42 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/14c8f3ea381590237f3f41e259b4b766.pdf d3965fcb793511b47d282a0415f9f200 PDF Text Text The outfitting and sailing of early sixteenth-century vessels in the Pacific: The Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions (1525-1536) Jose Luis Casabán Nautical Archaeology Program Department of Anthropology Texas A&M University College Station, TX, 77843-4352 USA Email: jlcasaban@tamu.edu Abstract This paper examines the information provided by primary written sources in relation to the outfitting and sailing of the ships used in the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions, which took place between 1525 and 1536. On July 24, 1525, seven vessels, under the command of Garcia Jofre de Loaysa, departed from La Coruña, Spain, to take the Moluccas for the king of Spain, Charles I. Only one nao reached its destination where the Spanish managed to thwart the Portuguese for several years with the help of the natives. In 1527, Hernán Cortés sent Alvaro de Saavedra with three ships from New Spain to find Trinidad, a ship from the Magellan’s expedition, and to find out the outcome of the Loaysa expedition. He never returned. A close examination of eleven documents written by survivors of both expeditions revealed one hundred and twelve references regarding the use of nautical technology and operational aspects of seafaring in the Pacific Ocean in the early sixteenth century. This data includes ship typology, rigging, navigation techniques, equipment, provisions and containers, ballast, hull maintenance, seagoing disasters and their remedies, ordnance, and naval warfare. This type of information is useful for nautical archaeologists since it can be compared with the data provided by contemporary nautical and shipbuilding treatises and be used to interpret the archaeological data. The analysis of such primary documents is analogous to the way an archaeologist approach an excavation site – the data is gathered and then interpreted by the nautical archaeologists. Keywords: Loaysa, Pacific Ocean, Outfitting, Saavedra, Sailing Introduction This paper examines the information provided by primary written sources in relation to the outfitting and sailing of the ships used in the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions, which took place between 1525 and 1536. Between 1825 and 1837, Martín Fernández de Navarrete, a Spanish Navy Officer and historian, published a collection of five volumes about the voyages and discoveries of the Spanish since the fifteenth century. 1 �The original documents used for this collection were compiled and transcribed by Navarrete in different Spanish archives and libraries since 1789.The Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions were narrated in the fifth volume published in 1837. The account was based on the original manuscripts written by members and survivors of both expeditions and published as an appendix in the same volume. Navarrete cited thirtyseven documents to narrate both expeditions although only eleven of them provided references related to ship outfitting and sailing in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Table 1). The data gathered includes references to ship typology, rigging, navigation techniques, equipment, provisions and containers, ballast, hull maintenance, seagoing disasters and their remedies, ordnance, and naval warfare. Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions (1525-1536) On July 24, 1525, seven vessels, under the command of García Jofre de Loaysa, departed La Coruña, Spain, where a Casa de las Especias (House of Spices) was briefly established (Spate, 1979). The objective of the expedition was to occupy the Moluccas and to control the spice trade. The expedition was a succession of disasters and only one ship, the nao Victoria, reached its destination where the Spanish managed to thwart the Portuguese for several years with the help of the natives. In 1527, Hernán Cortés sent Alvaro de Saavedra with three ships from New Spain to find the nao Trinidad, a ship from the Magellan’s expedition, and to find out the outcome of Loaysa’s expedition. He never returned. In 1532, the Spanish survivors learned through the Portuguese that king Charles I had sold his rights on the Spice Island to the king of Portugal in exchange for 350.000 ducats in 1529 (Pigafetta, 2002). Between 1534 and 1535, the last survivors of both expeditions were taken to Cochin (India) and from there to Lisbon, where they finally arrived in 1536. Types of ships The ships that took part in Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions are the typical oceanic vessels of this period such as naos and caravels although there are also a pataje and a bergantín (brigantine) (Table 2). However, the term nao (ship) is also applied to all these vessels in a generic manner. Moreover, the caravel Parral is defined as a galleon in some documents while Saavedra’s ship, Florida, is named caravel in another document (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). With respect to the other two ships of 2 �Saavedra expedition, they are simply called navíos (vessels) without providing any other details about them (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).The documents also refer to two fustas built at the Moluccas by the Spanish, and one galera (galley) used by the Portuguese in a naval combat. The variety of definitions for the same types of vessels reminds us that the debate about sixteenth-century ship typology still needs to be addressed. Additionally, the Spanish and Portuguese also adapted local boats from the Moluccas such as paroles (prahu) and caracoras (kora-kora). Sails The types of sails mentioned in the documents are the main, fore and mizzen sails. These references provide useful information about the sailing techniques during this period. For instance, all ships used the fore course for sailing while the nao Victoria’s main mast or Parral’s mizzen mast were repaired (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Moreover, the nao Victoria sailed 20 leagues only using the fore and mizzen sails while crossing the Pacific Ocean due to the bad weather (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).The documents also inform us about the sailcloth carried on board the ships. The nao San Gabriel transported cañamaza (hemp canvas) and holandesa (Dutch canvas) which might be used to tailor new sails during the voyage (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). During this period sailcloth was known in Spain as olona because a large proportion of sails mentioned on shipbuilding contracts came from Brittany’s towns such as Nantes and Olone (Smith, 1993). The word holandesais indicating a Dutch origin for this material. The San Gabriel’s pilot also tells us about the ship’s rigging lifespan that he estimates up to seven years (Smith, 1993). Navigation In his logbook, the pilot of the nao Victoria mentions that the position of the sun was measured every day at noon to determine the latitude. This routine was only interrupted when the sun was not visible because of the clouds. However, he does not indicate the type of instrument used for the observations, probably an astrolabe. In the same document there are several references to the use of sounding leads. This instrument was used to measure the depths and to identify the type of seabed. This data was crucial when ships navigated close to shore and it also helped to establish the position of the ship in relation to the coast (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). 3 �An emergency communication system was proposed by Elcano before the fleet crossed the Atlantic (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). If any ship got separated from the fleet before reaching the Strait of Magellan because of the weather, or any other reason, it would have to wait for twenty days at All Saints’ Bay (Brazil). After that time, a letter would be placed inside a clay pot buried under a cross placed on a visible spot. Then the ship would continue the voyage until the next meeting point where it would leave another message. This system was employed by the pataje Santiago which left a letter at Santa Cruz River that was found by the naos Victoria and San Gabriel. The letter informed the other ships that the Santiago and the rest of the fleet were on their way to the Cape of the Eleven Thousand Virgins (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).The same system was employed in the Pacific by Saavedra. On his way to the Moluccas he left a letter buried in an island of the Marshals where his ship got separated from the rest of his fleet (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Richard Hawkins used a similar system during his expedition to the South Sea in 1593. He left the messages inside a musket barrel place on the top of a hill instead of in a pot (Hawkins, 1970). Ships equipment The documents often mention the ships’ pumps although they do not indicate their type. Pumps are normally cited in plural so it is possible that the ships were equipped with two pumps or carried a spare pump in case the main one failed during the voyage. Two pumps were recovered from the Sancti Spiritus wreck at the Cape of the Eleven Thousands Virgins (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837), and the nao Victoria used two pumps while crossing the Pacific Ocean because of the heavy leaking of its hull (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).It has to be noted that the House of Trade issued an ordinance during the reign of Charles I which made mandatory for oceanic vessels to carry two pumps, one of them as a spare (Consejo de Indias, 1943). On the other hand, archaeology provides examples of ships equipped with two operational pumps such as the Highborn Cay shipwreck, an early sixteenth century caravel, and the Emanuel Point I wreck dated in 1559 (Oertling, 1996). Saavedra also mentions how exhausting was working at the pumps and how he had to transfer men to his ships to helpwith the work (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). In the same way, the naos San Gabriel and Victoriakidnapped natives from various islands to work at the pumps (Fernández de 4 �Navarrete, 1837). This could indicate that the ships were equipped with burr pumps that require a lot of manpower to ensure their effectiveness in comparison with the suction pumps. The documents also include references to small service boats such asesquifes and bateles. According to O’Scanlan (1974), these terms were equally used to name both types of boats although bateles were larger than esquifes. During the Loaysa expedition, esquifes were used to carry people and messages between ships, to explore the shore and provisioning, and to transport materials and equipment from one ship to another such as during the salvage of the Sancti Spiritus remains (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The loss of a small boat meant that the crew of a ship could not go ashore to get provisions because the larger ships were unable to anchor in shallow waters. In that case, the crews depended on the natives to get food and supplies which was often uncertain. That was the case of Saavedra’s first attempt to return to New Spain across the Pacific. He had to return to the Moluccas because of the contrary winds and the loss of the batel that prevented him to get provisions during the journey (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Moreover, various ships had to share one esquife after theirs were lost during a storm in Bay of la Victoria (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The references to the ground tackle provide information about the number of anchors carried on board the ships, their effectiveness, and strength. In several occasions, anchors started to drag even when more than one had been deployed. That was the case of the nao Victoria that ran ashore in Bay of la Victoria despite deploying five anchors (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). A few days later, the same ship was at risk again in Gallegos River when its anchor broke near the stock and had to set sail to Santa Cruz River (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Saavedra’s ship also experienced difficulties with its ground tackle while anchoring at the Marshalls. In this case, two anchor cables were damaged due to the rocky bottom and the ship had to kedge off to abandon the anchorage (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Moreover, a few days later the natives stole one of the two anchors he had deployed without a marker buoy (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). On the other hand, there are no references to the weight and dimensions of the anchors. 5 �Table 1. List of documents containing references to ships outfitting and sailing. (Navarrete, 1837) 6 �Provisions, containers and ballast These types of ships could not carry all the provisions needed by the crews to sail across the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. The documents tell us how the Loaysa’s fleet had to get provisions from various islands before crossing the Atlantic and once they reached the American coast, the crew of nao Victoria killed a sea lion in Santa Cruz River to get fresh meat (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). After leaving the Strait of Magellan, the fleet got separated. The crew of the pataje Santiago realized that part of their provisions was carried on board the nao Victoria because its hold as too small. The ship only carried four quintales of biscuit and eight pipas of water that were insufficient for a journey of 2,200 leagues (12,100 km) across the Pacific Ocean. Moreover, the ship had lost its esquife getting provision before arriving at the Moluccas seemed almost impossible. For that reason the crew decided to abandon the expedition and to sail to New Spain that was only 1,000 leagues away (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Finally, when Saavedra arrived at the Marshalls, he ordered to fill some pipas with saltwater to be used as variable ballast (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). This was an unusual procedure because this type of ballast generally consisted of cobbles and pebbles of rock, or even sacks of sand (Smith, 1993). Hull maintenance Although the documents indicate that emergency repairs were carried out on the ships of both expeditions, these references are not common. The lack of facilities such as shipyards, tools and materials limited the type of repairs that could be made. For example, the nao Victoria had to be abandoned in Moluccas because its hull was so damaged that it could not be repaired. Frames and knees were broken after running aground at Bay of la Victoria, the seams between planks were opened while navigating across the Pacific, and the vibrations produced when the naval ordinance was fired on board (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Additionally, the documents also indicate that the ships carried materials for hull maintenance such as the cauldron of pitch that caught fire on board the nao Victoria (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).On the other hand, the expedition members adapted local materials to repair their ships or to build new vessels. That was the case of the solution provided to mitigate the effects of the ship worms on the hull of Saavedra’s ship before departing from the Moluccas to New 7 �Spain. A sacrificial planking layer was added to the ship’s hull with a coat of local bitumen used by the natives to caulk their own boats (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Table 2. Types of ships used in the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions. (Navarrete, 1837) Seagoing disasters and their remedies The demanding sailing conditions of the oceanic voyages increased the chances of seagoing disasters. The texts provide several examples and also show the vital importance of the ships’ carpenters in these expeditions. Carpenters were sent on 8 �anesquife from the Sancti Spiritus to fix the mainmast of the nao Victoria when it broke after departing from La Gomera. It took them three days to repair it. Meanwhile, the nao Victoria rammed the stern the caravel Santa Maria del Parral and, once again, an esquife with carpenters and planks was sent to repair the ship (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Storms could also disperse damage or sink the ships. The caravel Lesmes was driven south by a storm before arriving at the Cape of the Eleven Thousand Virgins, and probably saw Cape Horn before rejoining the fleet (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The nao Victoria run aground during a storm near the Cape of the Eleven Thousand Virgins and damaged the rudder, keel and sternpost. The carpenters used planks and lead sheathing to fix the keel and sternpost and put the rudder back in place (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). This situation demonstrates that these ships carried on board enough spare materials to face this type of incidents, at least for limited period of time. Finally, another storm separated the Victoria, Lesmes, Parral and Santiago when they were leaving the Strait of Magellan (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837), and due to rough seas, the hull of the nao Victoria started to leak. In fact, the crew worked continuously at pumps until the ship reached the Moluccas Islands. Various members of the crew died of exhaustions due to the work and the food shortage (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Ships ordnance and naval combats The members of Loaysa’s and Saavedra’s expeditions fought during several years against the Portuguese at the Moluccas with the help of the natives. For that reason, there are also references to ship’s ordnance and naval combats in the documents. While sailing across the Pacific, the ordnance was probably stored in the hold of the nao Victoria and it was only put on deck when they were approaching the Moluccas, in case they encountered the Portuguese (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The ordnance had no use in the Pacific because the possibility of finding enemy vessels was highly unlikely. In addition, if the artillery was carried in the hold, its weight improved the ship’s stability. The documents also mention the combat between the nao Victoria and various Portuguese vessels, including one fusta, one batel and several prahus. The vessels were equipped with pieces of artillery as they intended to sink the Spanish ship. Part of the ship’s ordnance had been disembarked to defend the Spanish base on land 9 �(Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The lack of weight made the ship’s deck float too high on the water, making its artillery quite ineffective despite of the crew spending twelve quintales of gunpowder in firing the cannons. The cannon recoil caused more damage to the already weakened ship’s structure than the three shots taken from the Portuguese (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). After this combat, the nao Victoria was abandoned and two fustas were built using local timbers (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The Spanish carpenters ignored the characteristics of the local timbers and only one fusta was finally used because the other rotted before being launched (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837).The documents also refer another naval combat between the Spanish fusta and a Portuguese galley. This reference includes the typical pieces of artillery of this period such as bronze pedreros, sacres, versos as well as iron versos, large falconetes, and culebrinas (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). The ordnance was very versatile and could be used in different types of ships or on land. Finally, during the sixteenth century, the proportion of foreign condestables and gunners in the Spanish fleets was important although the number of Spanish gunners increased by the end of the century (Pérez-Mallaína, 1998). This situation is also reflected by the documents which mention the presence of Flemish constables between the Spanish crew (Fernández de Navarrete, 1837). Conclusions The analysis of these eleven documents written by the survivors of the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions reveal numerous references regarding the use of nautical technology and operational aspects of seafaring in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean in the early sixteenth century. This data includes ship typology, rigging, navigation techniques, equipment, provisions and containers, ballast, hull maintenance, seagoing disasters and their remedies, ordnance, and naval warfare. On the other hand, most of the information is provided in an indirect manner because the authors do not intend to teach us outfitting methods or techniques. They were just describing the situations in which they become involved and how they solve the difficulties encountered while traveling to the other side of the world. This type of information is extremely useful for nautical archaeologists because it can be compared with the data provided by contemporary nautical and shipbuilding treatises and archaeological data. The accounts also contain 10 �practical descriptions about the use and maintenance of numerous elements of the ship’s outfitting. However, the data is not provided in a direct manner as a nautical treaty does. The analysis of such primary documents is analogous to the way an archaeologist approach the excavation of an archaeological site – the data is gathered and then interpreted by the nautical archaeologists. References Consejo de Indias, 1943. Recopilación de leyes de los reynos de la Indias, mandadas imprimir y publicar por la Magestad Católica del Rey don Cárlos II. Nuetsro Señor. 4 impresión. Gráficas Ultra S.A., Madrid. Hawkins, S. R., 1970. The Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins. Da Capo Press, New York. Fernández de Navarrete, M., 1837. Colección de los viajes y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los españoles desde fines del siglo XV. Volumen V. Expediciones al Maluco, viages de Loaisa y de Saavedra. Imprenta Real, Madrid. O’Scanlan, T., 1974. Diccionario marítimo español: que además de las definiciones de las voces con sus equivalentes en francés, inglés e italiano, contiene tres vocabularios de estos idiomas con las correspondencias castellanas: redactado por orden del Rey nuestro señor. Museo Naval, Madrid. Oertling, T. J., 1996. Ships’ Bilge Pumps: a History of Their Development, 1500-1900. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. Pérez-Mallaína, P. E., 1998. Spain’s Men of the Sea: Daily Life on the Indies Fleets in the Sixteenth Century. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Pigafetta, A., 2002. Primer viaje alrededor del mundo. Dastin, Madrid. Smith, R. C., 1993. Vanguard of Empire: Ships of Exploration in the Age of Columbus. Oxford University Press, New York. Spate, O. H. K., 1979. The Spanish Lake. University of Minessota, Minneapolis. 11 �Biography Jose Luis Casabán is a PhD candidate in the Nautical Archaeology Program at Texas A&M University. His dissertation research focuses on the study of the 16th century Spanish seafaring and shipbuilding technology. He is also specialized in the applications of photogrammetry for underwater mapping and GIS. Since 2012, Jose is one of the co-directors of the Finisterre Project, whose objectives are the underwater survey, mapping, recording, and study of the remains of 1596 Armada shipwrecks discovered near Cape Finisterre, in the northwest of Spain. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The outfitting and sailing of early sixteenth-century vessels in the Pacific: The Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions (1525-1536) Description An account of the resource This paper examines the information provided by primary written sources in relation to the outfitting and sailing of the ships used in the Loaysa and Saavedra expeditions, which took place between 1525 and 1536. On July 24, 1525, seven vessels, under the command of Garcia Jofre de Loaysa, departed from La Coruña, Spain, to take the Moluccas for the king of Spain, Charles I. Only one nao reached its destination where the Spanish managed to thwart the Portuguese for several years with the help of the natives. In 1527, Hernán Cortés sent Alvaro de Saavedra with three ships from New Spain to find Trinidad, a ship from the Magellan’s expedition, and to find out the outcome of the Loaysa expedition. He never returned. A close examination of eleven documents written by survivors of both expeditions revealed one hundred and twelve references regarding the use of nautical technology and operational aspects of seafaring in the Pacific Ocean in the early sixteenth century. This data includes ship typology, rigging, navigation techniques, equipment, provisions and containers, ballast, hull maintenance, seagoing disasters and their remedies, ordnance, and naval warfare. This type of information is useful for nautical archaeologists since it can be compared with the data provided by contemporary nautical and shipbuilding treatises and be used to interpret the archaeological data. The analysis of such primary documents is analogous to the way an archaeologist approach an excavation site – the data is gathered and then interpreted by the nautical archaeologists. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jose Luis Casabán, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Part III Civil Engineering and Nautics Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Joseph Needham Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Joseph Needham Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology Title A name given to the resource Part III Civil Engineering and Nautics China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0bcaa6a4fbff3cc85187fa646e41d65c.pdf cf7829962d072ed65d8cc003e45a353d PDF Text Text Human Resources Development in Indonesia's Underwater Archaeology Judi Wahjudin Abstract The Indonesian archipelago position is located in a very strategic position at the crossroads of world maritime trade between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. According to archaeological and historical research, there is evidence that Indonesia has had a maritime nautical culture since prehistoric times. Some evidence of Indonesian maritime cultural civilization can still be found scattered on the ocean floor, including approximately 463 ancient ship location points according to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, which is the Indonesian government agency that handles the field of culture, now has approximately 80 staff divers. Only a fraction of that number have competence in the field of underwater archaeology, so it is necessary to improve the knowledge and skills, not only in the field of diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, data recording excavation, and conservation. In the last five years, efforts to increase human resources in underwater archaeology in Indonesia continue to be done through various education and training, whether conducted in Indonesia or abroad facilitated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it is necessary to develop appropriate strategies both in quantity and quality. Indonesia needs an underwater archaeological development centre that will prepare a teaching module, instructor, certification and partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution we can expect human resources of underwater archaeologists to have the following abilities: (1) diving, (2) various regulations relating to underwater cultural heritage, (3) development of management plans, and recording and documenting sites, (4) procedures, methods, principles and ethics of underwater archaeology, (5) artifact conservation and storage, (6) traditional knowledge, and (7) publications and exhibitions. In the last five years we have implemented several training programs to further underwater archaeology in Indonesia where participants have acquired skills in diving, survey and conservation. More skills would greatly empower Indonesians in managing their underwater cultural heritage, particularly at an advanced underwater archaeology theory and practice level. Introduction Indonesia as an archipelago has a vast territory that stretches from 95 ° to 141 ° East Longitude and between 60 ° N latitude and 110 ° LS. The total area of the Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone's marine waters are approximately 7.9 million square kilometers (km2). When calculated, the length of the beach that surrounds the entire archipelago was recorded at approximately 81,000 km, and the number of people living in coastal areas are more than 40 million. Based on existing data on the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS '82), Indonesia covers an area of waters of the ocean area covering 3.1 million km2, which consists of the archipelagic waters and an area of 2.8 million km2 of sea area covering 0.3 million km2. The position of Indonesia is as a very strategic island nation, which is located at the crossroads between lanes of traffic and world trade, between the Pacific and Indian Ocean (Pramono 2005:2). Based on Djoko Pramono's (2005: 3-6) study of archeology and history, there is evidence that the nation of Indonesia since prehistoric times has been �recorded in the nautical culture sailboat paintings found in prehistoric caves in the rock islands of Muna, Seram, and Arguni which are estimated to have been made in the year 10 000 BC. On the note of historical development of culture Nusantara civilization later found various kingdoms in the archipelago that has the basic maritime cultural values, such as the Kingdom of Sriwijaya and Majapahit Kingdom. Srivijaya kingdom was based on mastery of the political kingdom lanes and trade routes and control of strategic areas that are used as a base power of the sea. Majapahit kingdom established in the region Pull Raden Wijaya, the Brantas River near Port Canggu Sea (now in the eastern city of Mojokerto). Majapahit are renowned for their strength and fame as a maritime empire. Majapahit's political strategy was to unify the archipelago under his rule and prioritize the construction of a formidable navy. Maritime policy of the strong Majapahit had been confirmed in Amukti Palapa Oath of Gadjah Mada Mahapatih that essentially wanted to unite the whole archipelago under the Majapahit. At present most evidence of Indonesia's maritime culture peak is still scattered on the ocean floor, including sunken ships and cargo. According to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. There are around 463 points of known ancient ship locations based on information from: Chinese historians, in the tenth - twentieth centuries around thirty thousand Chinese ships sailed into the territory of Indonesia but did not return; and archives in the Netherlands, which hold records of 245 Verenidge Oost Compagnie (VOC) ships sunk in Indonesian waters (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2011). These data must be verifiable by conducting surveys and field mapping conducted by staff who are professionals in the field of underwater archeology. The Indonesian government institution in-charge of culture, namely the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, currently has approximately eighty divers. Only a fraction of that number have competences in the field of underwater archeology, so it needs to improve knowledge and skills, not just in the diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, excavation data recording, and conservation. The government of Indonesia has made efforts to increase human resources in the field of underwater archeology through various education and training programs. Facilitated by UNESCO these programs have occurred within Indonesia and abroad, such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it needs proper human resources (HR) development strategies both in quality and quantity. For that Indonesia needs to development a center in underwater archeology. This institute will prepare teaching modules, instructors, certification and hierarchy, partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution it is expected that successful HR will entail the following:  have knowledge and skills of diving,  understand the various regulations related to Underwater Cultural Heritage (locally, nationally, and internationally),  understand and be able to create a management plan and site plan, � understand and be able to implement procedures, methods, basic principles and ethics of underwater archeology,  understand and are able to conserve, document. manage and store  publications and public outreach, such as: exhibitions and mass media (print and electronic). In the last five years, the Government of Indonesia has conducted training programs gradually and continuously to improve HR in the field of underwater archeology, but this is still limited due to the need to improve skill and abilities in the field of diving, survey, and conservation. A rich maritime Archaeological resource Indonesian waters have become a graveyard of ships from ancient times. Based on data from the Directorate of Underwater Heritage (2010) estimated there were 1234 ships sunk, and until now only 463 known location. Referring to these data, the government of Indonesia has conducted surveys in several locations. Tables 1 and 2 provide the details of when and where the survey has occurred, as well as what was found and at what depth. Table 1. Survey Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU* YEAR 1 2006 2 2006 3 2007 4 2008 5 2009 6 2009 7 2009 8 2009 9 2009 10 2010 11 2010 12 2010 13 2010 14 2010 LOCATION Selayar, South Sulawesi Barang Lompo, South Sulawesi Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatera Sagori, Buton, Southeast Sulawesi Nangka Islands, Bangka Belitung Wayame, Ambon Bay Lembe straits, Bitung, North Sulawesi North Halmahera, North Molucas Tidore, North Molucas Genting Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Seruni Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Kemojan Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Parang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Kumbang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java DEEP FINDING 21 m Chinese ship 32 m Japanese ship 22 – 28 m Iron ship 7m VOC ship 28 m Iron ship 17 – 35 m Aquila ship 20 – 28 m War ship (Mawali) 3-7m Tosimaru ship 50 m Iron ship 2m ceramics 10 m Iron ship 15 m Indonor ship 34-38 m Timber ship 2-13 m Iron ship �15 2010 16 2010 17 2010 Taka Manyawakan Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Geleang Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java Menjangan Kecil Islands, Karimunjawa, Central Java 3-9 m Iron ship 48 m Timber ship 28-30 m Timber ship Table 2. The survey by the National Committee (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU YEAR LOCATION 1 2004 Tegal Waters, Central Java 2 2004 Cirebon Waters, West Java 3 2005 Sumpat Bay, North Bintan 4 2005 Natuna Waters, Thousand Islands 5 2005 Maspari Waters, South Sumatera 6 2006 Selayar Waters, South Sulawesi 7 2007 Karang Baginda, South Bangka 8 2007 Karimata Waters, West Kalimantan 9 2008 Karang Baginda, South Bangka 10 2008 Tanjung Menjangan, South Sumatera 11 2008 Cermin coast, North Sumatera 12 2008 Belitung Waters, East Belitung 13* 2008 Mandalika Waters, Jepara Central Java 14* 2008 Kerawang Waters, West Java 15 2009 Gelasa strait, Bangka Belitung 16 2009 Subang Waters, West Java 17 2010 Bangka Belitung Waters Survey activities conducted by the Directorate of Underwater Heritage, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, (see Table 1) helped to establish a framework of cultural resource preservation potential under water. If the survey has significant value to science, history and culture, then the existence of such sites must be preserved and protected by the Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage Act, which was published to replace the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects. Meanwhile, the survey by the National Committee Appointment and Use of Valuable Cargo Ships Sink origin (see Table 2) was performed in order to determine the potential of underwater cultural resources for the sake of exploration. If the survey results have indicated high economic value, then they were followed up with the activities of the appointment. National Committee Appointment and Use of Valuable Cargo Ships Sink origin was established by Presidential Decree. 43 of �1998. Under this rule, the appointment must first be selected for the collection of State and deposited at the museum. The rest can be traded and resulting income partly added to the state treasury. Since the opening of the first appointment until the last, there have been no sales activity in which the results benefit the Government of Indonesia. The appointment of activities that have been done are as follows. Table 3. Removal of Ceramic Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU LOCATION THE NUMBER OF TILES 1 Crocodile Islands, Riau 16.031 2 Batu Hitam, Belitung and Tuban 10.757 3 Thousands Islands (Eks Intan Cargo) 664 4 Blanakan Islands, Subang, West Java 13.590 5 Karimata Bay (Karang Cina) 31.029 6 Java Sea, North Cirebon 271.834 7 Karang Heliputan Waters,. Riau 21.521 8 Sumpat Bay, Riau 15.461 9 Java Sea, North Karawang 14.814 10 Java Sea, North Karawang 6.442 11 East Belitung Waters 34.680 12 Ujung Waters , Pamanukan 18.469 13 Gelasa Strait, Bangka Belitung 32.150 14 Jepara, Central Java 328 Total 487.770 The magnitude of the potential of underwater cultural resources in Indonesia attract many foreign and local businessmen. They assume the archeological remains under water are a treasure trove of unknown owners. Underwater Cultural Heritage Management of underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia has not been done optimally. This condition is caused by several things, as follows:  Harmony between some regulations related to the handling of UCH. Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects was formed to mandate the use of education, science, culture, religion, and tourism; while the Presidential Decree No 43 of 1998 on the National Committee for Salving and Exploiting Valuable Objects Retrieved from Shipwreck gives permission for exploitation activities of UCH for monetary �reward. Institutionally, there are several government organizations that are not synergistic in the management of UCH. For example: the government agency in charge of culture and environmental conservation prioritize aspects of sustainability, while the government agency in charge of fisheries and maritime affairs, as well as local governments, prioritize commercial use. Efforts have been made the rectify these inconsistencies by the Government of Indonesia in the recently issued Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage, in lieu of the Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5 of 1992 on Cultural Heritage Objects. In which law? (Article 1, point 1), "the cultural heritage that is protected by law is not only the land but also in the water (including under water)". In addition it is also mentioned in (Article 1, point 33) that, "its use should still maintain its sustainability". Mandate of this law in accordance with the UNSCO 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, in particular related to the Annex of the general principles (rule 1) which states, "in situ conservation is a priority", and (rule 2) that, "the UCH can not be bought and sold as commercial goods, nor be of other uses that could undermine its sustainability".  Community understanding of the responsibilities and mandate of the Underwater Heritage Directorate is still limited. The high level of violations on UCH indicates that the level of understanding about the importance and variety of regulations have not been socialized with optimal management, so various efforts need to be done to improve it. The Government of Indonesia has been working with stakeholders (government agencies, universities, museums, and community). It has conducted various activities both in the form of exhibitions and publication.  More synergy in the management programs on UCH among government agencies, academia, and society. The Government of Indonesia is working to improve coordination and cooperation with various parties. Our more successful improvement of HR competencies in the field of underwater archeology have been through collaboration with universities and professional divers. 1) Mapping and survey have been done in cooperation with the Coordinating Agency for Surveys and Mapping, Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesian University, Hasanuddin University, Gadjah Mada University, Diponegoro University, and fishing communities. 2) Protection of UCH has been coordinated through cooperation with the Ministry of Forestry, the Navy (Indonesian Military), Local Governments, and the fishing communities. 3) Public awareness involves cooperation amongst museums, mass media, local government, and society.  Our HR competence in the field of underwater archeology is still limited. Until recently the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, particularly in institutions that deal with UCH, has a total diver count at 87 people: consisting of level 1 (42 people), level 2 (37 people), and level 3 (8 people) . 30 persons of the divers �are trained in underwater archeology. Likewise, the equipment for underwater archeology is still limited to the diving equipment and some survey tools, documentation, and conservation. To enhance human resource capacity in the field of underwater archeology Government of Indonesia since 2006 has conducted various training initiatives (see table 4). It also collaborates with several universities in Indonesia and sent several people to follow the Underwater Cultural Heritage Training, UNESCO. Table 4. Training Activities Data (Directorate of Underwater Archaeology 2010) NU YEAR 1 2006 2 2007 3 2008 4 2008 5 2009 6 TRAINING PARTICIPANTS 26 2009 Diving Underwater Archaeology Excavation Underwater Archaeology Photography Conservation Underwater Archaeology Photography Ship Identification 7 2010 Diving 16 8 2010 Conservation 25 27 20 25 15 15 In 2012 the Directorate of Underwater Heritage is working on realizing the concept of establishing a formal training center for underwater archeology in Indonesia. Underwater Archaeology Training Center In 2011 the Government of Indonesia is preparing the establishment of the Underwater Archaeology Training Center (Training Center) aimed at improving the ability of archaeologist and conservationist personnel in the handling of UCH. The Training Center is expected to generate HR who not only have the capabilities in the protection of UCH, such as data recording, conservation, and case study management but who are also capable of conducting activities towards the development and information sharing for the benefit of society. Specifically, people who can work on development activities through research programs, publications and exhibitions. Public awareness could be more engaging through cooperation with educational institutions and tourism. This is due to the fact that UCH has a value of history, science, and culture. It can be studied by research and education institutions, as well as having recreational value and the draw of adventure. All these activities still have to prioritize conservation so that sustainability is maintained The framework plan for the establishment of the Training Center include: �a. Subject Matter and Trainers Course subject matter being prepared is not only related to diving and underwater archeology, but includes material about the various regulations concerning the protection of UCH. The course subjects under consideration include: management and site plans, nautical-architecture, history, anthropology, museology, and publications. b. Participants' Criteria The minimum criteria for people to participate are that they must be able-bodied, have interest in the development of knowledge and skills in UCH and its preservation, and are actively working in the field of the protection of UCH. The criteria should be determined carefully so that the output of the training is in accordance with the principle of 'the right man on the right place', so it can improve performance in the field of the preservation of UCH. c. Equipment and Accommodation The equipment must be prepared not only to support practical activities (such as diving, survey, excavation, removal, documentation, and conservation) but also include data processing equipment, transportation, and communications. Accommodation for the various needs of the Training Center need to be prepared including: classrooms, laboratories, equipment rooms, data processing space, artifacts storage space, teaching rooms, and dormitories. d. Education Level and Time Level and time for training is being arranged. Given the output of this training is focused on the development of skills, the time will be focused largely on practical field training than on classroom learning. e. Location Location must be strategic for accessibility and security. The criteria for location includes access to convenient transportation, close to the various supporting agencies (such as museums, research institutes, hospitals, navy, and rescue teams), not far from underwater archaeological sites. Thus the participants can practice on site. Conclusions Territory waters of Indonesia have UCH rich and valuable for science, history, and culture, so its existence must be protected and utilized for various purposes that are not in conflict with sustainability. For that we need regulatory harmonization efforts coordinated under the Underwater Heritage Directorate management, so there are no rules that overlap or contradict each other. Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 11 Year 2010 on Heritage expressly states that cultural heritage protected by law includes UCH. When working with this valuable material we must always consider the �best method to ensure its sustainability. This is in accordance with the 2001 Convention, in particular, to the Annex which gives priority to conservation in situ and bans commercial sale of objects. We aim to improve networking among stakeholders, both domestically and abroad, in the form of cooperation programs in the field of human resource capacity building, provision of equipment underwater archeology, dissemination and publication, as well as monitoring and securing the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Regulation and networking will not run properly without the support of competent HR. For that we have increased efforts towards HR in the field of UCH management according to the needs and potential of UCH in Indonesia. The establishment of a training center is our method to increase capacity building in HR specialized in the field of underwater archeology who have the ability to protect, develop and utilize the UCH based on principles of conservation and for the overall benefit of society. Bibliography Directorate of Directorate of Underwater Archaeology Profile, Directorate Underwater General of History and Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Archaeology and Tourism, Jakarta (not yet published) 2011 Law of The Republic of Indonesia Number 11 of The Year Ministry of 2010 Concerning items of Cultural Property Cultural and Tourism 2010 Budaya Bahari, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Pramono, D., 2005 Convention on The Protection of The Underwater Cultural UNESCO Heritage 2001 Presidential Decree No. 43 of 1989 on the National Presidential Committee for Salving and Exploiting Valuable Objects Decree No. 43, Retrieved from Shipwreck 1989 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Human Resources Development in Indonesia's Underwater Archaeology Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource The Indonesian archipelago position is located in a very strategic position at the crossroads of world maritime trade between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. According to archaeological and historical research, there is evidence that Indonesia has had a maritime nautical culture since prehistoric times. Some evidence of Indonesian maritime cultural civilization can still be found scattered on the ocean floor, including approximately 463 ancient ship location points according to data from the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, which is the Indonesian government agency that handles the field of culture, now has approximately 80 staff divers. Only a fraction of that number have competence in the field of underwater archaeology, so it is necessary to improve the knowledge and skills, not only in the field of diving but also the ability to conduct surveys, mapping, data recording excavation, and conservation. In the last five years, efforts to increase human resources in underwater archaeology in Indonesia continue to be done through various education and training, whether conducted in Indonesia or abroad facilitated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), such as in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. The effort is certainly not optimal and systematic, so it is necessary to develop appropriate strategies both in quantity and quality. Indonesia needs an underwater archaeological development centre that will prepare a teaching module, instructor, certification and partnerships (networking), as well as supporting facilities and infrastructure. Through this institution we can expect human resources of underwater archaeologists to have the following abilities: (1) diving, (2) various regulations relating to underwater cultural heritage, (3) development of management plans, and recording and documenting sites, (4) procedures, methods, principles and ethics of underwater archaeology, (5) artifact conservation and storage, (6) traditional knowledge, and (7) publications and exhibitions. In the last five years we have implemented several training programs to further underwater archaeology in Indonesia where participants have acquired skills in diving, survey and conservation. More skills would greatly empower Indonesians in managing their underwater cultural heritage, particularly at an advanced underwater archaeology theory and practice level. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Judi Wahjudin Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f3aad38b7722f3ead8359debc883f444.pdf 08fba8438cd399df3769458227b1c591 PDF Text Text Excavation, conservation, and preservation of the Mt Gambier underwater fossil deposits Julien Louys (Associate Professor, Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith University, Brisbane Australia) ABSTRACT This paper will examine the history of underwater fossil research in the Mt Gambier region, Australia, focusing on ongoing efforts to study, conserve, and protect underwater resources found in the freshwater sinkholes and limestone caves of the region; as such, the topic of this abstract fits best within the session The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters because it is concerned with cave sites that have become flooded. I will describe the considerable past efforts that were undertaken to extract fossils from Green Waterhole, as well as recently successful efforts to have this site registered as a South Australian Heritage Listed site, ensuring legislated protection for the cave and its deposits into the future. In addition, a new research program funded by the Australian Research Council and in collaboration with the Cave Divers Association of Australia and the South Australian Museum will be presented. The new work includes efforts to successfully recover fossils with as much contextual information as possible, especially geochronological and environmental data. Using these data, we expect to determine the geological age of the extinct megafauna recovered from the sites and the environments they inhabited; data critical for determining the degree to which humans or environmental change contributed to their demise. We will also evaluate the impact of such research on the preservation of the caves, ongoing efforts to conserve the geoheritage potential of the sites, and means of educating the public on the unique underwater resources they represent. Keywords: megafauna, Pleistocene, geoheritage, South Australia LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ARC – Australian Research Council CDAA – Cave Divers Association of Australia ka – thousand years INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper fits best within the Session Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters because the underwater caves of the Mt Gambier region are freshwater deposits in a young, terrestrial karstic landscape (Figure 1). The Mt Gambier caves are found in the latest Eocene to Miocene limestones of the Gambier Limestone within the Gambier Basin, although rarer younger caves are also formed in the Quaternary dune calcarenites (Grimes et al. 1999; Webb et al. 2010). The limestones are relatively soft and weakly consolidated, and both limestones and calcarenites show synergetic karst features such as development of solution pipes and calcreted caprocks (Grimes et al. 1999). Collapse dolines are frequently recorded in the Mt Gambier region, and those that fall below the waterline form cenotes. These are up to 125 m deep, and generally circular, sheer-walled, and floored by large rubble cones (Webb et al. 2010). Cave and cenote dissolution is thought to be the result of volcanogenic CO2 acidified groundwater resulting from Pleistocene–Holocene volcanic eruptions, in particular the 28 ka Mt Gambier eruption (Webb et al. 2010). The phreatic caverns formed by this dissolution collapsed possibly during the low sea levels of the Last Glacial Maximum (Webb et al. 2010), forming sites such as Hells Hole, Umpherstons, The Sisters, Little Blue Lake, One Tree, and Gouldens; The Shaft is a rare example of cave dissolution with a solution pipe entrance that has not yet collapsed (Grimes et al. 1999). Flooding of the cenotes is thought to have occurred approximately 8 ka based on radiocarbon dates associated with a stromatolite from Black Hole (Kelly 1998). There does not appear to be any hydrological or speleological connection between the cenotes and the phreatic caves of the region (Webb et al. 2010). 1 �Figure 1. Location of some of the major cave diving locations in the Mt Gambier region. Adapted after Lewis and Stace 1982. The phreatic caves of the Mt Gambier region are shallow, horizontal, joint and bedding-plane controlled systems (Grimes et al. 1999; Webb et al. 2010). Passages are primarily epiphreatic, fissure-style, and solution features associated with previous water table levels such as incuts and undercuts are frequently observed (Grimes et al. 1999; Webb et al. 2010). The bulk of the cave systems are underwater, and some have been heavily modified by breakdown, forming collapse domes and rubble filled passages (Grimes et al. 1999). These sometimes reach the surface, such as Green Waterhole (Fossil Cave). There are over 50 caves recorded around Mt Gambier (Webb et al. 2010), many of which have been mapped and/or discovered by the CDAA; the most extensive cave system in the region is Tank Cave with over 10 km of passages, one of which was recently (2018) connected to Green Waterhole. Fossils from the underwater caves in Mt Gambier were first reported to palaeontologists in the 1960s. The following history is recounted from Pledge (1980) and Horne (1988). In 1964 G. McKenzie passed some possum and sthenurine (extinct short-faced kangaroos) fossils he found from Green Waterhole to amateur palaeontologist and caver F.W. Aslin, who subsequently passed them on to B. 2 �Daily at the South Australian Museum. In 1965 Daily collected kangaroo and pig remains from near the entrance to the cave that probably represent more modern specimens. In 1968 divers B. Brawley and G. McKenzie recovered substantial sthenurine material including crania in ‘excellent condition’. A second extraction occurred later that same year, with a third expedition in 1969 yielding considerable postcranial material. Fossil material had also been recovered at some point from the Pines Cave, but this material was only discovered in the Australian Museum in 1968, and it is not clear in Pledge (1980) or Horne (1988)’s accounts when or by whom this was collected. The fossil collecting exploits of some divers, however, was sensationalised in the 15 February 1969 issue of Pix magazine. In 1974 a further extraction took place from Green Waterhole after reports of ‘unauthorised’ divers in this cave who were planning on returning; presumably these divers were interfering with the fossil deposits. Further dives in 1978 by cave divers from Flinders University recovered more bones, which were passed on to R. Wells, palaeontologist at Flinders. This resulted in the first systematic efforts to recover bones from Green Waterhole, as described by Horne (1988). At the end of 1978 a grid system was laid out across the southern exposures of fossils, and much material was again collected, this time however with more specific locality information preserved. In 1987 and 1988, through the South Australian Underwater Speleological Society (SAUSS) and Flinders University, further collection of fossil material in reference to the grid system was made. The results of these collections are described in Horne (1988) and Newton (1988). Fossils representing extinct and extant Quaternary vertebrate faunas have also been reported from numerous other cenotes and caves from the Mt Gambier region (Figure 1); however, unlike those from Green Waterhole (Fossil Cave), none have been subject to systematic or extensive excavations. Underwater sites yielding fossils include Ewen’s Ponds, Ten-Eighty Sinkhole, Goulden’s Hole, Tank Cave, Engelbrecht Cave, Blue Lake, Kilsby’s Sinkhole (Reed and Bourne 2000). Nevertheless, there has been little published in the scientific literature concerning the underwater fossils of Mt Gambier. Pledge (1980) provided descriptions of the initial finds from Green Waterhole, and the birds from the site were published by Baird (1985). Baird (1991) also discussed some aspects of the taphonomy of the site. Reed and Bourne (2000) summarised what was then known about the fossil taxa found in the Mt Gambier caves. Green Waterhole was listed as one of the most important Australian fossil sites in Australia’s Fossil Heritage (The Australian Heritage Council 2012). In late 2018, further megafauna fossils were discovered in pristine condition in the Bone Room chamber of Tank Cave (Green 2018). This represented one of the most significant finds of this kind in Mt Gambier since the excavations of Green Waterhole in the 1980s. Unfortunately, these finds coincided with reports of unauthorised fossil extractions in Green Waterhole. The history and potential of the fossil deposits in the Mt Gambier region, the dearth of published scientific studies, and the recent finds and incidences have highlighted the need to (1) conduct further scientific study of the underwater fossil deposits; and (2) ensure adequate protection and conservation of the cave systems and the fossils therein. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the following: (1) An Australian Research Council Linkage Project between Griffith University, CDAA, South Australian Museum, the University of Adelaide, and the University of Queensland, aimed at undertaking new scientific analyses and excavations of the fossil underwater deposits of the Mt Gambier Region. (2) The South Australian Fossil Heritage Working Group and their efforts to add Green Waterhole and Tank Cave fossil deposits to the state heritage list. 3 �RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include funding from the ARC, the CDAA, Griffith University, as well as the expertise and time from these organisations and those from University of Adelaide, University of Queensland, Flinders University, South Australian Museum, South Australia Department for Environment and Water (DEW). Griffith University and partners were awarded $268,529 in March 2022 by the ARC for a project entitled Deep time extinctions and environments in Australian underwater caves. FRAMEWORK ARC Linkage Project Deep time extinctions and environments in Australian underwater caves The following summarises the goals of this project (from Australian Research Council, 2019): This project aims to investigate the unique submerged Mt Gambier fossil deposits to determine the role environmental change had on large Australian mammal extinctions. By using a combination of technical diving and scientific expertise to study untouched fossil deposits from underwater caves, this project expects to provide greater understanding of past ecosystems and animals, advancements in geochronological techniques, and data critical to prepare Australians for action in protecting our biological heritage. Expected outcomes include insights into cave conservation and protection of underwater cave systems, updated policies on cave management, and promotion of our understanding of Australian geo-heritage through education and displays. This project consists of a partnership between Griffith University, CDAA, South Australian Museum, the University of Adelaide, and the University of Queensland to undertake new studies on the underwater fossil deposits of the Mt Gambier region, with results feeding back directly to the CDAA, the South Australian Museum, and other interested parties for education and conservation purposes, in addition to the scientific contributions. The focus of this project is on four caves and cenotes: Gouldens, Engelbrect’s East, Green Waterhole, and Tank Cave. It will combine new excavations as well as novel (for the region and underwater setting) sampling, namely geochronological (uranium-series, optically stimulated luminescence, electron spin resonance dating) and palynological, alongside underwater palaeontological sampling and analyses. To prepare for this project, a thorough review of current underwater palaeontological techniques was published (Louys 2018), and pilot data were collected. Since the award of ARC funding, the project has grown to include photogrammetry analyses in collaboration with the CDAA and Flinders University. The production of 3D models of the underwater systems will not only be of enormous benefit to the taphonomic and speleological analyses planned, but can also be fed directly into current cave conservation efforts, such those of the Project Baseline team monitoring Tank Cave (https://projectbaseline.org/), and displays and educational resources for the South Australian Museum. The project has also embraced new methodologies, such as environmental DNA studies, with recent efforts successful in securing additional funding for these analyses. The South Australian Fossil Heritage Working Group This group was set up in recognition of the need to establish a collaborative group of palaeontologists, conservationists, speleologists, and government members to further the protection of natural sites with significant fossil deposits in South Australia. South Australia has a strong and proud tradition of fossil conservation at the world and state level, exemplified by the World Heritage Listing of the Naracoorte cave system (alongside Riversleigh, as the Australian Fossil Mammal Sites; Bourne and Reed 2009), as well as State Heritage nominations of individual caves and multi-site areas in the Naracoorte Caves 4 �National Park (Lewis 2019). Although the heritage importance of Green Waterhole had been recognised for some years (Australian Heritage Council 2012; Lewis 2019), the initiation of a new research program through the ARC Linkage Project and the new finds made in Tank Cave in 2018 provided the impetus for the formation of the group and the nomination of Green Waterhole – Tank Cave complex for State Heritage Listing. Members of the working group included representatives from Griffith University, CDAA, University of Adelaide, the South Australian Museum, Flinders University, and the South Australia Department for Environment and Water (see Acknowledgements for individuals involved). The South Australian State Heritage Register is a list of areas protected under the Heritage Places Act 1993 from alteration, damage, or removal without formal prior consultation and permission (South Australian State Heritage, https://www.environment.sa.gov.au/topics/heritage/sa-heritage-register). State Heritage listing provides legal protection to fossil sites that would otherwise not be provided even if such sites are designated Geological Heritage Sites by the Geological Society of Australia (Lewis 2019). Current federal or state laws in Australia do not provide adequate or consistent protection for fossils (Percival 2014). Significant education and awareness training for cave divers has been in place for decades (e.g., Louys 2019), however, recognition of the State Heritage Register of the importance of the caves will, it is hoped, add impetus and focus on their preservation. Like the nomination of the Naracoorte Caves National Parks to the State Heritage Register linked to the Natural (as opposed to Built) environment, the nomination of the Green Waterhole – Tank Cave Complex was orientated towards Geological, Archaeological, Palaeontological and Speleological heritage (GAPS heritage; Lewis 2019), and was a multi-site nomination. Specifically, it focused on the palaeontological, speleological, and geological significance of the caves and their deposits, as follows (South Australian Heritage Register 2022): The Green Waterhole - Tank Cave Fossil Complex contains the only known extensive underwater vertebrate fossil deposits in Australia. This unique freshwater depositional environment has ensured the preservation of extinct species not found anywhere else, with several additional species new to science recovered and awaiting description. The underwater deposits have also resulted in a completeness and preservation of fossil assemblies almost unique for Australia. This provides an important opportunity to investigate the evolution of South Australian mammals and birds. The impacts of this type of site on the age and nature of the fossil remains have yet to be fully studied. The complex represents unusual geological formations including the occurrence of a shallow fresh waterhole not usually found in sinkholes in the South East, and evidence of rare volcanogenic influences in the formation of the cave system. The cave complex also demonstrates rare speleological features, including length of cave passageways, clarity of water, underwater speleothems, and being a type locality for stygofauna. The complex also holds importance for the development of cave diving in the country and is closely associated with the Cave Divers Association of Australia. It is also acknowledged as a place of significance for the Boandik people. The nomination was assessed under the following criteria under Section 16 of the Heritage Places Act 1993: (b) it has rare, uncommon or endangered qualities that are of cultural significance; (c) it may yield information that will contribute to an understanding of the State’s history, including its natural history; and (g) it has a special association with the life or work of a person or organisation or an event of historical importance. These criteria recognise both the palaeontological (and associated geological and speleological) features of the caves, but also the history and connection with Indigenous groups as well as more recently, the cave divers. RESULTS The first field season from the project Deep time extinctions and environments in Australian underwater caves took place over 10 days in early April 2023. The season had three primary 5 �objectives. First, collect surface samples and associated geochronological samples from the megafaunal deposits in Engelbrecht’s East deposits. These are unique for the project in that they represent a fissure fill deposit actively eroding out in a dry section of the cave. It is included in this project because it requires diving through an underwater passage to access, but more importantly is actively eroding into a wet section of the cave. This provides significant contextual data for the taphonomic aspects of the project seeking to determine whether skeletal elements were deposited in wet settings pre or post fossilisation. Second, three sample cores, one optically stimulated luminescence, one pollen, and one eDNA, were collected from each of the three sites of interest, Gouldens, Green Waterhole, and Engelbrecht’s East from the underwater passage mentioned above; previous pilot data had suggested that sediments in this section could be as old as 95 ka (Arnold, pers comm., 2021). To preserve stratigraphic integrity within these cores, as well as any viable DNA, all cores collected during this season were frozen in the orientation in which they were taken. Sampling was made considerably more difficult in Green Waterhole and, to a lesser extent, Gouldens, due to the amount of fine particulates on the cave floor. Once disturbed, these sediments became suspended in the water column and reduced visibility to almost nothing, and most of the sampling and exit from the cave was done via tactile signalling. Figure 2: The author examining a cow femur, Green Waterhole, Mt Gambier (image courtesy of Steve Trewavas). Third, surface reference material, much of recent age (specifically, less than about 200 years old as represented by European domesticates) was collected from Gouldens and Green Waterhole (Figure 2). These were collected to provide modern baselines for faunal dating and taphonomic analyses. Species recovered thus far include sheep, cow, and murids. In addition to these objectives, the photogrammetry surveys were begun in all three caves. These will require numerous dives and trips to complete. With regards to the protection of the sites, the Green Waterhole - Tank Cave Fossil Complex was officially confirmed as a State Heritage Place in the SA Heritage Register on 23 June 2022. The South 6 �Australian Fossil Heritage Working Group continues their work listing other fossils sites on the registry; however, to date none of any additional sites relate to underwater fossil deposits. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Cave Divers Association of Australia have been integral to this project and their immense contribution is acknowledged here. In particular, many thanks Peter Wolf who was instrumental in setting up the Linkage Project, and Joseph Monks who has since been intimately involved with the planning and execution of the project and fieldwork. The CDAA National Directors are thanked for their ongoing support. Dive field support was graciously provided by Joseph Monks, Damian Bishop, Ellyse Klein, Hiro Yoshida, Tim Featonby, Steve Trewavas, and Kelvin Ball, with surface support provided by Meg Walker, Gilbert Price, and Jody Kreuger. Scientific support was provided by Lee Arnold, Martina Demuro, and Liz Reed. The members of the South Australian Fossil Heritage Working Group involved in the listing of Green Waterhole – Tank Cave complex (Julien Louys, Peter Wolf, Peter Horne, Liz Reed, Diego Garcia-Bellido, Mary-Anne Binnie, Neville Pledge, Trevor Worthy, Rod Wells, Gavin Prideaux, Ian D. Lewis, Steve Bourne, and Anna Pope) are warmly thanked for their tremendous efforts in having the site entered in the State Heritage Register. Funding for this project is provided by ARC Linkage LP210200704 and The Australia Pacific Science Hermon Slade Research Fund HSF23047. BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Heritage Council. Australia's Fossil Heritage: A Catalogue of Important Australian Fossil Sites. Canberra: CSIRO Publishing, 2012. Australian Research Council, 2019. LP210200704 — Griffith University (funded by Australian Research Council). https://dataportal.arc.gov.au/RGS/Web/Grants/LP210200704, accessed 28/4/2023. Baird, R.F. “Avian fossils from Quaternary deposits in ‘Green Waterhole Cave’, south-eastern South Australia.” Records of the Australian Museum 37, no. 6 (1985): 353-370. Baird, R.F. “Taphonomy of late Quaternary cave localities yielding vertebrate remains in Australia.” In Vertebrate Palaeontology of Australasia, edited by Patricia Vickers-Rich, J.M. Monaghan, R.F. Baird and T.H. Rich, 267–309. Melbourne: Pioneer Design Studio and the Monash University Publications Committee, 1991. Bourne, Steve, Reed, Liz. “Australian Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh/Naracoorte).” World Heritage 52 (2009): 46-47. Green, Selina. 2018. “Cave diver finds prehistoric bones in 'new room' of underwater cave network.” ABC News 13th December 2018. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-12-13/cavediver-finds-large-fauna-bones-south-australia/10599218 Grimes, Ken, G., Mott, K. and White, S. “The Gambier karst province.” Proceedings of the 13th Australasian Conference on Cave and Karst Management (1999): 1-7. Kelly, M.D. Freshwater Stromatolites as Potential Environmental Indicators: A Case Study from Lower Southeast South Australia. B.Sc. Hons thesis, Department of Geography, University of Newcastle, 1998. Lewis, Ian, D. “South Australian geology and the State Heritage Register: an example of geoconservation of the Naracoorte Caves complex and karst environment.” Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 66, no. 6 (2019): 785-792. Lewis, Ian, Stace, Peter. Cave Diving in Australia, Revised Edition. Adelaide: Ian Lewis and Peter Stace, 1982. Louys, Julien. “Practice and prospects in underwater palaeontology.” Palaeontologia Electronica 21, no. 2 (2018): 1-14. Louys, Julien. “A cave diver’s guide to fossil discoveries – our obligations.” Guidelines 148 (2019): 12-15. Percival, I.G. “Protection and preservation of Australia’s palaeontological heritage.” Geoheritage 6, no. 3 (2014): 205-216. Pledge, Neville S. “Macropodid skeletons, including: Simosthenurus Tedford, from an unusual “drowned cave” deposit in the south east of South Australia.” Records of the South Australian Museum 18 (1980): 131-141. South Australian Heritage Register. Department for Environment and Water, Government of South Australia, 2022. https://maps.sa.gov.au/heritagesearch/HeritageItem.aspx?p_heritageno=28119 Reed, Elizabeth H. and Bourne, Steven J. “Pleistocene fossil vertebrate sites of the South East region of South Australia.” Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 124 (2000): 61-90. Webb, J.A., Grimes, K.G. and Lewis, I.D. “Volcanogenic origin of cenotes near Mt Gambier, southeastern Australia.” Geomorphology 119, nos. 1-2 (2010): 23-35. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 15: The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters Subject The topic of the resource Session 15 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 15 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Excavation, conservation, and preservation of the Mt Gambier underwater fossil deposits Description An account of the resource This paper will examine the history of underwater fossil research in the Mt Gambier region, Australia, focusing on ongoing efforts to study, conserve, and protect underwater resources found in the freshwater sinkholes and limestone caves of the region; as such, the topic of this abstract fits best within the session The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters because it is concerned with cave sites that have become flooded. I will describe the considerable past efforts that were undertaken to extract fossils from Green Waterhole, as well as recently successful efforts to have this site registered as a South Australian Heritage Listed site, ensuring legislated protection for the cave and its deposits into the future. In addition, a new research program funded by the Australian Research Council and in collaboration with the Cave Divers Association of Australia and the South Australian Museum will be presented. The new work includes efforts to successfully recover fossils with as much contextual information as possible, especially geochronological and environmental data. Using these data, we expect to determine the geological age of the extinct megafauna recovered from the sites and the environments they inhabited; data critical for determining the degree to which humans or environmental change contributed to their demise. We will also evaluate the impact of such research on the preservation of the caves, ongoing efforts to conserve the geoheritage potential of the sites, and means of educating the public on the unique underwater resources they represent. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Julien Louys Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Louys, Julien . 2023. “Excavation, conservation, and preservation of the Mt Gambier underwater fossil deposits.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Jennifer McKinnon. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1993 Asia-Pac Session 15 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/81e6302632d27e2faf778087c394cb31.pdf e74d5f9b2ee817fef53db8922606964a PDF Text Text East Asian shipbuilding traditions and its historical evolvement Jun Kimura Abstract The archaeological study of excavated ships can contribute to knowledge and understanding of past seafaring and maritime activities. Such study includes the assessment of the hull structure and construction methods. This paper highlights technological innovations evidenced by the remnants of ships in China, Korea, and Japan. Based on data of the excavated ships from the tenth century onwards, this paper addresses the significance of the bulkhead in oceangoing ships in the light of technological innovations, diffusion, and hybridization. This contributes to further understanding of the relationship between the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition,” the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition,” and the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition.” The “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition” has been presented by earlier researchers as a hybrid ship building technology. This paper highlights the integration of the technologies from the Yellow Sea and East China Sea into the South China Sea tradition by tracing specific hull components, such as bulkhead(s) used for East Asian seagoing ships. The “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” is exhibited by ships operating in the northern waters of East Asia. Traditionally, these ships have flat bottoms but variations are represented by the early Tang Dynasty riverine ships and Goryeo Dynasty ships, and in later periods by Ming Dynasty ships excavated in Penglai, China. Recent archaeological inspections conducted on the Quanzhou ship, Shinan shipwreck, and ship timbers from the Takashima Underwater site established that these ships were built in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. V-shaped bottoms, keel and bulkheads, and multiplelayered hull planking with iron fastenings, characterise this tradition. The ships built according to these two traditions came to be used in seaborne activities within and beyond East and Southeast Asia. The chronological linkage of three shipbuilding traditions developed in two regions will be pursued. Introduction The research on the hull is one of the most important themes in shipwreck archaeology as it offers us a better understanding of historical seafaring and human interaction with waters. It has been noted that the increase of the underwater archaeological expeditions in China, Korea, and Japan occurred through the last few decades, and this has resulted in facilitating accesses to the data of excavated ships in these countries. The Shipwreck ASIA project has lately demonstrated a basic data collection on the excavated hulls (Kimura 2010). The collective data allows a comparative analysis on the hull to clarify the development of East Asia shipbuilding tradition. Such an approach developed with a theoretical idea underlying technological innovations and integration of hull components. The East Asian shipbuilding tradition was explicit in previous researches in comparison with Southeast Asian shipbuilding technologies, focusing on the distinctive hull components of shipwrecks from the two adjacent regions (Green 1990; Manguin 1993). Pierre-Yves Manguin (1984; 1993) suggested that the emergence of the technological difference and similarity in these two regions are attributed to the inherence of technological hybridization observed in the historical development of shipbuilding and explained the “South �China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Based on the appreciation of inherent nature in historical shipbuilding, this paper overviews the creation of East Asian shipbuilding traditions over centuries that were formed in the two areas: the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition”, “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Context In many colonial and Asian societies, hybridity tended to be applauded in cultural terms (under labels like association or acculturation) even while disdained in racial ones,…(Reid 2010) One of the themes in the study of shipbuilding technologies is the identification of technological innovations in its history that tend to generate from endogenous growth as well as exogenous factors. In this context an approach to a technological hybridization observed on the hull components is important. Manguin’s studies on the early-mid 15th century Bukit Jakas site found at Bintan Island in the Riau archipelagos of Indonesia has presented an example of the hybridization of shipbuilding technology (Manguin 1993; Manguin 2010); the main structure of the hull consists of a keel and bulkheads with planks that are edgedjoined with wooden dowels, while the hull planking is fastened to sturdy frames by square iron nails. The use of wooden dowels for hull planking is recognized as Southeast Asian indigenous shipbuilding tradition, yet the use of bulkheads as main transversal structure for the hull and iron fastenings are regarded as of Chinese origin. A few excavated ships in the water of the South China Sea show a similar construction method, according to a different principle from the above mentioned two distinctive shipbuilding traditions. These ship remains reveal the features of hybrid ships, identified as the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. Since the 16th century when European expansion to East Asia and Southeast Asia began the technological hybridization on the ship structure probably became more apparent than during the previous periods. This is evident in iconographical and historical resources. A drawing of a Japanese ship known as an Araki bune sailing to Vietnam depicts a hybrid feature in its rig and hull from European, Chinese, and Japanese traditions (Figure 1). The Europeans during colonization periods recognised the involvement of hybrid ships in Southeast Asian waters, though they used the Spanish term mestizo, instead of the English term hybrid. The fact that the Europeans applied the term mestizo to describe ships that had mixed features in their construction is recorded in the historical Japanese text titled Zoho Kai Tsushoko (Studies on the Intercourse and Trade with the Chinese and Foreigners) written in 1708 by Nishikawa, Joken (Ishii 1995: 72-76). A Siam ship depicted on the Japanese scroll painting is further evidence of the existence of the mestizo ship in Thailand around the 18th century (Figure 2). �Figure 1. Historical painting depicting the Red Seal Ship known as Araki bune sailing to Vietnam. Courtesy of Museum of Maritime Science Figure 2. Siam ship from the Japanese scroll painting (Tosen no Zu) depicted probably around the 18th century. At a glance its configuration is similar with the other seven Chinese ships drawn on the same scroll yet the rigs and stern structure of the Siam ship are different from them. Photo by author, Courtesy of Matsura Historical Museum �Structural features defined as being of the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition in archaeological sources are correspondent with iconographical and historical records. What all this evidence indicates is the existence of a technological cluster consisting of hull components and associated construction methods from different origins. Individual technologies that are composed of the cluster are further examined to clarify their role in a long-term formation of a shipbuilding tradition. The excavated hybrid ships, for instance, use bulkheads in their interior structure and the bulkhead is located as one of the most important components as it has consistently been used in the structure of the East Asian oceangoing ships over centuries. The shipbuilding traditions in East Asia are dated to an earlier period than the appearance of the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition. This needs to be further pursued to locate the point of integration of technologies in the history of shipbuilding development. Chronology of technological hybridization in East Asian shipbuilding The data of excavated ships in East Asia is presented in chronological order. These data focus on the remains of coastal and oceangoing ships with substantial structure rather than primitive watercraft. The examination on the hull and construction methods in this section intends to lead to three distinctive traditions which have been linked with Manguin’s studies the idea of technological hybridizations. In the Yellow Sea’s area In China, the use of bulkhead traces is identified in excavated ships dating to the tenth century during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.) (Kimura 2010; Xi, et al. 2004). Bulkheads initially appeared in the structure of riverine ships before their adaption to oceangoing ships. The bulkheads, which have been perceived as representative of Chinese shipbuilding tradition, were originally used for a flat bottom hull with no keel suitable for riverine ships. Two Tang Dynasty ships have been discovered inland of the Jiangsu Province. Such flat bottom ships, however, could have been used for sail out to sea. The province faces the Yellow Sea which is known for its shallow waters where people could probably embark using flat bottom ships which were originally designed as riverine ships. The Jiangsu Province and southerly adjacent Zhejiang Province had ports for ships conducting distant voyages before the tenth century. Many ships were involved in early maritime activities between the Chinese continent and Japan during the Tang Dynasty as evidenced by the delegation of envoys, including envoy ships (Reischauer 1940). To date, there are no ships that have been identified that are known to have been specifically designed for seafaring and dated to that period, therefore we can only deduce that the structure of those ships that people used to sail into the East China Sea were opposed to the structure and construction methods identified in the riverine ships. For example, in much later periods the Sha-chuan (sand ships) represented a Hangzhou Bay trader, or ship from Nanjing. These are still perceived as ships used for riverine and oceangoing �purposes in the Yellow Sea and northern East China Sea (Oba 1974). Early stage shipbuilding of oceangoing vessels in the northern coasts of China can be regarded as more similar to technology in-use for the construction of riverine boats at the same time. The keel-less ship was not the only prevalent type in riverine ships. In early East Asian shipbuilding technology (i.e. during the Goryeo Dynasty 9181392 A.D.) we have an example with the Wando ships, which consist of flat bottom hulls (Green and Kim 1989). These ships were discovered offshore along the west coasts of the Korean Peninsula. The fundamental structure identified on the Wando ships is perceived to be a long-term technology that used beams not bulkheads (Sasaki and Lee 2010). The shipbuilding technology developed in the Korean Peninsula, represented by baulks for longitudinal structures and athwart beams for transverse structures, resulted in the construction of ships with sufficient seaworthiness to sail in East Asian waters, especially, in the shallow waters of the Yellow Sea. This could have facilitated the dominant role of merchants who originated from the Korean Peninsula in maritime trade between the Korean Peninsula and Japan. The advent and evolution of the flat bottom ships, represented by the early northern Chinese ships for riverine use and the Goryeo Dynasty’s coastal traders, is identified as an ancestral form of seagoing ships. Consequently, the definition of the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” encompasses the shipbuilding technologies that are identified in two distinctive shipbuilding technologies from northern China and the Korean Peninsula. Technological interactions and mutual influences that might have occurred in shipbuilding between these two regions are still speculative. There were many distinctive features in the construction methods and structural elements between the two traditions. Differences in the usage of distinctive fastenings and different materials for them, for example, represent less similarity, which lead to a perspective that two major traditions are distinctively identified in early East Asian shipbuilding tradition. In the East China Sea’s area In middle and southern China the details of early shipbuilding tradition before the 10th century has not been clarified. Contemporary historical records of Chinese Buddhist pilgrim w indicate the use of Southeast Asian indigenous ships to cross the South China Sea (Hall 1985; Wang 1958). Before the 10th century some cities from southward of Hangzhou Bay (around Ningbo) to southern China (Guangzhou), which face the East China Sea and South China Sea, were the focal area of trade by foreign merchants from Persia and Arabia. It is unclear the influence of the shipbuilding traditions from outside of East Asia on existent shipbuilding industries in the middle and southern Chinese coasts. The next phase of substantial technological development is suggested to have occurred during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), particularly southward around Hangzhou Bay and coasts around the Taiwan Straits. This may be represented as the advent of constructing oceangoing ships in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. It is recognized as an innovation that bulkhead structure �and construction methods evolved to a keel. However, uncertainty exists as to how the keel was introduced into, or evolved from, existent hull components. The Quanzhou ship from China (dated to the second half of the 12th century) and the Shinan ship from Korea (dated to the first quarter of the 14th century) are archaeologically excavated ships that will here be considered in detail to address the structural characteristics of East China Sea shipbuilding tradition (Figure 3). They represent a standardization of the structure of these periods’ oceangoing ships (Figure 4). This is interpreted as one stage of the completion of technological integration or clustering of hull components. The keel and hull planking synergistically contribute to longitudinal strength. The keel is composed of three members and thick garboards are fixed. The hull planking that extends from the garboards form a steep deadrise angle. The hull planking is edge-fastened by skew nailing with rabbeted seams. The system of multiple layered hull planks has also been standardised for the purpose of the inner planks’ protection, and possibly to the shell hull planking itself for longitudinal strength. The bulkheads function in providing transverse strength. Large half frames are attached to secure the bulkheads’ planks, fixing them into the hull planking with brackets. A comparative study will develop in the future with the progress of research on the other ship remains that have recently been excavated in Chinese waters, including the Nanhai No.1 and Huaguang Reef No.1 shipwrecks (Kimura 2010). Archaeological examination on ship construction materials, specifically ship nails and timbers, has been practiced. A sample iron nail was collected from a hull plank of the Shinan shipwreck for analysis and the result reported (Lee, et al. 2010). The CT scan and X-ray images of the nail revealed the configuration of the nail is skewed. Since the nail has been fully degraded its original metal structure could not be identified. A similar degradation of nails was identified in the timber remains of the Takashima underwater site in Japan. This site is known as the late 14th century naval battle site associated with the Mongol Empire (Yuan Dynasty) invasion of Japan. The nails used for the Shinan shipwreck and Takashima underwater site are possibly produced through similar manufacturing procedures based on the microscopic image of the cross-section of the nails. These nails could have been manufactured from thin bar iron ingots with a square cross-section. Those iron ingots were as-cast products that were being widely produced in the iron industries and showed a substantial growth during the Song Dynasty (Hartwell 1962; Hartwell 1966). In order to be used as ship nails, the quality of the iron of these ingots needed to be soft ended and made more pliable through the process of decarbonisation (Lee, et al. 2010). For these processes, annealing work was conducted in the smithy and iron workshops, which could probably be built on the shipyards. Wood species identification has been conducted recently on specimens of ship timber from the Quanzhou ship (Noshiro and Abe 2010). Three major species were identified including Pinus massoniana, Lamb known as the Chinese pine; Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.), Hook known as the Chinese fir; and Cinnamomum camphora (L.), Presl known as the camphor tree. The result is comparable to wood used in the hull of the Shinan shipwreck and the ship timber �of the Takashima underwater site. Pinus massoniana is a dominant species used for most of the hull components of the Shinan shipwreck. The timber analysis data from the Takashima underwater site shows, that despite the wood taxa being diverse, Cinnamomum camphora and Cunninghamia lanceolata occupy the majority of the assemblage. From the comparative study there is a pattern in the use of specific wood types for distinctive hull components. The keel, for instance, consists of Pinus massoniana and Cinnamomum camphora which are harder than Cunninghamia lanceolata that were used for hull planks. Cunninghamia lanceolata are found as sheathing planks of the Shinan shipwreck, probably due to the wood being softer and lighter and relatively easy to be cut and worked and it has relevant resistance against marine borers. Figure 3. Cross-sections of the Quanzhou ship (above) and the Shinan shipwreck (bottom). Produced by author, Courtesy of the Western Australian Museum and the National Research Institute Evidence of technological hybridization in East Asia Excavated ships dating to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.) show different features from the previous periods’ ocean-going traders. As an example of the distinctive structural feature, multiple layered hull planking is hardly identified on the hulls of the Ming Dynasty’s ships, including the Xiangshan Ming Dynasty shipwreck from Ningbo and the ship remains discovered at Penglai (Kimura 2010; Xi, et al. 2004). These ships similarly have longer hulls in the length/beam �ratio than the hulls identified in previous periods, such as the Quanzhou ship and the Shinan ship. The Xiangshan ship appears to have been used around the East China Sea area and the Penglai ships were used around the Yellow Sea, but the similarity of these ships is emphasized. Of the four discovered ships in Penglai, the basic structure and construction methods of the two ships (Penglai No. 3 and No.4) are identical with the features of the Goryeo Dynasty’s Korean ships (Cultural Relics and Archaeological Institute of Shandong Province, et al. 2006) (Figure 4). In addition, the species of the woods of these two ships are clearly distinctive from the other Penglai ships of Chinese origin. While most characteristics of the two ships are correspondent to the Korean shipbuilding tradition, their transverse components are bulkheads (traditionally used in Chinese ships) not beams (traditionally used in Korean ships). The structural features of the Penglai ships evidence hybridization between the Chinese shipbuilding technology and Korean technology; by the period of the Ming Dynasty an interaction of shipbuilding technologies between the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea could widely have occurred. Figure 4. Ship lines of the Shinan shipwreck from Korea, involved in overseas trade between China and Japan. Produced by author Shipbuilding traditions The focus on hull components and construction methods helps in the development of a chronological sequence on East Asian shipbuilding traditions. It is suggested that the utilization of the bulkhead as a structural element in hull construction probably derived from its use in fluvial ships before the 10th century in China. Some of these ships could have been used to sail along coasts, perhaps even in early blue-water seafaring. The bulkhead came to be used in the �structure of the Song Dynasty’s oceangoing ships. The innovation of this is linked with keel-use. These regions in the sphere of the South China Sea historically had relationships with Southeast Asia and were probably the focus of exportation of East Asian shipbuilding traditions. Potentially, during the Yuan Dynasty to become more prominent during the Ming Dynasty, the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition gradually formed under the strong influence of technology from the middle and southern Chinese coasts. Table 1. Structural principle of East Asian shipbuilding traditions used for oceangoing ships. Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in the following: 1) Excavated Tang Dynasty’s riverine ships before the 10th century that might have been used for seafaring, show flat bottom and uses bulkheads and iron fastenings; 2) Excavated Goryeo coastal traders of the 11th to 14th centuries that show the hull of the floor with chines and use beams for transverse components and wooden fastenings; 3) Excavated Yuan and Ming Dynasties’ ships that have a keel and show round bottom, and the hull is constructed by single layered planking (baulks) and use bulkheads; 4) Excavated flat bottom keel-less ships that are constructed by Goryeo shipbuilding technologies use bulkheads and both iron and wooden fastenings. East China Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in the following: 1) Excavated oceangoing ships of the 13th and 14th centuries that show V-bottom deadrise by the use of a keel and garboards. The transverse component composes bulkheads that are secured by half frames and brackets to the hull planking. The hull is constructed by layered planking and uses various types of iron fastenings; 2) Excavated ships dating from the Song to Ming Dynasty show a round bottom that uses a keel. The hull is constructed by single layered planking (baulks) and uses bulkheads. South China Sea shipbuilding tradition Technologies are evidenced in several shipwrecks, mostly dated to the 14th century and afterwards, found in Southeast Asian waters. They use a keel, showing a round bottom. The transverse components use bulkheads and, likely, half frames. The hull planking is multiple layered and the main planking (innermost planking) use wooden fastenings with compensatory uses of iron fastenings. Conclusion Based on the data of the hull components of the excavated ships in East Asia, this paper has outlined the formation of regional shipbuilding traditions. 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Xi, L., Yang, X., and Tang, Zhongguo kexue jishu shi: jiaotong juan (The history of science and technology in China: X., (eds) transportation), Science Press, Beijing. 2004 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource East Asian shipbuilding traditions and its historical evolvement Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure Description An account of the resource The archaeological study of excavated ships can contribute to knowledge and understanding of past seafaring and maritime activities. Such study includes the assessment of the hull structure and construction methods. This paper highlights technological innovations evidenced by the remnants of ships in China, Korea, and Japan. Based on data of the excavated ships from the tenth century onwards, this paper addresses the significance of the bulkhead in oceangoing ships in the light of technological innovations, diffusion, and hybridization. This contributes to further understanding of the relationship between the “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition,” the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition,” and the “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition.” The “South China Sea shipbuilding tradition” has been presented by earlier researchers as a hybrid ship building technology. This paper highlights the integration of the technologies from the Yellow Sea and East China Sea into the South China Sea tradition by tracing specific hull components, such as bulkhead(s) used for East Asian seagoing ships. The “Yellow Sea shipbuilding tradition” is exhibited by ships operating in the northern waters of East Asia. Traditionally, these ships have flat bottoms but variations are represented by the early Tang Dynasty riverine ships and Goryeo Dynasty ships, and in later periods by Ming Dynasty ships excavated in Penglai, China. Recent archaeological inspections conducted on the Quanzhou ship, Shinan shipwreck, and ship timbers from the Takashima Underwater site established that these ships were built in the “East China Sea shipbuilding tradition”. V-shaped bottoms, keel and bulkheads, and multiple-layered hull planking with iron fastenings, characterise this tradition. The ships built according to these two traditions came to be used in seaborne activities within and beyond East and Southeast Asia. The chronological linkage of three shipbuilding traditions developed in two regions will be pursued. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jun Kimura Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Kaigai Jouhou to Kyushu (Overseas Information and Kyushu) 海外情報と九州 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jun'ichi Himeno Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kyushu Daigaku Shuppankai Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Jun'ichi Himeno Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Place Fukuoka Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kyushu Daigaku Shuppankai Title A name given to the resource Kaigai Jouhou to Kyushu (Overseas Information and Kyushu) 海外情報と九州 China Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Memories of Wind and Waves: A Self-Portrait of Lakeside Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Junichi Saga Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kodansha Intanashonaru Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Junichi Saga Item Type Book ISBN 4770027583 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Extra External Resources: Find this item at Abebooks.com (Bookseller) Find this item at Alibris (Bookseller) Find this item at Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America (Bookseller) Find this item at Biblio (Bookseller) Cite This Item Search for versions with same title and author | Advanced options ... More About This In: Books in Print (Publication status and optional reviews) Uniform Title: Kasumigaura fudoki. English Edition: 1st ed. Language: English (Show non-Roman characters) Geographic: Japan -- Social life and customs. Note(s): Map on lining papers. Class Descriptors: LC: GT3470; Dewey: 952.009734 Responsibility: Junichi Saga ; translated by Juliet Winters Carpenter ; illustrated by Susumu Saga. More Records: Show record information Vendor Info: Baker & Taylor YBP Library Services (BKTY YANK) 24.00 Status: active Entry: 20021106 Update: 20070311 Provider: OCLC Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 258 Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kodansha Intanashonaru Short Title Memories of Wind and Waves Title A name given to the resource Memories of Wind and Waves: A Self-Portrait of Lakeside Japan Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8cb2358c19528ea076a5ca02c4832296.pdf 2dd5bc09eb01eb01409102a38ebd5571 PDF Text Text Antimicrobial hydrogel patches for deacidification and conservation of waterlogged archaeological wood Xiaohang Suna, Junjie Chena, Xuanwei Zhangb, Qiang Chena* a School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai Campus, Zhuhai, Guangdong Province, China 519082 b Marinetime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong, HVFF+3H3, Jiangcheng District, Yangjiang, Guangdong Province, China, 529536 *E-mail: chenqiang3@mail.sysu.edu.cn ABSTRACT The Nanhai No. 1 hull, a Chinese merchant ship sank during the Southern Song dynasty and excavated from the South China Sea, is an example of underwater cultural heritage waterlogged wood that has been preserved in situ for centuries. Although the overall structure of the wooden artifacts is still intact they are severely degraded and acidified. It is now urgent to explore effective approaches for its conservation, we explore the feasibility of antimicrobial hydrogel patches. Antimicrobial hydrogel patches dispersed with antibacterial and deacidification nanoparticles simultaneously deacidify, moisturize, and reinforce both antibacterial and mechanical aspects of waterlogged wood. In the construction of the antimicrobial hydrogel patches, the double network hydrogel was used to prepare the hydrogel substrate with stretch and mechanical strength. We have successfully applied the antimicrobial hydrogel patches to the waterlogged wood from Nanhai No. 1, with the support of the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. We demonstrate here the advantages of hydrogel patches to protect waterlogged wood with testing in deacidification, compression and antimicrobial. KEYWORDS: Underwater cultural heritage waterlogged wood; Antibacterial (preserve); Nanhai No. 1; Deacidification; Antimicrobial (preventative); Mechanical support (protect against the harsh external conditions) INTRODUCTION In 2007, the 800-year-old Nanhai No.1 shipwreck hull was raised from the seabed and moved to the Marine Silk Road Museum, where it was conserved (Z. Liu et al. 2018). Early studies of the wood at the museum showed that the structural damage of the underwater cultural heritage (henceforth UCH) waterlogged wood, composed of softwoods, was severe to not withstand long-term spray deacidification and moisture retention (Huang et al. 2021; R. Li et al. 2022; Z. Liu et al. 2018; Yin et al. 2019). As the archaeological excavation continues on the Nanhai No. 1, like other conservation efforts the severe acidification and salt deposition on the surface is an important challenge for the protection of the UCH (Amornkitbamrung et al. 2015; Babiński et al. 2017; Baglioni and Giorgi 2006; Cavallaro et al. 2017; Chelazzi, Giorgi, and Baglioni 2006; Dong et al. 2010; Durán et al. 2016; Eriksen, Gregory, and Matthiesen 2017; Giorgi, Chelazzi, and Baglioni 2005; Giorgi et al. 2002; L. Liu et al. 2019; Mahltig et al. 2008; Majka, Babiński, and Olek 2017; Piotrowska and Konieczny 2015; Poggi et al. 2016; Sandström, Fors, and Persson 2003; Sandström et al. 2002; Schofield et al. 2011; Walsh-Korb 2022; Walsh-Korbs and Avérous 2019; Y. Li et al. 2022; Zelinka 2014; Zhou, Wang, and Hu 2021). Temperature, salinity, fungi, and bacteria are the cause of the severe cell wall decay (Capretti et al. 2008; Colombini et al. 2009; Hoffmann and Jones 1989. To neutralize the sulfuric acid and add antimicrobial protection for UCH waterlogged wood we prepared and applied an antimicrobial hydrogel patch. Antimicrobial hydrogel patches dispersed with antibacterial and deacidification nanoparticles simultaneously deacidify, moisturize, and reinforce both antibacterial and mechanical aspects of waterlogged wood (Gong 2014; Gong et al. 2003). This antimicrobial hydrogel patch served as mechanical support, deacidification, and antibacterial functions, during post-excavation conservation and prior to the addition of consolidates (Bai et al. 2019). We conducted 1 �a thorough literature review of shipwreck conservation of waterlogged woods; here we demonstrate in collaboration with the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong the advantages of antimicrobial hydrogel patches to protect waterlogged wood on the Nanhai No. 1 hull with testing in deacidification, compression, and antimicrobial. EXPERIMENTS Materials The UCH waterlogged wood from the Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck was generously provided by the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong with a maximum moisture content of around 529%. The UCH waterlogged wood was stored in 0.5wt% isothiazolinone solution and washed with excess amount of water three times prior to conservation. The following chemicals were purchased: Acrylamide (AR, 99.0%) and sodium citrate (98%) from Aladdin; Potassium persulfate (GR, 99.9%), potassium bicarbonate (AR, 99.5%), and N,N,N',N'-Tetramethylethylenediamine (99%) from Macklin; N,N-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA,98%) from Maya Reagent; Silver nitrate (99%) from Alfa Aesar; Calcium Sulfate (97%) from Rhawn; and sodium alginate (AR, 98%) from RYON. All chemicals were used directly without additional purification. Method We prepared the antimicrobial hydrogel patches and performed three tests: deacidification, compression and antimicrobial. Preparation of antimicrobial hydrogel patches 12.44grams (g) of acrylamide and 1.56g of sodium alginate were dissolved in deionized water to form an acrylamide solution with a water content of 60-80 per cent by weight (wt%). After degassing the solution for one day, we added 0.0018g and 0.0036g of silver nitrate and 0.2g sodium citrate. Then we added 0.5g potassium persulfate, 0.0074g MBAA, 0.031g tetramethylethylenediamine and potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) at 1.5g, 2.5g, and 3.5g. The solution was transferred to a transparent mold and exposed to UV light (254nanometers (nm), 8 watts (W) power output) for one hour. The resulting hydrogel was carefully removed from the molded and immersed in calcium sulfate solution for 20-40 minutes. Deacidification test The Nanhai No. 1 UCH waterlogged wood was wrapped for three hours with the antimicrobial hydrogel patch (see recipe above). The pH of the UCH waterlogged wood was measured by soaking 1g in 30g of deionized water for 30 minutes and measuring the pH of the soaking water (Mettler Toledo, FE28). The pH meter was calibrated with a standard solution before use. Compression test A compression test was conducted using a universal tensile tester (Haida Instrument, HD-A513). The displacement as a function of force was measured for the synthesized hydrogels with the KHCO3 concentration at 1.5g, 2.5g, and 3.5g and compression speed of 116 millimeters per minute (mm/min). Antimicrobial test The antimicrobial performance of the hydrogels was measured via disk diffusion test based on Oxford cup method. Briefly, the prepared agar medium was sterilized at 121°C for 15 minutes, and cooled to about 55-50°C before pouring into a petri dish to form the bottom layer of agar gel. Then, E. coli culture grown in sterilized lysogeny broth (LB) media was applied on the surface of the agar media. 2 �After one day when the E. coli culture completely covers the agar media, the prepared hydrogel was grinded into a flowable state and added dropwise into an Oxford cup. With 37°C and one day incubation, the antimicrobial performance was evaluated based on the zone of inhibition around the Oxford cup. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In this paper, an antimicrobial hydrogel patch used in the early stages of UCH waterlogged wood conservation was prepared using weak alkaline compounds. Fig. 1a shows a sample of the waterlogged wood. Water was sprayed routinely to maintain the water content of the waterlogged wood. Waterlogged wood, on the hull of Nanhai No.1 shipwreck, in some areas show heavy precipitation and bacterial decomposition (Fig. 1b 1c and 1d). Figure 1 waterlogged wood (a) with precipitation cleaned; (b) on the hull of Nanhai No.1 shipwreck; (c) and (d) with severe bacterial decomposition. Another advantage of the hydrogel deacidification material is that it is soft and easily stretches to change shape. The tensile and compression properties were measured. Fig. 2a and 2b are photographs of released and stretched hydrogel, respectively. More than 1000% elongation was achieved with the polyacrylamide/alginate hydrogel with silver nanoparticles dispersed. 3 �Figure 2 polyacrylamide/alginate hydrogel (a) at rest; (b) tensioned and elongated; (c) graph of compression with different KHCO3 concentrations. The hydrogels with 0.5% and 2.5% KHCO3 are close in Young’s modulus, while the hydrogel with 2.5% KHCO3 has higher Young’s modulus (Fig 2c), which might be caused by the difference in ionic crosslinking of silver and potassium ions. The hydrogel with potassium percarbonate was used to wrap the waterlogged wood (Fig. 3a-c). The weak alkaline KHCO3 neutralized the sulfuric acid in the waterlogged wood, which resulted in a pH increase from 4.0 to 7.2 (Fig 3d). It was also confirmed that above 0.5% KHCO3 concentration, the increase in KHCO3 did not contribute to the pH increase remarkably. Gentle adhesion of the hydrogel to the wood neutralization occurs immediately, which lead to fast and significant pH increase. We suspect this is due to the large water content of the hydrogel, while also performing the adhesion underwater, is homogeneous. Figure 3 antimicrobial hydrogel (a) patch (b) patch and waterlogged wood (c) wrapped around waterlogged wood; (d) bar graph of pH test with different KHCO3 concentrations. The results of hydrogel antibacterial experiments proved it can protect waterlogged wood from bacterial degradation. When 30 μg/mL silver nitrate in the hydrogel was converted to silver nanoparticles, the antimicrobial properties of the hydrogels became sufficient to prevent bacterial degradation. Comparing Fig 4b and 4c, we see the increase of the silver nanoparticles from 30 μg/mL 4 �silver nitrate converted to silver nanoparticles to 60 μg/mL silver nitrate converted to silver nanoparticles had less effect on the increase in antimicrobial properties. Figure 4 antimicrobial hydrogel with silver nitrate converted to silver nanoparticles (a) control sample without;(b) zones of inhibition caused by 30 μg/mL; (c) zones of inhibition caused by 60 μg/mL. CONCLUSIONS In this paper, we explore the feasibility of using antimicrobial hydrogel patches with excellent mechanical strength for conservation of waterlogged wood. We focused our testing on antimicrobial hydrogels deacidification and antibacterial properties. We noted the prepared hydrogel patches match well with weak alkaline and high water content properties to carry out ion exchange to reduce the acidity. Double network polymer structure was utilized to increase the stretch of the hydrogel, which provides mechanical support to the highly decayed softwood. These antimicrobial hydrogel patches can perform targeted restoration and preservation as indicated by our research and testing of UCH waterlogged wood from Nanhai No.1 with the help of the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. AUTHOR INFORMATION Mailing address: School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University Zhuhai, Guangdong Province 519082 China; Email: chenqiang3@mail.sysu.edu.cn Xiaohang Sun, Junjie Chen, Xuanwei Zhang, Qiang Chen* contributed equally to this work. All authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51972264). 5 �Bibliography Amornkitbamrung, Lunjakorn, Tamilselvan Mohan, Silvo Hribernik, Victoria Reichel, Damien Faivre, Adriana Gregorova, Patricia Engel, Rupert Kargl, and Volker Ribitsch. “Polysaccharide Stabilized Nanoparticles for Deacidification and Strengthening of Paper.” RSC Advances 5, no. 42 (2015): 32950–32961. Babiński, Leszek, Ewa Fabisiak, Henryk P. Dąbrowski, and Piotr Kittel. “Study on Dimensional Stabilization of 12,500-Year-Old Waterlogged Subfossil Scots Pine Wood from the Koźmin Las Site, Poland.” Journal of Cultural Heritage 23, (2017): 119–127. Baglioni, Piero, and Rodorico Giorgi. “Soft and Hard Nanomaterials for Restoration and Conservation of Cultural Heritage.” Soft Matter 2, no.4 (2006): 293. Bai, Ruobing, Jiawei Yang, and Zhigang Suo. “Fatigue of Hydrogels.” European Journal of Mechanics - A/Solids 74, (2019): 337–370. Capretti, C., N. Macchioni, B. Pizzo, G. 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Mosselmans, and Alan V. Chadwick. “Nanoparticle De-Acidification of the Mary Rose.” Materials Today 14, no. 7–8 (2011): 354–358. Walsh-Korb, Zarah. “Sustainability in Heritage Wood Conservation: Challenges and Directions for Future Research.” Forests 13, no. 1 (2022):18. Walsh-Korbs, Zarah, and Luc Avérous. “Recent Developments in the Conservation of Materials Properties of Historical Wood.” Progress in Materials Science 102, (2019): 167–221. Yin, Liuyu, Yin Jia, Mei Wang, Huanhuan Yu, Ying Jing, Cuiting Hu, Fengyu Zhang, et al. “Bacterial and Biodeterioration Analysis of the Waterlogged Wooden Lacquer Plates from the Nanhai No. 1 Shipwreck.” Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 9, no. 4 (2019): 1–13. Zelinka, Samuel L. 2014. “Preserving Ancient Artifacts for the next Millennia.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111, no. 50 (2014): 17700–17701. Zhou, Yihang, Kai Wang, and Dongbo Hu. “An Aqueous Approach to Functionalize Waterlogged Archaeological Wood Followed by Improved Surface-Initiated ARGET ATRP for Maintaining Dimensional Stability.” Cellulose 28, no. 4 (2021): 2433–2443. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 14: Conservation Treatment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 14 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 14 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Antimicrobial hydrogel patches for deacidification and conservation of waterlogged archaeological wood Description An account of the resource The Nanhai No. 1 hull, a Chinese merchant ship sank during the Southern Song dynasty and excavated from the South China Sea, is an example of underwater cultural heritage waterlogged wood that has been preserved in situ for centuries. Although the overall structure of the wooden artifacts is still intact they are severely degraded and acidified. It is now urgent to explore effective approaches for its conservation, we explore the feasibility of antimicrobial hydrogel patches. Antimicrobial hydrogel patches dispersed with antibacterial and deacidification nanoparticles simultaneously deacidify, moisturize, and reinforce both antibacterial and mechanical aspects of waterlogged wood. In the construction of the antimicrobial hydrogel patches, the double network hydrogel was used to prepare the hydrogel substrate with stretch and mechanical strength. We have successfully applied the antimicrobial hydrogel patches to the waterlogged wood from Nanhai No. 1, with the support of the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. We demonstrate here the advantages of hydrogel patches to protect waterlogged wood with testing in deacidification, compression and antimicrobial. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xiaohang Sun Junjie Chen Xuanwei Zhang Qiang Chen Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Sun, Xiaohang , Junjie Chena, Xuanwei Zhangb, and Qiang Chena. 2023. “Antimicrobial hydrogel patches for deacidification and conservation of waterlogged archaeological wood.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1909 Asia-Pac Session 14 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671-695) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yijing Junjiro Takakusu Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Munshiram Manoharlal Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1896 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Yijing Translator Junjiro Takakusu Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1896 Edition 1966 Place Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Munshiram Manoharlal Title A name given to the resource A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671-695) India Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9c2940c1beda3be9f9dc0a2e2d3e41d0.jpg ab4ac569b5e2b270de08ef64f8f5ae5c Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 1230 Height 870 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Crossing Cultures - Poster Description An account of the resource For the first time in the history of South West Coast of India, a variety of archaeological evidence for the long distance maritime exchanges was unearthed at Pattanam (N. Lat. 10° 09.434’; E Long 76° 12.587’). The ca 4 m thick cultural\ deposit of Pattanam may be defined into five cultural periods spanning three millennia since 1000 BCE. Four seasons of excavations by KCHR, in about 650 sq. m dug up area, produced 39,846 antiquities and about three million (29,83178) pottery sherds. The excavations also revealed remains of brick architecture - warehouse, wharf/jetty and residential/industrial structures, wooden canoe and a plethora of biological remains. The poster illustrates the major finds and cross cultural connections suggesting Pattanam could be part of the legendary port of Muziris. A full scale version of the poster can be downloaded from this location: https://rapidshare.com/files/721815335/Muziris_Poster_v_final2.pdf Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource P J Cherian K P Shajan V Selvakumar M Nambirajan K Rajan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Poster