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Rocks, Wrecks and Relevance: Values and Benefits in
Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage
Bill Jeffery1
Abstract
A small limestone outcrop is located on part of Tanzania‟s coastline on the island of Kilwa Kisiwani (now a
World Heritage Site). Local folklore depicts this as an Arab dhow, turned to rock following prayers offered
by the local residents, fearful that the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. This folklore was
recorded during some oral history work in a maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) project at
Kilwa Kisiwani. It was a reminder of what the local people valued and equally, if not more important, to
their cultural identity.
This presentation will use three locations, from Chuuk and Yap in the Federated States of
Micronesia to Kilwa Kisiwani in Tanzania to explore their tangible and intangible maritime and underwater
cultural heritage (UCH) and how they are valued.. In all these cases local communities know what are the
significant MUCH sites and stories, yet other site types and/or other (non-local) values can dominate
management programs. This is compounded by international agreements such as the United Nations
Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of
Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) giving prominence to more dominant cultural values and
in pursuing management processes that marginalize local sites and values. This causes some
indifference in developing MUCH programs in some countries which is further influenced by the fact that
not all countries can afford or want to implement MUCH programs, particularly if the programs do not
provide real benefits to communities and stakeholders.
Within this context, the presentation will explore what forms of empowerment programs have
been used or are being considered in realising the MUCH aspects of a community‟s cultural identity.
Chuuk
Chuuk (formerly Truk) is located in the Western Pacific Ocean 3,700 kilometers (km)
south-east of Tokyo and is made up of the central most populated area Chuuk Lagoon,
and five coralline atoll groups. Today it forms one of the four States of the independent
Nation, the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM).
Chuuk has been inhabited for about 2,000 years and the inhabitants were initially
coastal dwellers living in stilt houses who produced a simple undecorated pottery from
local clays (Rainbird 1993). As time moved on, Chuukese moved from being coastal
dwellers to hill top inhabitants. Edward Hall and Karl Pelzer (1946:22) state that, „Truk
society is divided into three large groups: chiefs, chief‟s people and common people or
low-class people‟.
Land ownership has been and continues to be very important to Chuukese. The
Chuuk landscape has spiritual associations known through traditional stories. Many
landscape features provide spiritual connections to Chuukese history, mythology and
settlement of the islands as well as in a metaphorical manner, through the Itang
language (Figure 1). The sites and stories are still a strong and tangible part of
Chuukese society in the same way as land ownership.
1
Coordinator, Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Program, CIE-Centre for International Heritage
Activities, billfjeffery@gmail.com
1
�Figure 1. Tonaachaw, viewed as a supernatural octopus, kuus, whose tentacles stretch
out across Chuuk Lagoon to the outer islands (King and Parker 1984:55),
Photograph by Arimichy Rudolph, 2006.
Chuukese cultural practices, customs and traditions are inherent in every part of
daily life. Aspects of these cultural practices can be manifested in what is sometimes
called tangible heritage but much is intangible. All constitute an important part of being
Chuukese. In contrast to western, scientific construction of heritage, tangible heritage is
of less value in relation to Chuukese cultural identity.
Colonial history
Chuuk, as with all of Micronesia, had Spanish (only as a presence from 1565 but
formally as a colonial ruler from 1885-1898), German (1899-1914), Japanese (19141945) and the United States of America USA (1945-1991) colonial rulers, with the
Japanese and Americans having the greatest influence on current lifestyles.
In 1919 under the League of Nations (the forerunner to the United Nations)
Micronesia (apart from Guam which remained as an American territory) was entrusted
to Japan to administer as a Mandated Territory. Given the vigor and size of the
Japanese bureaucracy involved in this administration and the ineffective restrictions
placed on it by the international community, Japan was able to, „Japanize the islanders
through education, propaganda, intermarriage, and in general the promotion of cultural
changes‟ (Mirrer 1971:23).
World War II (WWII)
The Japanese Navy wanted to expand further south to the resource-rich lands of
Indonesia, Malaysia and Borneo so Micronesia was seen as stepping stones to this
region. In 1939, the Japanese Navy established the Fourth Fleet to guard Micronesia
establishing Chuuk as one of four Micronesian headquarters (Peattie 1988:251). Japan
considered that Chuuk Lagoon‟s natural fortifications made it one of the best
anchorages in the world and a „formidable naval base‟ (U.S.SBS 1947:2).
2
�The later development of the military base in Chuuk Lagoon meant great
changes to the islands, particularly around the coastline. Three airstrips were built on
the islands of Weno, Etten and Param (for fighter and bomber aircraft) and two
seaplane bases located on Tonoas and Weno. Major facilities were constructed to cater
for the various naval fleets. The main island of Tonoas had over 1,200 buildings erected
on it in addition to Dublon Town for civilians and many coastal defence guns were
established on the majority of the islands (JICPOA 1994:10).
In February and May 1944 a total of 3,450 aircraft bombing flights from an
American Carrier Task Force of over 50 ships sunk more than 60 Japanese navy and
merchant ships located within Chuuk Lagoon, and destroyed over 300 aircraft, and the
airstrips and many of the buildings on the islands in Chuuk Lagoon.
Chuukese suffered the greatest loss of life in all the Caroline Islands from the
almost daily bombing (Poyer, et al. 2001:147). Initial USA plans for Chuuk were for a
USA fleet anchorage and recreation centre (Blake 1945). Within a short time, and a
change of plans not to proceed with the recreation facilities, USA impacts and aims
became similar to earlier Japanese time—imposition of another official language,
alienation of land, manipulation of the traditional political and social structures, and
acquisition of the territory through a United Nation system leading to independence with
strings attached. “Japanizing” Micronesia was replaced with “Americanizing”
Micronesia.
Yap
Yap (Waab, the traditional name) is located 840 km south west of Guam.. Yap is one of
the four States of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and like Chuuk it contains
a more populated region of high volcanic islands (Yap proper) and some outer coralline
atoll groups. The population today is about 11,700.
Traditions, customs and cultural practices remain a core of Yapese society. The
outer islanders are famous for their canoe building, sailing, navigation and related
customs and practices (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010). In Yap proper, stone money still plays
an important role in Yapese cultural practices and traditional dances are performed to
honour the spirits and ancestors, and tell of the suffering during World War II, amongst
other things (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010).
German administrators had a significant impact on Yapese society although it
was Japanese emigrants who arrived in great numbers that dominated Yapese. The
biggest impact during the Japanese times was in the decline of the number of Yapese;
the population dropped to 2,400 from an estimated 27,000 pre western contact, and
about 7,800 in 1899 (Adams 1997:16; Hunter-Anderson 1983; Useem cited in Takeda
1999:4).
Kilwa Kisiwani
Kilwa Kisiwani is a small island located on the southern coast of Tanzania, East Africa,
about 270 km from the capital city of Dar es Salaam.
3
�Kilwa Kisiwani was a prominent, perhaps a pre-eminent Swahili port and city
during much of its time but primarily during the 12 th-15th centuries (Sutton 1998). The
Swahili Coast of East Africa covers 3000 km of Kenya and Tanzania and was linked to
Persian traders seeking gold, ivory and slaves in Africa and bringing back to Africa
cloth, silver, perfumes and jewelry from India, and ceramics from China (see Bita this
volume). As a result the Kiswahili language developed from the mix of the African Bantu
language and Arabic and Persian words, and other key aspects of the Swahili culture
greatly developed, including Islam, Arabic art and architecture. The Portuguese
attacked Kilwa in 1505, bringing decline along with loss of control of the gold trade
(Pollard 2009).
Kilwa Kisiwani had periods of decline after the Portuguese, then great activity
mainly through the slave trade operated by the Omanis from Zanzibar up until the mid
19th century (Sutton 1998). A reminder of Kilwa Kisiwani‟s importance, prosperity and
culture can be seen in the ruins of palaces, residences, a fort, about 80 small and large
mosques, and a number of cemeteries (Figure 2).
Figure 2. The great mosque on Kilwa Kisiwani, Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2010.
4
�2001 Convention
The 2001 Convention contains a number of general articles on the best practice of
underwater cultural heritage management. It applies to „heritage sites‟ not just
„shipwrecks and artefacts‟ which means it should be the catalyst for many broader
based programs that have relevance to and benefit many people.
The 2001 Convention should therefore, as a priority, actively promote these
broader based programs especially where traditional sites and traditional cultural
practices are strongly developed and maintained in a country or region and they
contribute to a local cultural identity.
Project implementation
Kilwa Kisiwani
Since 2009, a four-phased capacity building program developed by Centre for
International Heritage Activities CIE has been implemented in Tanzania. A phased
program implemented over a period of time was considered appropriate for a number of
reasons. It provided the necessary time for teams to build the skills (in many cases this
needed to start with swimming and diving training)and it gave the trainers time to build a
relevant and beneficial local program (Parthesius and Jeffery 2009).
The program has involved many theoretical and practical sessions, from learning
to dive through to the implementation of a non-disturbance survey of a shipwreck off
Zanzibar, and reporting on their activities (see Mahudi this volume).
An Action Plan subsequently developed by the Tanzanian Stakeholders called
for more advanced training in association with the implementation of a project to survey
the MUCH sites at Kilwa Kisiwani. It was considered that the project would raise the
awareness of the value of MUCH sites and the need for ratification of the 2001
Convention, in addition to helping to sustain the MUCH Unit as the Competent
Authority. The Kilwa Kisiwani project was also recommended due to the need to assist
in the Integrated Approach to the Protection and Safeguarding of Cultural Heritage of
the Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, Endangered World Heritage sites which
had as a major aim, „to improve living standards and ensure long-term sustainability of
the site‟ (UNESCO Tanzania 2008)2
The project was implemented in November 2011 with the major activities being
site investigations, building a relationship with the local community, collecting oral
histories. The team also gained experience in the use of a magnetometer and searching
for some ship remains, and an anchor possibly from one of the three 16th century
Portuguese ships wrecked in the area was located during the project (Theal 1898:40;
Theal 1901:390-391, 476-477)
Of great interest with many of the residents of Kilwa Kisiwani was a site called
Jiwe la Jahazi (English translation is „stone dhow‟). Local folklore depicts the site as an
Arab dhow turned to stone following prayers offered by the local residents, fearful that
5
�the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. The dhow and the crew changed form
and were therefore unable to harm the residents of Kilwa Kisiwani and it is now a
significant site in the maritime cultural landscape of Kilwa Kisiwani (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Jiwe la Jahazi „stone dhow‟ on Kilwa Kisiwani,
Photograph by Bill Jeffery 2010.
In a meeting with Kilwa Kisiwani‟s elders, they expressed interest and some
reservations about the MUCH project. They were very keen to obtain some lasting
tangible benefits in collaborating with researchers at the World Heritage Site and from
their experience with previous researchers, ongoing benefits were rare. In the MUCH
program, community engagement priorities from the elders were training in new skills,
ongoing employment and economic benefits.
Chuuk
A comprehensive survey was used in identifying the sites and in gaining an
understanding of their nature, integrity, condition and value (Jeffery 2007).
This work included a range of methods in order to gain an appreciation of who
maintains a „sense of belonging‟ to the submerged WWII sites. This included many
participant observations in Chuuk and the collection of oral histories from Chuukese
which provided broad socio-historic and socio-political views of Chuuk (Jeffery
2007).The type of underwater surveys employed combined with an emic approach
6
�made it possible to interpret information about different societies and their relationships
without employing any destructive site analysis3.
It was revealed that the submerged WWII sites contain both tangible and
intangible heritage aspects but the management focuses on the tangible aspects
according to a dominant Euro-American perspective. This is related to the iconic
pedestal that the tourism industry has placed the sites on which is widely promoted
through websites, and primarily American publications.
To Chuukese, the tourism industry centred on the submerged WWII sites brings
considerable economic benefit to the government and tourist operators, as does
dynamite fishing and artefact recovery to many Chuukese families. Although these
activities do conflict in relation to the management and longevity of the sites, the
government appears powerless to stop it. Although the submerged WWII sites are used
as mnemonic devices by some Chuukese to remember when the war started, it is the
terrestrial WWII sites that have family and suffering connections and reflect elements of
a Chuukese identity (Jeffery 2007).It is contended however, that the submerged WWII
sites do not provide Chuukese with a sense of place, meaning there is no sense of
belonging (Jeffery 2007).
The investigation of the Chuuk Lagoon submerged WWII sites has shown that
the value and use of the sites from a Chuukese perspective, and from a Japanese and
American perspective as well as how they imposed their values on the Chuukese, has
provided an understanding of Chuukese identity, and the impacts of colonialism in
Chuuk. It provides concepts of empowerment for the Chuukese in constructing local
identities using foreign material culture, as well as empowering them to manage these
sites but not with a marginalized voice.
Chuukese and other Pacific Islanders have expressed an indifference to, or a
reaction against the global hegemonic view of what constitutes underwater cultural
heritage as highlighted in a comment made at a UNESCO World Heritage Convention
1972 meeting of Pacific Island Nations in Vanuatu in 1999:
“Protection of Underwater Heritage”, within the Pacific, at the moment seems to refer more
often to underwater wrecks from World War II, despite the existence of other underwater
sites such as sacred cultural sites existing in many areas of the Pacific. The meeting urged
the protection of these sites as well as those on land that may be protected by the World
Heritage Convention. (WHC 1999)
Yap
Traditional sites are a primary focus for heritage management in Yap.
The Yap Historic Preservation Office (HPO) is very interested in their fish weirs
(aech). During the last few years, funding had been provided to some aech owners for
aech restoration. It was considered that a comprehensive survey of the aech, many of
which are unknown to Yap HPO, was warranted to assist in prioritising further
restoration work and revitalising what Yapese saw as a sustainable fishing practice. An
estimated 700-800 aech are thought to be located on the reef flat.
3
Knowledge about cultures can be gained through an emic approach; a subjective, insider’s perspective about what
things mean to members of a society, and/or an etic approach which is an objective, analytical interpretation of the
same customs.
7
�In 2008-2009, the author in collaboration with Yap HPO, with US National Park
Historic Preservation funding commenced a survey of the aech in association with the
aech owners, village chiefs and Yap HPO staff. The project was completed in August
2009 and the location of 432 aech, together with detailed surveys of 46 aech were
implemented (Figure 4) (Jeffery and Pitmag 2010).
This work demonstrates that maritime archaeology, if implemented in a broad
and contemporary manner can help in some important social, cultural and
environmental issues.
Figure 4. Yapese artist Luke Holoi‟s impression of an aech,
based on site and oral information
Conclusions
The 2001 Convention is a significant step forward in the management of underwater
cultural heritage sites around the world. The impetus came from effective systematic
and scientific archaeological work, as well as from the conflicting and detrimental
commercial salvage work on shipwrecks, which were pursued by affluent western
nations and nationals. This 2001 Convention and its best practices are now being
promoted for implementation around the world including countries that have no
background in implementing maritime archaeology, although they have a significant
maritime cultural heritage and identity.
8
�The types of heritage sites that some developing countries are more concerned
with are their traditional cultural sites. There are also local values in many foreign sites
as has been highlighted in this paper. However, many provisions of the 2001
Convention focus on sites that are not a priority from a local perspective or are valued
from a dominantly foreign cultural perspective. For example, a number of countries can
have an interest in a shipwreck, e.g. the owner of the ship, where it was built, where
cargo was collected, where it was destined for, and the nationality of the crew are just a
few examples of the different nationals that can be involved in shipwrecks. It may or
may not have value to the local community but there are a number of provisions in the
2001 Convention that encourage and support these many national interests and the
funding that could possibly flow. Traditional cultural sites however do not have other
interests and therefore the 2001 Convention does not as comprehensively support the
management of these sites as there is not the potential funding benefit that could come
through international collaboration. And in developing countries that need money for the
basics; health, food, housing, education, this means money for MUCH is a low priority. It
is gratifying to see an account or „fund‟ has been established to support the 2001
Convention and for supporting developing nations manage their traditional cultural sites
although how much and when money will be available is still not clear4.
In regard to some specific issues that come out of this paper, in Yap, the broad
community (politicians, government agencies, citizens) led/directed what they wanted in
regard to maritime archaeological investigations rather than outside researchers
directing what type of investigations should be implemented. In Kilwa Kisiwani there is
great potential for maritime archaeology with little having been done which, with the
same approach as in Yap, could lead to relevant projects being implemented that
achieve realistic benefits for the community.
I attempted to go into greater detail about Chuuk to highlight the complexities that
can be inherent in a region‟s history and what this greater level of understanding can
lead to. Amongst other things, it helps to understand the relevant sites to a community.
Sites that need protection and intangible heritage are part of the cultural heritage and
identity of all stakeholders. It also illustrated how foreign heritage sites could be used to
reveal information about local cultural identities. It is my view that researchers in the
field of maritime archaeology need to have an emic approach—to spend time with
communities in understanding the many, perhaps complex social issues—as well as
having an etic approach. Even more appropriate would be to have local citizens
implement projects and ongoing programs. Hence the need to develop programs in
building capacity for the many different stakeholders who could pursue local
approaches and reveal information about relevant sites and their histories, and provide
tangible benefits for their citizens.
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Adams,
(ed.),
W.H., Yap Archaeology. Archaeological survey of Gachlaw village,
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Resolution from UNESCO Convention of the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001: Second
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Micronesian Resources Study, Micronesian Endowment for
Historic Preservation, Federated States of Micronesia and U.S.
National Park Service, San Francisco.
Blake,
R., Engineering Assistance, Truk. Memorandum from Prospective
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1945a
1945. NARA Project No. NW 23238. Record Group No. 313,
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Hall, E.T., and The economy of the Truk Islands: An anthropological and
economic study, Micronesian Seminar, Pohnpei.
Pelzer, K.T.,
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Yapese Settlement Patterns: an Ethno-archaeological Approach,
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Pacific Studies Institute, Agana, Guam.
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War graves, munition dumps and pleasure grounds: A postJeffery, W.F.,
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sites. Doctoral dissertation, James Cook University, Townsville.
Jeffery, B., and The aech of Yap: a survey of sites and their histories. Yap State
Pitmag, W.,
Historic Preservation Office, Yap.
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Pacific April 1, 1944”, in Military Intelligence in the Pacific 1942-46:
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Intelligence Center, Pacific Ocean Area; and the Commander-in(JICPOA),
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and Pisekin Nóómw Nóón Tonaachaw. Archaeology in the Tonaachaw
Historic District, Moen Island. Occasional Paper No. 3., University
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Educational Change in Truk, Micronesia, Master of Arts
dissertation, University of Ohio.
R., “Universal rules, local approaches: Reflections on capacity
building programmes to support the implementation of the
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural
Heritage 2001”, in Paper presented at two UNESCO Conferences;
in Cape Town, South Africa and in Honiara, Solomon Islands in
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Nan’yō: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 18851945, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
“Settlement Adaptation to a Changing Coastline: Archaeological
Evidence from Tanzania, during the First and Second Millennia
AD”, in Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 4, 1, pp.82107.
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S., Carucci, L.M.,
2001
Rainbird, P.,
1993
Rainbird, P.,
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Sutton, J. E. G.,
1998
Takeda, J.,
1999
Theal, G.M.,
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of Chuuk Lagoon, Chuuk Historic Preservation Office, Chuuk.
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in Truk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia”, in (eds.)
Torrence, Rick and Clarke, Annie, The Archaeology of Difference:
Negotiating Cross-Cultural Engagements in Oceania, Routledge,
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11
�
Document
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Title
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Rocks, Wrecks and Relevance: Values and Benefits in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage
Subject
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Session 6
Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries
Description
An account of the resource
A small limestone outcrop is located on part of Tanzania’s coastline on the island of Kilwa Kisiwani (now a World Heritage Site). Local folklore depicts this as an Arab dhow, turned to rock following prayers offered by the local residents, fearful that the crew of the dhow were coming to harm them. This folklore was recorded during some oral history work in a maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) project at Kilwa Kisiwani. It was a reminder of what the local people valued and equally, if not more important, to their cultural identity.
This presentation will use three locations, from Chuuk and Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia to Kilwa Kisiwani in Tanzania to explore their tangible and intangible maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and how they are valued.. In all these cases local communities know what are the significant MUCH sites and stories, yet other site types and/or other (non-local) values can dominate management programs. This is compounded by international agreements such as the United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) giving prominence to more dominant cultural values and in pursuing management processes that marginalize local sites and values. This causes some indifference in developing MUCH programs in some countries which is further influenced by the fact that not all countries can afford or want to implement MUCH programs, particularly if the programs do not provide real benefits to communities and stakeholders.
Within this context, the presentation will explore what forms of empowerment programs have been used or are being considered in realising the MUCH aspects of a community’s cultural identity.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Bill Jeffery
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
November 2011
Asia-Pac Session 6
-
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Title
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Rome’s Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC-AD 305
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Gary. K. Young
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Routledge
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2001
Type
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Book
Zotero
Author
Gary. K. Young
Item Type
Book
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2001
Place
New York
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Routledge
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Rome’s Eastern Trade: International Commerce and Imperial Policy, 31 BC-AD 305
-
https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3dc7834bed216b54c412a4f886967b04.pdf
2213d8ba73a5a1a90e5f8f49001a65d8
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2021 Session 1: Asia-Pacific Maritime Cultural Landscape: an Austronesian Cultural Identity?
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Session 1 papers
Description
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Papers presented at Session 1 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage
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Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage
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The Museum of Underwater Archaeology
Date
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November 2021
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Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage
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English
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Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage
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Round Table on Intangible and Underwater Cultural Heritage Data (I/UCH)
Collection in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM)
Description
An account of the resource
The purpose of this project was to carry out anthropological research in outer islands of the Federated States of
Micronesia (FSM) as identified and pre-arranged by traditional community organizations and historic
preservation offices of Chuuk State and Yap State, as well as Yap State’s Council of Tomol).
1 The objective of
this project was two-fold: (1) through round table discussion, create and improve awareness of I/UCH data
collection and protection of culturally appropriate ways for documenting knowledge related to navigation,
wayfinding, and women's roles in exchange relationships promoted through navigation and wayfinding and (2)
understand the role of exchange relationships in food sovereignty of the past and present contexts. The method
for visiting these islands was by sailing boat, aboard it a project team including a traditional Micronesian
navigator, translator, two anthropologists, two historic preservation officers, and a lifelong sailing boat captain,
which sailed from Kosrae to Chuuk Lagoon, to Polowat, and lastly to Pohnpei. While visiting target islands,
communities arranged themselves into groups of women and men with children permitted to attend for the
round table discussion and individual interviews took place on food sovereignty. The expected results of this
project included gaining a deeper understanding of islanders’ perceptions of I/UCH, culturally appropriate
practices for preservation, protecting heritage through community-based discussion about these topics, and
enable islanders to collect their own I/UCH data and transmit to an established repository. Through this project
and associated experiences, the project team gained a deeper understanding of meteorological challenges
communities may face in attempts to carry out community-based inventorying.
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https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/dd7bbfa214bd7d4937538d155c9f0e91.pdf
9699d2a1a87397f3c219e9a8ecea795d
PDF Text
Text
Satellite-derived bathymetry and rock detection for maritime archaeology using VENµS
imagery
Gerardo Diaz1, Dr. Yoav Lehahn2, Dr. Emmanuel Nantet3
1
Department of Bible Studies, Archaeology and the Ancient Near East. Ben-Gurion
University of the Negev, Be’er Sheva, Israel, PhD Student.
2
Department of Maritime Geosciences, Leon H. Charney School of Marine Sciences,
University of Haifa, Israel, Senior Lecturer.
3
Department of Maritime Civilizations, School of Archaeology and Maritime Cultures,
University of Haifa, Israel, Associate Professor.
ABSTRACT
Since its beginnings in 1975, deriving bathymetry by means of multispectral satellite imagery has been a method
that has not yet been fully exploited in the maritime archaeology realm. It focuses on using the blue and green
bands for their water penetration capabilities to later convert each pixel into depth values. This method can be
replicated in time and space, while keeping costs low and covering large areas. In this research, two highresolution bathymetric maps using VENµS satellite imagery and a variation of Stumpf’s equation were
produced. Two archaeological sites were selected: the harbour of Sebastos (built by King Herod) and the Achziv
ridges on the northern coast of Israel. The importance of collecting satellite imagery under low Chl-a [mg/m3]
conditions is addressed, and an algorithm for identifying shallow rocks above and below the water level is
included. Our research suggests that satellite-derived bathymetry mapping along the Israeli coast is more
efficient for satellite images taken between March and September, when Chl-a concentrations are likely to be
lower; maximum depth penetration using VENμS is found to be approximately up to 23 m depth with a Root
Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.53.
Keywords: VENμS; bathymetry; chlorophyll-a; rock identification
List of Abbreviations
Red, Green and Blue
Satellite-Derived Bathymetry
Chlorophyll-a
RGB
SDB
Chl-a
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1: Study Areas and Ground-truth data in comparison with VENμS satellite imagery.
Figure 2: SDB results for low and high Chl-a content for the Achziv ridges.
Figure 3: SDB results for the Harbour of Sebastos and the Hader port.
Table 1: Comparison between in situ depth points taken during the Caesarea shipwreck excavation of December
2017 and the SDB map from May 2020.
INTRODUCTION
Most common approaches for deriving bathymetry rely on acoustic systems (such as sonar) or aerial
alternatives such as LiDAR. However, these methods are expensive, labour-intensive and difficult to
scale them into large areas (Stumpf et al. 2003, 547; Traganos et al. 2018, 2). In contrast, in recent
years, Satellite-Derived Bathymetry (SDB) has been suggested as cost-effective for regions where
traditional methods are either impractical to operate or highly expensive (Jagalingam et al. 2015, 565;
Sam et al. 2018, 750), or there is poor or no data at all (Westley 2021, 17). The use of satellites to
derive bathymetric maps has been proven to be not only reliable (Jagalingam et al. 2015, 560-566;
Guzinski et al. 2016, 243-263; Sam et al. 2018, 1-14) but also cheaper in comparison with the
technologies mentioned above (Jagalingam et al. 2015, 561).
Bathymetric mapping highly benefits maritime and underwater archaeologists by facilitating them to
understand site formation processes, shipwreck scours (Caston 1979, 193-204; Quinn 2006, 14191432); reconstruct paleo-landscapes (Westley et al. 2014, 411-430; Westley 2021, 12-14) as well as to
1
�conserve, protect, and preserve underwater cultural heritage (Maarvelend et al. 2013, 191-192). In this
paper, near-shore landscape reconstruction is assessed through SDB and rock identification through
VENµS satellite imagery. The study incorporates a procedural framework encompassing sea
conditions such as low Chl-a content prior to acquiring high-resolution satellite imagery over the area
of interest, and two algorithms capable of identifying rocks above and below the water. The
significance of this approach stems from its replicability in oligotrophic waters of the Pacific Ocean,
as well as the potential utility of the proposed algorithms in coastal environments exhibiting analogous
reflectance properties.
CASE STUDIES
For the application of SDB, two different areas were selected along the coast of Israel. The underwater
aeolian Achziv ridges, located off the coast of the North District (Figure 1A), were chosen due to their
proximity to Shikmona (Haifa), where a 6-year record of Chl-a content is available, and lowbathymetric data is accessible. With respect to important archaeological sites, only Tel Achziv is
known (c. 5 km south of the Israeli border with Lebanon). This site was a Phoenician city that rose at
the end of the 8th century BCE and was also a maritime stop thanks to its convenient seaside location
and easily accessible sand beach for landing (Jasmin et al. 2016, 276).
The second area includes the Roman harbour of Sebastos and the modern port of Hadera (Figure 1A).
The former was chosen because it is a very well-studied harbour (Raban et al. 2009; Bergin 2018;
Galili et al. 2021, 8-16) and in situ depths are available. The latter because it contains low-resolution
bathymetry, which serves as ground-truth data. The harbour of Sebastos, now fully submerged, was
built by King Herod in 21 BCE. It took more than five years to construct, and when completed, it was
the largest artificial harbour of its time in the Mediterranean (Raban 1992). Hadera is a medium-sized
port, located around 3.7 km south of the previous. This port was completed in the early 1960s, and it
currently specialises in coal and fuel oil products and serves the two adjacent power stations
(MarineTraffic 2023; Shipnext 2023).
RESOURCES
The resources available to conduct this work include:
Sonar Data
Sonar bathymetric data was collected between 2001 and 2006. Horizontal resolution is 50x50 m and
one metre vertically. Although this data is highly reliable, its spatial resolution is too broad, and it does
not cover near-shore areas and regions proximate to harbours, which makes it impractical for maritime
archaeology applications.
Chl-a Field Observations
Although there is some research including Chl-a concentrations to produce SDB maps (Li et al. 2019,
4; Li et al. 2021, 4), they do not evaluate how high concentrations can mislead SDB calculations. To
estimate the sensitivity of SDB to fluctuating Chl-a concentrations, a series of measurements were
taken from 2013 – 2019 on a weekly to monthly basis at the Shikmona station (Raveh 2015, 1-23;
Rahav 2018, 10). Two notable contrasting periods were identified: one, during the Israeli summer
season on 25 July 2018 (low Chl-a concentrations), and another on 14 December 2018 (high Chl-a
content).
In-situ Depth Measurements
In December 2017, underwater excavations took place in Caesarea, in the northern part of the bay,
around 60 m offshore (Derenne et al. 2019, 77). The investigation was led by Prof. Emmanuel Nantet
from the University of Haifa. The excavation was aimed at conducting a reappraisal of a shipwreck
discovered in 1976, briefly explored by Avner Raban (2008, 129; 2009, 69-149) and subsequently
2
�studied by Michael Fitzgerald (1989a, 4-9; 1989b, 184-190; 1989c; 1994, 163-223; 1995). Due to the
important dimensions of her hull components, especially the 10-cm thick planking, it seems that she
was initially a large merchantman, that sank in the Early Roman Period (Nantet 2020). Ten hull points
were recorded from the ship, using a Total Station following the technique specified by Bowens
(2009, 92). These points were later used to validate SDB depths in the Habour of Sebastos.
VENμS Satellite Imagery
VENμS (Vegetation and Environment monitoring New Micro-Satellite) is a recent initiative between
the Israeli Space Agency (ISA) and the French Space Agency (CNES) aimed at developing,
manufacturing, and operating a new Earth observing satellite using a superspectral camera that
provides high resolution imagery in both space and time (VENμS, 3). VENμS acquires satellite
imagery at four, five, and 10 m resolution with a revisit period of every two days. VENμS can be
accessed at https://venus.bgu.ac.il/venus/. It provides three levels of products: L1 (TOA reflectance),
L2, and L3 (surface reflectance). Two L3 products for the Achziv ridges were employed, one on 25
July 2018, and another on 14 December 2018 for low and high Chl-a content, respectively. The other
product (L2) was used for the Caesarea and Hadera ports under low Chl-a conditions and was taken on
21 May 2020.
Drone Imagery
Although the harbour of Sebastos was the main commercial maritime trading place during the Roman
and Byzantine periods, natural anchorages were highly utilised as well. The Sebastos harbour complex
has two natural anchorages, which have been thoroughly studied by Ratzlaff et al. (2017), Galili
(2017), and Galili et al. (2021). These two natural anchorages are commonly labelled as Northern and
Southern anchorages. In this area, one set of aerial imagery was collected. The UAV deployed was a
DJI Mavic Mini at 50-m above sea level to qualitatively validate the presence of these anchorages as
well as some other underwater and above-water rocks along the study area. Images were taken on 10
February 2021 before the Israeli oil spill (16 February 2021). The images were then converted into
orthomosaics by using the professional 3D modelling software Agisoft Metashape.
FRAMEWORK
The research questions for this paper are:
ï‚· Which climate and water conditions should be considered to derive bathymetry from satellite
sensors?
ï‚· Up to what depth is satellite-derived bathymetry still reliable along the Israeli coast?
ï‚· What is the reliability of the method in comparison with in-situ measurements?
ï‚· How can one easily highlight both above-water and shallow underwater rocks?
ï‚· How do underwater archaeologists benefit from this?
RESULTS
Except for L1 products, VENμS does not require a long pre-processing stage (e.g., DN to radiance and
radiance to reflectance) or atmospheric corrections. The spectral band ratio model used in this research
is based on Stumpf’s linear algorithm (Equation 1). The algorithm requires tunable constants mo and
m1 to scale the ratio to absolute depth values (Stumpf et al. 2003, 550); n is generally taken as 1000
(Sam et al. 2018, 8; Li et al. 2021, 4; Traganos et al. 2018, 5) to ensure a positive outcome. Bands blue
and green are used due to their maximum penetration capabilities, which correspond to bands two and
four for VENμS. For this research, a variation of Stumpf’s equation was used (Equation 2) as
proposed by Sam et al. (2018, 4) for relative depths where no tunable parameters are needed but
ground-truth data is employed instead.
3
�ln(ð‘›âˆ—ðµ2)
ð‘ = ð‘š0 ln(ð‘›âˆ—ðµ4) − ð‘š1 ….……………………Equation 1
ð‘ð‘Ÿ =
ln(ð‘›âˆ—ðµ2)
….……..…………...….………Equation
ln(ð‘›âˆ—ðµ4)
2
First, Equation 2 is applied in a training area where sonar data near the shore is available (Figures 1B
and 1D). The values obtained from this band ratio underwent a low-filter convolution to smooth and
decrease the disparity between pixel values. Then, all pixel values were converted from five to 50 m
pixel size to match the sonar’s spatial resolution. A scatter plot is produced between sonar (x-axis) and
spectral (y-axis) data, and a quadratic regression model is obtained to ensure the best fitting model
(Figures 1C and 1E).
Second, a new band ratio is applied in a near-shore region of interest, and depth values are derived
from the quadratic model, from which only positive and real values are considered. These values are
assigned to a nx1 matrix labelled as Z. An additional nx2 matrix containing values for latitude (X) and
longitude (Y) (in UTM coordinates) is adjoined to the previous matrix. These points are then exported
to ArcGIS 18.0, and an SDB map is obtained by using kriging interpolation (Amante 2016, 123-133).
Figure 1: Study Areas and Ground-truth data in comparison with VENμS satellite imagery. a) Study Areas; b) Sonar
bathymetry map for the Achziv ridges; c) Scatter plot and regression analysis between sonar bathymetry (x-axis), and
band ratio values (y-axis). For high Chl-a content: Y = 0.00009X2 + 0.00224X + 0.93679. For low Chl-a content, Y = 0.00039X2 + 0.02046X + 0.91304; d) Sonar bathymetry map for the Harbour system of Caesarea; e) Scatter plot and
regression analysis between sonar bathymetry and band ratio values, Y = - 0.0003816X2 + 0.020445X + 0.856941.
SDB Performance under Different Chl-a Concentrations: The Achziv Ridges
Two bathymetric maps were generated for the Achziv ridges, its closeness to Shikmona makes them
ideal for relating Chl-a measurements to specific dates. RGB colour composition is shown for low and
high Chl-a content (Figures 2A and 2B). Maximum depths reach 23 m during July, as shown in Figure
1C, when Chl-a concentrations are likely to be low. In contrast, although the coefficient of
4
�determination (R2 = 0.9784) derived from sonar and spectral values was high during high Chl-a content
(Figure 1C), SDB mapping was demonstrated to be entirely ineffective by not only concealing the
aeolianite ridges but also misleading water depth values (Figure 2D) of up to 62.3-m. Additionally,
white pixels represented erroneous and false bathymetry by showing values up to 12 m above sealevel.
Conversely, SDB for July displays the ridges in detail. A major ridge expanding in a NNE-SSW
direction, and two minor ridges closer to the shore at depths of 6–10 m were visible. Additionally,
SDB proved to be useful for identifying shallow coastal geomorphological features such as a possible
basin at 10–13 m depth, and an isolated rounded feature around the middle of the main ridge (Figure
2C), all of them not visible on the sonar data.
Figure 2. SDB results for low and high Chl-a content for the Achziv ridges; a) low Chl-a RGB; b) high Chl-a RGB; c)
low Chl-a SDB, two features; d) high Chl-a SDB, pixels in white denote false bathymetry above mean sea level.
SDB and Rock Identification: The Harbour of Sebastos and the Hadera port
The previous methodology was followed for the second study area (Figure 3A), obtaining a point grid
matrix of nx3, containing latitude, longitude, and depths derived from the quadratic equation (Figure
1E), from which a high-resolution (five m/pixel) georeferenced bathymetric map was generated,
covering a total area of 15,770 km2 (Figure 3B). Shallow areas were found between Hadera port and
Sebastos harbour. Within these regions, traditional ship-based measurements would be almost
inaccessible due to high expenses and complicated logistics in comparison with SDB. The algorithm’s
final limitation went up to 23 m (Figure 1E), similar to the Achziv ridges (Figure 2).
In general, SDB has better performance between four and ten metres deep. Uncertainties appear below
four metres deep because the water column attenuation becomes very weak due to the short light
transfer path (Dekker et al. 2011, 405, 415; Li et al. 2019, 11), which can lead to small discrepancies
between the blue (band two) and green (band three). Moreover, the reflective properties of bottom
substrates and bottom albedo also affect its accuracy (Green et al. 2000, 220-233). Above 10 m, light
is attenuated, which can lead to weak signals (Lee et al. 2012, 2578).
To evaluate the SDB’s performance, satellite depths were compared with the data mentioned in the
Resources Section. Comparison between these measurements taken in situ and SDB depths (Figure
3C) yielded an outstanding RMSE of 0.52 m (Table 1), which is remarkably good if compared with
similar studies (Westley 2021, 8), where the best RMSE was 2.56 m using Sentinel 2 data (10 m/pixel)
and a polynomial fitting, or Li et al. (2019, 8), who reported an RMSE of 1.67 m using Planet Dove
5
�satellites (four m/pixel). Note that the shipwreck was again covered by sand during the SDB approach;
thus, satellite depths should be slightly larger to reach the hull.
Concerning rock identification, it was found that due to their water penetration capabilities, by
multiplying bands three (cyan) and four (green), submerged rocks in shallow waters were enhanced.
Likewise, rocks above the water were identified by subtracting band eight (red edge) from band seven
(red). The results of applying both algorithms for rock identification are integrated in Figure 3.
Underwater rocks are displayed in red, while rocks above the water are shown in yellow. Validation of
the proposed algorithms for identifying rocks above and below the water was qualitatively
corroborated in Figure 3D by overlying drone imagery over the rocky areas.
Figure 3. SDB results for the Harbour of Sebastos and the Hader port a) RGB; b) SDB map and rock identification
map; c) location of the Caesarea shipwreck points; d) location and validation of the Northern anchorages; Southern
anchorages are enclosed in the white box.
Table 1: Comparison between in situ depth points taken during the Caesarea shipwreck excavation of December 2017
and the SDB map from May 2020.
Measurement
number
Measured depths in situ
(m)
SDB depths
(m)
Depth Difference
(m)
1
2
2.5441
2.5771
3.021
3.021
0.4769
0.4439
3
2.7984
3.021
0.2226
4
2.6654
3.139
0.4736
5
2.5230
3.139
0.716
6
2.8519
3.139
0.2871
7
2.8090
3.118
0.309
8
2.5481
3.118
0.5699
9
2.1775
3.139
0.9615
10
2.7698
3.118
0.3482
RMSE = 0.5253 m
6
�CONCLUSIONS
The results can be used to comprehend the geological and archaeological landscape of the ancient
harbour of Sebastos as well as the northern ridges of Achziv. This approach can be easily replicated in
other regions as long as Chl-a concentrations remain low using any other multispectral set of imagery
(preferably high resolution). The following conclusions can be drawn from this research:
ï‚·
ï‚·
ï‚·
ï‚·
ï‚·
ï‚·
ï‚·
For the Israeli coast, SDB mapping should be done for images taken between March and
September, when Chl-a concentrations are likely lower.
Results show that a high R2 coefficient between ground-truth and spectral data does not
necessarily mean that SDB values will be accurate or trustworthy; hence, special attention
should be given to the environmental conditions at the time of image acquisition.
Both VENμS products (L3 and L2) yielded highly reliable results and are highly
recommended for SDB bathymetry studies.
The maximum light penetration depth for the coast of Israel was up to 23 m. Errors likely
below this depth.
The product obtained from multiplying bands three and four from VENμS can be used for
identifying rocks submerged in shallow waters.
The subtraction of band eight from band seven is suitable for detecting rocks above the
water level.
It is strongly recommended to integrate rock identification with SDB for future research
projects.
It will be of special interest to replicate this method in the Asian Pacific to test both light penetration
capabilities and the ideal yearly timing for multispectral image acquisition based on the Chl-a content
of a proposed study area. Likewise, rock detection using other sensors should be examined as well.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research would not have been possible without the support from the University of Haifa scholarships during my M.A.
programme.
7
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9
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2023 Session 21: New Technologies and Interdisciplinary Strategies for the Promotion and Protection of Maritime Cultural Heritage
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Satellite-derived bathymetry and rock detection for maritime archaeology using VENµS imagery
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Since its beginnings in 1975, deriving bathymetry by means of multispectral satellite imagery has been a method
that has not yet been fully exploited in the maritime archaeology realm. It focuses on using the blue and green
bands for their water penetration capabilities to later convert each pixel into depth values. This method can be
replicated in time and space, while keeping costs low and covering large areas. In this research, two highresolution bathymetric maps using VENµS satellite imagery and a variation of Stumpf’s equation were
produced. Two archaeological sites were selected: the harbour of Sebastos (built by King Herod) and the Achziv
ridges on the northern coast of Israel. The importance of collecting satellite imagery under low Chl-a [mg/m3]
conditions is addressed, and an algorithm for identifying shallow rocks above and below the water level is
included. Our research suggests that satellite-derived bathymetry mapping along the Israeli coast is more
efficient for satellite images taken between March and September, when Chl-a concentrations are likely to be
lower; maximum depth penetration using VENμS is found to be approximately up to 23 m depth with a Root
Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.53.
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Gerardo Diaz
Yoav Lehahn
Emmanuel Nantet
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Diaz, Gerardo. 2023. “Satellite-derived bathymetry and rock detection for maritime archaeology using VENµS imagery.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurlt Knoerl, and Hans van Tilburg. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1914
Asia-Pac Session 21 2023
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https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/be8aef3ec298a4f6a487287c3b42be54.pdf
5515c2008cdb6c76aa9a6ac22451bbd8
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Text
Scientific analysis and conservation of porcelain
recovered from the Nanhai I in the South China Sea
Nai-sheng Li, Xing-linTian, Zhi-guo Zhang, Da-wa Sheng, and Jing-nan Du
Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage
2 Gao Yuan Street
Chao Yang District
Beijing 100029
China
Email: Lineas@126.com
Abstract
The Nanhai I is a merchant ship which sank in the South China Sea 800 years ago
while transporting different kinds of precious porcelain and metal work. The Nanhai
shipwreck is 30 m long wooden vessel lay in 25 m of water and was covered by fine
sediment. Most of the porcelain artefacts are discs, bowls, vases and pots. Some of
them were covered by thick encrustations. In this research, X-ray fluorescence energy
dispersive X-ray (XRF-EDX) analysis and ion chromatography (IC) were employed to
investigate the contaminants in these porcelains. Distilled water and alternating hot and
cold cleaning were used to remove the harmful salts. Conductivity meter and ion
chromatography were used to monitor the desalination processes. Based on these
results, an appropriate method was selected to desalinate the porcelain from the Nanhai
I shipwreck.
Key words: Nanhai I shipwreck, Porcelain, Ion chromatography, XRF, EDX
Introduction
The Nanhai I was a Song Dynasty shipwreck located south of Dong Ping harbor,
Yangjiang City, Guangdong Province, China. It was the first shipwreck excavated in
China. The Nanhai I is 30.4 m long, 9.8 m wide and 4 m high (not including the mast)
and has an estimated tonnage of 600. In 1987, a British marine exploration company
found an ancient shipwreck from The Honorable East India Company, which was
loaded with 6 cases of silver and 385.5 tons of fine ingots. In August 1987, the British
Company applied to the State Administration of Cultural Heritage of China to salvage
the shipwreck. Permission was granted and the salvage plan was carried out as a UKChina co-operative project. During this salvage project another ancient Chinese
shipwreck site was located. It was named the Nanhai I. Since the discovery, the
shipwreck site has been thoroughly investigated by underwater archaeologists. In 2007,
1
�the ship was successfully salvaged in strict accordance with underwater archaeology
standards and placed in the “Crystal Palace” of the Maritime Silk-Road Museum of
Guangdong. This work was innovative in the history of world underwater archaeology.
According to the archaeological investigations conducted over the years and the results
of two test excavations, the Nanhai I was loaded with 6000-8000 artefacts, the majority
being porcelain. Most of the porcelain came from kilns in Zhejiang Longquan, Fujian
Dehua and Jiangxi Jingdezhen. There were over 30 different kinds of porcelain
identified; some of them could be classified as Country-level and secondary level based
on their estimated value. Many examples had a strong Arabic style, which were
identified as the “overseas processing orders” manufactured during the Song Dynasty.
In addition, there were some gold items, lacquer-ware and metal artefacts on site.
Some of the artefacts had suffered from prolonged seawater immersion and had been
adversely affected by the calcareous cement formed by marine organisms and burial in
the seabed for an extended period of time. These concretions incorporated many
artefacts forming conglomerations of varying sizes (Wei, 2011). After excavation and
recovery, due to changes in temperature and humidity, these concretions caused
physical damage to the metal or porcelain artefacts incorporated in the conglomerations
(Wei, 2012). Meanwhile, because of the high salt environment of the sea water, the
porcelain contained high levels of salt. With changes in the local environment,
dissolution and crystallization of the salts occurred causing spalling of the glazes.
Therefore, it was extremely important that a procedure to safely extract the cultural
relics from the concretions and desalinate the artefacts was found urgently. In this
research, XRF-EDX analysis and IC were employed to investigate the contaminants in
these porcelains. Based on the results from these analyses suitable chemicals were
selected to remove the concretions. Distilled water and alternating hot and cold cleaning
were used to remove the harmful salts. Conductivity meter and ion chromatographies
were used to monitor the desalination processes. Based on these results, an
appropriate method was selected to desalinate the porcelain from the Nanhai I
shipwreck.
2
�Composition and soluble salt analysis
Samples description
Ten pieces of porcelain recovered from the Nanhai I were selected for the test analyses.
The fragments chosen represent porcelain manufactured at the Jingdezhen Hutian,
Dehua, Yaozhou and Cizao kilns from the Southern Song Dynasty and include bluish
white porcelain, celadon, brown porcelain and many other varieties (Fig. 1 and Table 1).
Instruments and Testing
Prior to the desalination experiments, XRF-EDX and IC were used to characterize the
chemical elements and ion concentrations in the porcelain samples recovered from the
Nanhai I shipwreck. The conductivity meter and IC were used to monitor the
desalination process.
Constituent testing– XRF-EDX
SHIMADZU EDX-800HS, XRF,
Rhodium target (Rh), voltage:
Ti-U 50kV; Na-Sc 15kV, the
analyses were performed under
vacuum for 200 seconds. The
results are shown in Table 2-1.
Soluble salts testing – IC
To extract the soluble salts from
the ceramics, more than 5g of
Fig. 1: Images of the ten porcelain samples recovered from the
each sample, normally a powder, Nanhai I.: (L. Naisheng).
was mixed with 50 ml of de-
ionized water in a 50 ml volumetric flask for more than 24 hours. The chromatograms
were recorded with a Shimadzu SCL-10A ion chromatograph. Anions were analysed
using a Shim-pack IC-SA3 (G) pre-column, a Shim-pack IC-SA3 column and an Anion
Cartridge Suppressor; cations were analysed using a Shim-pack IC-SC3 (G) precolumn, a Shim-pack IC-SC3 column and a Cation Cartridge Suppressor. A Shimadzu
CDD-10Asp conductivity detector and a Shimadzu LC Solution workstation were also
used. The volume introduced into the injection valve of the instrument was normally 100
3
�µl and the loop volume was 60 µl. Automatic Science Instrument (Tianjin) F filters (0.22
µm-13 mm) were used to remove solid particles. The results are listed in Table 2-2.
Conductivity meter
The conductivity meter was a portable HANNA HI8733 model, multi-range
conductivity/TDS meter with a built-in temperature sensor connected to a HI76302W
four ring conductivity electrode. The temperature coefficient compensation is 2.5%/°C
and the results of the desalination experiments are shown in Table 2 and 3 and Figs 3
and 4.
Desalination of the porcelain
Desalination methods
The extent of preservation and the composition of the porcelain must be taken into
consideration when interpreting the results of the desalination experiments. The number
of porcelain artefacts recovered from the Nanhai I was enormous and there were many
intact, unbroken objects. So it was decided to experiment with two solutions: 1. a static
de-ionized water infusion at room temperature (25°C) and 2 heat the static de-ionized
water (50°C) to accelerate the desalination process. The porcelain samples NH1-NH5
were used in this first experiment to select the most appropriate desalination method.
Two similar sized pieces of ceramic were cut off from each porcelain sample (NH1NH5) and weighed accurately. One sub-sample was placed in the static de-ionized
water at room temperature (200ml) and the other sub-section placed in the heated deionized water solution (200ml). These latter sub-samples were heated in a water bath to
50°C for 8 hours each day and then allowed to stand static for the rest of the time (Fig.
Fig. 2: The desalination experiments for the porcelain samples NH1-NH5.: (L. Naisheng).
4
�2). After 24 hours all solutions were changed. After each change the solutions was
measured using the conductivity meter and ion chromatography for a total of 21 days.
The solutions were heated for 8 hours every day for 21 days. The results of the
desalination experiments for NH1-NH5 are shown in (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3: The daily variation in conductivity of the Fig. 4: The weekly variation in conductivity (µS) of the
desalination solution for NH1~NH5.: (L. desalination solutions for NH6-NH10.: (L. Naisheng).
Naisheng).
The static de-ionized water infusion method was used to desalinate the other five
porcelain samples, NH6-NH10, however the desalination time was extended from 1 day
to 1 week and the volume of water increased to 4L. The conductivity results are shown
in Table 2 and 3 and (Fig. 4).
Results and Discussion
XRF Analyses
Based on the XRF-EDX data in Table 2-1, the major elements in the surface of the
recovered porcelain are SiO2 and Al2O3, which is similar to the chemical composition of
common undegraded porcelain in China. However there are still some significant
differences. For example, the CaO, Fe2O3 and SO3 content is higher in the glaze of the
porcelain samples, NH2, NH3, NH10, while the SO3 content is higher in the body of
5
�sample NH2 than other samples. The reason for the increase in these elements may be
due to prolonged immersion in seawater.
IC Analyses
Based on the IC results in Table 2-2, there are many soluble ions present in the
porcelain samples. The major ions are chloride (Cl-), sulfate (SO42-), sodium (Na+),
potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+), which are present in the
seawater. The total salt content of each sample ranged from 1,000 ppm to 8,000 ppm.
Such high concentrations of soluble salts will tend to recrystallise during changes in the
environment and cause damage to the glaze and body of the porcelain, so an
appropriate method to remove the soluble salts from marine porcelain is extremely
important.
Desalination of samples NH1-NH5
Based on the results in Fig. 3, the static de-ionized water infusion method and the
heating method to accelerate the desalination process are both very effective and the
rates of desalination for both methods are similar. After two days, the conductivity curve
of the soak solutions of NH1-NH5 decreased significantly, which means the soluble
salts (NaCl, MgCl2, etc.) in the facial layers had been removed. However, after 14 days,
the conductivity increased, which indicates that there was still some soluble salts
present deeper within the body of the porcelain. After this time the conductivity
decreased and plateaued again after approximately 21 days.
These results indicate that for the alternating hot and cold water soaked samples, the
conductivity of the soak solutions plateaued after 15 days with the average conductivity
being under 1μS/cm. This means the samples had almost reached the desalination end
point after this short time period (Naisheng, 2012). The total desalination time for the
Nanhai I shipwreck porcelain samples (NH1-NH5) was 25-30 days for the heated
desalination method and 50-60 days for the static de-ionized water infusion method.
Desalination of samples NH6-NH10
Fig. 4 shows that after 9 weeks of soaking, the conductivity of the better preserved
porcelain samples like NH6, NH7 and NH9 were steady and the average values were
under 1μS/cm (Naisheng, 2012), indicating the desalination process had reached its
end point. However, for the porcelain samples NH8 and NH10, the conductivity was still
6
�around 2μS/cm (Naisheng, 2012), which was slightly higher than the better preserved
samples indicating that these samples were more degraded and had therefore not
reached their desalination end point after 9 weeks of immersion due to a higher initial
salt content. Based on the results of these desalination experiments the static deionized water infusion method is an effective and convenient desalination method for
the Nanhai I porcelain, especially for the better preserved samples, which easily
reached their desalination end point after 63 days.
Conclusions
Based on the results of the XRF-EDX, IC and conductivity tests on the Nanhai I
porcelain samples, the conclusions are as follows:
1. Based on the XRF-EDX analysis data, the major elements in the surface of the
recovered porcelain are SiO2 and Al2O3, which is similar to the chemical composition of
common, undergraded porcelain in China while the concentrations of CaO, Fe2O3 and
SO3 are high and maybe due to their prolonged immersion in seawater.
2. IC analysis data shows that the total salt content of each sample ranged from 1,000
ppm to 8,000 ppm, and the main ions present are Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl- and SO42-.
Such a high content of soluble-salts within the samples will cause damage to the glaze
and body of the porcelain.
3. The results of the desalination experiments indicate that the static de-ionized water
infusion method is an effective and convenient desalination method for porcelain
recovered from the Nanhai I shipwreck, especially for better preserved porcelain. They
easily reached their desalination end point after 63 days.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the samples offered by the Curator Huang Tiejian and the Director
Lin Tang'ou of the Guangdong Maritime Silk-Road Museum for analysis. This research
was sponsored by the Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage.
References
Naisheng, L., 2012. Scientific analysis and protection on ancient marine porcelains
recovered from Huaguangjiao I in South China Sea. Science and Technological
Research on Cultural Heritage, Vol. 8: 16-34.
7
�Wei, L., 2012. Research on the composition of the concretion encrusting on ancient
marine iron. Science and Technological Research on Cultural Heritage, Vol. 8: 132-145.
Wei, L., 2011. Scientific analysis of the concretion on ancient marine iron recovered
from three shipwrecks in South China Sea. Journal of National Museum of Chinese
History, Vol. 2: 148-151.
Biography
Naisheng Li received his PhD in 2006 from the USTC, Hefei, China. His research field
comprises the analysis and conservation of museum objects and underwater cultural
relics, such as porcelain, metals, stone, and wooden shipwrecks. Since 2006, he has
worked as a conservation and research staff of ancient objects at the Chinese Academy
of Cultural Heritage (CACH) in Beijing. He is currently participating in designing the
conservation of Nan Hai No.1 Shipwreck.
Number
Vessel shape
bowl(mouth
rim）
Characteristics
Grey porcelain body, celadon glaze,
pattern on the surface.
NH2
fragment
Grey porcelain body, glaze spalling.
NH3
fragment
Grey porcelain body, brown glaze.
NH4
fragment
Grey porcelain body, glaze spalling.
NH5
fragment
White porcelain body, white glaze
dish
White porcelain body, green white
cracked glaze; there is a pattern of
hemerocallis on the inner part of the
porcelain
Pulverization on the body
section; fragile, easily broken.
NH7
plate（ bottom)
White porcelain body, green white glaze;
carving on the inner part of the porcelain;
there are five nail marks on the inner
bottom of the porcelain.
Brown sediment on the
porcelain body; the glaze is
yellow and part of it has black
deposits.
NH8
bowl（ bottom)
Grey porcelain body, green glaze; carving
on the inner part of the porcelain.
Better extent of preservation;
part of the glaze has white
deposits.
NH9
bowl（ mouth
rim）
Grey body, green glaze; the space
between the body and glaze is wider than
others.
Glaze corroded; part of the
glaze has peeled off; part of
the glaze has black and
brown deposits
NH10
jar（ belly）
Grey body, no glaze on the inner part but
brown colored; the surface has brown
glaze.
Body is weak and most of the
glaze has peeled off.
NH1
NH6
Description
Body corroded, pulverized
and loose.
Body corroded, very porous;
sediment on the porcelain.
The body is weak; the surface
of the glaze is bumpy; part of
the glaze has peeled off.
The body is weak; the entire
glaze has peeled off.
Better extent of preservation;
black deposits on the surface.
Table 1: Description of the ten porcelain samples recovered from the Nanhai I.: (L. Naisheng).
8
�Number
Na2O
MgO
Al2O3
SiO2
P2O5
SO3
K2O
CaO
TiO2
MnO
Fe2O3
ZnO
NH1body
2.69
0.67
19.77
68.67
0.10
1.43
3.11
0.29
0.44
0.04
2.74
0.02
NH2body
0.58
0.27
19.24
67.16
0.11
6.12
3.15
0.95
0.07
0.15
2.13
0.02
NH3body
0.19
0.51
23.86
67.01
0.00
0.27
3.12
0.41
0.71
0.11
3.73
0.02
NH4body
0.54
0.71
23.59
68.01
0.00
0.11
2.73
0.26
0.72
0.04
3.19
0.02
NH5body
0.20
0.31
17.49
71.75
0.12
0.18
3.45
5.60
0.06
0.02
0.72
0.01
NH1glaze
0.25
1.64
13.07
60.84
1.39
0.30
2.59
16.14
0.34
1.42
1.94
0.03
NH2glaze
1.15
0.58
12.42
37.11
0.79
22.33
1.96
10.09
0.27
0.58
12.67
0.03
NH3glaze
0.49
3.35
13.14
47.59
2.79
0.40
3.23
19.89
0.51
2.12
6.42
0.06
NH4glaze
0.41
0.61
26.48
61.80
0.08
2.13
3.21
0.25
0.92
0.04
3.95
0.01
NH5glaze
0.65
0.54
0.21
0.11
2.88
12.78
0.05
0.10
1.24
0.03
0.87
2.02
3.10
0.07
0.80
2.23
0.45
1.69
1.23
2.04
0.86
15.46
65.92
NH6body
22.42
70.63
HH7body
23.11
73.40
NH8body
24.61
69.48
NH9body
23.61
71.79
NH10body
26.47
69.20
1.19
0.21
NH6glaze
20.64
66.47
2.56
0.29
2.33
6.89
NH7glaze
23.61
63.84
2.60
0.54
2.13
6.04
NH8glaze
19.62
63.55
3.67
0.50
2.12
8.57
0.17
NH9glaze
24.01
68.00
2.22
4.50
0.07
NH10glaze
19.50
52.53
5.24
1.48
1.90
12.07
0.86
0.73
0.22
0.07
1.77
0.13
1.52
0.69
2.20
0.06
0.68
0.07
0.95
0.29
1.39
0.02
0.48
0.64
0.01
0.26
6.19
0.04
Table 2-1: The XRF-EDX results for the porcelains recovered from the Nanhai I (wt%).: (L. Naisheng).
Number Cl-
SO42-
Na+
K+
Mg2+
Ca2+
NH1
493.05
809.13 611.02
NH2
1870.53 631.03 3887.56 400.03 434.95 538.63
NH3
1018.16 237.82 1947.14 260.86 180.59 268.29
NH4
497.17
141.40 862.06
72.98
130.45 98.98
NH5
106.87
73.22
307.99
41.23
95.93
233.94
NH6
493.67
380.95 322.95
52.94
40.25
47.06
NH7
182.28
351.46 487.89
46.14
10.61
113.84
NH8
371.78
382.68 316.03
46.14
37.83
74.63
NH9
136.18
272.00 125.72
46.14
8.30
39.22
NH10
527.85
296.06 644.75
89.50
80.39
119.95
100.17 190.32 342.80
Table 2-2: The IC results for the porcelains recovered from the Nanhai I (µg/g).: (L. Naisheng).
9
�Number
7days
14days
21days
28days
35days
42days
49days
56days
63days
NH6
38.71
6.07
1.83
0.53
0.6
0.18
0.15
1.44
0.7
NH7
15.71
0.35
0.08
0.24
0.34
0.09
0.11
0.33
0.73
NH8
29.98
9.25
8.01
7.43
4.36
2.96
2.79
2.94
2.17
NH9
12.84
2.21
3.16
0.32
3.38
2.03
1.64
0.67
0.43
NH10
251.6
14.13
9.21
4.84
4.85
3.51
3.18
0.8
1.07
Table 2-3: The weekly variation in conductivity of the desalination solutions for NH6-NH10 (µS/cm).: (L.
Naisheng).
10
�
Dublin Core
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Title
A name given to the resource
Session 7: Preservation and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials and Site Management
Subject
The topic of the resource
Interview with Session 7 chairs Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter and links to the papers presented in the session.
Description
An account of the resource
This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from freshwater, marine and wet terrestrial sites. The main purposes of this session are to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as the development of conservation networks throughout the region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas:
• In situ preservation of marine archaeological materials, including reburial practices
• Conservation management of shipwreck sites, including on-site monitoring
• Conservation treatment case studies
• Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials
• Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region
• Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs Suggestions for additional topics are welcomed by the session organizers.
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Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter
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Scientific analysis and conservation of porcelain recovered from the Nanhai I in the South China Sea
Description
An account of the resource
The Nanhai I is a merchant ship which sank in the South China Sea 800 years ago while transporting different kinds of precious porcelain and metal work. The Nanhai shipwreck is 30 m long wooden vessel lay in 25 m of water and was covered by fine sediment. Most of the porcelain artefacts are discs, bowls, vases and pots. Some of them were covered by thick encrustations. In this research, X-ray fluorescence energy dispersive X-ray (XRF-EDX) analysis and ion chromatography (IC) were employed to investigate the contaminants in these porcelains. Distilled water and alternating hot and cold cleaning were used to remove the harmful salts. Conductivity meter and ion chromatography were used to monitor the desalination processes. Based on these results, an appropriate method was selected to desalinate the porcelain from the Nanhai I shipwreck.
Creator
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Nai-sheng Li
Xing-linTian
Zhi-guo Zhang
Da-wa Sheng
Jing-nan Du, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.)
Date
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5/15/2014
Asia-Pac Session 7 2014
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https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6010ce25448cf9f12043d9bb6d74e3b3.pdf
c0b0d46cbb90fe00d88a0bbb20d51533
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Screen and Shipwrecks: Bridging the Divide
Helen Carter and Emily Jateff
Abstract
The use of visual media is an aspect of recordkeeping and a necessary component of
outreach and community engagement in maritime archaeology. Recent technological
innovations have created the need to acknowledge multiple available methods of transmitting
information to the public. Cross-disciplinary education in screen and archaeology provides
students with an innovative means to enhance archaeological knowledge at the tertiary level
and the skills to better inform the public through the use of digital media and practice.
Introduction
In 2008, the Departments of Archaeology and Screen and Media at Flinders
University were given a substantial infrastructure and equipment grant to
purchase a High Definition video camera (HDV) with an underwater housing.
This interdisciplinary partnership has encouraged the development of
knowledge to use the equipment, and then how best to use it in the context(s)
of research, teaching and learning. Archaeology students know how to dive
and work underwater, and Screen students know how to record and edit, but
gradually we have bridged this gap so that both groups can work together on
projects, combining expertise in the two areas.
Project Aims
The collaborative program bridges the divide between archaeologist and
screen-practitioner perspectives. Screen and Media education is used as a
tool to prepare archaeologists for future issues (dealing with hosting,
presenting, proper representation of data in the media) and proper collection
of data in the field. Best practice informs sustainable management as
archaeologists trained in screen media make the best use of the tools
available to provide an accurate record of investigated sites. Engaging screen
practitioners in the issues relating to archeology enables them to tell more
accurate archaeology narratives and confidently address issues in
archaeological ethics and practice.
Collaborative Education
Collaborative teaching and cross-disciplinary education provides a proactive
means of training future archaeologists and screen professionals to protect,
preserve and interpret underwater cultural heritage (UCH) through film. The
ability to video record underwater opens the door to many opportunities for
both disciplines. Jointly, the most obvious advantage is the ability to write,
produce and edit screen stories with underwater content.
Initially, both groups are taught to use the camera on land so as to
practically
learn
the
skills
of
dealing
with concepts of exposure, colour temperature, focus and composition in
�a straightforward environment. They are then taught how to put the camera
into its waterproof underwater case, or housing, how to verify the housing is
watertight and how to operate the housing.
The next step is to learn and practice the procedure for handling
equipment in and out of the water, how to keep camera equipment dry and
how to communicate with each other once they are in the water. Safety
issues are also addressed at this point. Students are taught to prepare the
cameras
on
a
jetty
or
boat,
get
them
into the water, safely change tapes and batteries and then clean up the
gear after the shoot. Finally, students are able to practice using the equipment
in the water, with the aim of collecting images that could later be constructed
into meaningful, informative, culturally accurate stories. The significance of
making documentaries about places and items of UCH is in opening a window
that would otherwise be closed to most people.
Theory
Maritime archaeology and visual media have been hand-in-hand since
underwater footage was shot at Uluburun in the 1960s. Peter Gathercole,
Jane Stanley and Nicholas Thomas (2002:158) stated, “Archaeology can lead
visual art in a socially responsible direction”. It naturally follows that screen
and media studies and relationships can educate archaeologists-in-training
about how to best convey the results of their research to the public.
Archaeology students bring their unique knowledge and understanding
to the development of the content; while screen students lend their
technical and aesthetic skills to the telling of the story. As both
students exchange skills and knowledge, more complex issues and stories
can be communicated through the use of relevant sound and pictures. Both
groups of students work together in the planning of shots, the structure of the
edit and in making choices around who will provide the narration and where
will interviews take place.
The videos are produced by staff and students and made to screen
within the university context so the authors are able to receive feedback on
their narrative choices from staff and students directly involved in the creation
of the ideas and research. “Archaeologists should make sure to be critically
engaged with the structure, as well as the content, of our documentaries,”
(van Dyke 2006:372). These videos are screened to both Archaeology and
Creative Arts students, leading to an inter-disciplinary dialogue around
technical and narrative issues.
Practice-led Research
The last three years have been spent defining and refining our methodology
and teaching philosophy. The methods for taking cameras underwater for
university research are necessarily different from those employed by
commercial film and television producers. Each activity must be safe,
informative and replicable in a student context. All students must be able to
participate on some level in the production. It must provide opportunity for
relevant feedback and reflection on practice for both students and staff. This
section discusses the Flinders University underwater archaeology video
program from 2008-2010.
�2008 Collaborative Teaching
2008 concentrated on building the working arrangement between the Maritime
Archaeology Program and Screen and Media. In May 2008, Screen and
Media and the Maritime Archaeology Program received a Flinders University
equipment grant to purchase an Amphibico underwater housing, a Sony Z7
camera and ewa®-marine underwater bags for Sony PDX10 video cameras
with the view to utilizing cross-departmental skills for the production of
archaeological documentary projects. There was a steep learning curve as
staff realized the complexities of getting students in the water and the current
obligations for Flinders University Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S)
Guidelines. In the first year the Amphibico housing was not used.
One of the first issues we had to address was getting divers and nondivers working together. Most of the Screen and Media students were nondivers and could not assist with collection of video data below surface. As a
temporary stopgap all 2008 filming was conducted on land and mostly
focused on capturing images of jetties and small wrecks close to shore.
We also dealt with issues of perception. Screen and Media students
believed that everything maritime archaeologists did was in the water.
Maritime Archaeology students thought cameras were point-and-shoot fun
toys. In August 2008 Mark Staniforth led an assessment of a ferro-cement
hull in Port Adelaide (Mulloway Studio, et al. 2009). Due to very low visibility,
underwater footage was not recorded. Sian Bates, a Flinders University
honours student, filmed the documentation of the project from land. In 2010
this footage was edited and made into a film by Deb Shefi, a Flinders
University doctoral candidate (Shefi 2010). Sian Bates also assisted with the
Society for Underwater Historical Research assessment of the Nelcebee
(Bates 2008b). This video was screened at the 2008 Australasian Institute of
Maritime Archaeology (AIMA) in conjunction with a poster presented by Zack
King and Steven Lake (King and Lake 2008).
We have been fortunate to draw on the expertise of local and worldrenowned underwater cinematographer Malcolm Ludgate ACS.1 Sian Bates
compiled a short interview-based documentary with Ludgate describing
underwater camera techniques (Bates 2008a).
2009 Collaborative Teaching
Field projects scheduled for 2009 necessitated the training of archaeological
staff and supervisors in the basics of camera operation and screen theory. In
preparation for the 2009 Maritime Archaeological Field School at Mount
Dutton Bay, Helen Carter taught a one-day workshop in camera use for
supervisors and staff. Up to this point cameras were used only as recording
devices — footage shot by maritime archaeologists was stream of
consciousness and purely observational. Most were single shots with a
noticeable lack of structure. The workshop addressed the necessity for
capturing a variety of shots, with a strong beginning, middle and end to the
story, which could then be edited into a suitable narrative. The camera should
be used to observe many angles, details, textures and perspectives of the
1
Australian Cinematographers Society (ACS)
�subject. Archaeologists were also taught the basics of recording technically
proficient images and sound.
The February 2009 Maritime Archaeology Field School/Australian
Leadership Awards Fellowship Program at Sceale Bay and Mount Dutton Bay
utilised Screen and Media staff and equipment to record field practice and
produce a short documentary. The Flinders University Maritime Archaeology
Program was the recipient of an ALA Fellowship Program grant to support
travel and accommodation for mid-career maritime archaeology professionals
from the Asia-Pacific region to participate in the field school. Teaching
Underwater Cultural Heritage was produced as a record of this program
(Carter 2009a).
One PDX10 and tripod were used at the Mount Dutton Bay site to
record field operations and one PDX10 camera, bag and tripod were used to
record activities at Sceale Bay. PDX10 cameras and bags were utilized onland and in-water by staff and students. Staff and students were interviewed
and commented on their progress of learning skills in recording cultural
heritage. Collected footage resulted in the documentary Teaching Underwater
Cultural Heritage (Carter 2009a). Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage was
shown at the 2009 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) meeting in Paris.
Also in 2009, a Documentary Camera topic with an emphasis on
underwater camera technique (SCRN8027/8028) was offered in semester 2
by the Department of Screen and Media. One doctoral candidate in maritime
archaeology (James Hunter) completed the topic. This topic included trips to
maritime sites such as the Ships’ Graveyard at Port Adelaide, and produced
two short student films (Rafferty 2009; Kalsan 2009).
In May of 2009 a project was designed to assist doctoral candidate
Adam Paterson with the Port Adelaide Community Archaeology (PACA)
project at Port Adelaide (Paterson in prep). A short documentary film was shot
and directed by Helen Carter and edited by Ed Powell (Carter 2009b).
From semester 2 of 2009 Masters Classes were offered each semester
that addressed camera use for terrestrial and underwater archaeological
projects.2 A two-part program, on the first Friday, Helen Carter repeated the
workshop delivered to the staff/supervisors of the 2009 Field School to
archaeology students. On the second Friday, students participated in a field
practical. Archaeology students assisted with camera operation underwater.
Screen and Media students assisted Helen Carter with aspects of camera
operation above water. The semester 1 Master Class was the first time the
Sony Z7 Camera with the Amphibico housing was used underwater by
archaeology staff and students. A short film was made about this training day,
Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage: using underwater cameras (Carter
2010a). It used footage recorded by maritime students and terrestrial footage
shot by Screen and Media students and was edited by a Screen and Media
honours student (Carter 2010a). This film is available through the Asia Pacific
Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage website at:
http://www.apconf.org/about/video/.
2
The Flinders University Department of Archaeology runs Masters Classes on Fridays
throughout semester. These short topics are designed to offer students training in topics
otherwise not covered in general teaching (e.g. archaeological illustration).
�2010 Collaborative Teaching
By 2010, representatives from both departments had developed a workable
program of training that prepared master students for camera operation and
underwater filming through a program of Masters Classes prior to field school.
At the 2010 Maritime Archaeology Field School, Sceale and Streaky
Bays (ARCH3309/8152) Z7 camera training was conducted with Helen Carter
and other trained supervisory staff to provide direction to the participating
students about filming techniques. In just one week in the field archaeology
students gathered a wide range of footage including jetty surveys,
measurements of a wreck at low tide, details of wood in a local museum,
artifacts on a local beach and boat-based dive activities. This footage was
used to make the film Maritime Archaeology Field School 2010 (Carter 2010b)
A second underwater Masters Class was offered in a contained
environment at the Adelaide Scuba swimming pool. This was designed to
make training available to students who did not yet meet the strict Flinders
University dive guidelines (and therefore could not dive in-field) and provided
an opportunity for more Screen and Media students to join the Maritime
Archaeology students in the water.
‘Rushes’3 were used as on-site training tools. This gave students an
initial opportunity to view their footage directly after recording and receive
feedback from a trained professional before returning to the water to rerecord.
To the new divers, this class also demonstrated more practical issues such as
buoyancy.
In 2010 the Maritime Archaeology Department's Associate Lecturer
Emily Jateff and doctoral candidate Deb Shefi audited the Screen and Media
Underwater Cinematography topic along with six Screen and Media honours
students. This was the first time that Screen and Media students were
registered as divers/snorkellers with Flinders University and allowed to take
cameras underwater. Two documentaries were produced in 2010. The first
was a record of archaeological investigations in the basement of the South
Australian Maritime Museum Bond Store basement (ca.1854) conducted by
doctoral candidate Adam Paterson (Shefi 2010). The second documentary
titled Torpedo Station was produced by honours student Ian Bethune and
recorded excavation of three test units at the Port Adelaide Torpedo Station
conducted by doctoral candidate James Hunter (Bethune 2010; Hunter in
prep.).
Outcomes
Outcomes of this work include a methodology for teaching underwater
camera practice to university students, instructional videos for use in camera
Masters Classes, a library of stock footage for use on student documentaries,
videos which promote the work of the university in UCH and videos which
convey edited versions of the efforts and meaning of specific
archaeology projects.
3
‘Rushes’ are unedited prints of a scene
�Students also have additional skills for use in archaeological fieldwork
and for producing their own videos, making them all more employable
upon completing their degrees. Screen Students have been encouraged to
pass dive medicals and to acquire diving qualifications. All students
have increased their diving hours while maintaining all requirements as per
the Flinders University Diving Procedures Manual (2008). Screen and Media
Department staff have a greater appreciation of the issues and techniques
involved in the field of archaeology and are better able to contribute to the
production of meaningful underwater narratives.
Developing a Methodology (The Process)
The first three years of this collaborative project concentrated on developing a
methodology for continuing practice safely within the university system. This
stressed the following three points:
1) How to video-record underwater
Students worked with small cameras in basic underwater bags. We
researched and practiced what camera-shots are required in order to edit
sequences and scenes together. Students devised methods of
communicating with each other in the water about what shot they were
working on, whether it needed another take and/or other directorial input.
Students also learned the best times of day to shoot and how to get the best
lighting conditions for a particular location.
2) How to use the camera(s) and housing in the water
Masters Classes focused on issues of buoyancy, steadiness, focus and
using light to the best advantage. Students would practice their skills in a
swimming pool then review the footage with lecturers and go straight back
in to the water to improve their camera-shots. Building on this experience
students were able to apply these skills to using the more complicated
Amphibico housing with a larger HDV camera. Procedures for handling and
testing equipment in and out of the water were developed.
3) Advanced screen and media techniques
Through the documentary camera class students learned how to edit their
material, to colour grade the footage and to create suitable sound tracks. By
watching other films students explored how to visually take the
audience
into and out of the water, how to establish an underwater location or
geography and how sequences are cut together.
2011 and beyond
Since the inception of this collaboration over a dozen films have been
produced with input from students and staff from both departments. A review
of the program and conducted research was presented at the 2010 AIMA
Annual Meeting in Melbourne, Victoria (Carter, et al. 2010). In 2011 Flinders
University announced the new graduate degree options Graduate Certificate,
Graduate Diploma and Master of Screen and Media Production. Archaeology,
Cultural Heritage Management and Maritime Archaeology topics are required
as part of these degree options.
�Masters degree classes are planned for the academic year 2011-2012
which include camera workshops, dives and events. Current Maritime
Archaeology Program and Screen and Media graduate students are working
on post-production of archaeological films recorded over the winter break.
Screen and Media Department students are also finally able to dive and
record their own footage.
Areas for future development include regularly using the videos we
produce in films on topics (this is currently done to a limited extent), editing
and sound for underwater footage and continuing theory and development in
teaching. Efforts will be made to secure funding for larger scale projects and
integration of film techniques into more research projects. Future projects will
stress working relationships in site management, and current underwater sites
of cultural significance including a special emphasis on the South Australian
shipwreck Star of Greece. Experimentation with small Go-Pro cameras is of
interest, as underwater they can achieve a full high-definition (HD) image and
are relatively safe for students to use due to their incredibly small physical
size (42mmx60x30mm).
Conclusion
Cross-disciplinary education in screen and archaeology subjects provides
researchers and students an innovative means to enhance skills and
knowledge and better inform the public through the use of digital media and
practice. By combining our experience (archaeologists can provide the ‘insider
information’, screen professionals the skills to turn it into a film) to produce
multiple benefits. Archaeologists learn how to better translate data sets to the
public and provide clarity on the role of the heritage-professional in the
filmmaking process (Clack and Brittian 2007). Maritime Archaeology students
learn about equipment needs and the video process, including what questions
to ask and what types of camera-shots they need to get in order to create
short documentaries. Screen production students and staff have a better
understanding of archaeological method and theory which allows them to
make better informed films.
Acknowledgements
The Departments of Screen and Media and Archaeology, in particular Dr Mark Staniforth,
Cole Larson, Scott Castledine, John Naumann, PhD Candidates Deb Shefi, James Hunter
and Adam Paterson, with special thanks to the South Australia Department of Environment
and Natural Resources Heritage Branch (Amer Khan), David Nutley, the 2009 ALA Fellows,
Malcolm Ludgate ACS, Adelaide Scuba and past and current Master of Maritime Archaeology
students for their unflagging enthusiasm.
Bibliography
Bates, S.,
2008a
Bates, S.,
2008b
Bethune, I.,
Mal Ludgate: Cinematographer. 13 minute documentary,
Flinders University, SA.
Nelcebee. 5 minute documentary, Flinders University,
SA.
Torpedo Station. 8 minute documentary, Flinders
�2010
Carter, H., Jateff,
E., and Shefi, D.,
2010
Carter, H.,
2009a
Carter, H.,
2009b
Carter, H.,
2010a
Carter, H.,
2010b
Clack, T.
and Brittain, M.,
2007
Flinders University
Diving Procedures
Manual,
2008
Gathercole,
P.
Stanley, J.,
and Thomas, N.,
2002
Kalsan, M.,
2009
King, Z., and Lake,
S.,
2008
Hunter, J.W.
In prep.
University, SA.
Screen and Shipwrecks: Bridging the Divide. An earlier
version of this paper presented at the Australasian
Institute for Maritime Archaeology Conference,
Melbourne, VIC, 2010.
Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage. 5 minute
documentary, Flinders University, SA.
Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage: Field Methods.
DVD. Flinders University, SA.
Teaching Underwater Cultural Heritage: using
underwater cameras. DVD. Flinders University, SA.
Maritime Archaeology Field School 2010. 10 minute
documentary, Flinders University, SA.
Archaeology and the Media. Left Coast Press, CA.
Flinders University Diving Procedures Manual. Internal
report, April 2008. Flinders University, SA.
Archaeology and the media: Cornwall Archaeological
Society-Devon Archaeological Society joint symposium.
Cornish Archaeology 41–42, 2002–3, 149–160
Ships’ Graveyard. DVD. Flinders University, SA.
Nelcebee: A South Australian Ketch. Poster presented
at the 2008 AIMA Annual Meeting, Archaeology from
Below, 24-28 September, Adelaide, SA.
Throwaway Navies: Naval Transition Abandonment
Processes and the Archaeology of Australasia’s
Torpedo Boat Defences, 1884-1924. PhD Thesis,
Flinders University, SA.
Mulloway Studio, Cultural mapping and survey: Port Adelaide waterfront:
Kloeden, P., and Stage 2: Jenkins Street Boatyards, Precinct 2B. Report
Staniforth, M.,
produced for LMC, Port Adelaide.
2009
Paterson, A.
Port Adelaide Community Archaeology (PACA) Project
In prep.
[working title]. PhD Thesis, Flinders University, SA.
Raftery, D.,
Ships’ Graveyard. 3 minute documentary, Flinders
2009
University, SA.
Shefi, D.,
Untitled. 7 minute documentary, Flinders University, SA.
2011
Shefi, D.,
South Australian Maritime Museum Bond Store. 8
2010
minute documentary, Flinders University , SA.
Van Dyke, R. M.,
Seeing the Past: Visual Media in Archaeology. American
2000
Anthropologist. 108.2: 370-375.
�
Document
A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text.
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Title
A name given to the resource
Screen and Shipwrecks: Bridging the Divide
Subject
The topic of the resource
Session 5
UCH in the Making… online session
Description
An account of the resource
The use of visual media is an aspect of record keeping and a necessary component of outreach and community engagement in maritime archaeology. Recent technological innovations have created the need to acknowledge multiple available methods of transmitting information to the public. Cross-disciplinary education in screen and archaeology provides students with an innovative means to enhance archaeological knowledge at the tertiary level and the skills to better inform the public through the use of digital media and practice.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Helen Carter
Emily Jateff
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
November 2011
Asia-Pac Session 5
-
https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3f5efb8c7f818cca5ed0e846279246c1.pdf
e988c4420337e0f82d0072147dce0829
PDF Text
Text
Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa
Hans K. Van Tilburg, PhD (Maritime Heritage Coordinator, NOAA Office of National Marine
Sanctuaries)
ABSTRACT
American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States with a long and continuous history of ocean
connection and maritime activities, from the initial voyaging discovery some 3,000 years ago to modern cruise
ships and fishing fleets. Understanding this history as it is reflected in the maritime landscape helps us
appreciate not only how the maritime past has evolved, but how the cultural and ecosystem benefits related to
the ocean persist and remain important today. NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries recently
completed a descriptive ArcGIS StoryMap of American Samoa, drawing from tangible and intangible cultural
resources inventories and data compiled by NOAA’s sanctuary staff, archival information, archaeological
surveys, and site cultural information from participant workshops. The territory’s story is presented as
something of a maritime voyage through time, touching upon elements of the original Pacific voyaging and
discovery of the islands, Samoan settlement culture and watercraft, western discovery and mapping, fautasi
longboat heritage and copra plantations, activities during the naval period and WWII, and contemporary
maritime spaces (commercial shipping and fishing). This StoryMap presents our human ties to the ocean, and
the maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa, placing an importance on ocean locations, activities and
events that have shaped the Samoan Islands and continue to define who we are today. Hopefully, a more
comprehensive understanding of the cultural significance of our ocean spaces can contribute to better
conservation and management of marine resources.
Keywords: American Samoa, cultural landscape, marine environment
List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1 Foaga or grinding holes/bait cups carved into the reef at Fagatele Bay, American Samoa.
Figure 2 Modern fautasi racing in Pago Pago Harbor.
Figure 3 Types and quantities of excess ordnance to be jettisoned at sea, Naval Station Tutuila,
Figure 4 The industrial landscape of Pago Harbor today. American Samoa Government Port Administration.
INTRODUCTION
The underwater cultural heritage (UCH) consists of properties and locations associated with the
narrative of past events or human story. And whether that story is reflected in oral, written and/or
archaeological and cultural resources, the broader context of our relationship to the environment is
critical to the assessment of UCH. In other words, the ocean possesses a legacy of submerged
properties that have cultural value, as well as implications for the health of the ecosystem. Maritime
cultural landscapes are places where the interactions of culture and nature have resulted in identifiable
cultural and ecological imprints. Every maritime cultural landscape captures a unique combination of
nature and culture that is expressed in the condition of the marine environment, in both material and
intangible cultural heritage, and in the meaning attached to that location by different stakeholder
groups (Barr 2014). Understanding the ocean and shoreline as a cultural landscape helps us appreciate
the full significance of UCH sites that would otherwise exist as isolated properties without context
and connection.
American Samoa, an unincorporated island territory of the United States consisting of the eastern part
of the Samoan archipelago, consists of five inhabited volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited
coastal plains, plus two coral atolls. The territory has a long and continuous history of ocean
connection and activities, from the initial voyaging discovery thousands of years ago to the modern
cruise ships and fishing fleets of today. The maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa captures
elements of this long history in terms of locations, cultural activities and UCH resources, within the
1
�broader maritime narrative of where we are from and who we are today. Importantly, the landscape
approach supports a broader definition of UCH elements and inclusion of their influence upon the
health of our marine ecosystems.
LEGACY OF VOYAGING
The sea is a highway. The first discoverers came by sea in what is considered one of the boldest
maritime migrations in human history. The Samoan Islands were originally discovered and settled
more than 3,000 years ago as part of the Austronesian expansion eastward into the Pacific. Over
hundreds of years, double-hull voyaging canoes, guided by specialists trained in non-instrument
navigation, moved throughout the western Pacific, bearing men and women, and all necessary
supplies to support permanent remote settlement. Migration theory is based on dating the traces of
ancient Lapita pottery, along with subsequent obsidian and basalt stone tool production, associated
with this expansion and settlement. In 1973, dredge spoils from Mulifanua Harbor on Upolu Island
(Western Samoa) revealed thousands of pottery sherds dated to 3000 BP, and coastal terrestrial Lapita
remains have been excavated from Ofu Island in American Samoa (Kirch andHunt 1993). Coastal
village ruins, reef petroglyphs, submerged whetstones, and remnants of foaga or reef grinding
holes/bait cups (Figure 1) add to the UCH archaeological footprint (Clark 1980, 24).
Figure 1 Foaga or grinding holes/bait cups carved into the reef at Fagatele Bay, American Samoa. Photograph by
Hans Van Tilburg/NOAA.
The legacy of traditional navigation extends beyond archaeology. There are a great number of legends
and stories represented by geo-cultural features or locations within the marine environment. These
culturally significant places range from stacked rock formations (tupua) to coves, cliffs, and even
submerged freshwater springs or passages in the reef, associated with famous chiefs, voyages, or
mythic events in folklore. All are potential “traditional cultural properties” associated with cultural
practices or beliefs of a living community that: (1) are rooted in that community's history, and (2) are
important in maintaining and continuing the cultural identity of the community (Parker and King
1992). Chants are still performed at Turtle and Shark Cove, a place commemorating the death of an
old woman and young girl, and the cove is protected by nomination to the U.S. National Register of
Historic Places. Records at the Feleti Barstow Library document at least 20 geo-cultural locations in
American Samoa’s coastal and marine environment (Van Tilburg 2007, 29).
2
�Near the village of Fagasa on Tutuila, the semi-submerged formation known as Sina’s Rock recalls the
time when Chief Li`ava`a’s crew, departing the island, mistakenly abandoned his daughter, her grief
and tears being the origin of the local spring (Kikuchi 1963, 84). This legend accounts for the
dolphins that visit Fagasa today. Such sites “are of extraordinary significance to Samoan culture.
Compared to all of the archaeological and historic sites that the HPO tries to protect, these sites are
seen as the most significant to local residents'' (Volk et al 1992, 32). Local and Indigenous
perspectives that highly value the cultural significance of “natural” resources, and the importance of
traditional practices and places to the maintenance of cultural identities, challenges us to examine the
definition of UCH as “all traces of human existence of a cultural, historical or archaeological
nature…” For purposes of heritage preservation and protecting marine resources, Sina’s Rock should
be considered UCH.
WESTERN ARRIVALS
Over time, 18th and 19th century Spanish, Dutch, French, British and American explorers shaped their
own routes to the islands of Samoa, opening the seaway for whalers, merchants, and missionaries in
pursuit of oil, copra and converts. The intentional adoption of new tools and nautical technology
would shape the Samoan cultural landscape in new ways. The story of the Samoan longboat or fautasi
provides an example of this evolution. The origin of fautasi dates back to the 1840s and observation
of the effectiveness of British naval longboats, leading to innovations in boat building. Samoan
carpenters began to construct an outrigger-less craft known as taumualua. Given the importance of
watercraft in the archipelago and the competitiveness of human nature, these soon advanced in length
from 50 feet to 60 feet and onwards. Aided by the skills of the castaway whaler and shipwright Eli
Jennings, who came ashore in 1847, these hybrid craft took on the lightweight shiplap designs of
whaleboats. By the last decade of the 19th century, fautasi (and the smaller version known as tulula)
were capable and useful watercraft that served multiple roles: warfare, cargo transportation, passenger
service, racing vessels, and more (Van Tilburg et al 2018, 124).
With the regulation of interisland travel imposed in 1903 by the U.S. Naval Administration, and the
increasing use of motorized craft, the role of fautasi was slowly reduced to racing, which later
remained as their sole function. Today, on Flag Day in American Samoa (17 April), 10 to 15 village
fautasi longboats manned with 45 village members line up outside of the deep-water harbor port of
Pago Pago for their fiercest competition of the year, acknowledged by some as the largest cultural
event in the territory. These computer-designed modern material watercraft cost tens of thousands of
dollars to purchase and maintain, and the race outcomes are intricately tied to financial benefits,
village pride, community identity and a deep historical tradition of seafaring (Herdrich et al 2020, 46).
The maritime cultural landscape of fautasi today encompasses the village boathouses, launching and
training areas for the race (crews train for months in advance), and the race course itself from Taema
Bank of Tutuila’s south shore into the inner harbor of Pago Pago.
3
�Figure 2 Modern fautasi racing in Pago Pago Harbor. Photograph by David Herdrich.
The extraction of resources and increasing trans-Pacific commerce would also change the landscape
and UCH resources. Throughout the South Pacific, the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) has been
known as the “Tree of Life” due to the incredible value and usefulness of every part of the tree for
food, medicine, shelter, and transportation. The commercial products derived from dried white
coconut meat or copra, including oil for soaps and cosmetics and copra “cake” or meal for animal
feed, would play a major role in the economic development of the Samoan Islands. Therefore, the
collection of copra from the islands of American Samoa for shipment and sale abroad was critical.
The copra export business in the territory was centralized around the U.S. Naval Station. Villages
without copra sheds or wharves were responsible for transporting copra to the Naval Station (or to
Leone in the Western District) by their own boat, bus, vehicle, or on their shoulders. Villages with
copra sheds and wharves transported copra to the Naval Station or Leone by regular service public
customs boats or public works trucks (NARA RG284). Thus, the cultural landscape components of
wharves, landings, channels, and buoys came under the early management of the Public Works
Department and the U.S. Navy. Additionally, the inventory of vessel losses, some 40 scattered around
the islands between 1828-1993, including whalers, steamers, schooners, brigs, and fishing vessels, are
landscape elements (Van Tilburg 2007, 8).
ON THE EDGE OF BATTLE
In 1899 Germany, England, and the United States signed a tripartite agreement (effective 16 February
1900), that granted control of the Samoan Islands of Upolu and Savai`i to Germany and control of
Tutuila, Aunu`u, and Manu`a to the United States. Subsequently, The Ali’i (chiefs) of Tutuila and
Aunu`u ceded their islands to the U.S. on 17 April 1900. The king and matai of the Manu`a Islands
signed a deed of cession to the U.S. in 1904. Thus, a series of naval commanders served as military
governors of American Samoa for the territory’s first 50 years.
Although largely insulated from World War I, during World War II the American Samoa Defense
Group (headquartered at Naval Station Tutuila) was, geographically, the largest command area in the
South Pacific. Pago Pago Harbor on Tutuila served as a staging area for the preparation of amphibious
forces engaged in South Pacific operations. The territory was home to thousands of Navy and Marine
service men and women, including Samoan recruits in the Fita-Fita guard and the Samoan Marine
Brigade known as Maligi Samoa or Samoan Marines (Hudson 1994, 25). Tutuila possessed the largest
4
�jungle training center in the South Pacific. American Samoa, on the edge of the Pacific combat
theater, was also an important link in maintaining communication between the United States,
Australia, and New Zealand.
The scale and intensity of activities during the war years, even for peripheral American Samoa, made
significant changes to the maritime cultural landscape and UCH inventory of the islands. During
World War II, Tutuila supported a naval air station, maintaining up to 60 fighter aircraft and 12
long-range bombers at any one time. Moorings for seaplanes were located in the shallow lagoon near
the landing strip. As a consequence of intensive wartime training and patrols, 43 naval aircraft ditched
or crashed into local waters between 1942 and 1944, many in the vicinity of Tutuila (Van Tilburg
2007, 12). The naval airfield, constructed in 1942, is today the location of Pago Pago International
Airport.
The remnants of numerous concrete pillboxes along the shoreline, as well as gun emplacements,
bunkers, naval buildings, foundations, etc. are the more visible reminders of the war. A National
Register of Historic Places multiple property nomination for many of these World War II sites was
prepared in 2005 listing at least 79 coastal pillboxes (Kennedy 2005). Erosion and subsidence have
placed some of these pillboxes into the ocean. The fortifications built at the entrance to Pago Pago
harbor include gun emplacements at Blunts Point and Breakers Point. Both gun emplacements are
listed on the National Register of Historic Places. National Archive records also locate minefields
protecting the entrance to the deep-water harbor. The Naval Station significantly enlarged the harbor’s
infrastructure with the fuel dock, LST landing areas, wharves and moorings, and the ship repair
facility across the bay (now a tuna cannery).
DANGEROUS LEGACY
Many of these sites can pose potential threats to the marine environment. Following the war, on 7
October 1949, the naval gasoline tanker USS Chehalis burned, exploded and sank in Pago Pago
Harbor, with the loss of six crewmen. In 2007 the American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency
completed a site investigation, confirming the aviation gasoline cargo, as well as the possibility of
unexploded ordnance. In April 2009, the U.S. Navy conducted a preliminary survey, and fuel removal
actions (60,000 gallons) were completed in April 2010 (Goldstein 2013). Further archival research in
2022 revealed extensive documentation of disposed ordnance and military materials by Naval Station
Tutuila. Deteriorated, unused and obsolete ordnance and supplies, stockpiled throughout the wide
Samoan Defense Area, were sent to area headquarters (Tutuila) to be disposed. Disposal meant
dealing with the hazardous material in one of several ways: excess ordnance could be salvaged,
forwarded to the West Coast, kept for peacetime storage, or jettisoned at sea. Ultimately, hundreds of
tons of deteriorated or obsolete ammunition and materials were jettisoned somewhere in the nearby
ocean. Specific locations were unspecified, but initial orders often carried instructions stating “sink in
not less than 50 fathoms of water,” changed at a later date to “dump in not less than 150 fathoms of
water and not less than 10 miles from the nearest land” (NARA RG313). The extensive lists of
jettisoned materials included: 500 and 1,000 lb bombs, demolition blocks, hand grenades, depth
charges, mortars, howitzers, anti-aircraft ammunition, small arms ammunition, anti-tank mines, fuses,
bomb tail vanes, fragmentation bombs, parachute flares, and more. An explosives dumping area of
roughly 70 square miles was indicated some 15 miles southeast of Pago Pago. Disposed ammunition
has been reported on Taema Bank, at the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor, and a dangerous wreck
“loaded with explosives,” was reported near Aunu`u Island in 1971 (Hudson 1994, 87).
5
�Figure 3 Types and quantities of excess ordnance to be jettisoned at sea, Naval Station Tutuila, 13 October 1945.
Source: National Archives and Records Administration RG313.
AMERICAN SAMOA’S MARITIME LANDSCAPE TODAY
Today there are some 56,000 people living in American Samoa, with about 98% of those residents
located on Tutuila Island. The territory is integrated into a modern global maritime world as an
exporter of marine resources, communications hub, and recreational destination. The shipping and
transportation landscape in American Samoa has evolved since the early 1900s when fautasi
longboats were used to transport imported supplies from large ships, and as transportation to coastal
villages and neighboring islands. Today, large container ships arrive weekly with supplies that the
majority of the islands’ residents rely on for food and livelihoods. Ferry services are available on a
weekly basis for the domestic market between Tutuila and the Manu’a islands, and via the Samoa
Shipping Corporation LTD., internationally between Tutuila and Apia. Fishing has likewise advanced.
Canneries first began operating in American Samoa in 1954. Today, tuna processing and the territorial
government are the largest employers and the mainstay of American Samoa’s economy. International
fishing fleets supply catches to the canneries for export, while small-scale artisanal fisheries supply
the local market for fish (Levine and Allen 2009, 21). The footprint of UCH resources and the
maritime cultural landscape has evolved, reflecting now disposed and wrecked long liners, cruise ship
moorings and cannery infrastructure, modern navigational infrastructure, shoreline armoring for
protection against erosion and climate change impacts, and more.
6
�Figure 4 The industrial landscape of Pago Harbor today. Source: American Samoa Government PortAdministration.
Today there is an increasing desire and urgent need to achieve sustainable commercial and
recreational practices in order to address the damage of pollution and climate change impacts. Our
ocean environments are increasingly understood as places of critical marine research in this context.
Maritime cultural landscapes have a role to play in this research. That role includes a broader
definition of UCH and understanding the interactions between UCH sites and the marine environment,
for better or worse (sites as potential habitat and cultural value, sites as potential environmental
threat). Shipwrecks have been, and always will be, a unique subset of UCH resources both rich in
historical and archaeological value, and exciting to the general public. However, becoming better
stewards of our oceans implies reexamining our UCH from a broader perspective, one inherently
supported by the maritime cultural landscape approach.
7
�BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barr, Brad. “Observations on developing a maritime cultural landscape approach to managing US National Marine
Sanctuaries.” In Proceedings of the 2nd Asia Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference, 51-60, edited by Hans Van
Tilburg, Veronica Walker Vadillo, Jun Kimura, Brian Fahy, Sila Tripati. Honolulu: Electric Pencil, 2014.
Clark, Jeffrey T. Historic Preservation in American Samoa: Program Evaluation and Archaeological Site Inventory.
Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1980.
Goldstein, Carl. Success story—USS Chehalis: Investigation and fuel offload operation. (Pacific Islands Office
presentation-Pacific Environmental Success Stories) Guam: June 28, 2013.
https://issuu.com/guamepa/docs/goldstein_uss_chehalis_investigatio accessed 4/28/2023.
Herdrich, David, Hans K. Van Tilburg, and Atuatasi Lelei Peau. Fautasi Heritage of American Samoa: Fa‘Aga I Le Tai: O
Ala O Le Vavau A Samoa. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA, 2020.
Hudson, Jack C. and Kay G. American Samoa in World War II. Cultural Resources Services Inc.
1994.
Kennedy, Joseph. Results of an Archaeological Survey and Archival Research of WWII Coastal Defenses on Tutuila
Island, American Samoa. Haleiwa, Hawai`i: Archaeological Consultants of the Pacific, 2005.
Kikuchi, William K. Archaeological Surface Ruins in American Samoa. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i (MA Thesis),
1963.
Kirch, P.V. and T.L. Hunt. The To'aga Site: Three Millennia of Polynesian Occupation in the Manu'a Islands, American
Samoa (Contributions to the University of California Archaeological Research Facility No. 51). Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1993.
Levine, Arielle and Stewart Allen. American Samoa as a Fishing Community. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce
NOAA, 2009.
National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) RG284. Records of the Government of American Samoa, Office of
the Attorney General, Island Government files, 1931-1964, box 461. Correspondence from Secretary of Native Affairs to
Governor 22 July 1947.
National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) RG313. Records of Naval Operating Forces, U.S. Naval
Government Unit Tutuila, American Samoa, General Correspondence 1945-1951, box 10. Survey Request, Report and
Expenditure, 13 October 1945.
Parker, Patricia L. and Thomas F. King. Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional Cultural Properties (NPS
Register Bulletin 38). Washington D.D.: U.S. Department of Interior National Park Service, 1992.
Van Tilburg, Hans. American Samoa Maritime Heritage Inventory. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA,
2007.
Van Tilburg, Hans K., David J. Herdrich, Michaela E. Howells, Va‘Amua Henry Sesepasara, Telei‘Ai Christian Ausage and
Michael D. Coszalter. “Row as One! A History of the Development and Use of the Sāmoan Fautasi.” In Journal of the
Polynesian Society 127 no.1 (2018): 111-136.
Volk, Richard D., Pamela A. Knudsen, Karla D. Kluge, and David J. Herdrich. Towards a Territorial Conservation Strategy
and the Establishment of a Conservation Area System for American Samoa. Pago Pago: Le Vaumatua Inc., 1992.
8
�
Dublin Core
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Title
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2023 Session 16: The significance of Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Seascapes and Living Heritage in Oceania
Subject
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Session 16 papers
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Papers presented at Session 16 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage
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Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage
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The Museum of Underwater Archaeology
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November 2023
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Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage
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English
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Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage
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Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa
Description
An account of the resource
American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States with a long and continuous history of ocean
connection and maritime activities, from the initial voyaging discovery some 3,000 years ago to modern cruise
ships and fishing fleets. Understanding this history as it is reflected in the maritime landscape helps us
appreciate not only how the maritime past has evolved, but how the cultural and ecosystem benefits related to
the ocean persist and remain important today. NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries recently
completed a descriptive ArcGIS StoryMap of American Samoa, drawing from tangible and intangible cultural
resources inventories and data compiled by NOAA’s sanctuary staff, archival information, archaeological
surveys, and site cultural information from participant workshops. The territory’s story is presented as
something of a maritime voyage through time, touching upon elements of the original Pacific voyaging and
discovery of the islands, Samoan settlement culture and watercraft, western discovery and mapping, fautasi
longboat heritage and copra plantations, activities during the naval period and WWII, and contemporary
maritime spaces (commercial shipping and fishing). This StoryMap presents our human ties to the ocean, and
the maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa, placing an importance on ocean locations, activities and
events that have shaped the Samoan Islands and continue to define who we are today. Hopefully, a more
comprehensive understanding of the cultural significance of our ocean spaces can contribute to better
conservation and management of marine resources.
Creator
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Hans K. Van Tilburg
Publisher
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The Museum of Underwater Archaeology
Date
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2023
Language
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English
Bibliographic Citation
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Van Tilburg, Hans K. . 2023. “Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2030
Asia-Pac Session 16 2023