafarers along the Fujian coast, which the average age is 80 years old, mostly never saw the bamboo sails; some of them just heard them from their previous generation or two generations earlier in which these sails were being used. To operate a bamboo matting sail, it has to be rolled and unrolled; it is heavier than one used cloth sail. There is an idiom applied to both sail types, and that says ‘trim one's rubber to the wind’. The cloth lugsail was fasten on odd number of bamboo from luff to leech where could see the balance from the mast; each end of the batten on the leech was connected by the bight and through some euphroes lead the control sheets terminated in one main sheet to the stern of the upper deck. The sail was often very heavy, and it required the whole crew at the winch to set the sail. On Jin Hua Xin, it required approximately 12 minutes with six sailors to turn the winch. The vice laodah held the tiller and order the trimmer to control the main sheet, while the laodah served as a navigator and rarely handled the rudder. The leeward sailing, windward sailing, and wind abeam sailing were the main points of Chinese sailing junk under different angles of apparent wind. The latter was rarely recorded by previous researchers, both Song Yingxing (1637) and Needham (1971) seemed to be confused between the beam reach and windward sailing. The local seafarers call it ‘tripod sheet’ as the sheet system have fasted the main sail keep it at approximate 50 degree angle with the stern, which is the position in between the leeward sailing and windward sailing. The Old Xiamen �seafarers often used tripod sheet when they set sail to Tainan by the winter monsoon (northeast or north wind). The main sail of Fujian junk was hung on starboard side of the mast, thus the sailors on quarterdeck would see the bamboo battens while sailing with tripod sheet; they called it open sail (all the way on the road was port tack, the batten was force to left the mast). When the boat went back to Xiamen by using same monsoon, no matter sailing with close reach or beam reach ,it was starboard tack; this was call close sail (the batten was pushed to touch the mast) as the bamboo battens could not been seen at the position of laodah. Moreover, Chinese sailors often worked to windward tacking and jibing by turn the stern to wind; accident jibe was deemed to be dangerous especially under the strong wind. Onboard tools include axes, nails, knives and cloth tec., were used for emergency repairs. The author learnt and experienced to block the bottom loopholes in the towed voyage of Lan Tay II at February 2004 (Fig. 3). Fig. 3: To block the bottom loopholes of the LanTay II. �Navigation Just like people live in mountains naturally know and understand their surrounding landform, Chinese seafarers understood that the seabed had hills and valleys similar to the land with different sediment types; sailors used these sediments and topography of the seabed to acquire positions of the vessel on voyages. The last successors of Fujian seafarers did not use the needle sailing route manuscripts, but they relied on their trained eyesight and memories. Yet, some of them also learnt the manuscripts given by their previous generation; therefore, they can read and understand it. Phing-Chou Kho Than, written between 1111 and 1117 by Chu Yu, described navigation techniques as follow: “The ship’s pilots are acquainted with the configuration of the coasts, at night they steer by the stars, and in the day-time by the sun. In dark weather they look at the south-point needle (compass). They also use a line a hundred feet long with a hook at the end, which they let down to take samples of mud from the sea-bottom, by its smell they can determine their whereabouts.” The sounding lead was used to ascertain the depth of water, the head of lead has a hole filled with soap or grease to stick to a few seabed materials to identify if there was sand, mud, or stones. The weight of a sounding lead was between 3-5 kilograms. The word ‘fathom’ and ‘water’ was used by old Xiamen port seafarers to mean a two-arm span, which is approximately 1.6 meters. Usage of the sounding lead was also described by Xiao LiuQiu Man Zhi written in 1755. When thrown into the sounding lead from window of yuloh or shipboard, sailors should remain the boat stationary. Every five waters there was a red sign in the rope. �The laodah or vice laodah burned a joss-stick and kept it alight in the shrine after the ship set sail, and each incense ran about one hour; this also helped them to acquire the positions in the sailing route. Chinese seafarers almost never used the ‘distance’ to describe the sea route, but instead of ‘how long’ it took. In the middle of the Selden Map, there is an illustration of a Chinese mariner’s compass at the top, this may be the earliest sample can be seen today (Fig. 4). The compass was divided into 24 points represented by the twelve Chinese, earthly branches and the twelve heavenly stems. The most common compass was consisted of a round wood box, where an arrow shaped needle was balanced inside. The oldest style compass was dry-pivoted, later ones were filled with water; yet both were called ‘drygen’ by local seafarers. After the compass was improved with 12 Chinese characters, it came to 360 degrees; this compass was called ‘luo-gen’. The seafarers were taught to use the compass and to calculate the tides and winds since they were young. Every seagoing junk had two dry-gens, at least, should one needle lose its magnetic field. The Vice laodah kept one on his side, while the loadah kept another one. In the night, it was illuminated by the laodah’s opium pipe. Even sampans from long line fishing junks had their own small dry-gens. Fig. 4 (right): The Chinese Mariner’s Compass on Selden Map. �Besides compass and sounding lead, Sha-Po-Wei fishermen used primitive astronomical guidance for them to orient themselves. They could read directions by simply by 4 stars during the night. Venus for east, Needle End Star for south, West Star for west and North Star for north. Sailing Routes There are a least eleven historical documents about compasses and its bearing directions for sailing routes in Taiwan Strait: these are listed as follows: 1. Si yi Guang Ji (四夷广记), written between 1592 and 1598 by Shen Mao Shang. 2. Shun Feng Hsiang Sung (顺风相送 Fair Winds for Escort), written in about 1593. 3. Tung His Yang Khao (东西洋考 Studies on the Oceans East and West) ,written in 1617 by Chuang Hsich. 4. Chih Nan Cheng Fa (指南正法 General Compass Bearing Sailing Directions), written before 1669. 5. Hai Kuo Wen Chien Lu (海国闻见录)，written in 1730 by Chen Lun Jiong 6. Peng hu Ji Lue (澎湖纪略)，written during the reign of Emperor Qianlong in Qing Dynasty by Hu Jian Wei. 7. Xiao Liu Qiu Man Zhi (小琉球漫志)，written in 1755 by Zhu Shi Jia. 8. Wai Hai Ji Yao (外海纪要), written in early 19th century by Li Zen Jie. 9. Xia-Men Zhi (厦门志，Xiamen Chronicle), written in 1839 by Zhou Kai. 10. Xia-Men-Gang ji shi (厦门港纪事), written in 1843 by Dou Zheng Biao. 11. Hai Jiang Yao Lue Bi Jiu (海疆要略必究), written in 1856 by Li Yan Yu. �When a ship set sail to Tainan from Xiamen, nearly all the above documents showed similar descriptions for navigation; departing from Nan Tai Wu of Xiamen at direction between ‘chen’ and ‘Xun’ (amount to 127.5°)，it takes seven ‘gen’ to Peng-Hu hill, then sail at direction of ‘xun’ (about 135°)，and it takes another five ‘gen’ to Luerhmen of Tainan. Many sailors of old Xiamen port served on merchant junks between south Fujian and Taiwan; they sailed to Tai-Nan in north wind season, went to Wu-Qi of Taichung, Lu-Kang of Chang-Hua, Dong-Shi and Bu-Dai of Chia-Yi, kee-Lung during south wind season. Mostly, they set sail from the old Xiamen port; it took less than one tide to arrive Bay Liao-Luo of Quemoy. After waiting for good wind, they set sail again and used the tripod sheet sailing to Ma-Kung of Peng-Hu for approximately twenty hours. They then waited for suitable winds and tides to Luerhmen; it would take another 10 hours. They would try to sail closer to the east direction when sailed across Taiwan Strait. It would take much less time when ones sailed from Tainan to Xiamen. Archaeological Experiment of LanTay II On 21st May 2017 at 10 am, LanTay II set sail from port of Liao-Luo of Quemoy planning to trace the historical sailing route by heading 127.5° to Peng-Hu (Fig. 5). The weather forecast for the day were Wind Northeast Beaufort force 3, Swell 1.3 meters, but the author onboard found that the wind had veered to east and increasingly, while the swell is more angular than the wind after the ship entered Taiwan Strait. The course of the ship had to turn in direction of 170°-180° to steer quartering sea. The LanTay II was under control until 16 pm, when the skipper made the decision to abandon the boat at the position 24.1743°N, 118.5535°E, while the situation was Wind East Beaufort force 6-7, Swell 3 meters and 6-7 meters �instantaneous. The 6 years of preparatory archaeological voyage lasted 6 hours, all the crew numbers transferred to companion ship. Fig. 5: The archaeological voyage of LanTay II. As postmortem reports of the experiment, Sha-Po-Wei indigenous fishermen had compiled the warning signals as below: a. The day of 21st May was the 26th day of the fourth month in Chinese lunar calendar, one of the brightest days of the Great White Planet in the whole year; and it is the day for brewing disaster the whole year ahead in Taiwan Strait. It means that this is a day with storm surge and a taboo day for sailing. b. The included angle of wind and wave increasing with the height of the sun which reached the maximum after 12 am, and they stacked up into higher swell. The best set sailing time to cross Taiwan Strait was 4 am. �c. The position where the ship was abandoned is right between seabed valley and hills based on the past records; that was where the swell on the sea surface become rougher (Fig. 6). Fig. 6: The Sha-Po-Wei indigenous fisherman motioned the topography of the seabed of the Taiwan Strait they recorded half a century ago. Discussion The seamanship and navigation of the Chinese Junk requires a plethora of nautical knowledge and a variety of onboard skills. All knowledge regarding Junk ships (including sail and rudder, sounding lead, mariner’s compass, joss-stick, compass bearing recorded for sailing route, wind and tide, etc.) formed a closely connected knot of complementary techniques. The information gathered during the marine ethnographic field investigations at old Xiamen port indicated that a series of traditional onboard skills displayed by the last successors of sailors and fishermen may be closely corresponding to skills and techniques described in the historical documents that range from Song Dynasty to Qing Dynasty. Nonetheless, details of the geographic parameters of sailing routes are still obscure, such as accurate depths and seabed materials, and the sailing directions under the effect on winds and tides. An old local �seafarers proverb says, ‘The stationary compass bearing recorded but flexible brains’, and also says ‘Live performances to speak clearly’, thus experimental archaeological methodologies, or sailing a real ship, shall be used to study their historical context to reconstruct navigational practices and methodologies for sailing in China Seas. The better way forward with archaeological voyages is involving the older seamen and indigenous fishermen into the sailing investigations. The authors believe that expected discoveries of this research-investigation will bring new evidence that significantly extends our knowledge of earlier onboard lives of Chinese Junk ships. Oral Sources 1. Capt. Zhuang XingJie, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 27th March 2012. 2. Capt. Zhuang XingJie, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 30th March 2012. 3. Huang ChaoQi, Ruan PengShi, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 11th April 2012. 4. Capt. Zhuang XingJie, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 13th April 2012. 5. Huang ChaoQi, Yu LongFa, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 21st April 2012. 6. Huang Chao Qi, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 17th June 2014. 7. Ruan YaYing, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 10th November 2014. 8. Ruan YaYing, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 11th April 2015. 9. Zen JinTang, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 12th April 2015. 10. Ruan YaYing, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 12th December 2015. 11. Zen JinTang, Pi Shan Road of Xiamen, 18th December 2015. 12. Ruan QueTou, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 27th December 2015. 13. Ruan ShiLu, Sha-Po-Wei of Xiamen, 30th December 2015. 14. Ruan ShiLu, Ruan QueTou, Sha Po Wei of Xiamen, 8th January 2016. �15. Capt. Zhang TongLong, Ruan QingTing, and Yu LongFa, Si Ming Nan Road of Xiamen, 27th May 2017. References Anonymous, 1653. Selden Map of Southern China and Southeast Asia (MS Selden Supro 105). Bodleian Library (University of Oxford), Oxford. Anonymous, 1593. Fair Winds for Escort / Shun Feng Hsiang Sung (MS Selden Supro 145). Bodleian Library (University of Oxford), Oxford. Anonymous, ca. 1669. Chih Nan Cheng Fa / General Compass Bearing Sailing Directions (MS Selden Supro 578). Bodleian Library (University of Oxford), Oxford. Batchelor, R. K., 2014. The Selden Map and the Making of a Global City, 1549–1689. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Brook, T., 2013. Mr. Selden's Map of China: Decoding the Secrets of a Vanished Cartographer. Bloomsbury Press, New York. Chen, Lun Jiong, 1730. Hai Kuo Wen Chien Lu, Repn. in 1970. Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei. Chu, Yu, 1111-1117. Phing-Chou Kho Than, Repn in 2006. Elephant Press, Zhengzhou. Chuang, Hsich, 1617. Tung His Yang Khao (Studies on the Oceans East and West), Rpen in 1970. Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei. Dou, Zheng-Biao, 1843. Xia-Men-Gang ji shi. In Six Xiamen Territoria Seas Literatures Annotation of Xiamen, Repn. in 2013, Xiamen University Press, Xiamen. Hoppe, T., 2004-2008. Mainland China Revival of the Junk. Unpublished Manuscript. Hu, JianWei, ca. 1736. Peng hu Ji Lue, Repn. in 1970. Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei. Li, YanYu, 1856. Hai Jiang Yao Lue Bi Jiu. In Six Xiamen Territoria Seas Literatures Annotation of Xiamen, Repn. in 2013, Xiamen University Press, Xiamen. �Li, ZenJie, ca.1800. Wai Hai Ji Yao. In Six Xiamen Territoria Seas Literatures Annotation of Xiamen, Repn. in 2013, Xiamen University Press, Xiamen. Lin, Han, 2015. Navigation and religion in traditional Chinese ship. Symposium of Navigation and Religion of the Traditional Ships in East Asia, Busan. Needham, J.,1971. Science and Civilisation in China, Nautical Research, Vol. IV: Physics and Physical, Part III: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Sailing Cargo Junks Office of Department of Transportation of Fujian (Ed.), 1960. Fu jian sheng Mu Fan Chuan tu ji (Collection of Cargo Junks Drawings for Fujian Province). Department of Transportation of Fujian, Fuzhou. Shen, MaoShang, 1592-1598. Si yi Guang Ji, Repn. in 1947. China Central Library, Nanking. Song, YingXing, 1637. Heavenly Creations (Tian-Gong-Kai-Wu) in Sequel to Si-Ku-Quan-Shu, Zi Radical, Repn. in 2002. Shanghai Ancient Books Press, Shanghai. Worcester, G. R. G., 1947. The Junks and Sampans of the Yangtze: A Study in Chinese Nautical Research, Vol. 1: Introduction and Craft of the Estuary and Shanghai Area. Statistical Department of the Inspectorate General of Customs, Shanghai. Xiao, ChongYe and Xie Jie, 1580. Shi Ryukyu Lu (Diplomatic Mission to Ryukyu), Repn. in 1997. Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taipei. Xu, Lu, 2010. A Ship Archaeological Investigation on Canton Style Sailing Junks: the Jun Hua Xing Case. In China Maritime Museum (Ed.), The Position and Mission of China’s Maritime Culture, Shanghai Bookstore Publishing House, Shanghai: 236-252. Zhou, Kai, 1839. Xia-Men Zhi (Xaimen Chronicle), Repn. in 1996. Lu Jiang Press, Xiamen. Zhu, ShiJie, 1755. Xiao Liu Qiu Man Zhi, Repn. in 1970. Economic Academy of Taiwan Business Bank in 1970, Taipei. �Biographies Xu Lu (Chinese: 许路) is Founding Director and Chief Maritime Archaeologist of NVOCC Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society (CSJES). He is a commissioner of China Maritime History Studies Association and Fellow of The explorers Club. He also works as a co-research fellow for NSC-ANR project Maritime knowledge for China Seas hosted by École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) and Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica (IHP) in 2014-2018 duration. His English publication include The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sea Going Sailing Junks: An Overview (Delta Book World, 2014). Yu LongFa (Chinese: 余龙发) is a local fisherman at Xiamen old fishing port, born in 1952 at ShaPoWei. He works as a professional fisherman since the age of 12, being a skillful master of seamanship and navigation in east and South China Sea during past 50 years. He assisted Mr. Xu Lu with the recording and decoding on board skills in Chinese Sailing Junk. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Seamanship and Navigation: Seafarers on Board Daily Skills in Chinese Junk Description An account of the resource Chinese sailing traditions changed a little through time; sailors inherited their onboard skills, expertise, and experience by orally imparting others with physical instruction. But these daily skills were rarely recorded or studied in the past. For seafarers, how to operate and maneuver a Chinese junk was their daily work; and apart from sparse historical documents such as Phing-Chou Kho Than (Yu, 1117), Shi Liu-Qiu Lu (Xiao and Xia, 1580) (Fig. 1), and preliminarily observations by G.R.G. Worcester, Joseph Needham, Thomas Hoppe, and others, seamanship and navigation were kept in the minds of surviving successions of living sailors. In 2004, the author had an opportunity to sail on a nearly 100 year old Jin Hua Xin as an apprentice sailor for her last voyage. Several months of onboard experiences provided a rare field investigation to approach the complex mechanism of crew, their organization and their daily work. This experience led the authors to raise a marine ethnographic field investigation project along Fujian coast. Experimental archaeology creates effective scenes for realistic performance of past systems. A small full-size replica LanTay II was built for a series of archaeological voyages; the data gathered from the traces of past sailing routes will verify and add some knowledge for understanding the real daily work of Chinese seafarers onboard. In this paper, the authors shall present combined researches on historical documents, past observations with lively oral materials achieved by marine ethnographic field investigation on traditional sailing ports along South Fujian coast; throughout this research, the authors approach the knowledge about seafarers onboard daily skills and try to present the research about the sailors methods to maneuver the junk and its navigation system by means of a combination of instinct, eyesight, memory, and skill. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu Yu Long Fa Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Xu Lu Yu Long Fa Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c3ef358232376f6bacefe915e670a91d.pdf 64b4f9c08837516700ea70c958d00d92 PDF Text Text Searching for the evidence of disaster from the sunken village of Lake Hibara, Japan Randy Sasaki (Associate Professor, Teikyo University Research Institute of Cultural Properties) Wataru Tanikawa (Senior Researcher, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology) Jun Kimura (Associate Professor, Tokai University) Hisashi Nakagawa (Curator, Toyohashi City Museum of Art and History) Shintaro Yamasaki (Associate Professor, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University) Yuhji Yamamoto (Professor, Kochi University) ABSTRACT In 1888, the eruption of Mount Bandai in the Fukushima prefecture of northern Japan created a dammed lake, resulting in the submergence of the entire village of Hibara. A multi-disciplinary research team has been organized to extract both archaeological and historical information as well as environmental information. The focus of the research is not only on the material culture, but also on topics such as the process of submergence and how people's lives were affected. The study of the submerged village of Hibara is a unique opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of natural disasters on human settlements. To locate the periphery of the site, the team is using remote sensing technology including Side Scan Sonar, Sub-bottom Profiler, and underwater drones. Additionally, soil coring is being used to study the event sequence and the environment, and archaeological techniques are being used to record the material culture. This is one of the first studies of its kind conducted in Japan, and the team aims to develop methodologies for investigating submerged sites. Ultimately, this research will contribute to the study of local history and enhance our understanding of cultural heritage. List of Abbreviations SSS Side Scan Sonar JpGU Japan Geoscience Union Keywords: Japan, Fukushima, Submerged Landscape, Natural Disaster INTRODUCTION This article discusses the scientific potential of studying disaster sites located on an inland lake. So-called disaster archaeology at submerged archaeological sites is not a well-known topic of research in Japan. In 2022, to promote the study of underwater disaster archaeology at inland lakes, researchers from various fields came together to conduct an archaeological expedition. This paper focuses on a research project led by Senior Researcher Wataru Tanikawa, being conducted at the submerged site of Hibara Village in Fukushima Prefecture. The village was submerged by the formation of a dammed lake following the 1888 eruption of Mt. Bandai (Central Disaster Management Council 2005, 1). The site records the tangible heritage of village life, the mechanisms of a disaster, and how people reacted to the disaster. The project is a joint effort by archaeologists and natural scientists to extract records of disasters by investigating historical records, archaeological remains, as well as acquired data from remote sensing technologies and soil science technologies. The importance of understanding past disaster sites is apparent because such studies not only provide an understanding of our past but also contribute to today’s policy-making in better disaster prevention. Disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, change the landscape drastically and the lives of people. The study of submerged landscapes and the material culture left behind underwater due to a disaster can provide insight into our past interaction with the environment. Research in this sub-field has been challenging because of the small number of investigated sites, the lack of uniting themes, and how to glean information through available scientific methodologies. The team hopes to create momentum for further research on disaster archaeology at submerged sites by providing possible themes and research methods to be followed. This paper discusses the history of Hibara Village, how the research came about, results from the 2022 season, and as a conclusion, a plan for future research. The preliminary results of the 2023 fieldwork will be discussed in the presentation. 1 �HISTORY OF HIBARA VILLAGE Hibara village is strategically located along an East-West path in a mountainous region of northern Japan. The major development came during the Edo period (1603-1867 CE) when the village was designated as a post town or Shukuba-Machi, on the Aizu-Yonezawa Highway. The village has little farmland, but it flourished as an “inn” for merchants and travelers. However, in the Meiji era (1868-1912 CE), when the highway system was abolished, the town declined in its importance. Despite losing its function as a station, the village was a well-known spot along the highway for rest (Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education 2018, 1-2). On 15 July 1888, the sudden eruption of Mt. Bandai changed the course of the village forever. This was the first major disaster that received international attention in the Meiji period. A part of the mountain collapsed and the avalanche buried several villages, killing close to 500 people (Sato 2021, 49-50). Hibara village first appeared to have been saved from the devastation, as the debris from the collapsed mountain did not reach the village. However, the debris from the mountain dammed the existing streams creating lakes. The water level began to rise slowly, and after several months, the government ordered the villagers to evacuate and the village was relocated to a higher ground. The newly formed Hibara Lake eventually swallowed the entire village (Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education 2022, 36). The location of the village was not forgotten. The focal point for the villagers then and now is the shrine, located at the ridge of a hill, above the current water-level. The passageway, or the approach to the shrine, is marked by rows of trees. After the submergence, these trees were cut down, leaving the tree stumps behind partially submerged. These stumps can be seen today along the two Torii gates, leading up toward the shrine. One Torii gate is standing close to the current shoreline and another Torii is in the lake. The water level of the lake is controlled, and seasonal fluctuation is high due to the heavy snowfall in the area. Usually, the water-level is kept low during winter. During summer seasons, one of the Torii is completely below water, but when the water level is low, one can walk beyond this Torii on dry land. The submerged section of the village has been designated as a known site by the local municipality (Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education 2022, 35). In 2000, Hosei University carried out a preliminary diving survey around the village and found several ceramic fragments. Hosei University organized further research in 2002, and they recorded some features, including rock foundations and raised ground. The work was done by the university's Explorer Club and not by trained archaeologists (Tanikawa 2021). The video and the drawings they made, however, provided clues about what to look for during research. In addition to these underwater expeditions, the Kita-shiobara village conducted an in-depth walking survey during a historic low tide in 2016; they found gravestones and other stone-built structures, as well as some artifacts including ceramics and iron objects (Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education, 2022). HOW THE RESEARCH CAME ABOUT For years, Tanikawa had a vague idea of studying past disasters and their impacts on human society by combining natural and social sciences. Between 2015-2019, Tanikawa investigated "Kuroda-gori," a village in Kochi Prefecture that is believed to have been submerged by the Hakuho Earthquake of 684 (Tanikawa et al. 2016, 17-18). Based on historical documents and sedimentation history, several areas in Kochi Prefecture were surveyed, finding underwater remains, such as blocks of stones and stone pillars (Tanikawa et al. 2019). However, it was not possible to identify direct links between the features, sedimentology data, and written records. Tanikawa realized the need for collaborative research, especially from the archaeological community. Randall Sasaki, hearing the story of Tanikawa’s research, offered help. To discuss the possible collaboration of research, a session titled `Natural hazard and human activity recorded in underwater geoarchaeological structure` was organized at the Japan Geoscience Union and American Geophysical Union joint meeting held at 2 �Makuhari, Japan (JpGU Session H-QR05, 2020). At this session, the need to investigate a known submerged site as joint research was proposed, and Hibara village was selected as a case study. The research team, mainly from three different fields, was formed. Besides the archaeological team, one team focuses on remote sensing surveys to gather an overall image of the site, and another team conducts scientific analysis including the soil profile. The Lake Hibara underwater site is a suitable location for research for several reasons. Written records of the disaster are available and the reason for the submergence is known. The location of the site is certain and the local municipality is eager to support the project. Figure 1. A Historic Map (Azaippitsukagirichizuchou, Hibara-Mura) of Hibara Village, displayed at the Local Museum (Photographed by the research team) In 2021, the team gathered at Hibara Lake for a preliminary investigation; a sonar survey, snorkel survey, and underwater monitoring by a drone were conducted. The sonar survey revealed rows of tree stumps along the approach and showed some strong reflections. The snorkel survey identified rows of trees and some building blocks. The underwater drone survey revealed stone structures, and possible locations of a temple by the presence of gravestones. The main source for identifying the general plan of the village is the land allocation map (Azaippitsukagirichizuchou, Hibara-Mura) from the early Meiji period (Aizu -Yonezawa Kaido Main Road, Hibara Historical Museum). It depicts streets, canals, housing blocks, and important buildings including a shrine, a temple, and administrative buildings (Figure 1). The results from the 2021 season appeared to correspond well with the allocation map. A meeting with the local municipal office was held, sharing the results and discussing the research plan. Based on the results, the team was able to draw a research plan. The team applied for a research grant and was approved, starting a four-year project in 2022 (Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) Clarification of underwater ruins of Lake Hibara and the volcanic disaster that caused the submergence of the lake). THE 2022 SEASON This was the first main season of the research and was focused on gleaning information from various methods to see the overall picture of the site and fine-tune the research plan for the coming seasons. The team conducted various remote sensing surveys and diving investigations. Soil samples and wood samples were also collected for analysis. 3 �Remote Sensing Survey The success of underwater archaeology is all about knowing where to look, and this study is to know the general distribution or the plan of the village. The above-mentioned allocation map is an important source; the map contains information on the length/size of the village blocks. Remote sensing was planned to orient and adjust the map to be used for archaeological surveys (Figure 2). Figure 2 A Photo of the Lake, the Torii Gate, and the Team Conducting a Survey (Photographed by the research team). Sonar surveys were conducted on several occasions using Side Scan Sonar (SSS) (Imagenex Model 872 YellowFin: 800 kHz). The images showed reflections from the submerged Torii, rows of trees, stone walls and foundations, intersecting roads, and some other unknown features. Approximately an area of 0.2㎢ was surveyed, and a mosaic image was generated. The SSS image appears to correspond well with the land allocation map, showing some of the building blocks with sharp corners. A general land formation and small streams can be vaguely seen but require a visual inspection to identify (Figure 3). A Sub-bottom Profiler survey (SyQwest Bathy 2010-PC: 3.5 kHz) was conducted to investigate the features buried below the lake sediment. The survey focused on the proposed village area; transact lines were made from both north-south and east-west directions. The result showed that the site was covered by about 20-30 cm thick soft lacustrine sediment. The land slopes downwards towards west-northwest directions and appears to show a greater change in elevation at the edge of the village, which is also seen in the SSS data. All water sources run from west to east, following the natural land formation. The irrigation channel made at the village followed this natural drainage direction. 4 �Figure 3 A Side Scan Sonar Mosaic Image overlayed; Showing the Outlines of the Village in Reflections (image provided by the research team) A magnetometer survey (OH Marine Magnetics SeaSpy2) was also conducted. Around the supposed village, 12 magnetic anomalies were found, mainly concentrated in the northern part of the survey area. These anomalies could potentially be associated with iron artifacts discarded by villagers when leaving. Archaeological Investigation The underwater investigation was conducted to see if the SSS data corresponded with the map and the accuracy of the map. If the team can “learn” how underwater features appear, it may be able to reconstruct the village by looking at the SSS data, and also be able to pinpoint the location to dive. Silt accumulation is the main problem for an archaeological diving survey. The visibility becomes close to zero, if divers are not careful to disturb the bottom surface. The datum was set at the submerged Torii, and a 100 m line was established extending out from the approach. Since this survey was a preliminary expedition, this is a temporary datum and a fixed datum point will be established in the following season. The submerged Torii is about 71 m offshore. The resident informed the team that these Torii gates were constructed about 40 or 50 years ago, close to the original locations. Stacked Stone Wall The diving survey revealed the remains of a two-story stacked stone structure with an L-shaped plan, located 120 meters offshore (about 50 m from the datum). This is thought to be the junction of the approach and the main highway. The structure was composed of rectangular stones measuring roughly 70 cm x 30 cm. The feature is partially buried, especially showing heavy accumulation towards the west. The wall was at least two stones high, 18 stones lined north-south (along the approach), and at least five stones east-west (along the main highway). This wall can be seen clearly on the SSS image. Rock Accumulation A wide area of gravel accumulation was discovered approximately 15 meters from the datum. The exact extension is unknown, and the size and the shapes are irregular. Several stones were cut to make into shapes, and a circular hole was drilled in at least one of the stones, which is broken in half. It is 5 �considered to be the foundation of the Torii. The feature appears as cloudy reflections in the SSS image. Earthen Embankment An elongated earthen embankment was discovered parallel to the east of the approach road, extending approximately 25 m in length. The embankment was made primarily of sand mixed with gravel. The embankment measures four meters wide and has a low rise of two meters. To the north of this feature is an area with scattered rocks and the remains of building foundations. Based on the land allocation map, a temple was located at the northern end of the embankment. The embankment may be an access road to the temple. The feature is shown as a mix of spotted strong and weak reflections in the SSS image. Landform The SSS image shows an abrupt change in color at several locations, and these correspond well with the elevation change. A slanted S-shaped change in landform seen in the image can also be seen in the land allocation map. The abrupt change in the elevation was confirmed during the diving survey as well. The houses, or village blocks were built along this ridge. The main highway runs along the lower edge of this ridge. Some houses, a shrine, and a temple were built on the upper ridge and the rest of the town below. Core Samples Wood Species analysis The core samples were taken at four locations, two samples each (Samples A and B), counting eight cores in total. Samples A were subjected to destructive analysis while Samples B were only used for non-destructive analysis. The baseline for collecting samples was set along the approach to the shrine, establishing the zero point at the submerged Torii. The core sample was collected at 30m (Core I), 52m (Core II), 70m (Core III), and 100 m (Core IV) from the zero point. Core samples were collected by divers pounding polycarbonate pipes directly into the lake bottom. Samples up to 35 cm in length/depth were collected. Nondestructive observations of internal structure in lake sediments were made using X-ray computed tomography. Density and magnetic susceptibility measurements were made using a nondestructive multi-sensor core logger, density and porosity measurements were made using the nitrogen gas displacement method, grain size analysis using laser diffraction, and mineral identification using powder X-ray diffraction. All cores had fine-grain sediments in the shallow/top layer (Layer I) and mixed sediment with some angular gravel in deeper layers (Layer II). Layer I had a lower bulk density, magnetic susceptibility, percentage of grains larger than 1 mm in diameter, and dispersion of grain size distribution. In terms of bulk density, a clear physical property gap was observed between the layers. Layer I showed a larger proportion of diatoms and volcanic glass and a smaller proportion of quartz than Layer II. In addition, no illite or chlorite, both of which are andesitic origin, was found in Layer II. The results indicate that Layer I is a soil layer deposited after the formation of Hibara Lake. To our surprise, pottery fragments were found in Core IV. These pottery sherds had engraved stripes on the interior, suggesting that it is a fragment of mortar for grinding, which is a typical artifact found in a site dating to the Early Modern period or later. Core IV showed higher porosity, indicating heavy land use. Perhaps, this area was used as farmland or trash pits existed nearby. Core III, which is located near the intersection of the approach and the main highway, showed compacted soil. Rows of trees along the approach create the key scenes of the site. To identify the species and to date the tree, core samples were drilled into several trees. The species were identified as cedar. The trees date to around the mid-19th century from the radiocarbon dating. The date confirms that the growth of trees stopped soon after submerging. 6 �CONCLUSIONS AND 2023 SEASON PLAN Interdisciplinary investigation of the Lake Hibara underwater site is a challenging and complex endeavor, but the first season shows promising results. The research team hopes to obtain a comprehensive understanding of natural disaster mechanisms as well as the people’s interaction with the event. With the data and knowledge gathered in the first season, the research team is well-positioned to find out more about the complex dynamics of the underwater site, and the wider implications of natural disasters. During the 2023 season, small-scale excavations both on land and underwater are being planned. This may provide an insight to the changes in material culture before and after the village was relocated. The detailed season plan has not been finalized at this point of writing, but the season's preliminary results will be introduced at the conference.    Acknowledgements We acknowledge the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research for funding our project. We are deeply grateful for numerous individuals and groups whose contributions were essential to their success. Particularly, appreciation should be given to the residents and municipal officers for their hospitality and invaluable support, which greatly facilitated our research. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aizu -Yonezawa Kaido Main Road, Hibara Historical Museum “Azaippitsukagirichizuchou, Hibara-Mura” A photo-copy of Historical Map 字一筆限地図帳　第四大区七小区　岩代國耶麻郡 檜原村, Author not recorded, Date Unknown, (Photographed by the research team) Central Disaster Management Council. 1888 Mt.Bandai Eruption Report, Tokyo:Central Disaster Management Council, 2005. Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education. Kita-Shiobara Village Excavation Report, No. 5, Fukushima: Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education, 2022. Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education. Historic Road, Aizu-Yonezawa Highway - Hibara History Trail, Fukushima: Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education, 2018. Sato, Hiroshi. “Eruption of Mount Bandai in 1888 and Recovery from Disaster.” Water Science 65, no. 3 (2021): 45-69. Tanikawa, Wataru. Collaborative Research and Meeting of Natural Hazard Science and Archaeology for Submerged Ruins. Disaster Prevention Research Institute Kyoto University, Kyoto: Kyoto University, 2021. Tanikawa, Wataru., Go-ichiro Uramoto, Yohei Hamada, Masafumi Murayama, Yuhji Yamamoto, Takehiro Hirose, Osamu Tadai, Kouki Tanaka, Hiromasa Ozaki, Minoru Yoneda, and Hidekazu Tokuyama. “Provenance of submerged stone pillars in an earthquake and typhoon hazard zone, coastal Tosashimizu, southwest Japan: A multidisciplinary geological approach.” Marine Geology 415 (2019) 105962. Tanikawa, Wataru., Go-Ichiro Uramoto, Hidekazu Tokuyama, Masafumi Murayama, and Yuhji Yamamoto. “A Review on Estimation of Subsidence Records of Nankai Earthquakes from the Tradition of the Submerged Village Kuroda-gori.” Rekishi Jishin 31 (2016):17-26. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 15: The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters Subject The topic of the resource Session 15 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 15 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Searching for the evidence of disaster from the sunken village of Lake Hibara, Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randy Sasaki Wataru Tanikawa Jun Kimura Hisashi Nakagawa Shintaro Yamasaki Yuhji Yamamoto Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Sasaki, Randy, Wataru Tanikawa, Jun Kimura, Hisashi Nakagawa, Shintaro Yamasaki, Yuhji Yamamoto. 2023. “Searching for the evidence of disaster from the sunken village of Lake Hibara, Japan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Jennifer McKinnon. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1994 Asia-Pac Session 15 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century A.D. Prasasti Indonesia 2 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Casparis, J.G. de Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Masa Baru Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1956 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Casparis, J.G. de Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1956 Place Bandung Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Masa Baru Title A name given to the resource Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century A.D. Prasasti Indonesia 2 Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/17da064c70e0bf02c849889d0eb9784a.mp4 f168785de45fa2be83ebfcb366608037 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 1: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) spanning human history from the Stone Age to the atomic age. Since the first Pacific UCH Workshop held in Solomon Islands in 2009, the Pacific island nations have been progressing in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme by awareness raising, research and capacity building activities through inter-disciplinary cooperation and promoting synergy with the Pacific World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage Programmes. Notable progresses include, among others, the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Outcome Document of the 3rd UN International Cooperation on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Samoa, 2014) that contains references to the importance of UCH for sustainable development of SIDS and SIDS ratification of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), as well as the enhanced cooperation between universities in the Pacific islands and professional training institutions through UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN) for Underwater Archaeology. With this as its background, the session “Underwater and maritime archaeology and capacity building in the Pacific Islands” will be held with the aims to: i) share information on recent progress in awareness raising, research and capacity building activities in underwater and maritime archaeology in the Pacific Islands, ii) identify priority actions, iii) foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. The session especially welcomes presentations focusing on the protection and management of UCH belonging to indigenous community shared UCH in the Pacific, addressing challenges and opportunities facing Pacific SIDS in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme and the promotion of the UCH Convention, presenting good practice in ensuring the effective engagement of Pacific island countries and community in UCH management for their sustainable development, and proposing collaborative projects in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, Samoa Andrew Viduka, Maritime and Commonwealth Heritage, Australian Government, Nicolas Bigourdan, Western Australian Museum Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 1 Introduction Video Description An account of the resource Andrew Viduka introduces Session 1. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/29/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Asia-Pac Session 1 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 13: The Archaeology of Manila Galleons, Past, Present and Future Description An account of the resource This session will focus on a specific part of the rich maritime history of the Asia Pacific region, the Manila Galleons. These ships traversed between continents surrounding the Pacific, transporting goods from India and China to Peru and Spain via New Spain, for 250 years, changing the cultural landscape of South East Asia and America, transforming cultures, peoples, technology, spreading ideas, plants and customs, among many other significant processes. This session explores the archaeological work done to date in regard to these ships and the work being done now in several parts of the world. Furthermore, the session will explore the future ways in which this topic can contribute to present societies. In regard to past works, papers from the excavations done on the Concepcion in the Mariana Islands, and the San Diego in the Philippines are a good opportunity for archaeologists that worked decades ago to present part of that research in a new light as well as present work not yet available to researchers. Current works from the Philippines, Spain, Japan, USA, and Mexico will be presented. In this part of the session, interesting points of contact between projects and researchers will be encouraged. Different methodologies and research strategies will help projects see their strong points and adapt new ones. Trade, nautical archaeology, among other topics can be presented. Current works will demonstrate that the topic is very much alive and growing. Papers on future research objectives can contribute to map the road ahead, looking at different lines of inquiry related to the Galleons. Above all, the session seeks to make this research topic a celebration of diversity and common heritage that brings people together in our common cultural traits and admiration for our differences. The session will bring interested researchers together to collaborate in the diverse projects. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roberto Junco INAH Mexico, Mexico Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13 Introduction Video Description An account of the resource Roberto Junco introduces Session 13. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Asia-Pac Session 13 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ae207b7d0f6b67f3ed0c0496a7950d7e.mp4 7be95d2df8c91591b1c3ce48c38f00a7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/eee82ba797abec3ad67b718943f701db.jpg 407cc2369cbe3dc31caccebb4fe8251b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 4: Ensuring a Sustainable Future for UCH: Museums and Public Engagement Description An account of the resource Cultural heritage derives its value from societal contexts, and so public engagement plays an important role in growing support for, and interest in heritage. Engagement may take many forms, from awareness-raising to formal learning programmes to creating platforms for public participation in the process of heritage conservation, governance, and/or interpretation. Papers bridging theoretical and practical approaches to engagement with UCH are particularly welcome, as are papers which offer collaborative and/or participatory models, stakeholder engagement, capacity-building and development, approaches to the particular challenges of engagement with underwater cultural heritage vs other kinds of cultural heritage. Of course heritage exists in a variety of cultural frameworks, and ensuring sustainability requires approaches to engagement to be both responsive and sensitive to the overlapping cultural contexts in which UCH may exist. As a culturally diverse region, the treatment of heritage must be also tailored to cultural definitions, heritage management frameworks and conventions which may, in some cases, differ across jurisdictions/countries and their interests. The panel will also attempt to explore the ways in which UCH is managed within diverse cultural frameworks, and invites papers to examine topics including contested UCH, ownership, security, etc. The panel invites papers exploring significance within local, national and transnational historiographies and the implications for funding and management of UCH. UCH includes material that has been deposited on the seabed as a result of warfare and catastrophe, so papers which explore and/or engage with topics including loss, warfare, conflicted significance and contested heritage are particularly welcome. Other relevant sub-themes include: * Public engagement in the management of UCH * Interpreting maritime cultural heritage for non-specialist audiences * Significance, interpretative potential, stakeholders and support/sustainability * Museums, Education, Outreach and Conservation * Memory, memorials and memorialisation Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Raphael Igombo National Museums of Kenya, Kenya Michelle Damian Monmouth College (IL), USA Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4 Introduction Video Description An account of the resource Dr. Michelle Damian introduces Session 4. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/28/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Asia-Pac Session 4 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 8: Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials Description An account of the resource This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from underwater cultural heritage sites. The main purpose of this session is to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as to encourage the development of conservation networks throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas: <br /><br /> <ul> <li>In situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage sites, including reburial practices</li> <li>Conservation management of underwater cultural heritage sites, including on-site monitoring</li> <li>Conservation treatment case studies</li> <li>Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials</li> <li>Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region</li> <li>Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs</li> </ul> Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards PhD candidate, University of WA Jon Carpenter Western Australian Museum, Australia Mi Young Cha National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage Republic of Korea Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 8 Video Introduction Description An account of the resource Vicki Richards, Jon Carpenter, and Mi Young Cha introduce the papers in Session 8. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/29/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Shadow Empire in the Bay of Bengal Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource George D. Winius George D. Winius Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author George D. Winius Editor George D. Winius Item Type Book Section Book Title Portugal, the Pathfinder: Journeys from the Medieval Towards the Modern World 1300-ca. 1600 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Pages 247-68 Place Madison Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies Title A name given to the resource Shadow Empire in the Bay of Bengal India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e22b97197633a359fdb1e9851f0a5caa.pdf 050d29573439d69629db8be4700a9afc PDF Text Text Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? Reflections on the role of ‘shared’ colonial heritage within capacity building programs in the postcolonial world Dr. Robert Parthesius Abstract The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) has been involved in developing Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programs (MUCH) in Asia and Africa since the 1990s. Although these programs aimed for a general development of capacity and awareness for MUCH in the specific region, often the focal point of the program was international (colonial) heritage sites. Although understandable from the practical implication of funding opportunities and available expertise of the international trainers, our experiences showed that this focus was not ideal for the establishment of a sustainable policy on MUCH management in the post colonial countries. Building on that experience CIE has developed a vision on international cooperation that places MUCH in a broader perspective by including a platform of local and international stakeholders in all stages of the program. Through discussions about the relevance of the MUCH sites for the various stakeholders awareness can be raised for each other’s perspective on this type of heritage. Since the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) explicitly promotes international cooperation and given the reality that many MUCH sites in Asia and Africa are linked with the past of European expansion, it is important to develop a vision on the role of this colonial heritage that is seen by some as ‘shared heritage’ within the national, regional and global context. This paper evaluates the MUCH programs of the CIE in Asia and Africa and hopes with this to open the discussion on best practices in establishing a sustainable MUCH program on a local/regional level but promotes at the same time international cooperation to be inclusive for all types of MUCH. Introduction From the 16th century, Dutch mariners explored the world outside Europe in the wake of other European nations. In the space of only a few decades they built up an international shipping and trade network. The diverse activities that derived from this commercial expansion, military expeditions and the later colonial rule have left many traces behind. For quite some time, the Netherlands has been interested in the legacy of the age of Dutch and European expansion. This is seen as an important period that is associated in the Dutch national memory with mixed feelings of pride and shame. In many countries where the traces of this period have been preserved, this period also forms an important marker in their history and national identity. Netherlands policymakers introduced Mutual Cultural Heritage in the 1990’s to label the heritage of the Dutch expansion and colonial period. This term, which can also be translated and used as Common or Shared Cultural Heritage, has been the subject of some debate because the remnants of a Dutch presence do not automatically lead to mutual appreciation (Fienieg and Parthesius 2008). The overall objective of the Dutch Mutual Cultural Heritage Policy (MCHP 2009-2012) is to, "collaborate on the sustainable maintenance and management of common cultural heritage, on the basis of reciprocal political and substantive involvement". The aims and the associated funds of the MCHP also provided an excellent basis for programs focusing on the management of Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) sites like shipwrecks and maritime installations that the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the West India Company (WIC) left behind worldwide. Since the 1990’s, the author and the Centre for �International Heritage Activities (CIE) have been involved in the development of MUCH capacity building programs in Asia and Africa. Between 1998 and 2007 a program was implemented around the remains of the VOC-ship Avondster wrecked in 1659 in the Bay of Galle, Sri Lanka. In 2007 another MUCH capacity building program was initiated in Southern Africa (Tanzania, Zanzibar and South Africa). Although the funding still came mainly through Dutch funds, the set-up of these programs changed from a focus on colonial heritage to a focus on the development of a local vision on the relevance and importance of MUCH. The Dutch Culture and Development programme turned out to be another valuable framework (and funding source) for the set-up of more general MUCH programs that not only focus on the remains of the European expansion but also on the development of strategies to raise awareness for local perspectives on MUCH. The UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 and the 2001 Convention formed a framework for the international cooperation. In this paper, the structure, results and development of some of these MUCH programs are discussed. Specifically, the programs in Sri Lanka and South Africa are compared in order to investigate the role that colonial/shared cultural heritage has in the development of a sustainable capacity building program. Is it possible to use a colonial heritage site to stimulate a local perspective on MUCH and to build capacity in the partner country? Sri Lanka: the Avondster project Since the early 1990’s, a team of Sri Lankan and international maritime archaeologists, historians and museum curators has conducted research, on request from the Sri Lankan authorities, in the Bay of Galle and in the extensive archives in Sri Lanka and the Netherlands. Underwater surveys have revealed an impressive number of heritage sites, dating from the 13th century up to modern times (Parthesius 2007). Based on this first inventory of underwater heritage sites in the Bay of Galle, an ambitious capacity building programme was formulated in order to establish suitable infrastructure for the management of MUCH sites. In 2001, a Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) was formed under the Mutual Heritage Centre, managed by the Sri Lankan government agency, the Central Cultural Fund, in cooperation with international partners in the Netherlands, Australia and Mexico, and sponsored by the Netherlands Cultural Fund (derived from MCHP). Their first major project was the excavation of the Avondster, one of five Dutch East-Indiamen wrecked in the World Heritage Site Galle (for details see Wijamunige this volume). During the 1993, 1996 and 1997 expeditions to Galle Harbor, the wreck of the Avondster was discovered and identified (Green, et al. 1998). A survey and testexcavation in 1998 and 1999 revealed a site in an excellent state of preservation; a rich source of material finds and historical knowledge was anticipated. The wreck site is situated about 80 metres off the beach in about 4 metres of water. From a diving safety perspective it was deemed suitable for training, although visibility was often poor. The site was relatively easy to interpret underwater, enabling the archaeologists to understand the construction techniques used on a 17th century East- Indiaman. The Avondster was also historically well documented, which allowed the Sri Lankan archaeologists to be introduced to historical-archaeological research. The Avondster site was also selected because it was under threat. Due to changes on land caused by the building of a sea wall and the channeling from storm- �water drains, the Avondster had become increasingly exposed throughout the 1990s (Parthesius 1998). The Avondster project had a number of aims in addition to the survey, excavation and conservation of the site and the artefacts. One of the primary goals was, through the involvement of the Sri Lankan archaeologists and conservators, to build up local capacity and the associated infrastructure, so that they could continue with a maritime archaeology programme in Sri Lanka into the future. Another important goal was the development of a Maritime Museum, based to some extent on the material recovered from the Avondster but also incorporating Sri Lanka’s broader maritime history, its sites and the people involved. Figure 1. NAS training of the members of the Maritime Archaeological Unit, Sri Lanka, 2001 The opportunity to conduct a professional archaeological excavation using the highest possible standards was seen as an appropriate step to take in protecting the site. It would also demonstrate how important archaeological information could be obtained and disseminated to the community. The Avondster-project involved the pre-disturbance survey of the exposed part of the site, excavation of trenches in the bow, midships and stern areas, and the recovery of about 3,000 artefacts, an iron cannon and a large iron anchor. In addition to the archaeological requirements, the development of a conservation infrastructure, conservation training, and implementation of conservation techniques were also deemed to be of equal �importance (Parthesius, et al. 2005). In cooperation with the Conservation Department of the Western Australian Maritime Museum, the Amsterdam Historical Museum and The Instituto National de Antropologia e Historia in Mexico, a wellequipped conservation laboratory was built. A small team of conservators was trained in many of the techniques required to conserve maritime archaeological objects. Since the inception of the Avondster-project in 1998, the primary aim of the work carried out by the foreign consultants has been to train members of the MAU as conservators and maritime archaeologists so that they would have the skills to function autonomously. This aspect has been emphasized during every field season. As part of this training, many foreign consultants with various skills have worked with the MAU team. The use of different consultants has broadened the MAU team’s exposure to different experiences, thereby giving them the benefit of alternative approaches and many years of accumulated experience and knowledge. To accompany the training provided by specialist consultants to the Sri Lankan team, a detailed system of assessment was designed. A very significant outcome of this project was that the Sri Lankan team collaborated with the foreign consultants who produced a two-volume publication on the work implemented on the Avondster (Parthesius 2007). In addition, through a UNESCO initiative, the Galle MAU served as a regional training centre in maritime archaeology for the Asia/Pacific region with field schools in 2006, 2007 and 2008 (http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=4944). Figure 2. Preparing a barrel for raising from the Avondster-site, Galle, Sri Lanka, 2004 �The Avondster-project is considered a success but there is an important side note to make that refers to the sustainability of MUCH management through wellestablished awareness and a sense of ownership. The program in Sri Lanka was possible because a Dutch VOC vessel was under threat and we could persuade the Netherlands Cultural Fund to invest in a capacity building programme around this colonial shipwreck that has been labeled ‘mutual heritage’. The built capacity turned out to be sustainable because the focus on a colonial shipwreck against the background of the fortified city of Galle is seen as important heritage and connected with the cultural identity of Sri Lanka. Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage (MUCH) Programme in Southern Africa On invitation by South Africa and Tanzania, the CIE took the opportunity in 2007 to build on the experience gained in Sri Lanka and formulated a four-phased MUCH capacity building programme that recognized the importance of establishing a local tradition and vision on this specific type of heritage. Key in this set-up is to bring all relevant stakeholders together and encourage full involvement, ranging from political commitment to community engagement. Unlike the project in Sri Lanka, the focus on Mutual Cultural Heritage in South Africa would not be developing a framework for the ‘new MUCH programme’. For South Africa this would start the cooperation on the wrong footing since the colonial heritage has a negative annotation. An ‘open definition process’ started with multiple stakeholders deciding relevant subjects and sites for a MUCH programme. A universal framework for the MUCH programme was found in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention 1972 and the 2001 Convention. Figure 3. Surveying an intertidal shipwreck on Robben Island, South Africa, 2010. �South Africa Since 2007 CIE has assisted the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) in developing a MUCH program in South Africa. The Netherlands involvement came about through their funding contribution to the program through the Netherlands Culture and Development Program. South Africa contains some of the oldest evidence of human occupation in the world and some of this evidence may be found around its coastline and underwater. The ongoing importance, use and exploitation of the sea and inland waterways by communities are evident today from numerous types of sites, traditional cultural practices and customs. Many shipwrecks from the activities of foreign explorers, traders and colonialists can also be found in its waters. South Africa therefore contains a range of tangible and intangible heritage, significant and relevant to contemporary communities and contributing toward the cultural identity of the country. The workshops organized on Robben Island in 2010 and 2011 included a number of participants, particularly those from South African stakeholders other than SAHRA, being educated in parts of the NAS theoretical and practical training program. One of the aims of the practical workshops was to build-up a database of the Robben Island MUCH sites (on land and underwater). Robben Island and its surrounding waters contain in excess of 100 sites (many with poor provenance and lacking documentation) and the outcomes of the practical work will assist the Robben Island Museum in beginning the documentation and management of this component of its cultural landscape. Apart from the direct capacity that has been built amongst various representatives of government agents, students, volunteers and of course the SAHRA staff, the project has a important focus on the development of public awareness and an African vision on MUCH. The discussions with many stakeholders and relevant communities have led to the selection of so-called “Legacy Sites”, representing the vision on MUCH in South Africa. They are not intended to be an exhaustive list, they are simply ‘highlights’ to begin to describe how diverse South Africa’s relationship with water actually is. In this stage of the programme four Legacy Sites have been selected: The shipwreck site of the Barrel Wreck in the Table Bay shows the strong linkages of South Africa with an international shipping network (Sharfman 2012). It was selected as a legacy site because not only is it a good example of a ‘traditional’ underwater archaeological site but it is relatively easy to access and monitor, thus use for training and specialized studies can help answer conservation and management questions regarding similar sites. Robben Island is also linked with the international maritime connections. As a place of isolation, it has a long history of banishment and imprisonment, stretching back to the first settlers who brought their political opponents from the colonies in the Far East (Deacon 1996). The fact that the site is an Island means that almost all the activities that took place there have an inherent connection with the ocean. The fish weirs at Stillbaai and Arniston are an important element in the MUCH sites because they represent the relationship of local communities with the sea. These stonewall fish traps are of undetermined age but were used by local fishermen for at least the past century. The fish weirs could be anything �from 200 to 2000 years old. This poses several interesting questions regarding traditional fishing practices and interactions between settlers and indigenes. Lake Fundudzi has been identified as Legacy Site due to its intangible connection with water. The lake is situated in the northeast of the Limpopo Province and is viewed as the only natural inland lake in Southern Africa. For the Vhavenda people, however, the lake is more than just a natural water body, as it forms a rich heritage of folklore, myths and ceremonial rituals. It is their burial site and is therefore sacred and believed to be the home of ancestral spirit of the Vhatavhatsindi people who claim their ancestors discovered the lake when they moved into South Africa from Zimbabwe (Sharfman, 2012). The living heritage that surrounds the lake, such as the communities’ cultural practices, could be extrapolated to a broader understanding of African ways and means of dealing with its past, for instance broader African religious and spiritual relationships with water. These practices often provide a tangible element to the intangible aspects of spirits and their mediums with water. Broader research needs to be included in the submission as water is a central feature in the living heritage of numerous people. Figure 4. Lake Fundudzi, Limpopo, South Africa, 2010. Considerations and conclusions As emphasized by the Avondster-project, sustainability in a country or region is only possible when a capacity building programme has been put together in collaboration with the relevant stakeholders (political, academic and bureaucratic). To obtain this, it is important that an awareness of the different values of maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) is appreciated between all stakeholders. It is in that context also necessary to create and implement practicable measures to stimulate public �awareness. This can be achieved in part through community engagement programmes, which implement MUCH projects for the benefit of contemporary communities. In addition to reviving or helping to maintain traditional cultural practices and protect and preserve indigenous sites in less developed countries, one of the benefits could be an economic gain through the re-use of UCH and through tourism managed by the local community. Cultural heritage sites from the colonial period, that have been labeled Mutual Cultural Heritage from the Dutch perspective, take a prominent position in both Sri Lanka and South Africa. Through the nature of the European expansion, many of the remains of this period (e.g. port cities, harbor installations, fortifications and shipwrecks) can be considered MUCH sites. The fact that they are located in prominent places and that the Netherlands consider it Mutual Cultural Heritage, doesn’t mean automatically that the partner countries may also consider it important heritage linked with their own cultural identity. Sri Lanka and South Africa are different in that respect. In Sri Lanka the built heritage of the so-called Dutch Period (1640-1796) is considered heritage of ‘Dual Parentship’. The World Heritage Site Galle is considered as the highlight of that heritage. The wreck of the VOC-ship Avondster does not fall under that concept. It was in a sense new heritage because before its discovery in 1993 neither the Netherlands nor Sri Lanka were aware of its existence. Placed in the context of Galle, but not as a product of Sri Lanka-Dutch design, the Avondster-site was considered Mutual Cultural Heritage instead of heritage of Dual Parentship.1 This concept made the Avondster very suitable and reciprocal for research and for the development of capacity and heritage management strategies for this site. However, it kept the perspective on the MUCH sites in the whole of Sri Lanka very narrow. The context for cooperation in South Africa was totally different. Cultural heritage plays an important role in the development of the ‘New South Africa’ after the first democratic elections of 1994. Cultural identity is key in the nation building process after the country was divided and scattered under the Apartheid regime (1948-1994). Although the authorities are acting very responsibly towards the inclusion of the cultural heritage of the former repressors, it is clear that VOC heritage is not generally and popularly linked with the South African cultural identity. Consequently these types of sites could not be a starting point for the set-up of a capacity building program. The cooperation was therefore centered on the technical assistance that international experts could bring to the development of MUCH management in South Africa. Since stimulating the development of a local vision on MUCH is a key activity in the CIE’s capacity building vision, this element was also included in the programme. The sometimes-heated discussions during the workshops on the relevance of MUCH for South Africa led to a vision on the heritage that expressed the relationship of the communities with the sea and water in general. The identification of the four Legacy Sites shows how inclusive this vision is. The work that is in progress on the Legacy Sites has only scratched the surface of the rich and diverse MUCH of South Africa. A great deal of work is still required. This will entail an examination of the challenges of redefining MUCH and the collecting of data to describe and analyze the sites. With diversification of the scope of MUCH comes the question of fitting MUCH into the heritage themes that are currently significant in South Africa. Is the new approach to MUCH relevant, and how are the identified sites relevant to all South Africans? The field has moved beyond 1 Ironically the site can be considered as heritage of Anglo-Dutch dual parentship since the Avondster was a captured and modified ship from the English East India Company. �the confines of “physical sites”, “maritime” or “underwater” cultural heritage towards an integrated and holistic, seamless study of heritage associated with varied bodies of water within which tangible and intangible heritage can be explored. This is a very exciting process of reciprocity in which we could assist with the transfer of technical skills and knowhow, and where together we created a platform of discussion in the region that has led to a unique vision on ‘water heritage’ from an African perspective. Bibliography Deacon, H., 1996 Fienieg, A., Parthesius, R. 2008 Green, J. N., Devendra, S. and Parthesius, R., 1998 Dutch Mutual Cultural Heritage Policy (MCHP) 2009-2012 Parthesius, R., 1998 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Jeffery, B., 2005 Parthesius, R., 2007 Parthesius, R., 2010 Sharfman, J., Masuku-Van Damme, S.L., Parthesius, R. In print UNESCO fieldschool 2006-2008 The Island, A History of Robben Island, David Philip Publishers, Cape Town. “Heritage trails: International cultural heritage policies in a European perspective”, in (ed) Gert, Oostindie, Migration and cultural heritage in the Dutch colonial world, KITLV Press, Leiden Report for the Sri Lanka Department of Archaeology Galle Harbour project 1996–1997 archaeology, history, conservation and training, Special Publication No. 4, Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology, WA Maritime Museum. Common Cultural Heritage Policy Framework 20092012, AVT09/BZ93771 http://awad.kitlv.nl/home/show_news/71?page_name=news Archives and Wreckes: Australian-Dutch co-operation. in Green, J (ed) The Ancods colloquium. 68-74. “Preliminary Report on the Excavation of the 17th-Century Anglo-Dutch East-Indiaman Avondster in Bay of Galle, Sri Lanka”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 34, 2 pp. 216-237. Excavation report of the VOC-ship Avondster, The AngloDutch East-Indiaman that was wrecked twice in Ceylon, Centre of International Heritage Activities special publication No. 1, Amsterdam. Dutch Ships in Tropical waters. The development of a shipping network in Asia 1595-1660, Amsterdam University Press. New Perspectives on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage in South Africa. Cape Town 2012 (in print) http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=4944 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? Reflections on the role of 'shared' colonial heritage within capacity building programs in the postcolonial world Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource The Centre for International Heritage Activities (CIE) has been involved in developing Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Programs (MUCH) in Asia and Africa since the 1990s. Although these programs aimed for a general development of capacity and awareness for MUCH in the specific region, often the focal point of the program was international (colonial) heritage sites. Although understandable from the practical implication of funding opportunities and available expertise of the international trainers, our experiences showed that this focus was not ideal for the establishment of a sustainable policy on MUCH management in the post colonial countries. Building on that experience CIE has developed a vision on international cooperation that places MUCH in a broader perspective by including a platform of local and international stakeholders in all stages of the program. Through discussions about the relevance of the MUCH sites for the various stakeholders awareness can be raised for each other’s perspective on this type of heritage. Since the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) explicitly promotes international cooperation and given the reality that many MUCH sites in Asia and Africa are linked with the past of European expansion, it is important to develop a vision on the role of this colonial heritage that is seen by some as ‘shared heritage’ within the national, regional and global context. This paper evaluates the MUCH programs of the CIE in Asia and Africa and hopes with this to open the discussion on best practices in establishing a sustainable MUCH program on a local/regional level but promotes at the same time international cooperation to be inclusive for all types of MUCH. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Robert Parthesius Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6