40 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2bfbab86f9c95814ce7d063f429b5909.pdf 3fab7d417b621f41cdb0fa36aca9c9a7 PDF Text Text The methods of experimental archaeology apply in the reconstuctions of ship remains, the Ganzeng Warship Case Xu Lu1 and Jia Hao2 Abstract As one of the most important instruments of production in ancient time, ships are a complicated and systematic carrier. To study their uses one could broach the subjects of naval architecture, art of seamanship, fishing production, social function of trade and navy, and its anthropological meaning as a special settlement3. With respect to naval architecture our study divided it into the following: shipform, structure and principle of design. The method of experimental archaeology ship-reconstructions first in the late half of the last century in Europe. Initial endowment by the Danish National Research Foundation reconstructed a Viking ship. This methodology involves archeology, ancient documentation, and ethno-archaeological investigation of the same culture-tradition of shipbuilding. In this way, ancient ships can be restituted, rebuilt, and understood. —A.D.220). This Chinese junks had adopted the bamboo strip sail in the Western Han dynasty (B.C.206 tool was still in use in the Early Qing Dynasty (1644-1799) as evidenced by the Ganzeng warship. However, archaeologists have not found tangible evidence and are unclear on its structure and manufacturing methods. Nautical archaeology had never carried out an experiment on replica and reconstruction according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. The reconstruction of Ganzeng warship from the Early Qing Dynasty was based on the study of historic documents, integrated with methods of ship design and building traditions acquired from the ethnographical field work in Fujian province. This was the first full scale experimental anthropology reconstruction project in China. the design principle and method began with the preliminary sorting of the modular system of construction that was largely based on the study of the transverse watertight bulkhead, mast base structure, and the axis helm that can lift and swing bamboo strip sail. From this project we concluded that experimental reconstruction of ship remains is the only effective means to preserve the Chinese junk heritage. Furthermore, in this paper we introduce the use of modern technology and research tools used in experimental archaeology of ship remains. Key words: experimental archaeology, reconstruction sailing ship, ship remain, Ganzeng, naval architecture. 1 Chinese Sailing Junk Expedition Society, Xiamen, P.R.China 361005 2 School of History, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, P.R.China 100875 3 Eric Rieth, 2006. Epaves, Archeologie Sous-Marine Et Histoire De L’architecture Navale. Histoire, Archeologie Et Societe Confererces Academiques Franco-Chinoises, Ecole francaise d’Extreme-Orient Centre, Beijing, Cabier No 13, pp. 1-20. 1 �1. Preface The encyclopaedia Heavenly Creation 4 (1637) has a chapter on naval architecture. The author Songyingxing divided the vessels into sea-going, river and other craft according to their environment. These classifications have been followed until now. In the book he elaborated parts on usage and navigation environments of ship, shipform and building procedure, design principle and modular proportion, design and manipulation of sail and helm, form and usage of anchor, sealant, rigging, log material and so on. Those have made the book the most systematic work of naval architecture of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and the decoding norms for traditional sailing junks till now. This study only focuses on sea-going junks. By the 21st century ancient Chinese sailing junks had disappeared, their memory only retained through studies in nautical archaeology, historic documents, the craftsmen traditions of shipbuilding, models and the odd recently-built traditional ships. The surmise of only four kinds of shipforms (ie. Shachuan, Niaochuan, Fuchuan, and Guangchuan) is incomplete and further study is required. Figure 1. Ganzeng style warship recorded in the middle of 18th century (Anonymous). 4 Song Yingxing, 2002. Heavenly Creations(Tian-Gong-Kai-Wu) in Sequel to Si-Ku-Quan-Shu, Zi radical, 1637, reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Press, Shanghai. 2 �2. Experimental archaeology 2.1 Conception and origins "Experimental Archaeology: The systematic approach used to test, evaluate and explicate method, technique, assumption, hypothesis and theories at any and all levels of archaeological research" (Ingersoll 1977). The field of experimental archaeology can generally be divided into four categories: controlled replication of recovered artifacts or known activities; testing the validity of methodological assumptions by applying them to known data or results; "contextual"; and ethnographic data. Experimental archaeology can also be described by using these questions: What was ancient man doing? Why? How? These questions can be answered in many different ways. “Experimental archaeology employs a number of different methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches in order to generate and test hypotheses, based upon archaeological source material, like ancientstructure or artifacts” (Mathieu 2002). One of the main forms of experimental archaeology is the creation of copies of historical structures using only historically accurate technologies. This is sometimes known as reconstruction archaeology. 2.2 Reconstruction experiment of ship remains The reconstruction experiment of ship remains chooses an original prototype from the historical documents, sets proper design and procedure application of the original tools and materials, copies the similar environment, reconstructs the replica, manipulates the replica under the similar navigation circumstances, and finally verifies and explains the set prototype. Followed the technical logic during all the procedures of building and voyage, previous conclusions need to be retested and re-evaluated, and sometimes previous hypothesis could be re-written. Or at least some possibilities of the unsettled questions could be expelled at the same time. Although experimental methods are not yet fully approved as scientific method in the European archaeology discipline be cause of the absence of common standards and untenable evidence. In nautical archaeology this method could be the most effective way to assemble all the information from shipwrecks, documents, interviews, models and operating ships, while also being the most effective in verification and preservation of the historical prototype. There are distinct differences between the experiments and other replicas. Firstly, the former are strictly document studies. Secondly, choosing the appropriate historical objects as prototype. The experiment replica could be ships with the ability to sail, proportionate models, specific sections or tools, or the clarify shipwrecks. 3. Reconstruction experiment of Ganzeng warship of early Qing dynasty Our team chose to conduct the experimental project on the Ganzeng warship of the Early Qing Dynasty based on evidence available in nautical and historical archaeology. The inital 3 �study of historical documents revealed multiple examples of European depictions of Fujian boats, these included: • The two large-scale trader in Zhujiang River printed by Netherlandish armada commanded by Cornelis Matelief de Jonghes5. The illustrations of side plate, gangway, deck castle, bamboo matting sail were particular for studies. • A middle 17th century, collection of Berlin Etnologisches Museum was the earliest meticulous color image of Fujian style junks6. • William Alexander’s colour images are the earliest and the best realistic portrayals of Fujian style junks available to us today7. We also studied Chinese historical documents and drawings from which we gained examples of shipforms during the reigns of Emperors Kangxi (1662-1722), Yongzheng (1723-1735) and Qilong (1736-1795). They were shrunk into medium(length over all under 30 meters) or small scales (length over all under 20 meters). The drawings largely consisted of double mast forms of warships and traders, with the majority of drawings being of single masted fishing boats. In and after the Jiaqing reign shipforms expanded. Examples include the Tongan Suochuan8 and Guangting warships of three masts. During the reign of Emperor Daoguang (1821-1850) large numbers of traders emerged with three masts. We believe the Ganzeng warship originated from the fishing junk of the Fujian and Zhejiang coast of the late Ming Dynasty (1600-1644). At the time it may have had a secondary use in trade. The first record of Ganzeng mentioned in Conquest Memoir9 by an official historian of Zheng Chenggong armed force named Yangyin in 1658, he mentioned that Zheng’s Navy dispatched a Ganzeng to salvage an European heavy cannon from a wrecked warship in Jieyang port (South-east of Guangdong Province). The first record found describing it as a warship is the 1664 August entry of East China Memoir10, written by Jiang Liangqi. In 1688 the ship served in the Fujian Navy to quard the coast of China. The final historical record is of an equipment list of the national navy, from the time of Emperor Guangxi's reign (1881). The first illustration of Ganzeng warship could be found in The Navy Abstract11 written by the east Guangdong regional commander Chen Liangshi during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. In the book, 14 kinds of seaman position, numbers of each kind, and the post requirements were firstly founded. It was the first document that explained the design principle and main modular system based on the length of main beam. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing12 was written by Huang Shujing between the years 5 6 7 This printing was cited by Isaac Commelin,1646. Beginning and Ending of the Dutch-East Company, Amsterdam. Anonymous, middle 17th century. The Island of Formosa, painted on parchment, collection of Berlin Ethnologisches Museum. William Alexander and George Henry Mason, 1988. Views of 18th Century China Costumes,History, Custom. 1796, reprint Portland House, New York. Jiang Youxian, 1817. Memorial to the throne with picture, 38cm×35cm, collection of The National Palace Museum, Taibei. 9 Yangyin, 1958. Conquest Memoir(Cong-Zheng-Shi-Lu), 1658, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. 10 Jiang Liangqi, 2000. East China Memoir (Dong-Hua-Lu), 1664 reprint Xueyuan Press, Beijing. 11 Chen Liangshi, 2002. The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), later 17th century, reprint Shanghai Ancient 8 12 Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang Shujing, 1957. The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), early 18th century, reprint 4 �of the Emperors Kangxi to Yongzheng. Shujing was the first imperial senior government official in Taiwan during the Qing Dynasty. He used mandarin tongue to record and explain the dialect of about 100 details of the ship construction, recording materials, quantities and specifications needed to build the Ganzeng warship. In 1731 a Guangdong general named Cai Tianlue stated to the emperor the Ganzeng’s details of dimensions and materials. In the statement he included the depth of the hulk, the upper width and the lower width of watertight hulk measured by a Luban ruler13. All the evidence from the three documents mentioned above provided us with a practical base to conduct our reconstruction experiment. We had detailed information including principle of design, modulus system, main unit data, material data, and measures. The five historical documents that recorded units dimensions, two of them with detailed illustrations, are: The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy Of Fujian Province (Figure 1)14, Cai Tianlue’ memorial to the throne, The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships15, The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships 16, and The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk17. Among the documents, The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships had the most complete records of 17 Ganzeng’s specifications and a detailed list of the amounts and costs of materials used for the construction (Table 1). In our experiment, we used this document as the main base data, and considered the others as complements. Table.1 The key dimensions of all sizes of Fujian Ganzeng warships Number Qty Length of deck Beam Deep of hold Cabin 13 Liminary 3 22.2 m 5.61 m 21 Chap.1 5 13.8 m 3.96 m 1.29 m 15 Chap.2 2 16.2 m 4.71 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.3 4 15.0 m 4.38 m 1.46 m 16 Chap.4 9 16.5 m 4.71 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.5 14 17.1 m 4.86 m 1.60 m 16 Chap.6 8 18.6 m 5.01 m 1.66 m 17 Chap.7 3 19.5 m 5.52 m 1.84 m 18 Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. Cai Tianlue,1989. Memorial to the throne about Zhejiang province’s Ganzeng warships, 1731, reprint Jiangsu Ancient Book Press, Nanjing. Luban ruler is a Chinese yardstick to length named with the fonder of capenter in ancient legend and widely used by traditional Fujian shipwright till now, 1 Luban’s foot is about 0.3 metres. Anonymous, middle 18th century. The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji) , manuscript. 15 Anonymous, 2002. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai 14 Zhan Chuan Ze Li), 1768, woodblock edition. reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. 16 Anonymous, 1719. The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Jiang Su Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), collected by The National Science library, Beijing. 17 Anonymous, middle Qing Dynasty. The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk, 66cm×55cm, collected by The National Science library, Beijing. 5 �…… Chap.16 3 25.8 m 6.39 m 2.37 m 22 Chap.17 9 24 m 6.24 m 2.18 m 22 3.1 Reconstruction design Stage 1 Based on above studies of historical documents, and considering the difficulty of experiment and financials, we chose Qing 8 of Taiwan Navy recorded in Chapter 1 of The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, the length of deck 13.8 metre Ganzeng warjunk as the original ship, and applied the reconstruction design steps as follows: • Step 1: Listed all the units of 17 sizes according to The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, and compared the list of Chapter 1 Ganzeng to other sizes. We got a supplement list of Chapter 1 Ganzeng from the compare (Table 2), which was hold to testify or modify used above mention other historical documents later. Table.2 The specification of Chapter 1 Fujian Ganzeng warship Main measurement • • • • Length of deck 13.80 m Beam of middle bottom 3.06 m High sheer forward 1.20 m Length of tail 3.60 m High sheer tail 0.9 m Beam of tail deck 3.78 m Length of fore ship 5.40 m Beam of tail bottom 2.82 m Beam of forship deck 2.64 m Length of top-side plank 15.78 m Beam of forship bottom 2.40 m Height of top-sideplank 1.20m Length of middle 4.80 m Cabin 15 Beam of middle deck 3.96 m Deep of hold 1.29 m Step 2: Distinguished and sorted every component of the list according to the illustrations of The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy Of Fujian Province and the explanations of The Navy Abstract and The Taiwan Conversation. Step 3: The uncertain components and units were questioned in interviews conducted in the field investigation of traditional shipbuilding sites in Fujian, and the explanations were compared. The accordant explanations were accepted and the inconsistent ones were held for further tests. Step 4: The main technical parameters like thickness of bottom plates were sent to the master of craftsmen, and confirmed that the parameters were almost the same as the tradition of the master. The traditional Luban ruler was used as the measurement tool, whose 1 Luban’s foot (chi) was equal to 0.3 metres. Step 5: The complex list was sorted to five systems including configuration system, drive system, directional system, anchor system, decoration system. Then converted 6 �to a new List of The Specifications Of Components & Materials, including 977 wood parts and 27 metal parts, nailed with 17886 nails, and sealed with a mixture of 686 kilograms of shell ash, 276.5 kilograms of tung oil, 223.5 kilograms of net, 223.5 kilograms of bamboo fibers. • Step 6: The new list was handed to four teams for reconstruction detail design. The four teams were Fangshijian from Fuzhou, Hongzhigang from Hui’an, Chenfangcai and Chenrongliang from Jinjiang, Kongbinghuan and Xuxihui from Dongshan. All the teams are traditional shipbuilding specialists in Fujian. The design principle was to match all the units of the new list neatly to the traditional way and without any pieces remaining. The construction was based on the functions of main units and systems and was in the accordance with the documents and field investigations. stage 2 Compared four of the above mentioned ancient documents with three newly found documents: the Cai Tianlue’ memorial to the throne, The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going Warships, and The Illustrated of Shandong Dengzhou Naval Ganzeng warjunk. For prototypes we chose the length of deck at 22.2 m, based on the primary chapter of The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships, and 21.9 m deck length, from chapter 11. Then organized List of The Specifications of Components & Materials and designed models. 3.2 Full scale reconstruction In 2007 the building of a full scale reconstruction began. The team from Jinjiang reconstructed the ship based on chapter 1 Ganzeng warship, length of deck 13.8 m, which followed the traditional shipbuilding. The teams of Fuzhou, Hui’an and Dongshan were technical support, the Longhai team painted, and the Zhaoan team finailized adjustments after the trial voyage. The reason of this prototype chosen was that it was the smallest one in the 17 sizes. Thus the expense was relatively small, and the dangerous factor of the voyage was relatively small too. The reconstruction ship was named Princess Taiping. The procedure of building ancient sea-going sailing junks is rarely found in the historical documents. And there have been many discussions between shell-first and frame-first design. The transverse watertight bulkhead, the most characteristic structure of Chinese sailing junk，is a frame-first system. The reconstruction’s procedure was carried out as illustrated (Figure 2): Figure 2. The sequence of construction. 7 �3.3 Testing and improvement The trial voyage from Shenhu to Xiamen was carried out during January to April of 2008 (Figure 3). The results of the voyage showed the Princess Taiping sailed at an average speed of 6 knots without wind with good stability but it had visible transverse drift, an issue in most Chinese sailing junks. The Princess Taiping entailed bamboo matting sails. The fabrication of bamboo matting was still mastered by several craftsmen along the Fujian coast18. We had no study of the manipulation technique of bamboo mattging sail so we used the cloth sail dyed by Dioscorea cirrhosa Lour. This was not in accordance with the historical prototype. Figure 3. Princess Taiping (Photo by Qiao Yang). 4. Modeling technology 4.1 Classification and cognition A three-dimensional reference frame could be set to classify the complex Chinese sailing 18 Xu Lu, 2006. The investigation on the traditions of naval architecture along Fujian coast. 8 �junks, which set time as the first coordinate axis, use space as the second one, and apply usage as the third axis. In this reference frame, every one of the warships, traders, fishers and ambassador ships from different time and space will find their own place. For certain ship forms the classification system of the Ming Dynasty’s encyclopedia of Heavenly Creations may be feasible. Every ship part and components in the classification should be tested in the field investigations and compared with the study of antique ships. The shapes, the positions, the functions and the behaviors of these parts should be observed on the spot, and recorded on the voyage. 4.2 Suppositional three-dimensional model Photoshop software and Illustration software are applied to produce the joint picture and vectorgraph of the shipmodel. Then 3dmax software was applied to create models of the ship units and whole ship. We first used this method of a three-dimensional model on the last traditional sailing junk built in Jinhuaxing in 2004, followed by the Ganzeng warship build in 2006 (Figure 4). Figure 4. 3D Components of Fujian Ganzeng warship. 9 �5. Conclusions and discussions 5.1 Conclusions Although shipwreck archaeology has very few cases of Chinese sea-going junks, many clues can be found in historical documents. Furthermore, the majority of sailing junks still voyaged in the middle of 20th century so the last traditional shipbuilding craftsmen are still alive. When we applied experimental archaeology methods to ship remains study, a distinctive prototype could be selected and craftsmen found to build the traditional design. The Ganzeng reconstruction therefore applied traditional technology with steps that trace back to the old building procedures. The structure of transverse watertight bulkhead was the most important character of all Chinese sailing junks, and watertight bulkhead was the soul structure in this project. The mixture sealant of tung oil and ashes, Chinese rugging sails, the axis ruddle that can swing and lift, the leeboard, and scull were inventions of ancient Chinese sailing junks19. As far as the choice of wood is concerned, a kind of natural fir tree Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.)Hook from Fujian a mountainous area was normally used for the parts of a ship’s shell that have direct contact with the sea, such as the keel (longgu), bottom, shuishe (literally water snake), and zouma (literally running horse), the deck and transverses (gecangban, literally cabin-separating boards), and natural small-leaf camphor for other parts of the body such as cangliang zhuo (base of cabin beams) liangtou (beam-end) and gecang fuqiang (cabin-separating strengtheners). For the rudder and anchor which required harder material, kundian wood, which was grown in Guangdong and Southeast Asia was used. Wood for the mast was the most carefully selected, natural fir trees from Fujian aged 80 or more were generally used. The craftsmen constructed the ships with the traditional techniques and tools. The aim of the reconstruction experiment is to reveal the technical logic of historical prototypes with similar techniques and environments. Reconstruction experimental archaeology is an effective method to study history. The replica will be on the trial voyage in same circumstance as it would have historically. Any baseless conjecture must be expelled, quantitative investigations and tangible evidences must be applied, as ship form essentially was the reflection of its wooden structure. This kind of historical study should be based on concrete practice rather than soely on documentation studies, and should avoid in interfusion by knowledge of modern naval architecture as a result like previous Zhenghe treasure ship study20. Modular systems are an important and traditional method in naval architecture. Modular system use the length of the keel or deck beam as the base structure. The Ganzeng reconstruction applied this system. This kind of traditional design uses lengths instead of angles as the measurement, which embodies the character of Chinese old math. The principle and method of design can not be understood until all the modulus are grasped. This is the essence of the technical logic in Chinese shipbuilding. The only way to preserve traditional technique is to conduct it. Reconstruction of ship remains is the rescue solution of heritage preservation. The rise of tourism at the sea may 19 Xu Lu, 2006. The Naval Architecture of Ancient Fujian Style Sailing Junks, an Overview. 20 Chen Yanhang, Yang Qiuping, Chen Xiao, 1986. A Study For The Peplica Of Zheng He’s Treasure Ship. Ship History Studies, Vol. 1986 (2). 10 �open a new space for the need of Chinese traditional sailboat. At the same time the resource of craftsmen continues. 5.2 Discussions Reconstruction of ship remains must be based on archaeological and historical evidences, integrated with methods of ship design and building acquired from ethnographic field work in traditional shipbuilding centres. The organization of all the resultant studies is the important part of reconstruction experiments. Some academic studies collect and sort domestic navigation documents of Chinese history, however the documents scattered in libraries and museums aboard have been neglected. To improve the effectiveness of retrievers and studies a visual database of documents organized by database including images and available on the internet need to be created. Classification could be according to use, time, region and type. Unlike shipbuilding of other indigenous areas, Chinese shipbuilding traditions changed little through time, and the last capable traditional shipbuilders are still alive. Western classifying studies of Chinese sailboats in the early of 20th century are just based on field investigations and interviews with the successors of traditional naval architecture. Projects need promptly undertake field investigation, with the case of the Manchuria railway being a precise and standard model of these studies. The terminology of traditional shipbuilding and navigation is usually passed on orally, and so are not always recorded in documents, and now some of have no equivalent word. Furthermore, the meanings of the words have changed through time and place. This continues to puzzel both Chinese and Western scholars21. Through the interviews we can distinguish the dialect, this must be the first step to syncronizing traditional andmodern-day terms. And the glossary of Chinese terms relevant to traditional Fujian junk should be authorized and translated to English and other languages for better communication. Besides the basic works mentioned above, the index of drawings, photos and models of traditional Chinese sailing junks need to be done, with the documents stored aboard copied and sorted. For example, the neglected series drawings made in Guangzhou in 19th century collected by Victoria and Albert Museum are the best illustrations of Western scholar’s classification. The scripts of François-Edmond Pâris22, Louis Audemard23, Etienne Sigaut24, Barbosa Carmona25 still have no Chinese versions, and some of them even have no English versions. These translation works are urgently needed. 21 There is an old adage in Fujian province that “Master of a particular shipyard builds ships exclusive to that shipyard.” Even in southern Fujian and speak idiographic Minnan dialect, different township have their own glossary system. 22 23 Musee de la Marine, 1992. Le voyage de la Favorite. Paris. L.Audemard, 1957,1959,1960,1962,1963,1965,1969,1970a,1970b. Les Jonques Chinoises, (10 volumes), Museum voor Land- en Volkenkund en Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik, Rptterdam. Etienne Sigaut (1887-1983) spent more than thirty years in China to investigate South Chinese junks since 1911, his manuscript and sketch however, have never been published and remain in National Maritime Museum of France. 25 Artur Leonel Barbosa Carmona, 1990. Lorchas,Juncos E outros Barcos no sul da China, repaint Museu e 24 Centro de Estudos Maritimos de Macau. 11 �The current experimental reconstruction project is the replica of a 10 meter length, later 19th century to early 20th century, Fujian style sea-going sailing junk. The original ship came from the manuscript on Junk-building of the Zheng Family of Haicheng in Zhangzhou in early Republican Period (1937). The detailed redesign was made by an 88 year-old master shipbuilder named Zheng Liangzhao. We aim to reconstruct this double-masted sailing junk for a trial voyage so as to grasp the sail manipulation methods and the navigation techniques which unavailable in any documents. Bibliography Alexander,W., Mason, G., 1988 Anonymous., middle 18th century Anonymous., 2002 Views of 18th Century China Costumes,History, Custom. 1796, reprint Portland House, New York. The Illustrated Manual Of Instruction In Shipbuilding For The Navy of Fujian Province (Min Sheng Shui Shi Ge Biao Zhen Xie Ying Zhan Shao Chuan Zhi Tu Ji) , manuscript. The Regius Formula of Fujian Sea Going Warships (Qin Ding Fu Jian Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), 1768, woodblock edition. reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Anonymous., The Regius Formula of Jiangsu River and Sea Going 1719 Warships (Qin Ding Jiang Su Sheng Wai Hai Zhan Chuan Ze Li), collected by The National Science library, Beijing. Audemard, L., Les Jonques Chinoises, (10 volumes), Museum voor Land- en 1957,1959,1960,1 Volkenkund en Maritiem Museum Prins Hendrik, Rotterdam. 962,1963,1965,19 69,1970a,1970b. Cai, T., Memorial to the throne about Zhejiang province’s Ganzeng 1989 warships, 1731, reprint Jiangsu Ancient Book Press, Nanjing. Carmona, B., Lorchas,Juncos E outros Barcos no sul da China, repaint 1990 Museu e Centro de Estudos Maritimos de Macau. Chen, L., The Navy Abstract (Shui Shi Ji Yao), later 17th century, reprint 2002 Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, Shanghai. Huang, S., The Taiwan Conversation by Writing (Chi Kan Bi Tan), early 1957 18th century, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. Ingersoll, D., Experimental archaeology, Columbia University Press, New Yellen,J., York. Macdonald,W., (eds.) 1977 Jiang, L., East China Memoir (Dong-Hua-Lu), 1664, reprint Xueyuan 12 �2000 Mathieu, J. R., 2002 Rieth, E., 2006 Song, Y., 2002 Yang, y., 1958 Press, Beijing. Experimental Archaeology: Replicating Past Objects, Behaviors, and Processes (British Archaeological Reports, International Series), BAR International Series 1035, Oxford. Epaves, Archeologie Sous-Marine Et Histoire De L’architecture Navale. Histoire, Archeologie Et Societe Confererces Academiques Franco-Chinoises, Ecole francaise d’Extreme-Orient Centre, Beijing. Heavenly Creations(Tian-Gong-Kai-Wu) in Sequel to Si-Ku-Quan-Shu, Zi radical, 1637, reprint Shanghai Ancient Books Press, Shanghai. Conquest Memoir(Cong-Zheng-Shi-Lu), 1658, reprint Economic Academe of Taiwan Business Bank, Taibei. 13 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/631d138d83cdfdf9277ba0960678ad2a.jpg 7a476381f2ef8bebb1bdb54c71900f78 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The methods of experimental archaeology apply in the reconstuctions of ship remains, the Ganzeng Warship Case Subject The topic of the resource Session 3 History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource As one of the most important instruments of production in ancient time, ships are a complicated and systematic carrier. To study their uses one could broach the subjects of naval architecture, art of seamanship, fishing production, social function of trade and navy, and its anthropological meaning as a special settlement . With respect to naval architecture our study divided it into the following: shipform, structure and principle of design. The method of experimental archaeology ship-reconstructions first in the late half of the last century in Europe. Initial endowment by the Danish National Research Foundation reconstructed a Viking ship. This methodology involves archeology, ancient documentation, and ethno-archaeological investigation of the same culture-tradition of shipbuilding. In this way, ancient ships can be restituted, rebuilt, and understood. Chinese junks had adopted the bamboo strip sail in the Western Han dynasty (B.C.206—A.D.220). This tool was still in use in the Early Qing Dynasty (1644-1799) as evidenced by the Ganzeng warship. However, archaeologists have not found tangible evidence and are unclear on its structure and manufacturing methods. Nautical archaeology had never carried out an experiment on replica and reconstruction according to ancient navigation environment perspectives. The reconstruction of Ganzeng warship from the Early Qing Dynasty was based on the study of historic documents, integrated with methods of ship design and building traditions acquired from the ethnographical field work in Fujian province. This was the first full scale experimental anthropology reconstruction project in China. the design principle and method began with the preliminary sorting of the modular system of construction that was largely based on the study of the transverse watertight bulkhead, mast base structure, and the axis helm that can lift and swing bamboo strip sail. From this project we concluded that experimental reconstruction of ship remains is the only effective means to preserve the Chinese junk heritage. Furthermore, in this paper we introduce the use of modern technology and research tools used in experimental archaeology of ship remains. Key words: experimental archaeology, reconstruction sailing ship, ship remain, Ganzeng, naval architecture. Xu Lu Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Xu Lu Jia Hao Asia-Pac Session 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/20b18612d2b79904dc10bc422b630ea8.pdf ab00d6e5702392e6e78780a070e055dc PDF Text Text Monitoring Technology during the Consolidation of Waterlogged wood Cultural Relics Jiajun Wang (National Center for Archaeology, Ph.D.) Naisheng Li* (National Center for Archaeology, Ph.D.) Jing Du (National Center for Archaeology, Miss.) Xuanwei Zhang (Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong, Mr.) ABSTRACT Waterlogged wood cultural relics often need consolidation before drying to prevent shrinkage and cracking of the object. Polyethylene glycol (PEG), as one of the commonly used consolidating agents, is widely used in archaeological wood consolidation. The moderately degraded archaeological wood samples from the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck, were treated with PEG solution in equipment with the simultaneous incorporation of consolidant spray and immersion. In order to monitor the effect of consolidation, this study analysed the morphological structure, chemical structure, water states, and water content of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood. Herein, non-destructive methods involved an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope, attenuated total refraction Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR). Results showed that the band at 3400 cm−1 reduced notably after PEG spray and immersion and the content of free water utilizing LF-NMR analysis was related to the amount of PEG impregnation. These values had the potential to monitor and assess the consolidation of waterlogged wood cultural relics, which suggested the PEG 2000 solution is better than either immersion or spray treatment, while the PEG 4000 solution is more suitable for immersion treatment. During the conservation process, the consolidation condition can be preliminarily assessed by using non-destructive testing methods, which helps to adjust the protection method in time. Keywords: waterlogged archaeological wood, spray, immersion, PEG List of figures Figure 1 Diagrammatic drawing of PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 spray and immersion on archaeological wood samples. Figure 2 Morphological structure of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples under an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope. (a) untreated, (b) PEG 4000s, (c) PEG 4000i. Figure 3 The ATR-FTIR spectra of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples. Figure 4 Transverse relaxation time of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples. (a) untreated, (b) PEG 2000s, (c) PEG 2000i, (d) PEG 4000s, (e) PEG 4000i. INTRODUCTION In recent years, ancient shipwrecks such as the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck and Changjiangkou No.2 shipwreck have been salvaged one after another. Waterlogged archaeological wood will degrade to different degrees in a burial environment, resulting in increased pores in the wood tissue and decreased mechanical strength (Broda and Hill 2021; Huang et al. 2019). After excavation, dehydration is necessary for the preservation of waterlogged archaeological wood because the presence of water will accelerate the deterioration of the wood and affect its dimensional stability In this process, waterlogged archaeological wood from different preservation conditions is prone to shrinkage deformation, warping and cracking, and even collapse and damage. Thus, consolidants have been developed to avoid shrinkage deformation of wood relics, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyethylene glycols, grease, polymeric reagents, halloysite nanotubes, natural compounds, and sugars (Han et al. 2022; Lisuzzo et al. 2020; Broda 2020; Walsh-Korb and Avérous 2019). PEG, due to being cheap, nontoxic, easy-to-use, and with relatively better dimensional stability enhancement than some other options, has been widely used in the cases of the Vasa, Mary Rose, Batavia and Bremen Cog and as consolidant for countless other waterlogged wood relics (Sandström et al. 2005; Hocker, Almkvist, and Sahlstedt 2012; Hoffmann et al. 2004). There are two main ways to conserve waterlogged shipwrecks, one is to disassemble and soak wood items individually, and the other is to protect the shipwreck as a whole. Disassembly immersion is the 1 �most widely used protection method at present. However, the conservation of a complete shipwreck without disassembly can avoid damaging the hull structure and reduce the damage to individual artefacts during protection or reassembly. In China, ancient wood shipwrecks usually are excavated archaeologically with artefacts recovered item by item. In 2007, the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck was recovered as a whole (Yongjie 2008), it is the preferred choice to undertake conservation without disassembly for display. While smaller shipwrecks can potentially be protected by immersion, for larger shipwrecks it is difficult to adopt the same method. For larger shipwrecks such as Vasa and Mary Rose, spray protection was chosen. To adjust the conservation treatment for optimal outcomes, methods need to be used to monitor the effects of consolidation during the conservation of archaeological wood. Wood is a kind of natural hygroscopic material, and its environmental regulation ability, dimensional stability, and physical and mechanical properties are closely related to the water in wood cells. During the consolidation and dehydration processes, the research of chemical structure and water states is of great significance to elucidate the physical and mechanical properties of archaeological wood and guide the processing and utilization of wood products. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) with attenuated total reflection mode (ATR) is frequently used to assess the condition of wood decay and evaluate PEG amount in consolidated waterlogged archaeological wood due to its speediness and sensitivity, it is also non-destructive. The lateral relaxation characteristics of water in the wood drying process were investigated based on the low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) technique, for the purpose of explaining the change mechanism of the water states in archaeological wood dehydration and to provide a theoretical basis and data support for wood drying and water treatment. The study of the transverse relaxation of water in wood by LF-NMR provides a new idea for studying the interaction between wood and water. There were three water states in wood, namely free water, adsorbed water, and capillary water (Ma et al. 2017). As the water in waterlogged archaeological wood is replaced by consolidating agents, the water states in archaeological wood vary. In summary, it is necessary to monitor the structure and performance of archaeological wood in the consolidation process, to evaluate the efficacy of consolidation. In this study, samples from Nanhai No.1 shipwreck were sprayed and immersed using an aqueous PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 solution, and then the morphological structure, chemical structure, water states, and water content were tested and analysed, to propose a pathway for the evaluation of consolidation effect of wood cultural relics. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are determining the indicators to monitor and evaluate the effect of consolidation by data analysis, including the morphological structure, chemical structure, water states, and water content. RESOURCES PEG treatment The resources available to conduct the work include the data on structure and properties collected from waterlogged wood cultural relics of the Nanhai No.1 Shipwreck. In this study, the moderately degraded waterlogged archaeological wood of the same species was selected. Equipment with the simultaneous incorporation of consolidant spray and immersion was designed, as shown in Figure 1. The device guarantees that the archaeological wood was treated with the consolidation solution which had the same viscosity and density. The consecutive dilutions method prepared a series of PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 solutions with increasing concentrations from 30 wt% to 35 wt%. The wood relics were sprayed and immersed using an aqueous PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 solution, respectively. 2 �Figure 1 Diagrammatic drawing of PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 spray and immersion on archaeological wood samples. Ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope The surfaces of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples were cut by a rotary microtome assisted with a tungsten steel blade. The cross-section pictures of samples were obtained by the ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope, VHX-2000 (Keyence Co., Ltd., Japan). ATR-FTIR spectroscopy analysis To illustrate the changes in the chemical structure of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood, samples were collected by direct transmittance using ATR-FTIR (Perkin Elmer Inc., USA) through 32 scans at a resolution of 4 cm−1 ranging from 700 to 4000 cm−1. Each sample was tested with at least 3 replicates. The ATR-FTIR spectra of the samples were baseline corrected. Water content calculation All samples' water content was measured using a drying oven under 103°C. An electronic-analytical balance (A&D Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China) with a precision of 0.001 g was used for the measurement. The mass of samples was recorded before and after drying, and then the water content of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples was calculated via the following equation. 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑊−𝑊0 𝑊0 ×100% where W (g) is the specimen weight before drying, and W0 (g) is the specimen weight after drying. LF-NMR analysis LF-NMR parameters were tested using an NMI20 spectrometer (Niumag Co., Ltd., Suzhou, China). By measuring the archaeological wood of the LF-NMR signal and deconvoluting it, the distribution of transverse relaxation time (T2) is determined using the Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill decays. RESULTS The results reveal that the morphological structure, chemical structure, water content, and water states had the potential for evaluating the consolidation effect of waterlogged archaeological wood. Morphological structure The softwood, Pinus spp. was predominant in the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck (Li et al. 2022). Tracheids in cross-sections were mostly long-sided, square, and polygonal. Some cell walls had been deformed, 3 �indicating that there was a slight shrinkage of the waterlogged archaeological wood selected in this study, with deterioration likely caused by humidity change. PEG was physically filled into the cell lumens of archeological wood. The morphological structure of archeological wood samples was characterized by an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope. Figure 2 shows the cross-sections of untreated and PEG-treated archeological wood samples in the same magnification. There was a great difference in penetration between spray (PEG 4000s) and immersion treatment (PEG 4000i) using the same concentration of the consolidant solution. For waterlogged wood samples treated with consolidant solution spray, PEG 4000 had only filled in some tracheids. When the archeological wood was soaking in PEG 4000, it was evident that thick PEG 4000 had attached to the tracheid walls of the specimens. Compared with spray treatment, PEG4000 consolidant is penetrated into the wood more easily by immersion treatment. In order to improve the spray filling and reinforcement effect of large-size wood relics, the treatment time should be extended and the number of sprinklers should be increased to ensure the uniformity of spray. Further experiments are needed for the spray-filling reinforcement technology of waterlogged wood relics which have different sizes and shapes, especially for large shipwrecks. Figure 2 Morphological structure of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples under an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope. (a) untreated, (b) PEG 4000s, (c) PEG 4000i. Chemical structure Figure 3 shows the FTIR spectra of untreated, PEG2000-treated archaeological wood samples through spray (PEG 2000s and PEG 4000s) and immersion (PEG 2000i and PEG 4000i), to assess changes in the chemical structure. In all archaeological wood samples, the ratios between lignin and holocellulose (1374 cm−1 and 1158 cm−1) were often selected to determine its preservation status, while this study mainly analysed the influence of PEG treatment (Fejfer et al. 2022). The spectrum of PEG-treated wood samples was different from that of untreated wood samples. The region of 3800 cm−1~3200 cm−1 belongs to the O−H stretching vibration peak, and the free hydroxyl group affects the dimensional stability. After PEG spray and immersion, the band at 3400 cm−1 related to the stretching vibration of hydroxyl reduced notably in archaeological wood, contributing to improving the dimensional stability of archaeological wood, which was consistent with previous research results (Liu et al. 2022). 4 �Figure 3 The ATR-FTIR spectra of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples. Water states LF-NMR was performed on the samples to further analyse the water states in the untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood. Multiple components of water molecules and PEGs in PEG/water mixtures can be quantified, and also the mobility of each component can be characterized through a multiexponential inversion algorithm of the T2 of PEG/water mixtures (Wu et al. 2012). As shown in Figure 4a, four proton components are found in untreated archaeological wood, assigned to T21, T22, T23, and T24, respectively, which are considered to be the water in and on the cell wall, and the water in the vessel lumens. In addition, the area of the first peak at about 0.1 ms, which accounted for about 0.02%, represents the total amount of adsorbed water. The second and third fractions are capillary water in the wood cell cavity. Free water T24 with a relaxation time higher than 100 ms is attributed to flowing water, accounting for about 27.98% of the total signal. The waterlogged wood is similar to modern wood. The closer the binding of water to wood, the shorter the transverse relaxation time. Conversely, the less adsorbed water is, the longer the transverse relaxation time will be (Li and Ma 2021). Thus, the existence and variation of water in wood can be revealed by measuring its lateral relaxation peak. As to archaeological wood treated by PEG spray or immersion, five transverse relaxation peaks can be seen in Figure 4b to Figure 4e. After PEG treatment, a new fraction at around 1 ms occurs in PEG 2000s, PEG 2000i, PEG 4000s, and PEG 4000i. This is due to PEG filling in the wood tracheids. By calculating the respective relaxation peak area in the decay curves of the relaxation signal, the content of water in different states of archaeological wood can be qualitatively analysed. The adsorbed water content of PEG-treated samples was slightly higher than that of waterlogged archaeological wood because PEG displaced some of the water in the archaeological wood. However, the content of capillary water in the samples is the most dominant, and the second is free water. Compared with the samples treated by spray and immersion, more PEG was filled in the archaeological wood treated by immersion (PEG 2000i and PEG 4000i). To increase the molecular weight of PEG from 2000 to 4000, the capillary water content was decreased while the free water content was increased when using the same treatment, as shown in Figure 4b to Figure 4e. A likely reason for the result lies in the viscosity of the PEG solution. PEG 2000 diffuses into wood voids more easily than PEG 4000. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the impregnation rate of PEG 4000 by increasing the ambient temperature or processing time. The content of bulk content in PEG 4000i achieved the highest value, accounting for 5 �about 70% (Figure 4d). Water content can also confirm the amount of PEG filling (Figure 4f), showing that more water in the wood is replaced by PEG by immersion. Figure 4 Transverse relaxation time of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood samples. (a) untreated, (b) PEG 2000s, (c) PEG 2000i, (d) PEG 4000s, (e) PEG 4000i, (f) Water content. As filling proceeded, the positions of the relaxation peak for free water shifted right continuously, indicating the average transverse relaxation time for free water was gradually shorter. The PEG 2000 solution is better as either an immersion or spray treatment because of its lower molecular weight and solution viscosity. However, the PEG 4000 solution is more suitable for immersion treatment. This suggests that the filling reinforcement method needs to be selected according to the type of impregnation solution. In addition, LF-NMR, as a nondestructive testing analysis technique, can be used to qualitatively monitor the water state in saturated archaeological wood, especially the transverse relaxation time, T24, which represents the free water in archaeological wood. In addition, the consolidation condition can be assessed by using the above non-destructive testing methods during the conservation process. CONCLUSION In this study, sample preparation methods of PEG 2000 and PEG 4000 solution spray and immersion for moderately degraded archaeological wood were explored. According to the results, the relative intensity of the band at 3400 cm−1 obtained from ATR-FTIR spectra and the content of free water utilizing LF-NMR analysis had the potential to monitor and assess the consolidation of waterlogged wood cultural relics. The results themselves, suggested PEG 2000 solution is a better consolidant for using either immersion or spray treatment, while the PEG 4000 solution is more suitable for immersion treatment. During the conservation process, the consolidation condition can be assessed by using non-destructive testing methods, i.e., ATR-FTIR and LF-NMR, which helps to adjust the protection method in time. Acknowledgments We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Juan Guo, Xin Gao, and Yang Lu from Chinese Academy of Forestry. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Broda, Magdalena. Natural compounds for wood protection against fungi—A review. Molecules 25, no. 15 (2020):3538. Broda, Magdalena, and Callum AS Hill. Conservation of waterlogged wood—past, present and future perspectives. Forests 12, no. 9 (2021):1193. Fejfer, Mariusz, Jeannette Jacqueline Łucejko, Beata Miazga, Emma Cantisani, and Magdalena Zborowska. Gold Mine Wooden Artefacts: Multianalytical Investigations for the Selection of Appropriate Consolidation Treatments. Molecules 27, no. 16 (2022):5228. Han, Liuyang, Juan Guo, Xingling Tian, Xiaomei Jiang, and Yafang Yin. "Evaluation of PEG and sugars consolidated fragile waterlogged archaeological wood using nanoindentation and ATR-FTIR imaging." International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 170 (2022):105390. Han, Liuyang, Xingling Tian, Tobias Keplinger, Haibin Zhou, Ren Li, Kirsi Svedström, Ingo Burgert, Yafang Yin, and Juan Guo. Even visually intact cell walls in waterlogged archaeological wood are chemically deteriorated and mechanically fragile: a case of a 170 year-old shipwreck. Molecules 25, no. 5 (2020):1113. Hocker, Emma, Gunnar Almkvist, and Malin Sahlstedt. The Vasa experience with polyethylene glycol: A conservator's perspective. Journal of cultural heritage 13, no. 3(2012):S175-S182. Hoffmann, Per, Adya Singh, Yoon Soo Kim, Seung Gon Wi, I-J Kim, and Uwe Schmitt. The Bremen Cog of 1380–an electron microscopic study of its degraded wood before and after stabilization with PEG. 2004. Huang, Caoxing, Yan Su, Jinhua Shi, Cheng Yuan, Shengcheng Zhai, and Qiang Yong. Revealing the effects of centuries of ageing on the chemical structural features of lignin in archaeological fir woods. New Journal of Chemistry 43, no. 8 (2019):3520-3528. Li, Jingyu, and Erni Ma. Characterization of water in wood by time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (TD-NMR): a review. Forests 12, no. 7 (2021):886. Li, Ren, Juan Guo, Nicola Macchioni, Benedetto Pizzo, Guanglan Xi, Xingling Tian, Jiabao Chen, Jian Sun, Xiaomei Jiang, and Jinzhen Cao. Characterisation of waterlogged archaeological wood from Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck by multidisciplinary diagnostic methods. Journal of Cultural Heritage 56 (2022):25-35. Lisuzzo, Lorenzo, Theodore Hueckel, Giuseppe Cavallaro, Stefano Sacanna, and Giuseppe Lazzara. Pickering emulsions based on wax and halloysite nanotubes: An ecofriendly protocol for the treatment of archeological woods. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 13, no. 1 (2020):1651-1661. Liu, Xinyou, Xinwei Tu, Wanrong Ma, Changjun Zhang, Houyi Huang, and Anca Maria Varodi. Consolidation and Dehydration of Waterlogged Archaeological Wood from Site Huaguangjiao No. 1. Forests 13, no.11 (2022):1919. Ma, Erni, Wang Wang, Xiang Li, and Tiantian Yang. The States of Water in Wood during the Drying Process Studied by Low-Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Scientia Silvae Sinicae 53, no. 6 (2017):111-117. Sandström, Farideh Jalilehvand, Emiliana Damian, Yvonne Fors, Ulrik Gelius, Mark Jones, and Murielle Salomé. Sulfur content of the warship Mary Rose. PNAS 102, no. 40 (2005):14123-14124. Walsh-Korb, Zarah, and Luc Avérous. Recent developments in the conservation of materials properties of historical wood. Progress in Materials Science 102 (2019):167-221. Wu, Jiang, Weifeng Lin, Zhen Wang, Shengfu Chen, and Yung Chang. Investigation of the hydration of nonfouling material poly (sulfobetaine methacrylate) by low-field nuclear magnetic resonance. Langmuir 28, no. 19 (2012.):7436-7441. Yongjie, Xu. The Dream and the Glory: Integral Salvage of the Nanhai No. 1 Shipwreck and Its Significance. The Silk Road 5, no. 2 (2008):16-19. 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Monitoring Technology during the Consolidation of Waterlogged wood Cultural Relics Description An account of the resource Waterlogged wood cultural relics often need consolidation before drying to prevent shrinkage and cracking of the object. Polyethylene glycol (PEG), as one of the commonly used consolidating agents, is widely used in archaeological wood consolidation. The moderately degraded archaeological wood samples from the Nanhai No.1 shipwreck, were treated with PEG solution in equipment with the simultaneous incorporation of consolidant spray and immersion. In order to monitor the effect of consolidation, this study analysed the morphological structure, chemical structure, water states, and water content of untreated and PEG-treated archaeological wood. Herein, non-destructive methods involved an ultra-depth-of-field three-dimensional video microscope, attenuated total refraction Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR). Results showed that the band at 3400 cm−1 reduced notably after PEG spray and immersion and the content of free water utilizing LF-NMR analysis was related to the amount of PEG impregnation. These values had the potential to monitor and assess the consolidation of waterlogged wood cultural relics, which suggested the PEG 2000 solution is better than either immersion or spray treatment, while the PEG 4000 solution is more suitable for immersion treatment. During the conservation process, the consolidation condition can be preliminarily assessed by using non-destructive testing methods, which helps to adjust the protection method in time. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jiajun Wang Naisheng Li Jing Du Xuanwei Zhang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wang, Jiajun, Naisheng Li, Jing Du, and Xuanwei Zhang. 2023. “Monitoring Technology during the Consolidation of Waterlogged wood Cultural Relics.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2015 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Lady Washington at Kushimoto, Japan, in 1791 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jim Mockford William S. Dudley Michael J. Crawford Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brassey’s Inc. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Jim Mockford Editor William S. Dudley Michael J. Crawford Item Type Book Section Book Title The Early Republic and the Sea Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Pages 83-100 Place Washington DC Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brassey’s Inc. Title A name given to the resource The Lady Washington at Kushimoto, Japan, in 1791 Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cda25a5ee1f58f6c8cedc8f6c1b6254c.pdf 66140c195e001e808eb95c1b88f07ff7 PDF Text Text Medieval Ships of East Asia Illustrated in Goryeo Dogyeong Jin Ho-shin (National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage) ABSTRACT The paper focuses on the ships in the Middle Ages of East Asia. Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong1 illustrates the early period of Goryeo, a time that lacks of historical records. The book contains information of official ships that envoys took and private ships in Song dynasty. It details their shape, weight, length, passenger capacity, and ship accessories. Illustrations include a patrol vessel, official vessel, Songbang 2 , Makseon 3 , hhaeseon 4 , etc., according to the regions and usages of Korean shipping. The study is carried out by analyzing features of official and private ships represented in Goryeo Dogyeong, comparing them to features of hhinese ships and their accessories recovered from underwater, and figuring out their scantling lists. Also, usages and measurements of ships in the Goreyo period represented in the historical records, such as Songbang and Makseon, were compared with shipwrecks discovered underwater. The research on ships in the Middle Ages of East Asia is expected to flourish information of vessels in the early Goryeo period (918–1392 hE) as well as vessels in Song dynasty (960-1279 hE). Similarities and differences are in the vessels of the Middle Ages discovered from underwater of East Asia. The research is focused on analyzing types and features of vessels used at that period, according to the countries and regions, based on Goryeo Dogyeong. Keywords: Gwanseon, Songbang, Goryeo Dogyeong, Sunseon INTRODUCTION This paper is about ships of East Asia in the twelfth century. Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong contains abundant data on ships of the time when historical data on early Goryeo period is scarce. Therefore, the ships of the Song Dynasty in Goryeo Dogyeong correspond to Shenzhou ships and Kezhous ships that the envoys took and it contains lots of information on Chinese ships in the twelfth century. In addition, the Goryeo ships that appeared at the reception ceremony for the delegation on June 6, 1123 CE, when Seogeung and a party of envoys from Song arrived at Gunsan Island, were Sunseon, Gwanseon, Songbang, and Makseon. It would have basically taken the form of a Hanseon5. So far, researches on sunken ships such as Wando shipwreck, Dalido shipwreck, Anjwa shipwreck, Taean shipwreck and Mado shipwreck excavated from the seas of Korean Peninsula were conducted mainly in terms of the information on Korean ships during Goryeo period; but it seems that various kinds of ships existed given the Korean ships mobilized for the welcoming ceremony at Gunsando in Goryeo Dogyeong. Therefore, this paper examines various kinds of ships utilized on the Korean Peninsula in the early Goryeo period (918–1392 CE) through the records of Goryeo Dogyeong in addition to Kezhous ships that the envoys took from Song Dynasty in 1123 CE. 1 2 3 4 5 Full name of Goryeo Dogyeong Big vessel made up of bamboos Vessel closed by curtains Vessel used for the performance Korean ship 1 �SHIPS OF GORYEO ILLUSTRATED IN GORYEO DOGYEONG Sunseon (Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong, volume 33) Sunseon is a flat-bottomed ship, which has very simple structure as it is said that a mast was erected in the middle, there was no boathouse on the deck, and only oars and rudder. Ten Sunseon were at the gateway to the northern island of Seonyoodo from Namhaemun gate between southern island of Seonyoodo and Munyeodo. It seems that Sunseon was a ship that local officials near Gunsando used to welcome envoys and for regular tours of the jurisdiction. Judging from the fact that there is only one mast on the deck and no pavilion, it is presumed to be a Goryeo ship used as a ship for sailing with the size of Chonmaseon or small flat-bottomed ship. It seems that the ships were mobilized from the nearby area for welcoming and escorting envoys. Gwanseon (Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong, volume 33) Gwanseon has a pavilion covered with a roof on the deck and there were doors and windows below them. There were handrails around the deck and the place prepared by connecting the crossbar (yoke) to the plate to stretch it to the outside and deck is wider than lower plate. The hull did not have plate6 and it is considered that the bent log was fixed like a wedge by straightening it (to the left and right plates). On the bow is a wheel for winding the anchor line and a large mast was on the deck. One-fifth of the uppermost sail was laid out (punched) without stitching and it is for the preparation of the sailing against the wind. When envoys enter the territory of Goryeo, more than ten ships called Jeopban, Seoneon, Gwangu, and Gongju come from the east. The size is the same, but the tent was installed only on Jeopbanseon. Ships in the records of the Goryeo Dynasty included the Nuseon and the Gwaseon as Gunseon and the Chomaseon and the Pyeongjeoseon as Jowoonseon. There are no detailed records about the size, structure, and decoration of the ship including the mast. However, the following records provide some relevant detail: 1. There is a record of ‘增治舟舸百餘艘, 大船十數, 各方十六步, 上起樓櫓, 可以馳馬’ in the Goryeosa. In History of Ships by Kim Jae-geun, the size of Nuseon was measured about 30 meters in length. 2. In the record of Goryeosa, ‘定十二倉, 漕船之數, 石頭·通陽·河陽·永豐·鎭城·芙蓉·長興·海龍·海陵·安興, 各船六艘, 並哨馬船, 一船載一千石. 德興二十艘, 興元二十一艘, 並平底船, 一船載二百石.’ is mentioned, which means 160,000 kg can be loaded on one Chomaseon and 32,000 kg can be on one Pyeongjeoseon. 3. In the Japanese historical record of Shoyuki (1019 CE), the tenth year of King Hyeongjong that a Japanese woman captured by pirates was rescued by Goryeo naval forces and returned to Japan: ‘Goryeo ships had four oars on left and right sides respectively and there were seven to eight oars on one side and various tools and weapons were stored in the middle of the ship. It was said that there were five to six boatmen and 20 soldiers on the ship. In addition, it was recorded that a horn made of iron was attached to the front of the battle ship. Some information was described incorrectly from the perspective of a woman who does not have professional knowledge on ship and some characters are hard to interpret, limiting correct understanding of the information but what is clear is that it refers to Gwaseon of Goryeo. ‘上爲茅蓋, 下施戶牖’ in Goryeo Dogyeong mentions Gwanseon refers to post of Panokseon in Joseon period, which refers to Nuseon in the Goryeo historical record. As mentioned in the first reference above, 6 Bulkhead, in the case of hhinese ships, attached outer plates by making a number of watertight compartments 2 �the full length is about 30 meters. However, it is considered to be Nuseon with simple post structure on the deck as there was no description on the structure of upper deck of Panokseon in Joseon period. In Goryeo Dogyeong, it is said that ‘six ships carrying soldiers escort envoy ships’ so Gwanseon recorded by Seogeung is Gwaseon of Goreyo. Songbang (Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong, volume 33) Songbang is a ship of Gunsando. It has straight bow and stern and there are five cabins covered with a belt and there were small rooms on the front and back sides. A table and shade were placed. At the center was silk mat situated, which is the most splendid. Only high-ranking officials could be on that place. In the record of history of Korean ships, there was no information on Songbang and it is shown only in Goryeo Dogyeong. While Segeung used ‘船’ to describe Suncheon, Gwanseon and Markseon, he used ‘舫’ which is very unfamiliar for Songbang. Given the type of record in Goryeo Dogyeong, given the fact that ‘船’ was used to consider functions and operation of the ship, ‘松’ and ‘舫’ should be considered separately. First of all, ‘舫’ is called a double-hulled ship in the Chinese dictionary and it is described as ‘舫就是一種將兩船併爲一體的單體船’ in the ancient shipbuilding section of the Fujian Provincial Agency for Cultural Affairs. It is interpreted to be a single ship that combines two ships. And in the painting of Nakshinbudo drawn by Gao Ji in the Song Dynasty, a picture of a painting in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, and it is a ‘double-body ship’. Then, it is a question of what meaning the ‘松’ character has. The connection between the pine tree ‘松’ and the pear is not immediately connected. If so, Seogeung called Songbang ‘a ship from Gunsando’ and it is reasonable to assume that this word was made for a one-time event to suit the purpose of the event. Therefore, Songbang can be considered as a ship specially designed for welcoming ceremony in Gunsando for high-ranking officials from Song Dynasty. Likely a double body ship, where two flatbottomed ships are connected with broad deck for the convenience of the highest-ranking officials. In addition, Chaebang shown in the drawings of Gunsando are a kind of Songbang, which is more specially decorated. There is a painting called Feast for Pyeongyang Governor in Joseon period and it shows the feast for Pyeongyang governor together with citizens on the background of Daedonggang River and Pyeongyangseong. At that time many ships and people on the ship were drawn in the order of the social ranking and ranking of government officials. On the back of the largest ship a main character is located at the center, there is a ship where three ships are connected and three people rowing. This ship can be recorded with the Chinese character ‘舫’. Makseon (Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong, volume 33) Makseons are placed on all three islands, and middle and lower ranking envoys are carried on them. The roof was made of blue cloth at the top, and poles were used as pillars at the bottom, and the four corners were each tied with colored strings. It is a ship decorated with a design with four pillars erected on the deck of the ship and covered with a blue cloth roof. The three islands refer to Gunsando, Mado, and Jayeondo, which were anchored during the course from the time Seogeung and his party entered the Goryeo Sea to the Yeseonggang River. 3 �CHINESE SHIP ILLUSTRATED IN GORYEO DOGYEONG Specifications and structure of Kezhou Transportation with the Korean Peninsula was blocked by Liao and Jin during the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE), so the transportation to Goryeo mainly used the sea route. In the fifth year of Seonhwa (1123 CE), senior envoy No Yun-jeok and assistant envoy Bu Muk-gyeong rented and remodeled Gaekseon to carry the government officials and attendants among the double boats built as civilian ships in Fujian Province. Seogeung said, ‘Shenhou Ships and Kezhou Ships were similar in terms of shape’, and recorded Kezhou as Gaekju. Gaekju is said to be ‘其長十餘丈, 深三丈, 闊二丈五尺’, and if you look at the specifications, it is about 31 m in length, about 9.3 m in height and 7.7 m in width. The depth of the ship is recorded at 9.3 m, which is a big difference compared to other double ships of the same time. 1. Nanhai ship 1 of Song Dynasty was 30 m in length, 3.5 m in depth and 9.8 m in width 2. Shipwreck excavated from Cheonju in Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) was 34 m in length, 4 m in depth and 11 m in width 3. Sinan shipwreck from Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 CE) was 34 m in length, 3.7 m in depth and 11 m in width 4. Hai fanchuan (the escort ship for Ryukyu Kingdom) from Qing Dynasty (1644–1911 CE) was 30 m in length, 3.5 m in depth and 7.4 m in width. Kezhou of Seogueng, Nanhai shipwreck no. 1, Sinan shipwreck and Cheonju are double ships from the same time with similar length and width but Gaekju has twice higher depth than other ships. That is considered that Seogeung referred to the eight areas of stern. Segeung used the word ‘division’ while explaining the internal structure of Kezhou. The word division is used for dividing plane structure and lateral structure. Therefore, it is necessary to look at the spatial division first. First of all, plane structure is divided as follows. From the bow are pointed area, square area, mast place, area for tools for ships, area for food and area for water as well as crew room and room for living goods, firing and weapons and wheelhouse. Side structure is divided at the lowest bottom, stones, coins and windows were placed to put load for utilizing the space as ships’s blast. The second floor was for crew activity space and the third floor had cooking room and place for storing mast, sail and other items. The fourth floor was place for high-ranking officials such as senior envoy and assistant envoy. According to the division mentioned in Goryeo Dogyeong, fire pit and water pot were placed in the outer window on plane side and the first floor on the lateral perspective. The rooms for soldiers are located on the second floor. There are four rooms on the second floor. It has double deck structure on the third and fourth floor. Accessory of Kezhou At the center of the side pillars of the bow is a wheel and a rattan rope on top of it and its length is 500 cheok7. At the bottom is an anchor stone and both sides of the anchor stone had wooden anchor support. If there is a big wave, Yujeong was added and the method of use is similar to that of Daejeong. It is placed on the both sides of the anchor. While sailing, it is withheld by wheeling. At the stern of Kezhou are small and large two wooden structures and they are changed depending on the depth of sea route. Upon sailing in open ocean, two oars are lowered to the sea and this is called the third control. In addition, large bamboo baskets were placed at the sides of the ship to block waves and water flowing into the 7 Measuring unit for length (1 cheock is similar to 30.3 cm) 4 �ship. Each ship has 10 oars. The main mast is about 10 jang8 in height and bow mast is about 8 jang in length. When the wind is not strong, 50 pieces are spread and when there is a side wind Yibong sail is used. The wind strength is controlled by adjusting the sail from left and right. When there is a mild wind, Pobeom added to the top of the main mast is used. However, if there is a reverse wind from the front side, the ship cannot move forward. After placing post, the wind direction is identified with bird’s feather, which is called Oryang. CONCLUSIONS As explained above, there were various shapes and kinds of ships in East Asia in the twelfth century based on Goryeo Dogyeong. Senzhou is Gwanseon made into big and splendid ship by Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) for diplomatic purpose and Kezhou was improvement of private vessel used in Zhesiang and Fujian regions and used for envoy ships. The way of making Shenzhou and Kezhou seemed to continue in the tradition of making Jeonghwaboseon in Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE) and Bongju when envoy from Ming Dynasty went to other countries. The escort ship used when envoys from Song Dynasty arrived included Gwaseon, Nuseon, Chomaseon and Pyeongjeosun which succeeded the traditional Goryeo ship pattern. Seogeung expressed the shape of Nuseon and Gwaseon, utilized in Gunsando as Gwanseon and expressed Chomaseon and Pyeongjeoseon as Sunseon. What is noteworthy is Songbang and Chaebang. As explained earlier, Songbang is a special purpose ship for escort by connecting two ships for spacious area. All Goryeo ships shown in Goryeo Dogyeong were Korean ships that succeeded the tradition of Goryeo Ship and its style continued to Panokseon and Jowoonseon in Joseon period (1392-1897 CE). Bibliography Primary sources Goryeosa The Goddess of the Luo River Xuānhwafengshi Gaolitujing Shoyuki Celebrations for the Governor of Pyeong-an Secondary sources Kim, Jaegeun. A Study on History of Korean Vessels. Seoul: SNUPress, 1998 (In Korean). Kim, Jaegeun. History of Korean Vessels. Seoul: SNUPress, 1999 (In Korean). Kim, Jaegeun. Korean Vessels. Seoul: SNUPress, 2002 (In Korean). Heo, Il., Kim, Seongjun., and Choi, Unbong. Chinese Vessels. Busan: Jeonmang (2005). Jang, Seok., and Ban, Seokho. Comprehension of Ships. Ansan: Korea Ocean Research & Development Institute (2002). Mun, Gyung-Ho. Gunsando Island and Gunsanjeong Pavilion, As Seen in Goryeodogyeong, Journal of Local History and Culture 18, no. 2 (2015): 1-73 (In Korean). Mun, Gyung-Ho. The International Situation throughout the East-Asian Region in the 12th hentury and the Shenzhou’s Seaway to Goryeo, Journal of Korean Medieval History 55, no. 55 (2018): 11-46 (In Korean). 8 Measuring unit for length (1 jang is similar to 3.03m) 5 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Medieval Ships of East Asia Illustrated in Goryeo Dogyeong Description An account of the resource The paper focuses on the ships in the Middle Ages of East Asia. Seonhwa Bongsa Goryeo Dogyeong1 illustrates the early period of Goryeo, a time that lacks of historical records. The book contains information of official ships that envoys took and private ships in Song dynasty. It details their shape, weight, length, passenger capacity, and ship accessories. Illustrations include a patrol vessel, official vessel, Songbang2 , Makseon3 , hhaeseon4 , etc., according to the regions and usages of Korean shipping. The study is carried out by analyzing features of official and private ships represented in Goryeo Dogyeong, comparing them to features of hhinese ships and their accessories recovered from underwater, and figuring out their scantling lists. Also, usages and measurements of ships in the Goreyo period represented in the historical records, such as Songbang and Makseon, were compared with shipwrecks discovered underwater. The research on ships in the Middle Ages of East Asia is expected to flourish information of vessels in the early Goryeo period (918–1392 hE) as well as vessels in Song dynasty (960-1279 hE). Similarities and differences are in the vessels of the Middle Ages discovered from underwater of East Asia. The research is focused on analyzing types and features of vessels used at that period, according to the countries and regions, based on Goryeo Dogyeong. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jin Ho-shin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Shin, Jin Ho. 2023. “Medieval Ships of East Asia Illustrated in Goryeo Dogyeong.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Juhee Kim. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1956 Asia-Pac Session 10 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5a78e6e6a264f76b6537ee69cb335b82.pdf 8e206dbb2d693fbcbc911993dc4210cd PDF Text Text Trading with an Agent: Shippers, Carriers and Investors involved in the trade of Shinan ship JINWOOK JO Curator, Cultural Heritage Administration ABSTRACT In this paper, the archaeological materials salvaged from the Shinan shipwreck, a fourteenth century Chinese mercantile ship that sank near Shinan islands of South Korea, will be analyzed through correlating the materials found on the Shinan ship to the ancient export routes and manufacturing place of origins. In particular, the locations of which the ship was found, as well as the potential trade routes it undertook, will be studied alongside the items related to the export practices on the Shinan ship. The paper will start by referencing present recordings related to the export location of Shinan archaeological relics recorded in various ways over the past 10 years, such as the Shinan ship excavation report and the site drawings and catalogues of excavated archaeological items. After aligning the reports, excavated items with relevant historical facts, the paper will proceed to the analysis of the structure of the ship, of which the hull will be studied through three divided areas, spanning through the structure of the hull and to the wooden log. Based on these standards, the paper argues that the export points (i.e. locations of exporting of which the Sinan ship had passed by) can be studied by correlating the quantity of various excavated materials found that are manufactured in those regions. The paper will also explore the correlation between the results of such alignment and focus specifically on the export status and shipping practices by analyzing the status of the wooden logs. In terms of the overview of the Shinan ship area and its salvaged items, it is noted that many ceramic relics were lifted from the site area in large quantities in all areas of the Sinan islands. Most salvaged artifacts were mainly found in the center and stern of the hull. In addition, food items that appeared to be trade items were being stored within brown glazed ware and earthenware. Meanwhile, many coins (A.D. 1~A.D. 14) and metal tablets were found in the stern. The paper recognized the above artifacts and is going to match these finds with the condition of the wooden logs. For instance, almost all of the large-scale lifting of 'Gangsa (강사)' and 'Dongboksa (동복사)' wooden logs were found in the stern. In the center of the hull, only the shipper's wooden log, which is generally believed to have shipped small cargo, was found. Therefore, it is thought that large-scale shippers mainly shipped coins and medicinal materials that were often stored at the stern, and small-scale shippers mainly shipped ceramics and coins, of which the items were found at the center of the hull. The paper will also mention that the trading export practice involved on the Shinan ship cargo would have consisted of a person (captain and agent for shippers) on board at the Shinan ship, and a number of investors who requested the purchase spaces offered in the cargo. The passengers would have been in charge of purchasing and transporting the goods on behalf of a large number of investors. In addition, unlike Japan, which consists of a large number of passengers and a large number of investors, the Yuan Dynasty side seems to have been in charge of the purchase and transportation of products by a single subject called Gangsa. Therefore, it seems that the instructor did not lease the ship for a price or simply take charge of navigation, but actively participated in international trade with Kamakura. Keywords: Agent trade, Shinan ship, Underwater archaeology, Gangsa, trade List of Figures and Tables: Table 1. Excavation areas by hull section of Shinan ship Table 2. The status of the lifting of ceramics in each area Table 3. Comparison of the current status of the lifting of ceramics in each area and the lifting of ceramics in cargo compartment V Table 4. Shipper classification by volume of wooden logs Table 5. Shipper classification by volume of wooden logs Table 6. Names and quantities of wooden logs found in the stern Table 7. Contents and quantity of wooden logs found in the front. Figure 1. Shinan ship hull sectional map Figure 2. Major type of brown glazed pottery – large arcs Figure 3. Major type of earthenware - four-eared arcs Figure 4. Drawing of water tank of Shinan ship 1 �Ⅰ. INTRODUCTION After the excavation of the Shinan ship, research conducted on the excavated materials has enabled us to understand more about the shipping information of the ship. These information include departure sites, shippers, shipping destinations and related trade points. However, the archaeological review of the excavation itself remains incomplete. The main factor is that the excavation took place over a decade and the results were not organized in a single form. To continue with a more holistic approach to the infrastructure which supports trading activities via the Shinan ship, the excavation location and quantity of Shinan ship's artifacts by location were archaeologically reviewed. First, the excavated location of artifacts recorded in various ways over the past 10 years. The records and drawings were integrated. After that, the hull was divided into three areas through the structure of the hull and the wooden log. By area, the export points and quantity of various relics were reviewed. Finally, the correlation between the results and the export status of wooden logs was analyzed. Ⅱ. REVIEW OF LOCATION OF THE SHINAN SHIP RELICS AND THE SECTION OF THE EXCAVATION 1. Marking the location of Shinan ship 's artifacts and reviewing the remains drawings The Shinan ship was excavated 12 times (including two confirmation surveys). A total of 22,040 artifacts were lifted, excluding coins, jagdan wood, and hull pieces that were difficult to accurately identify1. The quantity of artifacts raised varies from report to report depending on the criteria. The excavation was carried out by installing grids and lifting relics by grid. After some excavation, the grid was demolished, and the hull under the grid was lifted. Due to differences in the environment, the excavation of the Shinan ship used a method close to the Pit method instead of horizontally and almost uniformly removing the entire remains little by little like land excavation. The soil layer in a specific grid is removed until the hull is confirmed, and then the next section is excavated. Afterwards, if the hull is confirmed, the soil layer is removed to the floor for each cargo compartment, and then the exposed hull is lifted. Finally, the area under and around the hull was searched. Through this process, two problems occurred as the excavation progressed. The location of the relics was not recorded with one unified standard. In addition, no drawings have been made that combine all excavation areas into one. So the problem of the legend was organized by taking only what can be confirmed and discarding the rest, and based on this, the location of the export of relics was organized. Excavation drawings also need to be supplemented. Until now, excavation drawings of Shinan ships have been drawn without the port side (left side). In addition, as 12 excavations were carried out over the past 10 years, not only the inside of the remaining hull and grid but also various external areas were excavated. However, there are no drawings that incorporate them. Therefore, it is necessary to integrate these external excavation areas into one drawing. Considering these points, an integrated excavation drawing was prepared, including the restoration of the hull of the Shinan ship. 1 The quantity of artifacts raised varies within the report according to the criteria. 2 �2. Hull structure and compartment through wooden table There are various variables in the excavation of the Shinan ship, such as overlapping sections between survey areas for each excavation or changing the reference point as the grid was removed during the excavation. Therefore, it was virtually impossible to organize artifacts from all excavations based on small areas such as grids and cargo bay numbers. Therefore, it is necessary to group the area where relics are raised in the following drawings into several large areas. In general, the same criteria were applied because the ship was divided into the front, stern, and midship of the ship. The front can be easily partitioned. At the beginning of the excavation of the Shinan ship, it was known that a total of nine bulkheads were inserted into the hull, and there were 10 cargo compartments. However, during the excavation and restoration process, the two bulkheads on the player's side were found to be meandering ribs. Therefore, all cargo compartments, including two meandering ribs, can be divided into one cargo compartment. The most suitable criterion for dividing the rest of the area is the wooden log, the waybill of the cargo. In particular, almost all of the wooden logs found are found in the lower cargo compartment of the hull, so the location of the lifting can be accurately checked. There is a distinct tendency of wooden logs with the names of major cargo owners, such as as Gangsa (강사) and Dongboksa (동복사) temple, were found concentrated in cargo compartments II to IV. In addition to the two names, a considerable number of wooden tablets with various shippers' names were also found. No wooden logs were identified in the I and V districts. In addition, wooden logs with various shippers were found little by little in the section from Ⅵ to Ⅶ. Few wooden logs were found in the Ⅹ~Ⅷ area. According to this trend, the areas I to IV and the area behind it correspond to the stern.  The V-Ⅶ area is the center, and the Ⅷ-Ⅹ area and the area in front of it correspond to the front. The quantity of artifacts lifted was collected for each divided area. The problem is that even if divided by these criteria, there are grids and excavation areas that span between each zone. However, the hull of the Shinan ship is tilted toward the front. The grid with more areas overlapping the front side cargo compartment was included as the front area. Conversely, the grid where more areas overlap in the cargo compartment on the stern side was included as the rear area. The results are shown in Table 1 below. Table 1. Excavation areas by hull section of Shinan ship Front Midship Grid D2, D3, E1, E2, E3, E5, E6, F·G·H, F6S D1, D4, D5, D6, E4, N, N1, N2, N3, N6, A·B·C전부 N4, 5, M·O·P·Q·R Cargo compartmen t Ⅷ~Ⅹ, SⅧ外, SⅧ-Ⅸ 左外, SⅨ, SⅩ, SⅨ-Ⅹ 左外, SⅩ外, A/L Ⅷ, A/L Ⅸ, A/L Ⅹ Ⅴ~Ⅶ, SⅥ, A/LⅤ, A/L Ⅵ, A/L Ⅶ Ⅰ~Ⅳ 5D, 6-1H, 7G, 8E, F外, FX 4B, PNS, 9A, A外, B外, D外, N外 MS, M6S, 10.0, 10, 1Q, 1-1Q, 2R, 3P, RZ, RZ外, O外, P外, Q 外, R3外, R6外, R外, M外 the outside of the hull Stern According to these criteria, Table 2 above summarizes the overlapping sections on the drawing. Figure 1 summarizes the results classified so far. 3 �Figure 1. Shinan ship hull sectional map 4 �III. REVIEW OF THE QUANTITY OF ARTIFACTS TO BE LIFTED IN EACH AREA 1. Ceramics The quantity raised by front/midship/stern was organized by type of relics. The amount of ceramic produced among the relics is shown in Table 2 below. A total of 13,484 ceramics could be classified, except that they were treated as unknown and that the location of the export could not be clarified. Kind Table 2. The status of the lifting of ceramics in each area Front Midship Stern Celadon 4052 1343 2663 Bluewhite porcelain 354 751 637 White porcelain 463 724 971 Black glazed pottery 198 21 42 Brown glazed pottery 695 180 104 4 9 6 Homogeneous glazed pottery 23 65 25 White glazed pottery - - 4 Chen-mok Earthenware 105 36 7 Setonai Plum Bottle - - 2 Total 5,894 3,129 4,461 The fact that many brown glazed pottery ware and earthenware, not other types, are exported from the front is thought to suggest other possibilities, not loss. This can also be confirmed through the types of brown glazed pottery and earthenware shipped on Shinan ships. Most of the brown glazed pottery found are small arcs and large arcs. Most of the earthenware is large and medium-sized big four-eared arcs. Generally, this type is used as a storage container for food. Therefore, it can be said that the upper part of the front cargo compartment of the Shinan ship is a container that stores food on board or food to be used for trade, and it can be said that brown glazed pottery and earthenware were mainly shipped. Figure 2. Brown glazed pottery – large arcs (left, center); Earthenware - four-eared arcs (right) However, brown glazed pottery and earthenware were also found in the stern or the midship of the hull. Therefore, I tried to distinguish where the food to be used in the voyage and the food for sale were loaded on the hull, respectively. A large water tank was identified in Shinan ship cargo 5 �compartment V. Water is essential to cook food. Therefore, there must have been a cooking facility in or near the cargo compartment V where the water tank was identified. To confirm this, the quantity of relics exported from cargo compartment V was separately organized. The sections that clearly correspond to cargo compartment V are as follows. A4, 5, 6, B4, M1, N2, 3, 6, N外, V, SV, A/L V. Table 3 below summarizes the quantity of ceramics raised in the above area and those in other areas. Table 3. Comparison of the current status of the lifting of ceramics in each area and the lifting of ceramics in cargo compartment V Kind Front Midship Stern Cargo compartment V Celadon 4052 1343 2663 571 Blue- white porcelain 354 751 637 53 White porcelain 463 724 971 397 Black glazed pottery 198 21 42 15 Brown glazed pottery 695 180 104 105 Chen-mok 4 9 6 9 Homogeneous glazed system 23 65 25 45 White glazed pottery - - 4 - Earthenware 105 36 7 13 Setonai Plum Bottle - - 2 - Total 5,894 3,129 4,461 1,208 In cargo compartment V, brown glazed pottery, homogeneous glazed system, and white porcelain were found about half of the total amount of water discharged in the midship, and about 1/3 of the earthenware was found. Therefore, it is believed that cargo compartment V contained some cargo and food storage containers, and water tanks were installed on the left and right sides. Water tank was installed left and right in the center of cargo compartment V.2 In fact, only the pedestal, bottom plate, and part of the lower wall were lifted. 2 In fact, it was found only on the starboard side, but it is presumed that it was installed on both the left and the starboard side because it was not balanced when installed on only one side, causing problems with resilience. 6 �Figure 4. Drawing of water tank of Shinan ship. Since no trace of attaching a device such as a faucet to the bottom of the lifted water tank has been identified, it seems that water was taken from the deck by drawing water from the well for now. If so, it is highly likely that the cooking facility was also cooked in a structure separately installed on the central deck above cargo compartment V. Therefore, some of the groceries would have been stored in cooking facilities. However, it is unlikely that all the groceries were stored on board. Given the size of the Shinan ship, the amount and volume must have been significant because at least 50 people3 need food for about a month4. Therefore, a considerable amount of groceries would have been stored in the cargo compartment below the deck. However, it is difficult to move between cargo compartments on the Shinan ship because the cargo compartment is divided into partition walls. Therefore, sailors must open the deck above the bulkhead and enter the cargo hold. Therefore, if the cooking facility was installed directly above the water tank, food would also be stored in cargo compartment V. 3 Although the number of people on board varies from literature to scholar, it generally appears to be between 50 and 200, and the minimum number of 50 people was selected to increase reliability. 4 When Seo Geung sailed to Goryeo, it took more than two weeks, departing on May 26 and arriving on June 12 by a tailwind, and it took more than 40 days to return home. Therefore, it is believed that the Shinan ship prepared at least a month's worth of food. 7 �Therefore, it is estimated that the fact that much more brown glazed pottery and earthenware are found in the front than in the cargo compartment V where cooking facilities would have been installed means that the items shipped to the front are likely to have been shipped as containers storing groceries for trade. 2. Quantity of lifting of wooden logs by area A large number of wooden logs were found on the Shinan ship, and the main records were the shipper's name, date, type of cargo, and quantity. First, the lifting volume of wooden logs by hull area was organized according to the shipper's name, and the types and quantities of cargo recorded in wooden logs were compared with the situation of lifting relics by area. As shown in <Table 4> below, the wooden logs of the lifting volume for each shipper's name was divided into four stages: extra large, large, medium, and small. This is because the amount of lifting of wooden logs varies significantly by shipper, 綱司(Gangsa), 東福寺(Dongboksa), 一田早米(Icida Sayame), 八郞(Hachiro), 菊一(Kikuichi), and other shippers. Volume Table 4. Shipper classification by volume of wooden logs Classification criteria (quantities) Names in wooden logs extra large More than 100 綱司私 large More than 30 東福寺 medium More than 10 一田早米, 八郞, 菊一 small Less than 10 others Table 5 below summarizes the quantity of wooden logs exported from the front/midship/stern by the size of the shipper. Volume Table 5. Shipper classification by volume of wooden logs Stern Midship extra large 1 - Front 1 large 1 - - medium 3 1 1 small 23 5 - Among them, only the 綱司 and 菊一 wooden logs were found in two regions, stern and front. However, the amount of lifting varies greatly by area. 綱司 wooden logs were found 106 in the stern and only 4 in the front. 10 菊一 wooden logs were found in the stern and only one in the front. In the center of the hull, only wooden logs, which correspond to five small shippers and one medium shipper, were found. This seems to mean the fact that the front, stern, and midship of the hull are separate loading spaces. In particular, the stern and the center are clearly distinguished by the structure of the hull. The cargo compartment on the stern side is connected to the cabin, and there are relatively few crew members entering and leaving during the voyage. On the other hand, the central cargo compartment of the hull is frequently accessed by sailors while sailing, and access is easy. Therefore, the cargo of the shipper with relatively low status or low capital would have been shipped in the center of the hull. Second, Table 6 summarizes the types of cargo among wooden logs lifted from the stern.5 Most of the remaining wooden books not listed in the table had only the date recorded, and some of the others were damaged or could not be checked. 5 What was found between Ⅷ and Ⅶ was incorporated into the stern because the Shinan ship sank while tilted to front 8 �Name on wooden log Table 6. Names and quantities of wooden logs found in the stern contents volume 綱司私 七十三包六百內 45 綱司私 七十三包內 1 綱司私 二包內(行妙?) 1 綱司私 藥五種八十 1 東福寺 十貫公用 32 東福寺 大錢六貫 1 東福寺公物 大錢五貫 6 釣寂庵 十二文 1 (釣寂庵)至治三年 陳皮五十五斤 1 (釣寂庵)至治三年 大錢捌貫文(釣寂庵??) 1 (釣寂庵)至治三年 ~貫文?? 1 (釣寂庵)至治三年 十二貫子 1 (釣寂庵)至治三年 大捌貫文 1 一田早米 十貫 6 一田早米 大錢 2 一田早米 大錢五貫文 1 一田早米 大錢六貫文 4 一本 八貫五百? 1 八郞 大錢 2 とう二郞 大錢 2 松 菊得 十二貫 4 松 菊得 五貫十二貫文大錢 1 十貫文道阿於分 九十貫內 4 正悟 陳皮二十七斤 1 敎仙 十貫文 1 敎仙 十二貫文 1 敎仙 筥岐奉加십貫 1 (불명)勸進聖 筥岐奉加십貫 1 菊一(이하불명) 自分九百 2 妙行 十貫?? 1 子哲 十一貫 1 得法 十貫文 1 福 四斗 11 (敎正??) 北米七斗 2 秀忍 十二貫文 1 敎仙 十貫文筥岐奉加錢 1 戒心 三斗 1 The names and quantity of wooden logs found in the front are shown in Table 7 below. Table 7. Contents and quantity of wooden logs found in the front. name content volume 綱司私 五月十一日 4 十貫菊一 ?月?日 1 Except for one wooden log found in the front, all wooden logs that could identify the cargo were found in the stern. In particular, no wooden log was found in the midship to identify cargo. 9 �It is quite meaningful that no coin-related wooden log was found in the center of the hull, where 6,783 kg, about 40% of the total coin volume, was found. In particular, considering that the coin is loaded under the hull, which is not severely lost, not all wooden logs representing the shipper of the coin would have been lost only in the center of the hull. It is worth noting that none of the Gangsa's wooden logs indicates the possession of coins. The contents of the cargo can be checked among the Gangsa's wooden logs, except for one ‘藥五種八十’ wooden log, all of which contain the letter "po (包)." In addition, only the date is recorded in the list of Gangsa’s names. Therefore, the Gangsa would not have shipped any coins at all, or the entire coins shipped in a particular cargo hold would have belonged to the Gangsa. Of course, the coin loaded in the center of the hull may not belong to the Gangsa. It may be a public cargo in the sense of corresponding to the Gangsa or Gangsa 'sa(means private)' However, most of the wooden books with Dongboksa, which appear to be public cargo corresponding to the Gangsa6, recorded the possession of coins. Therefore, the coin shipped in the center is thought to belong to the Gangsa. Of course, only the date recorded in the Gangsa's wooden logs may indicate the possession of the coin. However, most of the wooden logs that are not those of the "Gangsa'' are written to imply that cargoes such as "gwan (貫)" and "jeon (錢)" are coins. Therefore, it seems that the "Gangsa '' wooden log, in which only the date is recorded, is intended to indicate that it is the shipper of separately packed cargo such as wooden boxes, not coins. This is because if the "Gangsa '' wooden logs, which records only the date, records the possession of the coin, there should be a word related to the coin as seen in other wooden logs. Therefore, the coin in the center of the hull seems to belong to the "Gangsa''. This also shows how the cargo shipped by the "Gangsa" was packaged and shipped. The list of "Gangsa" can be divided into two categories: recording only the date and recording the contents such as medicine and po (包). Among them, "medicine (藥)" appears to have been packaged in cloth, boxes, or ceramics, "po (包)" is wrapped in cloth, and only the date recorded seems to have been attached to the packaging in boxes or ceramics. IV. CONCLUSION As a result of classifying the status of the lifting of relics by the Shinan ship area, ceramic relics were lifted in large quantities in all areas. Living artifacts were mainly found in the center and stern of the hull. In addition, food items that appeared to be trade items were shipped to the front while being stored in brown glazed ware and earthenware. On the other hand, many coins and metal tablets were found in the stern. In addition, almost all of the large-scale lifting of 'Gangsa' and 'Dongboksa' wooden logs were found in the stern. Most of the wooden logs found in small quantities for each shipper were found in the center of the hull. Therefore, it is thought that large-scale shippers mainly shipped coins and medicinal materials to the stern, and small-scale shippers mainly shipped ceramics and coins to the center of the hull. It is unclear how many wooden logs have been lost, but it is possible to guess that at least thousands of wooden logs have been lost. However, there are about 30 shippers who can be confirmed by letters or symbols recorded on 320 wooden logs and several wooden boxes. However, it is estimated that more than 40 times the number of wooden logs have been lost, even considering only the coins loaded on the stern. Therefore, even considering the number of shippers of coins shipped to the stern, it is 6 All but one wooden book have a common character 10 �estimated that the number of shippers who shipped cargo to the Shinan ship far exceeds the maximum number of people on board7, which is estimated to be about 200. It is therefore certain that the number of shippers was much larger than the boarding capacity. Therefore, the shipper of the Shinan ship cargo would have consisted of a person on board the Shinan ship and a number of investors who requested the purchase of the cargo. The passengers would have been in charge of purchasing and transporting the goods on behalf of a large number of investors. In addition, unlike Japan, which consists of a large number of passengers and a large number of investors, the Yuan Dynasty side seems to have been in charge of the purchase and transportation of products by a single subject called Gangsa. It seems that the Gangsa 's economic power was that strong, or that a nearly complete form of joint venture-agent trade was conducted, in which a large number of investors invested only capital and allocated capital and profits if trade succeeded. Alternatively, it may be in the form of receiving dividends in kind purchased from Japan after investing capital. Among the wooden logs of the Shinan ship, the most frequently found of the Gangsa 's wooden log was probably due to the largest number of cargoes, but also to the fact that many of the Gangsa 's cargo, including coins, were shipped at the bottom of the stern cargo compartment. Therefore, it is certain that the Gangsa's cargo was shipped first and the cargo of another shipper was shipped. This means that the Gangsa led the trade from the first stage carried out by the Shinan ship. This is especially true because the amount of cargo shipped by the instructor is about 40% of the total based on coins. Therefore, it seems that the instructor did not lease the ship for a price or simply take charge of navigation, but actively participated in international trade with Kamakura. BIBIOGRAPHY Cultural Heritage Authority, “Shinanunder water relics”, Information Papers I, 1983 Cultural Heritage Authority, “Shinan under water relics”, Information Papers Ⅱ, 1984 Cultural Heritage Authority, “Shina nunder water relics”, Information Papers Ⅲ, 1985 Cultural Heritage Authority, “Shinan under water relics”, a comprehensive article, 1988 National Institute of Marine Cultural Heritage , “Shinan ship”, 2006 Kim Byung-geun, “Study of East Asian Trade Relations by Underwater Archaeology”, Ph.D. thesis, Konkuk University Graduate School, 2004. Jo Jinwook, “The Model and Meaning of Trade of the Sinan Shipwreck: Through the Sinan Shipwreck’s Call in Goryeo and Its Purpose”, Journal of Northeast Asian History 55, Northeast Asian History Foundation, 2017 Jo Jinwook, “Archeological study of antiquity from Shianan shipwreck”, Journal of Central Institute of Cultural Heritage 24, Central Institute of Cultural Heritage, 2017 Qin da Shu, ‘Yuan Dynasty maritime trade and issues related to the Shinan ship’, “the 40th anniversary of the excavation of -the Shinan ship wreck”, the National Museum of Korea and the National Museum of Korea, 2016. Keith Muckelroy, 『Maritime Archaeology』, Cambridge University Press, 1979. 7 It varies from researcher to researcher, but scholars estimate that more than 200 people were on board. 11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Trading with an Agent: Shippers, Carriers and Investors involved in the trade of Shinan ship Description An account of the resource In this paper, the archaeological materials salvaged from the Shinan shipwreck, a fourteenth century Chinese mercantile ship that sank near Shinan islands of South Korea, will be analyzed through correlating the materials found on the Shinan ship to the ancient export routes and manufacturing place of origins. In particular, the locations of which the ship was found, as well as the potential trade routes it undertook, will be studied alongside the items related to the export practices on the Shinan ship. The paper will start by referencing present recordings related to the export location of Shinan archaeological relics recorded in various ways over the past 10 years, such as the Shinan ship excavation report and the site drawings and catalogues of excavated archaeological items. After aligning the reports, excavated items with relevant historical facts, the paper will proceed to the analysis of the structure of the ship, of which the hull will be studied through three divided areas, spanning through the structure of the hull and to the wooden log. Based on these standards, the paper argues that the export points (i.e. locations of exporting of which the Sinan ship had passed by) can be studied by correlating the quantity of various excavated materials found that are manufactured in those regions. The paper will also explore the correlation between the results of such alignment and focus specifically on the export status and shipping practices by analyzing the status of the wooden logs. In terms of the overview of the Shinan ship area and its salvaged items, it is noted that many ceramic relics were lifted from the site area in large quantities in all areas of the Sinan islands. Most salvaged artifacts were mainly found in the center and stern of the hull. In addition, food items that appeared to be trade items were being stored within brown glazed ware and earthenware. Meanwhile, many coins (A.D. 1~A.D. 14) and metal tablets were found in the stern. The paper recognized the above artifacts and is going to match these finds with the condition of the wooden logs. For instance, almost all of the large-scale lifting of 'Gangsa (강사)' and 'Dongboksa (동복사)' wooden logs were found in the stern. In the center of the hull, only the shipper's wooden log, which is generally believed to have shipped small cargo, was found. Therefore, it is thought that large-scale shippers mainly shipped coins and medicinal materials that were often stored at the stern, and small-scale shippers mainly shipped ceramics and coins, of which the items were found at the center of the hull. The paper will also mention that the trading export practice involved on the Shinan ship cargo would have consisted of a person (captain and agent for shippers) on board at the Shinan ship, and a number of investors who requested the purchase spaces offered in the cargo. The passengers would have been in charge of purchasing and transporting the goods on behalf of a large number of investors. In addition, unlike Japan, which consists of a large number of passengers and a large number of investors, the Yuan Dynasty side seems to have been in charge of the purchase and transportation of products by a single subject called Gangsa. Therefore, it seems that the instructor did not lease the ship for a price or simply take charge of navigation, but actively participated in international trade with Kamakura. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jinwook Jo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Jo, Jinwook . 2023. “Trading with an Agent: Shippers, Carriers and Investors involved in the trade of Shinan ship.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1983 Asia-Pac Session 7 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource P’u Shou-keng, a Man of the Western Regions, who was Superintendent of the Trading Ships Office in Ch'uan-chou towards the end of the Sung Dynasty Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jitsuzo Kuwabara Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1928 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Jitsuzo Kuwabara Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1928 Pages 1-79 Publication Title Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (The Oriental Library) Title A name given to the resource P’u Shou-keng, a Man of the Western Regions, who was Superintendent of the Trading Ships Office in Ch'uan-chou towards the end of the Sung Dynasty Volume 2 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ed9b0ffaa048d29e33e125cabaede835.pdf e9016f2114e4d19f986790402b412a26 PDF Text Text Understanding wreck divers: Case studies from Australia and Chuuk Lagoon Joanne Edney Abstract A fundamental challenge for managers is how to allow divers access to shipwrecks whilst ensuring these sites are not harmed. A better understanding of the motivations and attitudes of divers who visit shipwrecks may allow better informed and more targeted management strategies to protect these fragile sites. This study sought to gain an insight into the socio-demographic characteristics, motivations and attitudes of wreck divers. It did this by conducting surveys of two groups of wreck divers: a group of divers at Chuuk Lagoon (Federated States of Micronesia) and a group of Australian wreck divers. This study found that wreck divers primarily visit shipwrecks to see historically significant sites, artefacts and marine life. Fines, permits, special certification and dive guides were the most acceptable ways to control diver behaviour. There were significant differences in the motivations and attitudes of divers with different socio-demographic profiles: notably between genders and between divers from North America and Australia. The data suggests management strategies should be tailored to the socio-demographic profile of the divers visiting a shipwreck. Sites which attract divers from different parts of the world may require a range of approaches to achieve widespread compliance and acceptance of the need for minimum impact. Introduction Recreational scuba diving has become increasingly popular and it is estimated that there may be as many as 28 million active divers throughout the world today (Edney 2006:205; Garrod and Gössling 2008:7-8). As divers become more experienced they seek new experiences and challenges, such as wreck diving (Cater 2008:59-61). As well as adding challenge, shipwrecks also offer unique and diverse diving experiences and have become important recreational resources for divers (Delgado 1988a:8; Edney 2006:205). Shipwrecks have important cultural heritage values (Delgado 1988a:5-8) and scuba diving can have adverse impacts on these values. Potential diver impacts on shipwrecks have been described by Joanne Edney (2006:214-219) and include boat anchor damage, disturbance to and removal of artefacts and accidental and deliberate diver contacts with wrecks. Therefore, a fundamental challenge is allowing divers access to shipwrecks whilst ensuring these fragile sites are not harmed. A better understanding of the motivations and attitudes of divers who visit shipwrecks may allow better informed and more targeted management strategies to protect these sites (Barker and Roberts 2008:172; Holecek and Lothrop 1980:1). Unfortunately, very little research has been conducted into divers, and Donald Holecek and Susan Lothrop’s (1980) study of the demographics, behaviour and expenditure patterns of wreck and non-wreck divers in the Great �Lakes region of the United States (US) is the only example in the literature of a study specific to wreck divers (Edney in press). This study aimed to determine the socio-demographic characteristics, motivations and attitudes of wreck divers to provide data which could be used to inform the management of shipwrecks in the Asia-Pacific region. Two groups of wreck divers were surveyed: 1) a group of divers in Chuuk, in the Federated States of Micronesia; and 2) a group of divers in Australia. There are around 50-60 shipwrecks in Chuuk Lagoon, the result of Allied air attacks during World War II. The wrecks are a tangible reminder of Chuuk’s recent history, an important part of military history and the graves of many Japanese servicemen. As world renowned dive sites, they are also Chuuk’s main tourist attraction and a major source of revenue (Jeffery 2006:137, 2004a:51-52, 55, 62-63, 2004b:107). Due to Chuuk’s popularity with wreck divers, and as only wreck diving opportunities are offered, Chuuk provided a unique opportunity to survey wreck divers. In Australian coastal waters more than 900 of the 7,000 recorded shipwrecks have been located, and provide popular recreational opportunities for wreck divers (Kenderdine 1997:8-11). However, whilst diving is popular in Australia, it is difficult to estimate the size of the industry (Tschapka 2006:7) and little is known about Australian divers. There is a paucity of accurate data about the industry, including certification numbers, participation (Cummins 1995:113) and diver characteristics. This research addresses four questions: • What are the characteristics, motivations and attitudes of wreck divers? • Are there any differences in the socio-demographic characteristics of the two wreck diver sample groups? • Are there any differences in the motivations for wreck diving between the two wreck diver sample groups? • Are there any differences in the attitudes to management controls that may be put in place to protect shipwrecks between the two wreck diver sample groups? Methods The data from divers at Chuuk was obtained using a self-completed questionnaire, in hard copy format, which was distributed to passengers who stayed on a live aboard dive vessel in Chuuk Lagoon between August 2009 and January 2010. The first batch of surveys were distributed by the researcher with the permission of the vessel’s captain, and subsequent surveys were distributed by the crew. The results of this survey are reported in detail in Edney (in press). �Between July and October 2010 a sample of Australian wreck divers were surveyed using a self-completed questionnaire available in an electronic webbased format, using SurveyMonkey™, and hard copy. Participants were recruited by emailing information about the study to dive operators and clubs across Australia, who were requested to forward the information to divers on their mailing lists. Information about the survey was also posted on the Dive-Oz scuba diving website forum, publicised in the Dive Log Australasia free monthly newspaper and promoted by word of mouth communication amongst divers. These methods were chosen because it was not possible to obtain mailing lists of divers due to privacy laws and proprietary issues. The use of a web-based survey also enabled cost effective data collection and a large number of respondents across Australia to be reached in a relatively short period of time. The survey was divided into three main sections, socio-demographic characteristics (five items) and dive experience (three items); wreck diving motivations (fourteen items); and, attitudes to management controls to protect wrecks (nine items). Closed questions with checklists were used for the sociodemographic and dive experience questions and five point scales were used to rate the relative importance of motivations for wreck diving and diver attitudes. The questions concerning diver characteristics and motivations for wreck diving were derived and adapted from other surveys of divers (Davis 1997:121-136; Ditton et al. 2002:S187-S189; Holecek and Lothrop 1980:2-11; Jewell 2004:4750; Meisel and Cottrell 2004:394-399; Musa et al. 2006:95-97; Stolk et al. 2005:159-163; Thapa et al. 2005:57-58; Todd et al. 2002:108-109). The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software was used to analyse the survey data. Data analysis included descriptive statistics of diver socio-demographic and dive experience data, Pearson Chi-Square1 test for the comparison of the two wreck diver groups and the influence of sociodemographic variables on diver motivation and attitudes. Results Socio-demographic and dive experience profiles Socio-demographics The socio-demographic results are presented in Table 1. The majority (88 percent) of survey respondents were wreck divers in Australia (923 respondents) and the remainder were from Chuuk (123 respondents). Seventy four percent of wreck divers were male and 26 percent female. The majority (55 percent) of divers were aged 35-54 years. There was a significant difference between the 1 A statistical test for significance of the relationship between two variables. �ages of the two groups of divers (χ2=40.7, df=6, p=0.00), with the divers to Chuuk being older than those in Australia. Seventy two percent of the divers had completed tertiary education (i.e. diploma, degree or higher degree) and 58 percent had completed bachelor degrees or higher degrees. The majority (53 percent) of wreck divers had an annual income higher than the equivalent of Australian Dollars (AUD) $75,000, well above the average annual Australian income of $68,000 (ABS 2011). There were significant differences in levels of income between the two groups (χ2=87.9, df=5, p=0.00), with wreck divers to Chuuk earning more than those in Australia. Notably, 42 percent of wreck divers to Chuuk earned more than the equivalent of AUD $150,000 a year, compared to 11 percent of wreck divers in Australia, while almost half (47 percent) of wreck divers in Australia earned between AUD $51,000-$100,000 annually, compared to 28 percent of those in Chuuk. �Table 1. Socio-demographic profile (*Reported in Edney in press) All wreck divers Frequency % Australian wreck divers Frequency % Chuuk* wreck divers Frequency % Gender Male Female 74 26 74 26 73 Age <25 years 25-34 years 35-44 years 45-54 years 55-64 years >64 years 8 22 27 28 12 3 9 24 28 25 11 3 1 10 22 43 20 4 Level of education High school Trade qualification Diploma Degree/higher degree 14 14 14 58 13 15 16 56 17 3 5 75 Annual income $AUD equivalent 0-25,000 26,000-50,000 51,000-75,000 76,000-100,000 101,000-150,000 >150,000 11 13 23 22 17 14 13 14 24 23 17 11 5 8 14 14 17 42 Region of residence Asia Australia Australia/New Zealand Europe Other United Kingdom USA/Canada 88 2 1 1 8 Socio-demographic variable 100 27 2 14 2 7 8 67 The majority of divers to Chuuk originated from US/Canada (67 percent), followed by Australia/New Zealand (14 percent), the United Kingdom (8 percent), around 2 percent each from Asia and Europe, and the remainder were from other regions. �Dive experience Dive experience results are presented in Table 2. The majority (60 percent) of divers had completed more than 250 dives and 40 percent had completed more than 500 dives. The highest level of certification attained by a large proportion (41 percent) of the divers were leadership certifications (i.e. Divemaster or above), and only 9 percent of held basic (open water diver) certification. Table 2. Dive experience (*Reported in Edney in press) All wreck divers Frequency % Australian wreck divers Frequency % Chuuk* wreck divers Frequency % Number of dives 0-20 21-50 51-100 101-250 251-500 >500 3 8 12 17 20 40 3 9 12 16 20 40 0 3 7 25 21 44 Years diving 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 >40 29 20 14 10 9 7 5 3 3 30 20 15 10 8 7 4 3 3 24 21 12 12 10 7 7 3 4 Highest level of certification Open water Advanced open water Specialty Master scuba diver Divemaster Instructor Master instructor 9 12 28 10 19 13 9 10 10 30 10 20 12 8 4 26 13 7 19 16 15 Experience variable Almost half of the divers (49 percent) had been diving for 10 or less years and the majority (63 percent) had been diving for 15 or less years. �Motivations for wreck diving When the means of all responses were compared (Table 3), ‘seeing marine life’ (mean 4.19), ‘seeing historically significant shipwrecks’ (4.05), the ‘peace and tranquillity of the underwater environment’ (3.96), ‘seeing artefacts’ (3.90) and ‘the clear water’ (3.81) were found to be the top motivations for wreck diving. Notably, ‘collecting artefacts and fittings’ (2.06) and ‘fossicking for artefacts and fittings’ (2.59) were the least important motivations. Table 3. Motivations for wreck diving: Australia and Chuuk survey results combined Motivation N Mean Std Deviation Seeing marine life 992 4.19 .790 Seeing historically significant shipwrecks 993 4.05 .843 Peace & tranquillity of the underwater environment Seeing artefacts 994 3.96 .862 992 3.90 .878 The clear water 995 3.81 .868 Penetrating a wreck 994 3.60 1.044 Researching or learning more about a wreck 993 3.57 .972 Photography 992 3.53 1.167 Observing the effects of time (decay) on a wreck Complexity & size of the wreck 989 3.47 .962 989 3.46 .998 Other 235 3.43 1.113 Exploring & discovering machinery & fittings 990 3.30 1.087 Fossicking for artefacts 983 2.59 1.127 Collecting artefacts & fittings 978 2.06 1.067 Significant differences were found between genders and the location of survey (i.e. Chuuk or Australia). ‘Penetrating a wreck’ (χ2=23.8, df=5, p=0.00), ‘fossicking for artefacts’ (χ2=25.0, df=5, p=0.00), ‘exploring and discovering machinery and fittings’ (χ2=90.5, df=5, p=0.00) and the ‘complexity and size of the wreck’ (χ2=35.1, df=5, p=0.00) were important to male divers (χ2=20.3, df=5, p=0.00), while ‘seeing marine life’ was more important to females (χ2=23.8, df=5, p=0.00). ‘Fossicking for artefacts’ was also important to divers to Chuuk (χ2=14.2, df=5, p=0.01). Diver attitudes to management controls over shipwrecks When the means of all responses were compared (Table 4) the statement that received the highest level of agreement was that ‘harsh penalties should be �imposed on divers who take things from wrecks’ (mean 4.13), followed by ‘divers should be required to have special permits to dive some wrecks’ (3.32), ‘only divers who have special certification should be allowed to dive on a wreck’ (2.79), ‘an underwater guide should control what people do’ (2.66) and ‘some accessible wrecks should be off-limits to divers’ (2.58). There was least agreement with the statements ‘wrecks should be protected from all visitation’ (1.44) and ‘there should be no controls over what divers do on wrecks’ (1.78). Table 4. Attitudes to management controls over shipwrecks: Australia and Chuuk survey results combined Management control N Mean Std Deviation Harsh penalties should be imposed on some divers who take things from wrecks Divers should be required to have permits to dive some wrecks Only divers who have special certification should be allowed to dive on a wreck An underwater guide should control what people do 978 4.13 1.053 981 3.32 1.296 981 2.79 1.286 976 2.66 1.172 Some accessible wrecks should be off-limits to divers 960 2.58 1.221 A dive briefing is enough to control diver behaviour 972 2.47 1.048 Moving artefacts around on a wreck is okay so long as the artefacts remain at the wreck site There should be no controls over what divers do on wrecks Wrecks should be protected from all visitation 981 1.87 .974 982 1.78 1.081 978 1.44 .763 Significant differences were found between genders, location of survey and the origin of the divers. There was more agreement from females that ‘an underwater guide should control what people do’ than from males (χ2=47.4, df=15, p=0.00). Australian divers agreed that ‘only divers with special certification should be allowed to dive on a wreck’ (χ2=51.8, df=20, p=0.00) and ‘divers should be required to have permits to dive some wrecks’ (χ2=67.4, df=35, p=0.00), while wreck divers from US/Canada disagreed with these statements. Wreck divers in Chuuk agreed that ‘moving artefacts around on a wreck site is okay so long as the artefacts remain at the wreck site’ (χ2=160.0, df=35, p=0.00), while wreck divers in Australia disagreed with this statement. Discussion The socio-demographic findings from this study are broadly consistent with a number of other studies of scuba divers. This includes the predominance of �males, high levels of education (Davis 1997:133-135; Ditton et al. 2002:S188; Musa 2002:200; Musa et al. 2010:6; Stolk et al. 2005:161-163; Thapa et al. 2005:58; Todd et al. 2001:135; Tschapka 2006:99-102) and above average incomes (Davis 1997:136; Stolk et al. 2005:161-163; Thapa et al. 2005:58). However, divers from this study were older than those from other studies, including more recent studies (Musa et al. 2010:6; Thapa et al. 2005:58; Tschapka 2006:100-101). The income and age differences between the two groups of wreck divers may have been influenced by the sampling strategy. The divers in Chuuk had travelled from their home location to participate in wreck diving, and in comparison to other shore-based alternatives in Chuuk and other wreck diving destinations, the live aboard the survey was conducted on is relatively costly. Therefore it may be expected that divers on this live aboard would be more affluent and older, with higher income generally linked to age (Musa et al. 2006:99; Edney in press). Wreck diving is more demanding and challenging, requiring higher levels of skill, training and experience for safe participation than regular scuba diving (Edney in press). Therefore, the finding that wreck divers had higher levels of dive experience and certification than divers from other more recent studies was expected (Ditton et al. 2002:S188; Musa et al. 2010:7; Stolk et al. 2005:163; Tschapka 2006:107-110). Most divers visit shipwrecks to see historically significant sites, artefacts and marine life, and to enjoy the peace and tranquillity of the underwater environment. Few divers visit wrecks to collect artefacts and fittings. These findings are in contrast to Holecek and Lothrop’s (1980:17-19) study which found treasure and trophy hunting important to wreck divers. This may reflect changes in diver and community attitudes towards shipwrecks over the past 30 years. In the past, the collection of artefacts was often the focus of wreck diving and considered an acceptable activity by many divers (Todd et al. 2001:139), whereas today shipwreck protection laws generally prohibit these types of activities. Diver and the general community attitudes to shipwrecks now better recognise the cultural heritage values of wrecks and their protection is better supported (Edney 2006:221; Edney in press). Differences were found in motivations based on gender and location of the survey. The more challenging aspects of wreck diving and the technical aspects of wrecks, such as penetrating wrecks, exploring and discovering machinery and fittings and the complexity and size of wrecks were more important to males than they were to females. Fossicking for artefacts was more important to males and divers in Chuuk than it was to females and divers in Australia. These latter findings are concerning because the disturbance caused by fossicking can �diminish the integrity of cultural heritage values of wreck sites (Delgado 1988b:18; Edney 2006:213-214, 217), and shipwreck protection laws have been in place in Chuuk and Australia for more than three decades (Green 1995:335338; Hezel and Graham 1997:34-35; Jeffery 2004a:58-59, 2004b:110; Kenderdine 1997:15). Most wreck divers agreed that there should be management controls to protect shipwrecks and accepted the use of penalties, special certifications, permits and underwater guides as management controls. These findings differ from a study of divers from the Great Lakes region of the US (Todd et al. 2001: 139), which found that experienced divers preferred less invasive management controls. This difference may indicate differences in attitudes between divers from Australia and the US, as the majority of divers in this study were from Australia. Another difference this study found was that divers from North America considered moving artefacts around on a wreck site acceptable, whereas Australian wreck divers did not. This may reflect differences in legislation and levels of knowledge as well as cultural and or ethical differences between divers from North America and Australia. More study is required to determine the reasons for these differences. It is notable that few divers agreed that all wrecks should be protected from visitation. This suggests that while wreck divers generally support the protection of shipwrecks they also want access to wrecks. For heritage managers, greater access to wrecks can present challenges in achieving the protection of these sites (Edney in press). Conclusion This study found that wreck divers are predominantly male, middle aged, well educated, higher than average income earners, and experienced divers with high levels of diver certification. Wreck divers visit shipwrecks to see historically significant sites, artefacts and marine life, and to enjoy the peace and tranquillity of the underwater environment. Divers can have adverse impacts on shipwrecks and this study shows that certain management controls, including penalties, permits, special certification and dive guides can be acceptable to divers. It also found that some divers participate in activities which disturb sites and they may not be aware of the consequences of disturbing and moving artefacts around. Management strategies may therefore need to be tailored to the demographic profile and origin of the divers visiting these sites because people from different countries have different attitudes about management. Sites with diverse demographics may need a range of controls, while sites with one demographic might have more focused efforts. This also highlights the importance of �implementing these controls in conjunction with more effectively communicating to divers the importance of wreck sites and appropriate behaviour when visiting these sites. Abbreviations ABS ANOVA AUD df p SPSS US χ2 Australian Bureau of Statistics Analysis of variance Australian dollars Degrees of freedom, and is the number of values of the variable P-value, the probability of obtaining a test statistic Statistical Package for the Social Sciences United States Chi square Acknowledgements Special thanks to Lenny Kolczynski, Captain of the Odyssey and the crew of Odyssey, Chuuk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia, for distributing and returning the majority of the Chuuk surveys to me. Thanks to all the divers in Chuuk and Australia who gave their time to participate in the survey. I would also like to thank Dr Jonathon Howard for supervising this research, his support and guidance, and for reviewing and commenting on this manuscript. 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NE-276, pp. 131-140, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, Newtown Square, PA. “Differences in scuba diver motivations based on level of Development”, in (comp. ed.) Sharon Todd, Proceedings of the 2001 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium, April 1-3 Bolton Landing, New York, Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-289, pp. 107114, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station Newtown Square, PA. Involvement, motivations and setting preferences of participants in the adventure tourism activity of SCUBA Diving, Master of Arts in Tourism (Research), University of Canberra, Canberra. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Understanding wreck divers: Case studies from Australia and Chuuk Lagoon Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 Empowerment and relevance in maritime and underwater cultural heritage programs in developing countries Description An account of the resource A fundamental challenge for managers is how to allow divers access to shipwrecks whilst ensuring these sites are not harmed. A better understanding of the motivations and attitudes of divers who visit shipwrecks may allow better informed and more targeted management strategies to protect these fragile sites. This study sought to gain an insight into the socio-demographic characteristics, motivations and attitudes of wreck divers. It did this by conducting surveys of two groups of wreck divers: a group of divers at Chuuk Lagoon (Federated States of Micronesia) and a group of Australian wreck divers. This study found that wreck divers primarily visit shipwrecks to see historically significant sites, artefacts and marine life. Fines, permits, special certification and dive guides were the most acceptable ways to control diver behaviour. There were significant differences in the motivations and attitudes of divers with different socio-demographic profiles: notably between genders and between divers from North America and Australia. The data suggests management strategies should be tailored to the socio-demographic profile of the divers visiting a shipwreck. Sites which attract divers from different parts of the world may require a range of approaches to achieve widespread compliance and acceptance of the need for minimum impact. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Joanne Edney Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Great Britain and the Emergence of Japan as a Naval Power Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John Curtis Perry Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author John Curtis Perry Item Type Journal Article ISSN 00270741 Access Date 2008-05-12 22:49:30 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1966 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: 1966 / Copyright © 1966 Sophia University Issue 3/4 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 305-321 Publication Title Monumenta Nipponica Title A name given to the resource Great Britain and the Emergence of Japan as a Naval Power URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/2383375 Volume 21 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Chinese World Order; Traditional China's Foreign Relations. Edited by John King Fairbank. With Contributions by Ta-Tuan Ch‘en [and Others Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource John King Fairbank Tatuan Ch‘ên John King Fairbank Tatuan Ch‘ên Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1968 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author John King Fairbank Tatuan Ch‘ên John King Fairbank Tatuan Ch‘ên Item Type Book Call Number DS740.4.C35455 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1968 Extra Series: (Harvard East Asian series. 32) Physical description: x, 416 p. maps. 25 cm Series: (Harvard East Asian series. 32) Bibliography note: Notes and bibliographies": p. 291-382 LCCN: 68014255 Control Number: ocm00322527 Library Catalog lib-app3.usc.edu Library Catalog Place Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1968 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Title A name given to the resource The Chinese World Order; Traditional China's Foreign Relations. Edited by John King Fairbank. With Contributions by Ta-Tuan Ch‘en [and Others China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Myths of Enki, the Crafty God Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Samuel Noah Kramer John Maier Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Editor Samuel Noah Kramer John Maier Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Title A name given to the resource Myths of Enki, the Crafty God