4 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a7a5b8e7d61ddc83df005552f7a25dd7.mp4 35eb083089da8e3da43c40c57f2c5ab4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/79c4cd74769497f978fd08f24c312040.pdf 8cfa80b495ffaf05bdc643fbe226cf97 PDF Text Text Underwater Cultural Heritage Management and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States Samoa Email: a.takahashi@unesco.org Abstract This paper begins with introducing UNESCO’s Conventions focusing on different forms of heritage, namely land-based, underwater, movable, immovable, tangible and intangible, including the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH Convention) adopted in 2001. The paper then presents progress in activities under the three key Conventions, namely, the UCH Convention, the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention (ICH Convention), in the Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Notable progress in UCH-related activities includes the enhanced awareness of the importance of UCH to SIDS sustainable development through the explicit reference to UCH in the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway outcome document of the 3rd UN SIDS Conference (Samoa, 2014) and a call for the development of comprehensive strategies to raise awareness of the natural and cultural significance of the ocean at the UN Conference to Support the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 14: Conserve and Sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development (NY, September 2017). Taking into account of these developments and based on good practices identified through the promotion and implementation of the World Heritage Convention and the ICH Convention in Pacific SIDS, the paper aims to present an implementation strategy for the effective support to UCH-related activities and the promotion of the UCH Convention among Pacific SIDS as a way forward. �Key words: UNESCO, UCH Convention, World Heritage Convention, Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention, The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, SDGs Introduction The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is one of the Specialized Agencies of the United Nations (UN). Among its broad mandate, UNESCO is recognized as a leader in the international cooperation in culture. The Culture Programme of UNESCO consists of two pillars of Heritage and Creativity. By safeguarding heritage in all forms, namely, land-based, underwater, movable, immovable, tangible and intangible, and promoting arts and cultural/creative industries, the Culture Programme of UNESCO aims to protect and promote the diversity of cultural expressions for sustainable development and peace in the world. Over the years, UNESCO adopted seven conventions in culture. All together, they provide a comprehensive coverage of the culture sector. Among them, the following five Conventions directly concern cultural heritage; i) Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003), ii) Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), iii) Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972), iv) Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Traffic of Cultural Property (1970), �v) Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (1954) and its first Protocol (1954) and the 2nd Protocol (1999). It must be noted that these Conventions provide important guidelines and principles for the heritage safeguarding that could help member states build and develop the national systems – policy, strategy, management tools such as heritage registers and inventories, infrastructure, capacities, etc. – necessary for heritage safeguarding. Some of the Conventions establish international lists through intergovernmental process. The World Heritage List established by the World Heritage Convention is one of the examples. The objective of this listing system is to enhance the protection and visibility of heritage that meet specific criteria set out in the operational guidelines of the respective Convention through international cooperation. The Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflicts adopted in The Hague in 1954 is the first Convention that UNESCO adopted after World War II. It is the first international treaty addressing the cultural property protection both at peace time and during conflicts. The definition of cultural property under the Hague Convention is broad, covering both movable and immovable, including not only cultural heritage sites, but also cultural institutions such as libraries, museums, and archives. After the end of the Cold War in 1990s, cultural heritage became a target of intentional attack and some iconic heritage such as Mostar Bridge in Bosnia and Herzegovina was destroyed during the civil war. At the request of member states calling for more effective heritage protection, UNESCO launched a process to elaborate the 2nd Protocol to the Hague Convention, which was adopted in 1999. The 2nd Protocol establishes the Enhanced Protection system. The Hague Convention played a pioneering role in promoting the concept of “Cultural �heritage of all mankind” and in entrusting the international community with the responsibility for its protection. With the increasing number of thefts and pillage of archaeological sites and museums as background, the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Traffic of Cultural Property was adopted in 1970. The 1970 Convention regards cultural property as an embodiment of cultural identity and aims to facilitate their return to the countries of origin. This Convention, however, does not apply to the cases of illicit traffic that occurred before 1970. Therefore, the Intergovernmental Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to its Countries of Origin or its Restitution in case of Illicit Appropriation (ICPRCP) was established in 1978 with the aims to provide an international forum to promote the return and restitution of cultural property for the cases before 1970 and in the process of colonization. Increasing needs of the protection of movable cultural property were identified not only for land-based heritage but also underwater heritage. For a long time, historical and cultural objects that were found in submerged shipwrecks have been dispersed due to the application of the law of finds to sunken and abandoned vessels under which the finder is granted ownership of the objects. The advancing technology has increasingly made the access to submerged shipwrecks easier, making them more vulnerable to commercially driven “treasure hunting” activities. The United Nations Convention on the Low of the Sea (UNCLOS) adopted in 1982 includes two provisions concerning UCH. However, these provisions were felt by cultural experts to be incomplete without providing details of the protection measures. With this as background, the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage was adopted in 2001. Article 4 of the UCH Convention states that “Any �activities relating to UCH to which this Convention applies shall not be subject to the law of salvage or law of finds, unless it; (a) is authorized by the competent authorities, and (b) UCH Convention protects UCH from being commercially exploited for trade or speculation, and (c) ensures that any recovery of the UCH achieves its maximum protection”. In this way, the UCH underlined the importance of in situ preservation of UCH, prohibiting UCH from being commercially exploited for trade or speculation. The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, known as the World Heritage Convention, was adopted in 1972. Behind its adoption was the global interest in and movement for the protection of environment. The World Heritage Convention combined the protection of cultural heritage and natural heritage, establishing a more comprehensive system for international cooperation for the heritage safeguarding. The World Heritage Convention presents the concept of “Common heritage of humanity”, and the responsibility for future generations. The World Heritage Convention primarily addresses issues related to tangible cultural heritage and natural heritage. The Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) Convention was adopted some 30 years after the adoption of the World Heritage Convention. The ICH Convention addresses the need of the urgent safeguarding of ICH or “the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their heritage.” (Article 2 of the ICH Convention). The ICH Convention underlined the importance of the participation of community and ICH holders/practitioners in establishing community-based ICH inventories �with “Free, Prior, and Informed Consent”. The ICH Convention is characterized by the respect for the communities’ decision, and equality among diverse cultures. Despite the initial issues over its coherence with the existing heritage concept, the ICH Convention has received growing support of member states in particular in Africa and Asia. UNESCO Office for the Pacific States based in Samoa is one of some 50 field offices of UNESCO. The Office in Apia is in charge of 16 member states and 1 associate member. The priority group is the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Pacific, most of them are young nations and facing development challenges that are specific to SIDS. The key objective of the culture programme of the Office in Apia is to assist Pacific SIDS to develop and upgrade their national systems based on the guidelines provided by the Conventions to strengthen the culture sector through technical assistance and capacity building. Progress related to UCH Convention At present, most of Pacific SIDS are parties to the World Heritage Convention and the ICH Convention, while none of them are parties to the UCH Convention. Despite slow progress in terms of ratification, however, there have been progress in the awareness raising on the importance of UCH for SIDS sustainable development. UNESCO organized a series of activities on UCH during the 3rd UN International Conference on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Samoa, 1 – 4 September 2014). These activities resulted in a partnership with the Pacific Island Forum (PIF) and its Pacific Ocean Alliance (POA). The goals of POA are to reinvigorate the commitment to and implementation of the Pacific Island Regional Ocean Policy composed of six areas of cooperation including “Culture and Identity”. �A new network called Pacific UCH Partnerships (PUCHP) was also agreed upon at the expert meeting held during the SIDS Conference as an open-ended network with universities, regional intergovernmental agencies, specialized institutions and centres, NGOs and other civil society organizations in the areas related to UCH protection and management. As its first assignment, and in response to the request by Pacific member states and in cooperation with UNESCO, PUCHP carried out a research project in 2015 with the following objectives; i) to have a better understanding of issues surrounding WWII remains in the Pacific, ii) to identify good practices in the protection and management of these remains to reduce the impact on the environment and human safety, and iii) to identify areas of international cooperation. A final report is expected to be available before the end of 2017. Importantly, the outcome of the SIDS Conference titled Samoa Accelerated Modality of Action (SAMOA) Pathway reaffirms that SIDS remain a special case for sustainable development, recognizing SIDS’s ownership and leadership in overcoming challenges specific to SIDS. The SAMOA Pathway paragraph 54 supports SIDS’s efforts to conserve their UCH and paragraph 58 (j) supports States to consider becoming parties to the UCH Convention. This was the first time that UCH was mentioned in the outcome documents of the SIDS Conference. The summary of UCH-related activities at the SIDS Conference was published by UNESCO as an e-document (UNESCO 2014). The document was officially launched at the inaugural POA Meeting held in Suva in May 2015. �Fig.1: Flyer on Pacific Ocean Alliance. (© PIF) Another important document was adopted at the UN Conference to support the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development (the UN Ocean Conference) at the UN in NY (New York) in June 2017. The Conference’s outcome document is titled “Our Ocean, our future: call for action” and paragraph 13 (d) in the document states “develop comprehensive strategies to raise awareness of the natural and cultural significance of the ocean, as well as of its state and role…”. As background, SDGs are the goals that the international community agreed to achieve towards 2030 in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted in November 2014. The 2030 Agenda has 17 SDGs and 169 targets. Culture plays a transversal role in achieving all the SDGs, and directly concerns some of the SDGs, notably, SDG 11 on �Sustainable Cities and Communities to protect worlds’ cultural/natural heritage (Note that Government budget per year for heritage safeguarding is mentioned as a basis to provide SDG Indicator 11.4.1), SDG 4 on Quality Education through the education and appreciation of cultural diversity, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth through employment in the sector of cultural and creative industries and tourism. Progress related to other Conventions in Culture With regard to the World Heritage Convention, the Pacific member states managed to meet at a Pacific World Heritage Workshop on a regular basis with funding from development partners and UNESCO (UNESCO 2012 and 2014). This allowed the region to develop a medium-term Pacific World Heritage Action Plan since 2000. The Action Plan identifies priority actions; both at national and regional levels and currently Pacific SIDS are implementing the Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016-2020. Thanks to this successful regional cooperation, all Pacific SIDS except two countries are now parties to the World Heritage Convention and over ten sites in Pacific SIDS are inscribed on the World Heritage List. As for the ICH Convention, UNESCO launched a global capacity building programme in 2011. Under this programme, UNESCO trained a corps of trainers, developed learning materials and standard programmes of workshops focusing on ratification, implementation, community-based ICH inventorying, safeguarding plan development, and nomination development. This programme was benefitting from a significant amount of voluntary contributions from member states and development partners. Mention should be made about so called “ratification workshop” and its impact. This category of workshop is a multi-stakeholder workshop bringing together government officials, ICH practitioners and holders, �community leaders, NGOs, researchers and academics involved in ICH safeguarding. The government officials participating in this workshop typically come not only from the cultural authorities but also from other Ministries such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs which is usually a focal point for international conventions and the UN-related matters, Attorney General’s Office that provides legal advice when countries make a decision on ratification, the Ministry of Commerce which is in charge of the Intellectual Property Rights (IRP) protection of cultural production. Participants in this workshop have the opportunity to learn the history and background of the adoption of the ICH Convention to learn why this Convention was needed, examine the key provisions of the Convention to learn what the benefits and obligations are as well as the national process towards ratification. The workshop creates a group of ICH champions who would continue to engage in the safeguarding activity in each country. The government officials trained in this workshop have obtained an ability to prepare an information paper to a Minister for his/her submission to the cabinet for a decision, or, depending on governance system, to a relevant committee attached to the parliament for its presentation at the parliament. The ratification workshops were held both at national level and also regional level. The regional ratification workshops were attended by delegates both from states parties and state-non-parties so that delegates could have an opportunity for information sharing and mutual learning among themselves. Conclusion As underlined at the beginning, the UNESCO Culture Conventions provide internationally recognized guidelines for developing national systems for heritage safeguarding and for the culture sector. Ratification of these Conventions itself should not be considered as the end in itself. �Pacific SIDS are relatively young nations and most of them are still in the process of developing their own national systems for heritage safeguarding. The guidelines and principles enshrined in these Conventions are useful in their efforts in developing national systems. The progress and experience in the promotion and implementation of the key Conventions illustrated above provide good practices in UNESCO’s normative actions for Pacific SIDS which might be applied to the promotion of the UCH Convention among Pacific SIDS. The good practices identified so far are the following; i) The advocacy for cultural heritage, its historical, cultural and scientific significance and its contribution to sustainable development through the participation in multi-sectoral platform and regional policy development, ii) The preparation of a medium-term strategy and action plan both at national and regional levels for prioritization and coordination, iii) The organization of a regional forum on regular basis for information sharing and mutual learning, iv) The development of a capacity building programme addressing the specific needs under different phases of the life cycle of the Conventions. Obviously, the heritage safeguarding is a long-term process, and the success stories in the past have owed their success to the commitment of member states and stakeholders as well as the support of funding from development partners. Therefore, it is also critically important to �strengthen resource-mobilizing efforts for the promotion of the UCH Convention by all parties involved. As a way forward, UNESCO in Apia is organizing the next regional workshop that will take place in Koror from 30 August to 1 September 2017 as “Pacific Heritage Workshop”. The focus of this Workshop remains the information sharing on the implementation of the Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2016-2020, but the Workshop will include a session dedicated to the UCH Convention and the Hague Convention as well. It will bring together not only government officials in charge of heritage but also, UCH experts as resource person and partners in Asia and the Pacific region. It is hoped that this first “Pacific Heritage Workshop” will be an effective forum, leading to the concrete result of ratifications of the UCH Convention by Pacific SIDS. Endnote For the Hague Convention and the 1970 Convention, UNESCO in Apia organized the Melanesia Workshop on the Illicit Trafficking in Cultural Property (Vanuatu, 2015) and the first ever Pacific Workshop on the Hague Convention and its Protocols (Fiji, 2016). Final reports of these workshops were published as an e-document and available online. References UNESCO, 2012, Final Report, UNESCO Pacific World Heritage Workshop (Apia, Samoa, 5 – 9 September 2011), UNESCO, Apia. UNESCO, 2014, Pasivika - Islands Connected through Heritage, UNESCO, Apia. UNESCO, 2015, Underwater Cultural Heritage and Small Island Developing States: 3rd UN International Conference on Small Island Developing States (Apia, Samoa, 1 – 4 September 2014), UNESCO, Apia. �Biography Akatsuki Takahashi (高橋 暁), BA in international relations (Tsuda College, Tokyo), Diploma in education (International Christian University, Tokyo), PhD in cultural heritage risk management (Institute of Disaster Mitigation for Urban Cultural Heritage at Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto) has been the Programme Specialist for Culture at the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 1: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) spanning human history from the Stone Age to the atomic age. Since the first Pacific UCH Workshop held in Solomon Islands in 2009, the Pacific island nations have been progressing in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme by awareness raising, research and capacity building activities through inter-disciplinary cooperation and promoting synergy with the Pacific World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage Programmes. Notable progresses include, among others, the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Outcome Document of the 3rd UN International Cooperation on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Samoa, 2014) that contains references to the importance of UCH for sustainable development of SIDS and SIDS ratification of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), as well as the enhanced cooperation between universities in the Pacific islands and professional training institutions through UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN) for Underwater Archaeology. With this as its background, the session “Underwater and maritime archaeology and capacity building in the Pacific Islands” will be held with the aims to: i) share information on recent progress in awareness raising, research and capacity building activities in underwater and maritime archaeology in the Pacific Islands, ii) identify priority actions, iii) foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. The session especially welcomes presentations focusing on the protection and management of UCH belonging to indigenous community shared UCH in the Pacific, addressing challenges and opportunities facing Pacific SIDS in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme and the promotion of the UCH Convention, presenting good practice in ensuring the effective engagement of Pacific island countries and community in UCH management for their sustainable development, and proposing collaborative projects in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, Samoa Andrew Viduka, Maritime and Commonwealth Heritage, Australian Government, Nicolas Bigourdan, Western Australian Museum Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Cultural Heritage Management and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Description An account of the resource This paper begins with introducing UNESCO’s Conventions focusing on different forms of heritage, namely land-based, underwater, movable, immovable, tangible and intangible, including the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH Convention) adopted in 2001. The paper then presents progress in activities under the three key Conventions, namely, the UCH Convention, the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention (ICH Convention), in the Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Notable progress in UCH-related activities includes the enhanced awareness of the importance of UCH to SIDS sustainable development through the explicit reference to UCH in the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Pathway outcome document of the 3rd UN SIDS Conference (Samoa, 2014) and a call for the development of comprehensive strategies to raise awareness of the natural and cultural significance of the ocean at the UN Conference to Support the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 14: Conserve and Sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development (NY, September 2017). Taking into account of these developments and based on good practices identified through the promotion and implementation of the World Heritage Convention and the ICH Convention in Pacific SIDS, the paper aims to present an implementation strategy for the effective support to UCH-related activities and the promotion of the UCH Convention among Pacific SIDS as a way forward. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Akatsuki Takahashi https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/01c79df7409295e1de52845419f7cf91.pdf 17990c60b95e39d99310cc2f00401ab5 PDF Text Text UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States Apia Samoa Email: a.takahashi@unesco.org Abstract This paper will begin by introducing the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted by UNESCO in 2001 in terms of background, guiding principles, international cooperation mechanisms, Annex, as well as benefits and implications of ratification by countries. It will provide progress in its implementation at the global level. It will then provide progress in the Pacific Small Islands Developing States (SIDS), addressing their particular challenges and opportunities. The paper will suggest a possible inter-Convention cooperation for the UCH protection and management in the Pacific by analyzing the recent progress in the World Heritage Convention and the Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention in Pacific SIDS. The paper will conclude by summarizing the significance of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (henceforth UCH) protection and the UCH Convention not only in terms of its contribution to the advancement of knowledge of the history of humanity but also from the perspectives of the environmental protection, sustainable development and ocean governance. Key words: UNESCO, 2001 UCH Convention, Pacific, World Heritage Sites, International Cooperation Introduction UNESCO is one of the specialized agencies of the UN. UNESCO’s mission is to promote peace and the well-being of peoples in the world through international cooperation in education, science, culture and communication. Normative action is one of the core functions of UNESCO. Over the years, UNESCO adopted numerous international instruments. Among them, there are seven important Conventions in culture. These Conventions are: The Universal Copyright Convention (1952, 1971), The Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflicts 1 �(1954) and its two Protocols (1954 and 1999), The Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property Illicit (1970), The Convention for the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972), The Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003), The Convention for the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005). The ultimate goal of UNESCO’s normative action is to safeguard the cultural heritage and cultural diversity as the heritage of humanity. As the Preamble of the 1954 Hague Convention states that “damage to cultural property belonging to any people whatsoever means damage to the cultural heritage of all mankind, since each people makes its contribution to the culture of the world”, UNESCO played a pioneering role in promoting the concept of the heritage of mankind that is also the important principle of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). All together, these Conventions provide a comprehensive coverage of the culture sector. International NGOs such as the International Council of Museums (ICOM) and the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) have been playing important roles in their elaboration and implementation. The ambassador of Malta to the UN, Arvid Pardo, in his speech to the UN General Assembly in 1967, raised the question of the sea bed and the ocean floor, which launched a process that led to the third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea during which UNCLOS was adopted in 1982. UNCLOS sets forth the rights and obligations of states regarding the use of the oceans, their resources, and the protection of the marine and coastal environment, while seeking to establish a balance between “Freedom of the Ocean” and “Management of the Ocean”. It also provides a definition of maritime zones. Part XI of UNCLOS established the International Seabed Authorities (ISA) to allow States Parties to organize, control and administer activities and resources in ocean areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, commonly referred to as “the Area”, through the common heritage of mankind principle. It entered into force in 1994 and is supplemented by the 1994 Deep Seabed Mining Agreement and the 1995 Agreement regarding Fish Stocks. UNCLOS obliges States Parties to protect UCH under the term “archaeological and historical objects”. UNCLOS includes two provisions concerning 2 �UCH; i) Article 149 that stipulates the UCH protection in the Area and ii) Article 303 that sets out a general obligation for States to protect their UCH. These articles, however, were felt by cultural experts to be unsatisfactory and incomplete without providing details of the measures to be taken especially in the space beyond the Contiguous Zone, the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the Continental Shelf. Moreover, Article 303 paragraph 3 leaves room for the commercial destruction of UCH and creates a legal vacuum concerning the protection of UCH. With this as background, the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (herein after the UCH Convention) was prepared and adopted with the main goals to complement the provisions in UNCLOS for strengthening UCH protection. Acknowledging that “the importance of underwater cultural heritage as an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a particularly important element in the history of peoples, nations, and their relations with each other concerning their common heritage” in its Preamble, the UCH Convention provides the working definition of UCH as “all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character, which have been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years”. Generally speaking, UCH, undisturbed in situ, is better preserved as compared to land-based cultural heritage. This is the reason why UCH is often called as a time capsule holding invaluable information for historians, archaeologists and scientists to reconstruct past cultures. The UCH Convention protects UCH from being commercially exploited for trade or speculation. The UCH Convention provides the linkages to the 1970 Convention on the actions related to illicit trafficking in cultural objects recovered from the sea. In order to resolve the conflict between ownership claims, salvage claims and cultural heritage interest, Article 4 of the UCH Convention states that “Any activity relating to UCH to which this Convention applies shall not be subject to the law of salvage or law of finds1, unless it; (a) is authorized by the competent authorities, and (b) is in full conformity with this Convention, and (c) ensures that any recovery of the UCH achieves its maximum protection”. The UCH Convention establishes a protection regime for UCH by maritime zones determined by UNCLOS. States parties have the exclusive right to regulate activities in their internal and archipelagic waters and their territorial sea. Within their Contiguous 3 �Zone, States Parties may regulate and authorize activities directed at UCH within their Contiguous Zone. The UCH Convention recognizes the right of the coastal states to prohibit or permit activities directed to UCH in their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and the Continental Shelf. Where there is a discovery of UCH or activities directed at UCH in these areas, Article 10 gives priority to the coastal states to act as a “Coordinating State” to coordinate consultations with all other States Parties which have declared an interest. Within the Area, a “Coordinating State” will be designated by the DirectorGeneral of UNESCO after inviting all the countries that declared an interest. The Director-General shall also invite International Seabeds Authorities (ISA) to consultations. In this way, the UCH Convention provides a comprehensive coverage of UCH regardless of its locations, greatly extending the legal protection of UCH. It must be noted that the UCH Convention does not regulate the ownership of UCH. Being aware of the responsibility entrusted to the coastal states especially in the developing world, the UCH Convention emphasizes the importance of UCH training and capacity building, technology transfer and information sharing, as well as awareness raising of the significance of UCH. The UCH Convention provides in its Annex the important principle of the preference for the preservation in situ as well as practical rules for the UCH treatment and research based on internationally recognized best practice and the ICOMOS Charter for the Protection and Management of UCH in 1996. Joining the UCH Conventions, countries can ; i) achieve UCH protection at the same level as land-based cultural heritage, ii) protect UCH from looting and commercial exploitation, iii) ensure comprehensive protection of UCH regardless of their locations through state cooperation system. On the other hand, by joining the UCH Convention, States Parties shall pledge to protect UCH against lootings and commercial exploitations and apply the provisions of the UCH Convention and the Rules in its Annex. There is no financial implication involved in joining the UCH Convention. The UCH Convention entered into force in January 2009. UNESCO provides a forum for the adoption of a common approach of all States Parties towards UCH protection through the Meetings of States Parties and its Scientific Advisory Body (SAB). SAB is composed of twelve expert members nominated by States Parties. They have a 4 �scientific, professional and ethical background in the field of underwater archaeology, international law, materials science or UCH conservation. SAB assists States Parties in the implementation of the Convention and its Annex and the elaboration of the Operational Guidelines, while consulting with International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) through its International Committee for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (ICPUCH) and other accredited NGOs in its deliberations. UCH in Oceania The Pacific region covers about one-third of total surface area of the Earth, and comprises over one thousand islands and atolls. Reflecting on the long history of human settlements and interactions with other regions, the Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of UCH that spans human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age (UNESCO, 2010). For instance, the Oceania region was populated by the Austranesians, or Lapita people, and traces of their culture remain both above and under water. The Pacific islanders developed fishing infrastructures such as fish traps and fish ponds, unique indigenous UCH. Among the vessels built by the Pacific islanders, the Fijian Duras were double-hull sailing canoes of a length of up to 30 m. In the 17th and 18th century, the Pacific region was explored and “discovered” by navigators such as Magellan, Torres, Tasman, D’Urville, Drake, Cook and La Perouse. The Spanish dominated early Pacific colonizations and there are many shipwrecks related to the Spanish Manila galleon trade. Shipwrecks on the labor trade in the 19th century such as the Fijian sugar and Peruvian guano industries were found in the Pacific, while whalers, missionaries and traders have also left behind a legacy of underwater sites. More recently, the Pacific was among the major theatres of the Second World War. The Pacific holds numerous submerged ships, submarines and aircraft, some of them are war graves still containing human remains that must be approached with respect. The Pacific region has taken a progressive approach to applying the principles and the guidelines in the UCH Convention to the region’s UCH. The First Regional Workshop on the Pacific UCH took place in 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. The Workshop brought together representatives of the cultural authorities in the Pacific SIDS in order to share information on the current status of UCH protection and management in each country. 5 �The Workshop participants identified priority areas for cooperation that included developing systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites, exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites, and developing a training and education program for UCH archaeologists and managers. The papers presented at the Workshop were compiled, edited and published as UNESCO publication "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. As a follow up, a feasibility study on the Pacific capacity building programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO assistance. This study found the advantages of partnering with regional intergovernmental bodies such as the University of the South Pacific (USP) for this task. Palau was the first Pacific island state that organized the UCH Training Course in Koror in 2013 with UNESCO assistance. Progress in UCH protection in the Pacific is being made within the framework of not only the UCH Program but also the World Heritage Program and the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) program. The World Heritage Convention ratified by 190 countries reflects the global recognition of the intrinsic value of our heritage. As of today, 12 out of 14 Pacific member states are parties to the World Heritage Convention 2, which has allowed Pacific countries to formulate a regional action plan and take a coordinated approach. ICOMOS Pacifika and Pacific Island Museum Association (henceforth PIMA) have been formed to provide Pacific perspective for the program implementation. Although the Pacific still remains the least represented region on the World Heritage List, over ten sites in the Pacific Small Island Developing States (henceforth SIDS) and territories are inscribed on the World Heritage List. Already enjoying the high visibility and increase in visitors and revenue from tourism, these World Heritage sites, some of which contain UCH elements, can be ideal places for the actual maritime survey and field work. With regard to the ICH program, the Pacific SIDS out of which 8 countries are now parties to the ICH Convention3 have been developing related cultural policies. The safeguarding of the traditional ship building technologies and navigation systems as part of the Pacific ICH are intimately related to the understanding of UCH. followings are some of the examples. 6 The �Yapese Stone Money Bank (Palau and the Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia) Before and during European contact, Yapese people travelled across the 400 km of open water to the Rock Islands in Palau where they quarried their stone disk money. They were transported back to the Yap Island by canoe. Some of them arrived safely in Yap, while, according to the oral histories transmitted among local communities, the biggest stone disk fell onto the seabed during its transport and remains on the ocean floor between Yap and Palau. Palau and FSM nominated “Yapese Stone Disk” as a trans-border site for inscription on the World Heritage List in 2011. This joint nomination, although deferred, has contributed to revitalizing the collaboration between the two countries, resulting in the establishment of a joint management committee for the heritage sites. On the other hand, “the Rock Islands and Southern Lagoon” that includes some archaeological elements became the first World Heritage Site in Palau in 2012. The government of Palau puts in place an added departure tax to finance local community efforts under the Protected Areas Network in the country. This has been attracting attention as a potential model for a sustainable financing mechanism for protected areas in other Pacific SIDS (UNESCO, 2012). Levuka Historical Port Town (Fiji) Fiji shipwrecks, ranging from sailing ships to steamships, are mainly located around the Lomaiviti Island Group, where Levuka is located. Levuka is the first colonial capital of Fiji ceded to the British in 1874. “Levuka Historical Port Town” became the first World Heritage site in Fiji in June 2013. Levuka developed from the early 19th century as a center of commercial activity by Americans and Europeans who built a colonial port town was influenced in its development by the indigenous community. The buffer zone of Levuka World Heritage site includes offshore waters under which the important UCH are submerged according to the Levuka Maritime Archaeological Survey conducted by the Australian National Maritime Museum in 1998. Bikini Atoll Nuclear Test Site (Marshall Islands) From 1946 to 1958, after the displacement of the local inhabitants, 67 nuclear tests were carried out in the Marshall archipelago by USA, including the explosion of the first H-bomb (1952). Bikini Atoll has conserved direct tangible evidence that is highly 7 �significant in conveying the power of the nuclear tests, including a unique collection of shipwrecks at the bottom of the lagoon. These vessels sunk in 1946 by two separate nuclear detonations were a group of warships from the US Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy that were assembled for Operation Crossroads. Dr J. Delgado, Institute of Nautical Archaeology, USA, states “The sunken test ships, as well as associated aircraft, test vehicles, and test equipment, cables, test bunkers, and the atomic craters (the gigantic Bravo crater) on the sea floor inside the lagoon are a museum of the beginnings of the atomic age, and as such, have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2010” (UNESCO, 2010). The property is protected by the Historic and Cultural Preservation Act (1991). The main threats to the property are the effects of climate change and the presence of stocks of bombs and fuel in the underwater part of the property. Empowering Pacific SIDS for UCH protection Under UNCLOS, Pacific SIDS have sovereign rights over the management of the natural resources, marine scientific research, the protection and preservation of the marine environment in their territorial waters and EEZ that is almost 100 times larger than their total island area. From this perspective, Pacific SIDS are not small but large maritime states and communities. These resources include not only mineral resources, fishery stocks, biological diversity, but also cultural, historical and archaeological resources such as UCH. Unfortunately the current level of attentions and considerations given to UCH in the Pacific is not adequate. This makes Pacific UCH particularly vulnerable to the risks, including commercial fishing, construction of offshore and onshore maritime infrastructure, environmental changes and the rise in marine tourism that may make an adverse impact on UCH protection. Special attention needs to be given to a growing interest in a Deep Sea Mining (henceforth DSM) in the Pacific. Several SIDS have private sector interests actively engaged in their EEZ and in the Area over which ISA has responsibility for approving programs of work. There are 13 programs of work approved for exploration for polymetallic manganese nodules in the Area in the Pacific, including 3 programs of work in “Reserve Areas” for developing countries to sponsor programs of work with private entities. New applications for contracts for exploration for Cobalt-Rich Crusts were 8 �approved by ISA in 2013. The impacts of DSM activities on the marine environment are unknown. Like the land-based mining projects, DSM projects must be carried out after the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) including archaeological and UCH components has been completed. Several projects have been launched notably by the Council of Regional Organisations in the Pacific (CROP) in order to assist Pacific SIDS in safeguarding its resources against commercial interests by establishing appropriate measures. With regard to legal protection, EU-funded Deep Sea Minerals (DSM) project implemented by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (henceforth SPC) (2012) through the Applied Geoscience and Technology Division (henceforth SOPAC) advises Pacific SIDS to improve legal frameworks, increase technical capacity and to develop effective monitoring systems. As for UCH, the guidelines advise them to include wording along the following lines: i) Any object of an archaeological or historical nature found by any Title Holder or person conducting Marine Scientific Research within the jurisdiction or control of the [country] shall be reported to the [regulating body] and treated in accordance with its instructions, and shall be safeguarded pending receipt of those instructions and ii) The instructions given by the [regulating body] shall take into account Article 149 and/or 303 of UNCLOS. UNESCO has been in touch with SOPACSPC in order to strengthen the above guidelines and provide technical assistance for countries from the perspective of UCH protection. UNESCO has extended its assistance to a range of activities to enhance SIDS capacities in UCH protection. Besides, as part of its advocacy activity, UNESCO will organize a workshop on UCH and SIDS before the UN 3rd International Conference on Small Island Developing States (Samoa, 1 - 4 September 2014). Following the Conferences held in Barbados (1994) and Mauritius (2005), the 3rd SIDS Conference in Samoa will be held to renew the international community’s commitment to the sustainable future of SIDS and forge a genuine and durable partnership for this endeavor. UNESCO workshop on UCH and SIDS will bring together eminent experts in UCH from SIDS States Parties to the UCH Convention in the Caribbean region and international experts with the aims of enhancing the awareness of the importance of the UCH Convention. It is hoped that this workshop will provide an opportunity for mutual 9 �learning and networking among SIDS, let alone the increased ratification of the UCH Convention by SIDS. Conclusion The Ocean Declaration adopted at the Pacific World Heritage Workshop in Maupiti, French Polynesia, in 2009, emphasizes the cultural link amongst the peoples of the Pacific that extends beyond the artificial boundaries of the current geopolitical system and reinforces the ocean as being intrinsic to the identity, ways of life, values, knowledge and practices of Pacific peoples (UNESCO, 2012). The recent positive progress in the heritage safeguarding in the Pacific as shown in the increased number of the Pacific States Parties to the World Heritage Convention and ICH Convention represents an opportunity for inter-Convention cooperation in UCH protection and management in the Pacific. At the same time, much more efforts are needed to promote the UCH Convention in the Pacific, since to this day among forty-five States Parties there has been no signatory to he UCH Convention from the Pacific4. This situation makes the Pacific region particularly under-represented in the activities related to the UCH Convention. Ratification of the UCH Convention by the Pacific countries would increase the representation of the region as well as bolster the Convention’s universality. It must be noted that, guided by the principles embodied in the UCH Convention as well as its State Cooperation System, the UCH Convention will empower Pacific SIDS by promoting the sharing of duties and obligations among the coastal states and the broader international community. The UCH Convention will also assist them in strengthening its ocean governance by establishing necessary legal frameworks and building capacities. The diversity of UCH linking Pacific SIDS with other countries within and outside the region will also foster cultural exchange, cooperation, mutual understanding and peace. The significance of the UCH Convention and the importance of the participation of Pacific SIDS in its implementation must be understood from this perspective. Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the advice and support from Mr. Etienne Clement, Director of the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, and Dr. Ulrike Guerin, Secretary for the UCH Convention at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris. 10 �Endnote 1The law of salvage is a concept in maritime law which states that a person who saves another person’s ship or cargo from peril or loss at sea is entitled to a reward commensurate with the value of the property so saved. The law of salvage never grants ownership, but grants compensation or the right to retain the objects by way of a maritime link, as long as the salvage award has not been paid. The law of finds has been applied to sunken and abondaned vessels and the finder is granted ownership of the objects. 2Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Marshall islands, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Vanuatu. 3Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Nauru, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Tonga, Vanuatu. 4Albania; Antigua & Barbuda, Argentina, Barbados, Belgium, Benin, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria, Cambodia, Croatia, Cuba, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, France, Gabon, Grenada, Haiti, Honduras, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Italy, Jamaica, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Mexico, Montenegro, Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, Panama, Palestine, Paraguay, Portugal, Romania, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Trinidad and Tobago,Tunisia, Ukraine. References UNESCO., 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania, UNESCO, Paris. UNESCO., 2012. World Heritage Papers 34, World Heritage in a Sea of Islands, Pacific 2009 Programme, UNESCO, Paris. SPC, 2012. Annual Report of SPC-EU EDF 10 Deep Sea Minerals (DSM) Project, SPC, Suva. Biography Akatsuki Takahashi (高橋 暁), BA in international relations (Tsuda College, Tokyo), Diploma in education (International Christian University, Tokyo), PhD in cultural heritage risk management (Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto) has been the Programme Specialist for Culture at the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States in Apia, Samoa, since January 2010. Previously, she was at the Executive Office of the Culture Sector at UNESCO in Paris (2001-2009), UNESCO Office in Venice (1998-2001) and at the Culture Sector of UNESCO in Paris (1989-1998). Before joining UNESCO in 1989, she worked at the Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) (1986-1989) in Tokyo. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 1: UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Cooperation Description An account of the resource The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the UN. It has 195 Member States. The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted in 2001 is the international community’s response to the destruction of submerged archaeological sites by treasure hunters and industrial activities. It reflects the growing recognition of the need to ensure the same protection to underwater heritage as that already accorded to land-based heritage. It provides legal protection, enables States Parties to adopt common approaches to preservation and provides effective professional guidelines on underwater cultural heritage. The Convention and its Annex have been officially endorsed by most professional associations of underwater archaeologists. The 2001 Convention entered into force on 2 January 2009. Today it has been ratified by 44 States. The objectives of the UNESCO session are to: * Enhance understanding of the 2001 Convention in terms of its background, its benefits, its ethics and its potentials for contributing to sustainable development, * Identify a strategy for enhancing capacity in the protection and research of underwater cultural heritage, * Identify a way forward for increasing ratifications of the 2001 Convention by the countries in the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Etienne Clement Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and the Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Description An account of the resource This paper will begin by introducing the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage adopted by UNESCO in 2001 in terms of background, guiding principles, international cooperation mechanisms, Annex, as well as benefits and implications of ratification by countries. It will provide progress in its implementation at the global level. It will then provide progress in the Pacific Small Islands Developing States (SIDS), addressing their particular challenges and opportunities. The paper will suggest a possible inter-Convention cooperation for the UCH protection and management in the Pacific by analyzing the recent progress in the World Heritage Convention and the Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention in Pacific SIDS. The paper will conclude by summarizing the significance of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (henceforth UCH) protection and the UCH Convention not only in terms of its contribution to the advancement of knowledge of the history of humanity but also from the perspectives of the environmental protection, sustainable development and ocean governance. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Asia-Pac Session 1 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/25cdf9183509d7c3e7ccd2c2e2329b24.pdf 27b3a22d563e0cd1ed03d0283e25a8cc Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Submerged Buddhist Temple of Tanjo-ji in Chiba Prefecture, Japan Description An account of the resource The Tanjo-ji is a temple belonging to Nichiren Buddhism at the town of Kominato in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. Nichiren was born in 1222 at a fishing village near the town, and became a Buddhist priest who developed the teachings of Nichiren Buddhism, a branch school of Mahayana Buddhism. When his mother gave birth to Nichiren, according to legends, water for bathing the newborn baby welled up in a garden, lotus flowers came out on the seashore, and plenty of sea breams jumped over the sea. The sea in front of the Tanjo-ji is now named ‘Sea Bream Inlet’, a Japanese natural monument registered by the Agency for Cultural Affairs, where we still could see schools of jumping sea breams or opaleyes. Just before or after his death in 1282, the original temple of Tanjo-ji was built on the site of Nichiren’s birthplace or of his mother’s house, but the temple is said to have flooded and submerged by tsunamis with earthquakes and to have moved to where it is at present. Indeed, a historical document says that the 1605 Nankai Earthquake and following tsunamis damaged and destroyed the area around the bay of Kominato. In the commemoration of the 800th anniversary of the birth of Nichiren, the Kamogawa City Council and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, which is a member institution of the UNESCO UNITWIN Network for Underwater Archaeology, started the underwater survey for the submerged site in the spring of 2019. Because sites of the submerged temple or fishing villages are supposed to be on the bottom of very shallow seas near the coast, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology has developed a remotely steerable unmanned surface vehicle with a side scan sonar and an underwater camera for its survey. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Hayato Kondo Takatsugu Tashiro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Iwabuchi, Akifumi, Hayato Kondo, and Takatsugu Tashiro. 2021. “The Submerged Buddhist Temple of Tanjo-ji in Chiba Prefecture, Japan.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/671 Asia-Pac Session 2 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e594cb59d63b65b87400c35c9800d396.pdf 0d50689148a8e4cfe74155ec25a059ce PDF Text Text Deepwater Archaeology off Tobishima Northern Japan Island of Hayato Kondo1 and Akifumi Iwabuchi2 Abstract Tobishima island on the Japan sea, belonging to Yamagata prefecture, lies about 40 kilometres to the northwest of mainland Japan. Although the island itself is relatively small, it has been on seaborne trading routes since ancient times. Trawl fishermen occasionally find earthenware pots of the 8th century by accident around the seabed. From the late 17th to the 19th centuries Tobishima island was an important islet of call for Kitamaebune, which were wooden cargo ships trading along the northern coast of Japan. According to local legends, the southeastern waters just in front of the main port is a kind of ships’ graveyard hallowed by sacred memories. Contrariwise, no reliable historical record on maritime disasters or shipwrecks exists. In February 2011 Tokyo University of Marine Science & Technology (TUMSAT) and the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) conducted the preliminary submerged survey around these waters, utilising a multibeam sonar system and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). The research team succeeded in recording fine-resolution bathymetries and video images of a few shipwrecks lying between 60 and 85 metres. looks modern, but one seems to be potentially older. One For the next step, an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV), which has been designed and developed by TUMSAT, is planned to be employed for the visual mappings. The AUV is able to hover for observation by approaching very close to specified objects, and is equipped with high definition cameras. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional photo mosaics will be obtained, while accurate bathymetry data shall be recorded using sonar and an optical ranging system mounted on the vehicle in order to creat fully-covered and detailed site plans. Key words: Deepwater archaeology, Multibeam sonar, Remotely operated vehicle (ROV), Autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), Tobishima island 1 Deep Submergence Lab, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA 2 Tokyo University of Marine Science & Technology, Tokyo 135-8533, Japan �Introduction According to James P. Delgado (1997:126-127), deepwater sites as archaeology’s final frontier are the world’s last great archaeological resources. Not only in Japan but also in other industrialized countries, deepwater archaeology has just started. There are two main reasons why many underwater academics have lately become interested in this branch of nautical archaeology. First of all, almost all deepwater archaeological sites are still intact and well-preserved, while shallow-water sites have often already been disturbed by natural and human activities such as erosion, commercial fishing, or treasure hunting. Secondly, the incredible innovation of underwater technology makes now deepwater sites more accessible. In particular, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are the most essential. Once sites are discovered, drawing the precise plan of the sites distribution is the first step in underwater archaeology as well as in land-based archaeology. Even mapping shallow-water sites distribution by hand using divers, however, is not so easy: in the past it has taken up to 10 years to complete a project. By comparison, a newly-developed hovering type of AUV could manage to do the same job in a fraction of the time even in the deep sea. No unanimous definition of deepwater archaeology exists. Delgado (1997:126) defines deepwater sites as submerged archaeological sites, usually shipwrecks, found at depths greater than 300 metres. On the other hand, John D. Broadwater implies that this field of study encompasses all sites deeper than 30 metres, saying a majority of submerged archaeological sites lie in coastal waters shallower than 100 feet. He stresses the hazards that divers face, including potential fatalities at depths below about 130 feet (Broadwater 2002:642-643). The deepwater archaeological survey around Greece, which was recently conducted by an international team, targeted submerged sites from 40 to 150 metres deep. Here again the team points out the fact that in deeper water conventional diving is impossible (Delaporta et al. 2006: 79-85). When we divide underwater archaeology into two, i.e. shallow-water archaeology and deepwater archaeology on the basis of divers availability, the depth of 50 metres is an appropriate and suitable border line. Along the similar ideas as for deepwater archaeology, Keith Muckelroy (1978:149-150) said, �Roughly speaking, this means depths in excess of about 50 metres. The upper part of this zone, down to about 300 metres at present, constitutes the range of commercial and naval mixed-gas-breathing divers, while the waters below that are at present visited only by submersibles, manned or unmanned. Historical and Archaeological Background Tobishima island on the Japan sea, belonging to Yamagata prefecture, lies about 40 kilometres to the northwest of mainland Japan. From the port of Sakata on the mainland it takes approximately one hour to the island by ferry. The island itself is relatively small; it covers an area of only 2.7 square kilometres, being 10 kilometres round in circumference. The census gives the population of the island in 2010 at 265 persons, but in 1949 at 1,621 persons. According to historical records, on the contrary, its population from the 17th to the 19th centuries showed the figure to be around 1,000 islanders, perhaps because of traditional infanticide. Tobishima island consists of three villages: Hoki village, Nakamura village, and Katsuura village. The easternmost Hoki village is said to be the oldest, but the smallest. Nakamura village used to be named Ura village, which is situated between Hoki and Katsuura villages. The southernmost Katsuura village is the largest, having the main port and some religious centres. Katsuura village and its port used to be protected by a fort, which was built on the top of the cape of Ebisumaesaki, just to the southwest of the port. The historical or archaeological origin of the fort is unclear. It is surrounded by stone bulwarks, and it clearly aimed at defending the port. However, neither islanders nor historical documents could give us any reliable information. From the archaeological viewpoint, its construction technique seems to have come from Korea or from northern Asia. Village rumour suggests that at the Middle Ages a pirate group held this fort. According to a historical source, one local chief from the mainland attacked it in 1559. Because he would not have assaulted poor unarmed fishermen, his target was most likely sea bandits at this fort (Kasuya 2010:58-60). Although further historical study will be needed to conclude that pirates really did play an important role in Tobishima island, there is a strong probability of the fort being an ancient lookout or signal fire station. In any event, the vestiges of an old fort prove what a strategic position Tobishima island was on the Japan sea. �Around 6,000 years ago the island had already been inhabited as the archaeological excavations have proved. In the few thousand years following, however, it became uninhabited. The forefathers of contemporary islanders, who settled down in Tobishima island around 1,500 years ago, built some Shinto shrines, and since then the island has been one of the most important sacred and consecrated places, as well as a traffic point, on the Japan sea. Katsuura village has been keeping the Shinto shrine of Ogami Jinjya, which used to be named Oshaku-jima Jinjya. Oshaku-jima is a small uninhabited rocky islet, which lies to the west of Tobishima island. Women are not allowed to land on the islet. Since this islet still acts as the inner shrine or sanctuary of the Shinto shrine of Ogami, islanders even now revere the coastal waters including the islet and other tiny rocks. Partly because of these religious reasons, and partly because of unaffordable island economy, islanders have not permitted strange fishermen to trawl near to shore. This fact has ironically succeeded in helping to preserve the underwater cultural heritage around the island. The most important industry on Tobishima island is fishing, with little or no agricultural activity on the island. As above mentioned, the island has been a seaborne strategic point on the Japan sea since ancient times. Trawl fishermen, who are not islanders, occasionally find earthenware pots of the 8th century by accident around the seabed between Tobishima island and the port of Sakata. One of them seems to have been manufactured in western Japan. The Shinto shrine of Ogami Jinjya keeps many wooden and stone guardian lion-dogs, which also seem to have come from Hokuriku region or from Korea (Kasuya 2010:54). From the late 17th century Tobishima island on seaborne trading routes grew in importance in naval trade as it became a principal port of call for Kitamaebune. Kitamaebune were wooden cargo ships, between 20 and 30 metres from stem to stern, which traded along the northern coast of Japan. The staple shipping commodities were oil, spirits, salt, herring, tangleweed, and rice. In particular, rice was the most important for Kitamaebune which touched at Tobishima island, because the port of Sakata on the opposite shore in the mainland became the leading rice exporting base of northern Japan, to the city of Osaka or to the capital of Edo. Kitamaebune, which intended to call at the port of Sakata or to sail out of the port along the main seaborne route, occasionally waited for favourable winds at the port of Katsuura of Tobishima island. The port of Sakata at the �mouth of the River Mogami is not free from danger at all, because it is vulnerable to westerly or northwesterly winds and its depth of water varies from season to season. On the other hand, the port of Katsuura has ample depth of water, being sheltered from westerly or northwesterly winds by the cape of Ebisumaesaki. Historical records tell us that in 1792, for instance, 593 ships called at the port of Katsuura. Before the 19th century approximately 300 ships on average put in at the port per year. Most stopped from March to September (Nagai 1951:164-167). We could still observe some old mooring posts made of stone and some holes for wooden ones at the foot of the cape of Ebisumaesaki. However, the port of Katsuura is absolutely vulnerable to northeasterly or easterly winds. Hundreds of ships are said to have sunk just in front of the port. Unfortunately, neither detailed historical record nor hard documentary evidence regarding maritime disasters or shipwrecks exists for the area, thereby reinforcing the importance of the underwater archaeological work. According to some fragmentary materials or local stories, maritime accidents around Tobishima island could be divided into two categories: drifting ashore and sinking. The former was by far the commoner of the two. In the cases of drifting ashore, ships sometimes lost their masts or rudders a good distance off Tobishima island, and they were driven ashore suffering significant damage. On the way to Tobishima island, they often threw huge amounts of cargo into the sea for safety reasons. Between 1685 and 1866 roughly 100 ships were recorded as having been wrecked (Nagai 1951:252-264). This figure includes both drifting ashore and sinking. Other than these 100 cases, however, no one knows how many ships really sunk around Tobishima island, in particular, before reaching the island. If islanders had not succeeded in rescuing neither crew nor cargo, they could not have written any records. One of the typical drifting cases is as follows: a Kitamaebune left the city of Osaka on 1st March in 1820 carrying mainly cotton and salt, and then arrived at Tobishima island on 26th March. On 28th she tried to clear the port, but owing to strong easterly winds she was obliged to return to the port. Again on 30th she tried to do so, but by the winds she was drifted ashore (Nagai 1951:193, 256). Infrequently, only lifeboats whose mother ships had sunk a good distance off Tobishima island managed to arrive at Tobishima island. In 1804 a Kitamaebune leaving the port of Hakodate on 25th August was damaged by strong winds and lost the mast and much of its cargo just off �Tobishima island. The crews abandoned the ship and landed on the island by lifeboat on 4th September. Around 11th September, however, they rediscovered the deserted ship, and then towed her into the port (Nagai 1951:192-193, 255). According to the Japanese maritime customary laws during the premodern era titled Kaisen Shikimoku, by the way, the coastal community which first found flotsam and jetsam could claim an ownership to them in order to appropriate them for the renovation of local religious buildings, only when all crews died or disappeared. As long as the very last one survived, on the other hand, they did belong to the cargo ship or the ship’s owner. Usually, however, the captain or owner had to pay a generous remuneration in reward to the community’s services. In 1832 the following local rules were issued: islanders at Tobishima island were invariably granted a right to receive 5 percent of cargos whose ship had drifted ashore and to receive 10 percent of jettisoned and sunken cargos (Nagai 1951:190). In addition, islanders who tugged half-wrecked ships on to the port normally succeeded in receiving a substantial amount of cash from captains by secret. Once one Kitamaebune was drifted ashore, Tobishima island fairly enriched. However, that was not always the case. When official or governmental cargo ships wrecked, islanders often received no remuneration at all. Sometimes they had to dry soak cargos for nothing. Even after the era of steamers, the area of Tobishima remained a kind of ships’ graveyard. In 1868 during the civil war of Boshin, two battleships belonging to the ruling Tokugawa shogunate came to Tobishima island. One was a wooden schooner, and the other was a steel steamer built in Glasgow. On 23rd October, the strong easterly wind blew against those battleships. The schooner succeeded in leaving the port of Katsuura, but the steamer named Nagasaki-maru No. 2 was driven ashore by the wind. Fortunately all crews managed to land on Tobishima island, and later on to unload almost all weapons, navigation requisites, and personal belongings from the ship. On 23rd December a rescue ship arrived at Tobishima island, accommodated all crews and weapons, and left the island. When she sailed, some requisites and belongings such as a barometer, a binocular telescope, banners, and kitchen utensils were gifted to some islanders in gratitude for their kindness. More than for 100 years these heritages were kept in Tobishima island, but they were recently transferred to a museum at the city of Sakata. As the wreckage was �scrapped, however, there is no trace of Nagasaki-maru No. 2 herself in the island at present (Kasuya 2010:158-159; Nagai 1951:214-219). Preliminary Survey In February 2011 TUMSAT and the ARIUA conducted the preliminary submerged survey around these waters, utilising a multibeam sonar system and a ROV. Typically side scan sonars and magnetometers are used for shipwreck survey, but old wooden shipwrecks may not have iron parts, and they may be submerged in sands or silts and covered. Thus a multibeam sonar, which can obtain a detailed profile of the seabed, is sufficient for these targets instead of side scan sonars. The along track resolution of the multibeam sonar which is used for the survey is 1 degree and across track resolution is 0.5 degree. Supposing that the depth is about 70 metres the footprint of one beam is 1.2 x 0.6 metres. The mutibeam sonar provides 256 points of depth ranges within a 130 degree swath. These measurement data are stored together with GPS and Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) data, which are roll and pitch angle of the sonar, in a computer on board of a survey boat, and a bathymetry is obtained by post processing. Multibeam sonar also provides backscatter data so the operator can see side scan like image in real time while doing survey. The purposes of this multibeam sonar survey were as follows: 1) Explore shipwrecks and locate suitable sites of interest because the research team have no detailed information about shipwreck positions. 2) Obtain detailed bathymetry for AUV survey mission planning because a hovering AUV will cruise very close to the seabed at an altitude of 2 metres to take high-resolution images. 3) The bathymetry will be used for three-dimensional mapping with high-resolution mosaic image draped on. No one sensor is sufficient in itself but combinations of different sensors provide a very powerful mechanism for addressing the needs of the archaeologist working underwater (Singh, et al. 2000:319-328). �Figure 1. Bathymetry of the Survey Site near the Port of Katsuura (© TUMSAT) Figure 2. A Shipwreck Found in the Survey Site (© TUMSAT) �Figure 3. AUV “BA-1” (© TUMSAT) The team set the survey site just south-east off of the port of Katsuura. The size is about 400 x 1,500 metres and depths vary from 45 to 90 metres. The bathymetry contour map obtained by the survey is shown in Figure 1. The research team succeeded in detecting a few shipwrecks lying between 60 and 85 metres in depth on the seabed. One looks modern, but one seems to be potentially older. A small ROV was deployed from the boat to visually prove whether the objects are shipwrecks or not. Figure 2 shows a picture of the Wreck 2 in the Figure 1, which was taken by the ROV. The water current and wind was too strong for the small boat and the small ROV to reach from reaching the Wreck 1 and 3. For the next step, an AUV (Figure 3), which has been designed and developed by TUMSAT, is planned to be employed for the visual mappings. The AUV is able to hover for observation by approaching very close to specified objects, and is equipped with high definition cameras. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional photo mosaics will be obtained, while the accurate bathymetry data shall be recorded using sonar and an optical ranging system mounted on the vehicle in order to create fully-covered and detailed site plans. �Acknowledgements This research project is supported by the Canon Foundation Research Grant Program. The authors would like to thank Windy Network Corporation, Toyo Corporation and laboratory students for helping the multibeam sonar survey. We also would like to express our thanks to Q.I Corporation for kindly letting us use their ROV “DELTA-150” for visual survey of the shipwreck. An author would like to acknowledge Dr. Hanumant Singh at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution for providing me an opportunity to stay at his laboratory to do research and giving me precious advises. Bibliography “Digging Deeper: Deepwater Archaeology and the Monitor National Marine Sanctuary”, in (eds.)Carol V. Ruppé and Janet F. Barstad, Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, pp. 639-666, Kluwer, New York. Delaporta, K., “The Greek-Norwegian Deep-Water Archaeology Survey”, Jasinski, M. E., and in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 35, No.1, pp. 79-87. Søreide, F., 2006 Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, Delgado, J. P., 1997 British Museum, London. Tobishima: A Remote Island in the Sea of Japan, Kasuya, S., 2010 Tohoku-shuppankikaku, Tsuruoka (in Japanese). Maritime Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Muckelroy, K., 1978 Cambridge. The History of Tobishima, Kobun-do, Tokyo (in Japanese Nagai, S., 1951 with English Summary). “Imaging Underwater for Archaeology”, in Journal of Field Singh, H., Adams, J., Mindell, D., and Archaeology, Vol. 27, No.3, pp. 319-328. Foley, B., 2000 Broadwater, J. D., 2002 � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/578da1d0fc5382a1a64b7c5b9698724b.jpg 1228c16865d499aa90c8ad878b2482fc Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 302 Height 346 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/36bce032dd33ba50cc190079e3932b3a.jpg 2dcbfd77e8fff5d422eb8f886951488f Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 938 Height 624 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a25324b44fd8a21c5fe620a8c62636c2.jpg f21eb997526edc2736863a8caeb4326e Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 802 Height 775 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Deepwater Archaeology off Tobishima Island of Northern Japan Subject The topic of the resource Session 3 History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource Tobishima island on the Japan sea, belonging to Yamagata prefecture, lies about 40 kilometres to the northwest of mainland Japan. Although the island itself is relatively small, it has been on seaborne trading routes since ancient times. Trawl fishermen occasionally find earthenware pots of the 8th century by accident around the seabed. From the late 17th to the 19th centuries Tobishima island was an important islet of call for Kitamaebune, which were wooden cargo ships trading along the northern coast of Japan. According to local legends, the southeastern waters just in front of the main port is a kind of ships’ graveyard hallowed by sacred memories. Contrariwise, no reliable historical record on maritime disasters or shipwrecks exists. In February 2011 Tokyo University of Marine Science & Technology (TUMSAT) and the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) conducted the preliminary submerged survey around these waters, utilising a multibeam sonar system and a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV). The research team succeeded in recording fine-resolution bathymetries and video images of a few shipwrecks lying between 60 and 85 metres. One looks modern, but one seems to be potentially older. For the next step, an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV), which has been designed and developed by TUMSAT, is planned to be employed for the visual mappings. The AUV is able to hover for observation by approaching very close to specified objects, and is equipped with high definition cameras. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional photo mosaics will be obtained, while accurate bathymetry data shall be recorded using sonar and an optical ranging system mounted on the vehicle in order to creat fully-covered and detailed site plans. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hayato Kondo Akifumi Iwabuchi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0d16c70e087d527413bf7cece15eaf51.pdf 5f198c5a2e4e60f9f8c6d3b8559e545e PDF Text Text The Shared Underwater Cultural Heritage of Japan and the Netherlands: the Kanrin-maru Leon Derksen ICOMOS Netherlands derksen.leon@gmail.com Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology iwabuchi@kaiyodai.ac.jp Abstract In 2014, a non-exhaustive inventory of the shared cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Japan was made by the Dutch government in the context of what the Netherlands calls its ‘Shared Cultural Heritage Policy’. This inventory resulted in an overview of shared cultural heritage grouped into the categories ‘maritime heritage’, ‘built heritage’, ‘museum collections’ and ‘archives’. Spread over seven different themes and linking to an equal number of time periods, the inventory provided insights into where opportunities for cultural collaboration would lie. One of the opportunities of collaboration found revolved around the potentially preserved Dutch shipwrecks in Japanese waters. This sparked the incentive to propose a project-based partnership through a collaborative research project between the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, to locate and research the shipwreck of the Kanrin-maru. The project, which commenced in 2017, includes the involvement of Dutch and Japanese researchers to facilitate the transfer of knowledge, as well as the involvement of trainees in order to ensure capacity building. The Kanrin-maru was a warship specially built in the Netherlands in 1856 on order of the Tokugawa Shogunate Navy. It was brought to Japan in 1857, but in 1869 during the Boshin War between Shogunate and Imperial forces it was taken over by the Imperial Japanese Navy, and remained in the service of the Imperial Meiji government until it foundered in the Tsugaru Strait in 1871. Although an anchor thought to belong to the Kanrin-maru was found near where it was said to have foundered, no wreck has been found to date. In November 2017, fieldwork in Hokkaido, including material analysis upon its anchor, as well as library or archival research is to be done by Dutch and Japanese archaeologists. �Key words: UCH, Japan, Netherlands, Introduction Japan and the Netherlands, two nations sharing a history with over four centuries of relations, have in recent years reinvigorated their cultural bonds by promoting collaboration in topics of shared cultural heritage. While this has already inspired a broad variety of forms of cultural collaboration such as in the Arts and Crafts1, this also led to collaboration in the specific field of maritime heritage and underwater cultural heritage management. For in 2014, the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE)2 and the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs together with the Kyushu National Museum took the lead in this particular field of collaboration. The main mutual benefit of their collaboration is that it could help both nations to familiarize with the implications of ratifying the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. At the same time, both nations have grabbed this opportunity to aim for sustainable preservation of what is considered their shared underwater cultural heritage. This inspired the current authors to further the collaboration in the field of shared underwater cultural heritage between the Netherlands and Japan by proposing the formation a project-based partnership between the RCE and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology UNITWIN Network and Japan’s only university with both graduate and undergraduate courses in nautical archaeology. An official agreement of this partnership is in the making. With this paper, the current authors wish to promote the potential of this project and the shared cultural heritage it represents. �Main aims of the project are knowledge exchange and capacity building by involving experts and trainees. It was decided that the main subject of research and training would revolve around locating, and if found, researching the wreck of the Kanrin-maru (咸臨丸): a Dutch-built screwpropelled steam schooner that supposedly wrecked near Kikonai Municipality in Hokkaido in 1871. Since the story surrounding the ship and its wrecking have become strongly rooted in the local community, and have also been promoted by the local government, efforts will be made throughout the project to involve the local community and government in order to facilitate a sustainable preservation of the wreck, its story and place within the local community. Since the wreck of the Kanrin-maru has not yet been located, a start was made in 2017 in order to assess whether locating the wreck is feasible. At the time of writing, the initial research is well underway and consists of desk research in both the Netherlands and Japan, as well as a survey in the field planned somewhere between September and December this year. Results of what has been gathered through desk research thus far will be discussed in this paper. The sections further below provide a historical background sketch, information on prior research, a general project definition with corresponding aims, objectives and research questions, and the preliminary results of the initial research. The paper ends with preliminary conclusions and a thought on the implications of these conclusions in regard to the continuation of the project. Historical Background From around 1639 to the year 1854, in a period now known as the sakokujidai3, Japan had practically kept its doors shut to all westerners but the Dutch. At the time, the Dutch were the only ones allowed to trade with Japan through the tiny artificial island called Dejima4 that lay in front �of Nagasaki. This centuries old privilege came to an end when in the years 1853-1854, steam warships of the United States Navy led by Commodore Perry (1794-1858) entered Tokyo Bay and forced Japan to end its isolation policy. Fearing a foreign invasion, the Tokugawa Shogunate hastily sought means to build a naval fleet. And for this, the Japanese turned to the Dutch (Kogure, 2008). In order to jump-start this naval fleet, Japan ordered from the Dutch arms and warships among other things, as well as instructors who were to provide education and training in virtually all matters associated with the navy (Chijs, 1867). Besides seeing direct economic benefits, the Dutch hoped this deal would also help them in trying to maintain their foothold in Japan in the midst of growing competition from other western nations (Kogure, 2008). Meanwhile, the other naval powers were also planning on catering Japan’s need for a naval force. In an attempt to beat the competition, the Netherlands decided to grant the Soembing, a Dutch paddlewheel steam warship, in 1855 (Stapelkamp, 1999). Sent along with it was a first Marine Detachment of Dutch naval officers and sailors led by G.C.C. Pels Rijcken that was to educate and train the Japanese on their first western-built steam warship. A year later in the Netherlands, construction commenced on the first warship for the shogun’s navy. In 1857, the vessel originally named the Japan was launched and was brought to Nagasaki that same year. Upon arrival it was renamed to Kanrin-maru and taken into the service of the Shogunate Navy, becoming the first screw-driven steam warship of Japan. Together with the Kanrin-maru, the Dutch government sent a second Marine Detachment that was to replace the first which had remained there since 1855. The Kanrin-maru was used as a training �vessel and thus became instrumental in the founding years of the Japanese navy. Six years after its introduction in the Japanese naval service, the Kanrinmaru followed in the wake of an American vessel called the Powhatan which had on board an embassy bound for the United States of America in order to ratify a new treaty between the USA and Japan. The vessel crossed the Pacific with the help of a number of American naval officers, including Captain John Mercer Brooke (1828-1906). To the Japanese navy, the crossing was an important show of skills as it was only seven years after Perry’s steam-driven ships had entered Tokyo Bay. This now legendary voyage is still commemorated by Japan and the USA today, as it marks an important event in the relations between Japan and the US. What is more, for Japan it also marks as the second time in history that a Japanese vessel is known to have crossed the Pacific (Fig. 1). Fig. 1: The Kanrin-maru. (Yokohama Archives of History) �In the years that followed, the Kanrin-maru remained mainly in use as a training vessel. When in the years 1868-1869 the Boshin war broke loose, which was a civil war between forces fighting for the shogunate and forces fighting for the restoration of the Emperor as the greatest in power, the Kanrin-maru was used as a military transport vessel in the fleet of the shogunate until it became battered in a storm and was subsequently overtaken by the imperial forces. After the Boshin war had ended with the restoration to power of Emperor Meiji, the Kanrin-maru remained in the service of the Imperial Navy and was used as a passenger and transport ship. In 1871, it set sail towards Hokkaido. Its mission was to safely transport 400 civilians who were to immigrate into Hokkaido and to colonize it for cultivation. While traversing the Tsugaru Strait, the Kanrin-maru hit a reef off Kikonai Municipality where it began to make water. Almost all the passengers and all crewmembers managed to survive, but the vessel itself supposedly sank and was lost to the sea. To this day no wreck has been found, although in 1984 a chance find was made when a fishing boat hauled up an anchor supposedly at a location near what is believed to be its wrecking site. Today, the Kanrin-maru is commemorated through local annual festivities among other things and has clearly conquered a special place in the hearts and minds of the local community and government. This has been most notably achieved by the efforts of the Society of the Kanrin-maru Crew Descendants, who have been actively promoting this cultural heritage and the fascinating story that surrounds Japan’s first screwdriven warship. Through this project, the parties involved can combine their strength to help maintain this valuable source of shared cultural heritage. �Prior Research A chance find occurred in 1984, when an anchor was salvaged from a depth of 20 meters by a fishing vessel (Fig. 2). The exact location of the find is still unknown, but a local newspaper stated that it was situated 2 kilometers off the coast of Kikonai Municipality. Subsequently, the anchor was researched by an expert, who concluded it was highly likely though still not 100% certain that the anchor belonged to the Kanrin-maru. Fig. 2: Anchor. (Kikonai Municipality) Other prior researches consisting of desk works, as well as fieldworks, have been conducted at the presumed wrecking location before. Although some remains of ship equipment or shipbuilding materials were said to be recovered during those field researches, no definite wreck or potentially associated finds to the Kanrin-maru have been found yet. According to one Japanese underwater archeologist, all the remains of the Kanrin-maru have perhaps already been swept away by the strong currents of Tsugaru Strait. �Project Definition As shortly explained in the introduction, the main aims of the project are to facilitate capacity building as well as knowledge exchange between the organizations and individuals involved about underwater cultural heritage management. With the Kanrin-maru as the research subject, the project also aims to come to a sustainable preservation of the remains of the Kanrin-maru, if found to be existent. Broader, over-arching aims are to raise awareness of the existence of underwater cultural heritage among an international public, and to further improve the bilateral relations between the Netherlands and Japan. The main aims will be achieved through the following objectives: Capacity building through inviting maritime archaeologists and students to join in on the search and possible research of the Kanrin-maru; knowledge exchange by inviting underwater archaeologists and specialists in both Japan and the Netherlands to join the project, and to create an atmosphere for open discussions with experts and trainees alike. Sustainable preservation will be achieved not only through the two objectives shown above, but also through the involvement of the local source community and government to build sufficient support for future preservation. The project is proposed to be conducted in the period between late 2017 and early 2018, encompassing desk research and interviewing informants aimed at gathering historical and contemporary data to establish an initial research area, as well as a field survey on land. Main research questions are as follows: could the wreck of the Kanrin-maru be located?; if so, what is its state of preservation?; and how can it be preserved for future generations to come? �Initial research Research commenced in April 2017, and at the time of writing is still underway. The overall aim is to come to a thorough assessment in order to gauge the chances of finding the Kanrin-maru or related materials in a preserved state and to establish an initial research area required for the continuation of the project. The methods used thus far comprised of desk research in the form of library and archival research, the results of which have in part been used to form the historical background sketched earlier above. Fieldwork is also part of the research schedule, and is due to take place somewhere in November 2017. It is planned to consist of conducting interviews with local informants such as the local community near the supposed wrecking site, as well as visiting and surveying the anchor site and wrecking site from land. Library and archival research in the Netherlands mainly focuses on shining a light on the historical context in which the order, construction and eventual delivery of the Kanrin-maru took place. This includes but is not limited to gathering information on the construction of the ship itself, where it was made, by whom, what materials were used in its construction and where these materials came from, and what the ship’s overall characteristics were including its quality in terms of materials and its sailing ability. On the other hand, library and archival research in Japan mainly focuses on the wreck of the Kanrin-maru in 1871. Indeed, relatively many studies about the Kanrin-maru have been conducted in Japan, but all of them are interested in its building or its first trans-Pacific voyage. No academic work upon its fate in 1871 has been conducted yet. �Preliminary Results Desk research in the Netherlands In 1853, Japan handed over their first request for warships and the like to Donker Curtius (1813-1879), contemporary opperhoofd or chief trader (1852-1855) of the Dutch trading post on Dejima. Among the vessels requested by Japan were a number of screw-propelled warships (Chijs, 1867). The Japanese had only just learned of the existence of steamships in 1849 through Dutch books (Arima, 1964), while Perry’s impressive ‘black ships’ were the first real-life steamships appearing before Japanese eyes. Thus in terms of technology, the Japanese knew they fully depended on the knowledge of the Dutch about these type of ships. The Japanese therefore largely left it to the Dutch to decide which type of vessel would be sent first and what equipment it would have in terms of propellant (screw or paddlewheel), armament and other specifics (Chijs, 1867). One of the earliest mentions of the first screw-propelled steam warship that was to be made for the shogun – and which turn out to be the Kanrinmaru – can be found in a report by contemporary Minster of Colonies, C.F. Pahud (1803-1873). In his report transcribed by Van der Chijs (1867: pp.136), he states that this vessel destined for Japan’s navy had to be built in such a way that it could also serve in the Dutch navy in case the Japanese government would refuse the vessel for whatever reason. It was thought that such a ship could not be purchased, neither could it be constructed on the Navy’s shipyards in the Netherlands nor in the Dutch Indies. Thus it was decided that the vessel had to be constructed on a private shipyard. �Apparently in order to meet these requirements, it was decided somewhere along the way that this vessel had to be identical to a screwpropelled corvette destined for the Dutch navy that was about to be built around the same time on Fop Smit’s shipyard in Kinderdijk. This vessel was given the name Bali, while its sister ship was named the Japan, which later became the Shogunate’s Kanrin-maru. In a technical report evaluating the performance of the Bali, Naval Engineer Huygens (1857) states that the Bali and the Japan were indeed identical. With this and the above in mind, be it with certain reservations, we may presume that the Kanrin-maru and the Bali were thus virtually identical to each other in terms of construction and onboard technology. This allows taking into account the detailed contemporary reports on the characteristics of the Bali, since not much details are known about the Kanrin-maru specifically at this point in time. The Bali and the Kanrin-maru were constructed at the shipyard of Fop Smit in Kinderdijk (a UNESCO World Heritage Site). The construction plans were designed by J.W.L. van Oordt, Head Engineer of the Dutch navy. The vessel had a waterline length of 40.8 m, a beam of 8.5 m and a displacement tonnage of 619 tons. It had a depth at the bow of 3.4 m and at the stern of 3.85 m. As screw-propelled steamships with sails, both vessels represented the state-of-the-art in naval engineering. Steam-powered screw propellers were still a fairly novel technology (Oosten, 1972), having been only introduced in the American, British and French navies in the 1840s, while the Dutch had only just welcomed the Medusa as their first screwpropelled steam warship in 1853. In that respect, at least on paper, the Dutch Navy indeed showed intent of catering the Shogun’s request for the latest in naval technology. �The vessel was mainly constructed of wood, though at this point further details about the materials used in its construction remain unclear. Additional efforts will be made to find more information regarding the materials used, as this could allow assessing the quality of these materials in terms of endurance. This in turn could help in assessing the chances of finding preserved remains of the Kanrin-maru. The keel of the Kanrin-maru was laid down in 1856 and the vessel was launched in 1857. After it was launched, the company of one Mr. Rietschoten had fitted its three masts with schooner rigging, while its machinery and boilers were built and installed by the ‘Nederlandsche Stoombootmaatschappij’ at Feyenoord (Rotterdam) that same year. This machinery was coal-fired and could nominally produce about 100 metric horsepower. Tests with the Bali proved that it could reach a top speed of 8¼ nautical miles per hour, or 8¼ knots (Huygens, 1857), although this also depended on the effectiveness of the stokers (Huygens, 1860). The Kanrin-maru, or the Japan as it was still called around that time, was readied in March 1857 and set sail from the Netherlands on March the 25th. Sent along with it was the second Marine Detachment, led by Commander Knight W.J.C. Huyssen van Kattendyke (1816-1866). In his diaries (Huyssen van Kattendyke, 1860), he explains that the construction of the Japan suffered several (undisclosed) delays. These delays may have been due to problems similar to the Bali which revolved around the effectiveness of the screw (Huygens, 1857) but were resolved subsequently. The Dutch Navy and the Ministry of Colonies followed the Kanrin-maru’s maiden voyage with great interest, since its performance also had implications for the Bali which was destined for the Dutch Indies. With this in mind, Huyssen van Kattendyke explains in his diary that he sailed �straight to Lisbon (Portugal) in order to test the vessel in all circumstances. Upon arrival in Lisbon he concluded that the vessel was very fast and had met his expectations. On the 21st of September that same year, thus after a voyage of 180 days, the Japan arrived in front of Nagasaki bay. It was officially handed over to the Japanese in October 1857 and was renamed into Kanrin-maru. A great part of the Nagasaki’s Naval Training School then took place on the Kanrin-maru. Training included all aspects of naval training, ranging from deck and rigging lessons to familiarizing with the machinery and many more aspects. Desk Research in Japan Emphasis of the desk research in Japan was put on the events past 1868 to around 1871 when it wrecked. Literature and archival research was conducted to reveal more information about the period in between these years. Unfortunately, however, the trustworthy historical materials, in particular, between 1869 and 1871, are extremely scarce. No photo of the Kanrin-maru has not been found yet either in the Netherlands or in Japan. Only one painting of the Kanrin-maru by Yujiro Suzufuji, an officer of the Kanrin-maru during the trans-Pacific voyage is kept in the Yokohama Archives of History (Fig. 1.), which is titled ‘the rough voyage of the Kanrinmaru’. No Japanese newspaper reported the wreck of the Kanrin-maru in 1871, partly because in Japan at that time no paper had been published systematically yet. Its wreck was said to have happened, therefore, sometimes on 19th September 1871 due to stormy weather, or sometimes on 20th September 1871 due to bad maneuvering the ship. At that time, two U. S. officers handled the Kanrin-maru, viz. one was Francis Etienne, who perhaps was �the captain, and the other was Charline SeLoger Train. Although the official record submitted to Hokkaido says nothing, on 20th September 1871 the drunken U.S. captain seems to have made the Kanrin-maru run ashore on a reef off the village of Izumisawa at Kikonai Municipality (Goda, 2010). Preliminary Conclusions Desk research in the Netherlands thus far has shown that the Kanrinmaru, at least to contemporary Dutch naval officers, was indeed a vessel that represented the latest in naval architecture and met expectations accordingly. Furthermore, it became part of one of the means available to the Dutch government in its effort to reinforce what was left of the centuries old special bond with Japan. This, and its historical voyage to the US in 1860 as well as its involvement in the Boshin War, provides support for its historical significance today and in the end adds to the list of reasons for pursuing sustainable preservation of this special remnant that has become part of Dutch-Japanese shared cultural heritage. Be it tangible or intangible, above water or underwater. At the time of writing, initial research has yet to be completed. This includes the remaining parts of desk research in Japan and the Netherlands, as well as fieldwork. Based on the information gathered thus far, it still is difficult to assess whether or not the wreck of Kanrin-maru could still be lying on the ocean floor near Kikonai Municipality. If continuation is indeed desired, detailed plans for an underwater survey using multibeam or sidescan sonar equipment will have to be made, taking into account the marine environmental conditions in a demarcated research area. �Footnotes 1 . See, for example, the Holland-Kyushu programme, initiated by Dutch Culture and the Embassy of the Netherlands in Tokyo and the consulategeneral in Osaka: http://hollandkyushu.com/en/. 2 . https://culturalheritageagency.nl/en 鎖国時代, literally meaning ‘closed country period’, though in reality Japan’s isolation from the outside world was highly relative. 3. 4 . 出島, meaning ‘artificial island’ in Japanese. References Arima, S., 1964. The Western influence on Japanese military science, shipbuilding, and navigation. Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 19 (3/4): 352379. Chijs, van der, J.A., 1867. Neêrlands streven tot openstelling van Japan voor de wereldhandel. Uit officieele, grootendeels onuitgegeven bescheiden toegelicht. Koninklijk Instituut voor de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Amsterdam. Goda, I., 2010. The Kanrin-maru. Hokkaido Shinbun, Sapporo. Heeffer, A., 2012. Dutch arithmetic, samurai and war ships: teaching of Western mathematics in pre-Meiji Japan. History and Pedagogy of Mathematics (Proceedings), Daejeon: 551-561. Huygens, H., 1857. Z. M. schroef-schooner Bali. Verhandelingen en berigten betrekkelijk het zeewezen en de zeevaartkunde, Vol. 17: 178183. Huygens, H., 1860. Bijdrage tot de kennis van de schroefstoomwerktuigen der Nederlandsche marine. Second edition. G. Hulst van Keulen, Amsterdam. Huyssen van Kattendijke, W. J. C., 1860. Uittreksel uit het dagboek van gedurende zijn verblijf in Japan in 1857, 1858 en 1859. Van Stockum, The Hague. Kogure, M., 2008. National Prestige and Economic Interest: Dutch Diplomacy Towards Japan 1850–1863. Shaker Publishing, Maastricht. �National Archives of the Netherlands, 2012. Shared Cultural Heritage Policy Framework 2013-2016. (http://en.nationaalarchief.nl/sites/default/files/docs/gce_beleidskader_20 13-2016_definitief_-_eng_doca.pdf) Oosten, van, F. C., 1972. Schepen onder stoom: De geboorte van het stoomschip. De Boer Maritieme Handboeken, Bussum. Pompe van Meerdervoort, J. L. C., 1868. Vijf jaren in Japan (1857-1863). Bijdragen tot de kennis van het Japansche keizerrijk en zijne bevolking, Vol. 2. Van Den Heuvel & Van Santen, Leiden. Seaton, A. E., 1909. The Screw Propeller and Other Competing Instruments for Marine Propulsion. Charles Griffin & Company, London. Stapelkamp, H., 1999. Gerhardus Fabius (1806-1888): Een leven voor de marine (PhD thesis). Universiteit Leiden, Leiden. Biographies Leon Derksen is a member of ICOMOS Netherlands and an independent researcher in the field of Dutch maritime archeology and cultural heritage. He received his MA from the University of Groningen in 2014 where he studied Prehistory and Protohistory, track Maritime Archaeology. His publications include his MA-thesis entitled Tracing Remnants of Dutch-Japanese Affairs in the Maritime Cultural Landscape of Japan (2014) as well as Shared Cultural Heritage of the Netherlands and Japan (RCE, 2015) which was co-written with Marike Klos. Akifumi Iwabuchi is Professor of Maritime Anthropology and Nautical Archaeology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. He is the ICOMOSICUCH National Representative for Japan, being also Directors of the Japan Society for Nautical Research, of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and of the Forum on the Oceanic State of Japan. He received his PhD from the University of Oxford in 1990. His publications include The People of the Alas Valley �(Clarendon Press, 1994) and Cultural Heritage under the Sea: An Introduction to Underwater Archaeology (Kagaku-Dojin, 2012). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Shared Underwater Cultural Heritage of Japan and the Netherlands: the Kanrin-maru Description An account of the resource In 2014, a non-exhaustive inventory of the shared cultural heritage of the Netherlands and Japan was made by the Dutch government in the context of what the Netherlands calls its ‘Shared Cultural Heritage Policy’. This inventory resulted in an overview of shared cultural heritage grouped into the categories ‘maritime heritage’, ‘built heritage’, ‘museum collections’ and ‘archives’. Spread over seven different themes and linking to an equal number of time periods, the inventory provided insights into where opportunities for cultural collaboration would lie. One of the opportunities of collaboration found revolved around the potentially preserved Dutch shipwrecks in Japanese waters. This sparked the incentive to propose a project-based partnership through a collaborative research project between the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, to locate and research the shipwreck of the Kanrin-maru. The project, which commenced in 2017, includes the involvement of Dutch and Japanese researchers to facilitate the transfer of knowledge, as well as the involvement of trainees in order to ensure capacity building. The Kanrin-maru was a warship specially built in the Netherlands in 1856 on order of the Tokugawa Shogunate Navy. It was brought to Japan in 1857, but in 1869 during the Boshin War between Shogunate and Imperial forces it was taken over by the Imperial Japanese Navy, and remained in the service of the Imperial Meiji government until it foundered in the Tsugaru Strait in 1871. Although an anchor thought to belong to the Kanrin-maru was found near where it was said to have foundered, no wreck has been found to date. In November 2017, fieldwork in Hokkaido, including material analysis upon its anchor, as well as library or archival research is to be done by Dutch and Japanese archaeologists. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Leon Derksen Akifumi Iwabuchi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Leon Derksen Akifumi Iwabuchi Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b5a07bd794490d688d66b73e322c9f8a.pdf e7f8ae641174dd9f1248d675050774e0 PDF Text Text The 17th Century Wooden Shipwreck off Hatsushima Island, Japan Hayato Kondo Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology hkondo@kaiyodai.ac.jp Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology iwabuchi@kaiyodai.ac.jp Toshiaki Hayashibara Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology sea.museum@gmail.com Abstract The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) at Fukuoka and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, which is a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network, have researched upon the 17th century wooden shipwreck off Hatsushima Island in front of Atami city, Shizuoka Prefecture, since 2011. The shipwreck lies on the seabed at the depth of 20 metres, 200 metres from the western shore. It consists mainly of a cargo of roof tiles or grinding bowls and some parts of the wooden hull. Judging from them, the original vessel seems to have been a 17th or 18th century wooden freighter or kaisen (廻船), which left a port of western part of Japan for the capital town of Edo; most of well made roof tiles were not made in eastern part at that time. Because most of the roof tiles are high-quality and one of them is marked by the wild ginger trefoil coat of arms of the Shogunate family, they might mean to have been used for the Edo Shogunate castle. In 2011 and 2012, archaeologists with financial assistance from the Nippon Foundation, did the submersible survey upon this wreck site, about which local fishermen had already known to identify its exact position. In 2013, then, its bathymetry was made with a multibeam sonar. In order to make a precisely measured drawing of the 5 metre square wreck site, an AUV in 2013 and a ROV in 2015, both of which were developed uniquely by Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, and divers in 2016 were deployed to collect numerous underwater photos to generate 3D photogrammetric models with photogrammetry software Agisoft ‘PhotoScan’. Key words: Shipwreck, survey, Photogrammetry �Introduction Hatsushima Island is approximately 4km around and located in the Sagami bay off east coast of Izu peninsula. In terms of its administration, it belongs to Atami city, Shizuoka Prefecture. From the mainland city, we could always see the island and vice versa, and regular ferry services are frequently available between them (Fig. 1). Hatsushima Island has approximately 200 inhabitants, most of whom engage in fishery and tourist industries. There is only one elementary school, about 30 guest houses, and a resort hotel on it. The surrounding sea around Hatsushima Island is managed by the Fisheries Cooperative Association of the Hatsushima Island; without permission from the association, neither recreation fishing nor fun diving around the island is allowed. Fig. 1: Location of Hatsushima Island. �The so-called Hatsushima shipwreck lies on the seabed at the depth of 20 metres, being 200 metres from the western shore. Its cargo mainly consists of roof tiles or grinding bowls and some parts of wooden hulls. Judging from them, the original vessel seems to have been a 17th or 18th century wooden freighter or kaisen (廻船), which left a port of western part of Japan, might be Osaka or Hyogo, for the capital town of Edo, which is currently known as Tokyo. During the Edo period, Japan was in national isolation, called sakoku (鎖国); consequently, there was only limited contact with foreign countries, while domestic seaborne transportation systems were highly developed. Almost all areas in Japan were connected by the shipping traffic with wooden freighters. Using ships, rice was transported from northern Japan to Edo or Osaka, which was the largest town in western Japan; earthenware from western Japan to Edo; marine products from Hokkaido to western Japan, and so on. The shipwreck site was officially found in the latter half of 1970s by a constructor of underwater pipelines which supplied pure water to Hatsushima Island from mainland. Even before, however, it has been known by fishermen that roof tiles and grindstones have sometimes been caught by fishing nets. In addition, the islanders have inherited legends testifying that at the shipwreck, night after night, a sodden samurai who wore armour used at that time, landed on the western shore of Hatsushima island from the bottom of the sea. Since the area was opened as a diving spot, some leisure divers have recognized the shipwreck. Because the Fisheries Cooperative Association of the Hatsushima Island has strictly managed the wreck, its destruction has been prevented somehow. �A series of surveys have been done mainly by the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) and by Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology is the only an active academic society for underwater cultural heritage in Japan. Although its headquarters is situated at Fukuoka city, Kyushu, the institute has not only Japanese members but also foreign scholars including from Korea and Germany. It was founded in 1986 under the name of the Kyushu Okinawa Society for Underwater Archaeology or KOSUWA, and then in 2005 it became a nonprofit organization. The president director is Kenzo Hayashida, who is an expert advisor of the Submerged Sites Study Committee at the Agency for Cultural Affairs. The institute has regally published a journal titled The Journal of Underwater Archaeological Studies which is the only one periodical specialized about underwater cultural heritage in Japan. In November 2011 and in February 2012, several ARIUA underwater archaeologists did the underwater survey upon the Hatsushima shipwreck site to locate its exact position. The third diving campaign was executed on April 2012, which was covered by a TV programme, and the fourth diving campaign was executed on October 2012 in order to create plans for future surveys and excavations. On March 2013, the multibeam sonar survey and pilot survey using an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV), which was built by Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, were executed (Kondo, 2017). Figure 2 shows the bathymetry around the site generated by a multibeam sonar mounted. A group of embossments surrounded in a circle shows the wreck site. multibeam survey was a SONIC 2024. A sonar used for this �Fig. 2: Bathymetry of the archaeological site. Archaeological Relics The shipwreck site itself measures 4.7m from east to west and 5m from north to south. In an area of 5m square, the freighter’s cargos, such as roof tiles, grinding bowls, and whetstones are spread (Fig. 3). Although decorative ridge-end tiles, pan eaves-tiles, and whetstones are found dispersedly, other cargo components such as pan-tiles, round eaves-tiles, and grinding bowls are well aligned. It could be imagined that, when this freighter sank, the heavy cargos might be placed bottom on the wooden hull. The number of pan-tiles, round eaves-tiles, and grinding bowls were spread far more than that of decorative ridge-end tiles, pan eaves-tiles, and whetstones. As for the hull, its greater part seems to be buried inside the sandy seabed; after the sand is push aside, a few wooden plates from the ship could be observed between the group of aligned pan-tiles and grinding bowls. �Fig. 3: Rough drawing of the wreck site. At the southern part of the relics-concentrated site, pan-tiles are aligned in five rows and two layers to the east-west directions; and others are aligned in one row and one layer to the north-south directions. About the northern part, round eaves-tiles are aligned in two rows and two layers. Contrarily, pan eaves-tiles and decorative ridge-end tiles are sporadically spread to relatively outside of the relics-concentrated site. Judging from their forms and characteristics, the grinding bowls were produced from the middle of the 17th century to the beginning of the 18th century in the Tamba region of western Japan, which is now in Hyogo Prefecture. This Tamba ware or Tamba-Tachikui ware had started to be made around 1000 years ago, and then became famous in Japan �especially for its grinding bowls. Before the 18th century almost all Japanese grinding bowls came either from the area of Tamba or from Seto. After the middle of the 18th century, however, the cheap bowls produced in a town of Sakai, near Osaka, became much more popular. As for roof tiles, the original production area might be Awaji Island, which is also now in Hyogo Prefecture. Throughout Japanese History, we had three famous roof tile production areas, viz. Awaji Island at Hyogo, Sanshu at Aichi, and Sekishu at Shimane. The roof tile production at Awaji Island is said to have started around the 6th or the 7th centuries. The roof tiles produced at Awaji Island are characterized by their beautiful silvery colour, which could be observed on some roof tiles at the Hatsushima wreck. Indeed, it would be possible that not all roof tiles belonging to the wreck came from Awaji Island, but other roof tiles might have also been produced at some tile kilns, at least near Awaji Island, such as kilns around Osaka or Kyoto. Most of roof tiles found on the shipwreck seem to be relatively high-quality products. One of the decorative ridge-end tiles has a well-known mark, its centre displays the wild ginger trefoil coat of arms (三葉葵文) of the Tokugawa Shogunate family or clan. The decorative cap of each round eaves-tile presents the crest of three comma-shaped figures (連珠三巴文) in a circle without circular line. On the other hand, the decorative cap of each pan eaves-tile has the ‘Osaka-typed’ motif of arabesque (均整唐草 文) which is marked by elongated calyxes and y-shaped sides both on the right and left. All the roof tiles were polished-up beautifully that even did not display trace of polishing marks. �These high-qualitied roof tiles seem to have been produced especially for the Edo Shogunate castle as one of the decorative ridge-end tiles that has the crest of the Tokugawa family or clan. In 1657, the Great Fire of Meireki burned down more than the half districts of Edo, including the castle; therefore, the roof tiles of the Hatsushima wreck might be ordered for the reconstruction attempt of the castle after the fire. Also, there is a record that the Genroku earthquake hit Edo in 1703, yet the physical damage on the castle against the Edo castle was minor; only some gates or guard houses were reported to be collapsed. Consequently, it is natural to consider that the roof tiles were to be used for the repair works after the fire rather than the earthquake. The roof tiles of the Hatsushima wreck must be specially ordered products by the Tokugawa Shogunate family or clan, while the grinding bowls seem to have been general-purpose products. As this freighter carried both products, it was not a ship owned by the government but rather a private merchant vessel. During the Edo period, two types or systems of mercantile operations were recorded. One was ‘kaizumi (買積)’, in which vessels itself went to productions, factories, or industrial areas to buy goods directly in order to bring those goods back home ports or to bring them to the big cities such Edo or Osaka to sell. The other one was ‘unchinzumi (運賃積)’, in which vessels carried cargos for customers, for instance the government and other merchants, based on orders and requests of customers. The Hatsushima wreck did belong to the latter system. The wreck of the same trading type was discovered off of Kozushima Island (Iwabuchi, 2012). Survey after 2015 �The main purpose of the survey after 2015 was to map the wreck site accurately using a 3D photogrammetry technique. The obtained data will help us to understand the whole archaeological site off Hatsushima Island including the shipwreck. Presumably the evaluation of this site by using this data would open a way that the site will be registered as a place of buried cultural properties which will be a legal evidence to help the site. Another purpose of this survey is to consider the potential usage of underwater vehicles and underwater photogrammetry for archaeological site. Methodology: A remotely operated vehicle (ROV) was operated to take pictures while keeping close distance over the wreck for mapping. Divers were attended at the seabed to prevent any accidents. To complement for the mapping, visual inspections and measuring were operated by divers. The survey area was set to 5m square focusing on the relicsconcentrated area. A small boat was locally hired to serve as a research vessel which delivered divers and instruments from pier to the site; and operation of the ROV was also done from the boat. The survey operations were completed by both photo-shooting by the ROV and visual inspection by divers; any destructive operations such as excavation and rising artefacts of the relics were not executed. Homemade Remotely Operated Vehicle: A simple ROV was designed and constructed by Kondo laboratory of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. Figure 4 shows the general arrangement of the vehicle. The length of the ROV is 1m, width is 0.58m and the depth is 0.48m (excluding hanging points). The weight is about 70kg, yet it is neutrally buoyant in seawater. Four propeller thrusters are mounted on the vehicle; two horizontal thrusters are mounted horizontally to make the vehicle �move forward and backward; the other two thrusters are mounted vertically (see Fig. 4) to make the vehicle to move upward and downward. Fig. 4: General arrangement of the homemade ROV. Four cameras are mounted on the vehicle as observational equipment. Main camera has Type 4/3 sized, 3296 x 2472 resolution CCD. An F mount lens was attached to the camera. The camera is sealed in a homemade pressure bottle with underwater connectors. Still images are transmitted from the ROV to the surface boat via an umbilical cable, and stored in a laptop computer. This main camera is mounted vertically/perpendicularly as the camera face-down to the seabed. Other used cameras were wearable cameras (GoPro), one camera was mounted perpendicularly to take top-view movies. Other two were paired as works as stereo cameras, and mounted slightly diagonally angled down to take slant-view movies of the site. Three original underwater LED lights were also mounted to provide lighting. A syntactic foam, which is a buoyancy material made of glass microspheres and compound was mounted on top of the vehicle. A main pressure bottle made of aluminum alloy was attached beneath the buoyancy material. Microcomputers, control units, a depth sensor and batteries were stored in the main bottle. The main bottle was relatively �heavy to make the long separation between centers of buoyancy and gravity to provide better stability for the vehicle’s motions. An umbilical cable which encloses ethernet and power lines connected the main bottle and a laptop computer on the boat. Operator can control the vehicle’s motion and onboard equipment from the laptop. The structure of the ROV consists of High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE), which is positively buoyant in seawater, free from corrosion and easy to let any equipment to be mounted. Results: Although divers supported the ROV (Fig. 5) because of electric failure of thrusters, an orthophoto mosaic of the wreck (Fig. 6) was obtained from 3D spatial data generated by photogrammetric processing using digital images taken by the ROV. Agisoft ‘PhotoScan’ was used for photogrammetric processing. Although blank parts can be seen on the orthomosaic because of the bad image conditions, distortions of the orthomosaic are minimum, and this orthomosaic can be used for archaeological drawings. �Fig. 5: A photo taken by a diver during the Survey. Fig. 6: Orthophoto mosaic of the wreck site. �In November 2016, to obtain better 3D photogrammetric data, several ARUIA divers took numerous underwater photos of the Hatsushima shipwreck. At that time, two grapnels were discovered at north-east from the wreck site (about 10 metres apart from the site). However, the relationship between these anchors and the wreck is still under investigation. Both in 2015 and in 2016, the open briefing sessions of the survey for the general public living in Hatsushima Island were organized by ARIUA and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology during the campaigns. Many islanders, including members of the Fisheries Cooperative Association of the Hatsushima Island, attended the sessions and displayed their high interests to this underwater cultural heritage (Hayashibara et al., 2016). We have once again understood that working together with local people is necessary. Additionally, foreign researchers participated in the surveys at Hatsushima Island both in 2015 and in 2016. In 2015, one Indonesian student from the graduate school of Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology received hands-on training of underwater archaeology in this field campaign. This was a part of the programmes of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network at TUMSAT. In 2016, two Italian scholars from the International Research Institute for Archaeology and Ethnology, one Dutch from ICOMOS Netherlands, and one American from the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, attended the survey to help the underwater investigations. Complying with the UNESCO international standard, ARIUA and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology are planning to make good use of this underwater archaeological site for education and training, not only as a touristic attraction. �Conclusions and Perspectives An orthophoto mosaic of the wreck was generated from 3D spatial data generated by photogrammetric processing using digital images taken by the ROV and divers. Line art (2D site plan) for the cultural heritage documentation is under drawing. Currently, the team is planning more data collection in order to obtain sectional drawings. The ROV operation was executed twice and its total time is about one hour; this is a large saving for divers’ archaeological sites. underwater operation time for underwater The advantage of underwater vehicles for archaeological survey has been confirmed by the orthophoto mosaic of the wreck. Also, we are planning to evaluate the validity of increasing the image quality and usage of underwater technological instruments. The goal of these investigations is to produce a site map as an orthophoto mosaic, and share detailed and accurate information of the site with the Board of Education of Atami city. Although it has already recognized its existence, the Hatsushima shipwreck has not designated as a ‘Buried Cultural Property’ or ‘Historic Site’ under the Japanese domestic law of the Cultural Properties Protection Act (Hayashibara, 2013). The board of education believes that more detailed information is required, for instance its historical values or current situation including the complete picture of the hull buried beneath the seabed. Without raising all archaeological components of the site, which is against the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, its general view of the site could not be appeared and observed. The other reason why the board of education does not want to protect this site under the civil law is that the Agency for Cultural Affairs has ordered every board of education to execute the Cultural Properties Protection Act upon all sites before the Middle Age, �but this order also implies that it is not priority to apply this order to heritage sites dated after the Early Modern Age. Acknowledgements The research in 2011 and in 2012 was carried out with financial assistance from the Nippon Foundation, in 2013 from the Canon Foundation, and in 2015 from the Asahi Shimbun Foundation, to which our thanks are due. We also wish to thank ARIUA members and graduate or undergraduate students at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology who helped our surveys. References Hayashibara, T., 2013. Off Hatsushima Island, Atami city. Archaeology Quarterly, Vol. 123: 31-33. Hayashibara, T., Kondo, H., and Iwabuchi, A., 2016. Making a site map of underwater cultural heritage off Hatushima Island. ARIUA Newsletter, No. 5: 2-11. Iwabuchi, A., 2012. Cultural Heritage under the Sea: An Introduction to Underwater Archaeology. Kagaku-Dojin, Kyoto. Kondo, H., 2017. Underwater techniques to exploit new possibilities of deepwater archaeology. In K. Hayashida (Ed.), Underwater Cultural Heritage: History Resuscitated from the Sea, Bensei, Tokyo: 175-203. Biographies Hayato Kondo is Associate Professor at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. His research interests include ocean-related autonomous system, high-resolution ocean observation, AUV system design, and its payload system including optical and acoustic sensors. He received his PhD from the University of Tokyo in 2002 on naval architecture and ocean engineering, M.Eng. and B.Eng. from Waseda University on mechanical engineering. He is a co-chair of the technology committee on unmanned �maritime vehicles and submersibles, Oceanic Engineering Society, IEEE. He is also a member of the Japan ICOMOS National Committee. Akifumi Iwabuchi is Professor of Maritime Anthropology and Nautical Archaeology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. He is the ICOMOSICUCH National Representative for Japan, being also Directors of the Japan Society for Nautical Research, of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology, and of the Forum on the Oceanic State of Japan. He received his PhD from the University of Oxford in 1990. His publications include The People of the Alas Valley (Clarendon Press, 1994) and Cultural Heritage under the Sea: An Introduction to Underwater Archaeology (Kagaku-Dojin, 2012). Toshiaki Hayashibara was born in Tokyo in 1960. He received his MA from Toyo University in 1986. He is a director of the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology at Fukuoka and lecturer in underwater archaeology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology. He is also a member of the Japanese Archaeological Association. His archaeological specialties include prehistorical bronze wares in Japan, underwater cultural heritage, and heritage management. In the process of participating in underwater researches all over Japan, he has most gradually come to have his doubts about treatments of underwater archaeological sites and their managements in Japan. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The 17th Century Wooden Shipwreck off Hatsushima Island, Japan Description An account of the resource The Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (ARIUA) at Fukuoka and Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, which is a member institution of the UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network, have researched upon the 17th century wooden shipwreck off Hatsushima Island in front of Atami city, Shizuoka Prefecture, since 2011. The shipwreck lies on the seabed at the depth of 20 metres, 200 metres from the western shore. It consists mainly of a cargo of roof tiles or grinding bowls and some parts of the wooden hull. Judging from them, the original vessel seems to have been a 17th or 18th century wooden freighter or kaisen ( 廻船 ), which left a port of western part of Japan for the capital town of Edo; most of well made roof tiles were not made in eastern part at that time. Because most of the roof tiles are high-quality and one of them is marked by the wild ginger trefoil coat of arms of the Shogunate family, they might mean to have been used for the Edo Shogunate castle. In 2011 and 2012, archaeologists with financial assistance from the Nippon Foundation, did the submersible survey upon this wreck site, about which local fishermen had already known to identify its exact position. In 2013, then, its bathymetry was made with a multibeam sonar. In order to make a precisely measured drawing of the 5 metre square wreck site, an AUV in 2013 and a ROV in 2015, both of which were developed uniquely by Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, and divers in 2016 were deployed to collect numerous underwater photos to generate 3D photogrammetric models with photogrammetry software Agisoft ‘PhotoScan’. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hayato Kondo Akifumi Iwabuchi Toshiaki Hayashibara Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Hayato Kondo Akifumi Iwabuchi Toshiaki Hayashibara Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8389f3483fc253460abc711ae5c50a9e.pdf 8d7f34189f22bbb8807ae8b3b021a600 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Shared Underwater Cultural Heritage of Japan and the Netherlands: Continuing the Search for the Kanrin-maru in 2019 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Leon Derksen Akifumi Iwabuchi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Derksen, Leon, and Akifumi Iwabuchi. 2021. “Shared Underwater Cultural Heritage of Japan and the Netherlands: Continuing the Search for the Kanrin-maru in 2019.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/668 Description An account of the resource In November 2019, the Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology (TUMSAT) and the International Programme for Maritime Heritage of the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands (RCE) continue their joint research on the shared cultural heritage surrounding the Kanrin-maru, a warship built in the Netherlands and delivered to the Japanese government in 1857. It wrecked in Hokkaido in 1871 and has been lost since. The collaboration between the RCE and TUMSAT was established to commemorate the shared cultural heritage of Japan and the Netherlands. Previous joint efforts included a significance assessment in 2017 and a dive survey in 2018. While a shipwreck has yet to be found, continuation of the search has garnered wide support from important stakeholders including two distinct societies. Furthermore, intangible aspects of the Kanrin-maru heritage proved to be just as important to the communities involved, as testified by the stories that are still going around. This called for continuation to preserve this heritage. The project will therefore encompass two approaches to answer the main research question how could the tangible and intangible heritage related to the Kanrin-maru be sustainably preserved. To this end, a marine geophysical survey is to be conducted in search of wreckage material at a specific target location thought to be most promising during the dive survey. Concurrently, oral information will be collected in order to bring to light the stories and multivocality attached to the Kanrin-maru heritage. This could provide insights in how tangible and intangible heritage is valued differently in different parts of the world. Such an integral approach may enhance the protection and valorisation of underwater cultural heritage and its role in society. The project will furthermore involve Japanese and Dutch researchers, as well as Japanese maritime archaeology students and volunteers to allow for knowledge exchange and capacity building. Asia-Pac Session 2 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0db38065a79da7a7775cd9bd20808d9e.pdf 89409eca6338d1458e02f3fb125cd6db PDF Text Text Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia An interview with Session Chair, Akifumi Iwabuchi, 1. Why did you choose to organize this session? In 2011 Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, to which Session 9 organizers belong, organized an independent session by the same title as session 9 (“History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia”) at the first Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Manila. At that time, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology had the session, together with the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology in Fukuoka, Japan. However, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology has decided to organize one session by itself alone in Hawaii. I am extremely happy to have eleven presenters at Session 9, not only from Japan, but also from China, Korea, and the U.S. 2. What did you hope to gain from it? Since the 1950’s, the Mediterranean Sea in Europe has been, in a sense, the centre of underwater archaeology. Because of some political reasons, indeed, underwater archaeology in Asian region has been underdeveloped, but in terms of maritime history, as we all know, Asian waters are as important as the Mediterranean Sea. Recently some scholars have named Asian waters between East and Southeast Asia the “Asian Mediterranean.” In the very near future, presumably, this area also will be another world-centre of underwater archaeology. I hope that this Session 9 will trigger off the new era of maritime archaeology in Asia. 3. How does your session fit into the overall theme of the conference? As far as I understand, this conference treats the management and protection strategies of underwater cultural heritage, the regional cooperation, and the technical and ethical issues related to underwater archaeology in the Asia-Pacific region. As we see, papers and presentations at Session 9 well succeeded in widely covering these themes concerning East Asia. �4. What do you hope to see accomplished in your research area (as represented by the papers in this session) over the next ten or more years? Because of some political reasons, as I told, underwater archaeology has been underdeveloped in East Asia. Perhaps even still it is so owing to territorial disputes over the sea in Asian waters. On the other hand, however, to study underwater cultural heritage has no national boundaries. Fortunately in Japan, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology has just become a member university of UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. It is the only one member university from the Asian region. For example, if the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage in Korea, the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage in China, and my university in Japan could work together in the field of underwater archaeology, the famous quote “the pen is mightier than the sword” will be materialized in this region. 5. What are some of the greatest challenges that your research area (as represented by the papers in this session) faces at this time? Among East Asian and Southeast Asian countries, still only Cambodia has ratified the UNESCO 2001 convention. In contrast, nearly 50 other nations worldwide have already ratified this convention. Even in Asia, including Japan, underwater archaeologists cannot work without referring to the UNESCO convention. I am not a politician, but hopefully every Asian government will start considering ratification for future international cooperation. 6. Are there any areas (geographic, thematic, or otherwise) within your topic (as represented by the papers in this session) that you feel are underrepresented? In Japan, we have just started to discuss how to deal with Japanese shipwrecks during the First and the Second World Wars and human remains therein. According to the UNESCO convention, all shipwrecks from World War II are not considered underwater cultural heritage until 2045, but many underwater archaeologists have already worked �them in the Pacific region. I think it is high time that underwater archaeologists in countries concerned including Japan could establish an international research body or organization for studying the shipwrecks as underwater cultural heritage. 7. What do you suggest to draw more attention to those areas? In particular, at such an international gathering we will have to discuss how to treat human remains from war shipwrecks. different from Japanese philosophy. As for them, Christianity is completely According to the traditional Japanese belief, human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage. 8. Any other comments you would like to make. Although this conference is titled “Asia-Pacific Regional Conference”, unfortunately, there are no Chinese, Koreans, or Japanese belonging to their home academic institutions on the organizing committee of APCONF 2014. Furthermore, Pacific island nations such as Federated States of Micronesia or Tonga are also underrepresented. Hopefully, the organizing committee of APCONF 2017 will have some East Asian or Pacific representation within the structure. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Akifumi Iwabuchi. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi and Tatsuya Nakada Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/eb52ee3672269843aa46edc861a0066a.pdf 011526e0bd94b666e598385a8fcde3d7 PDF Text Text Stone Tidal Weirs, Underwater Cultural Heritage or Not? Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan, 135-8533 Email: iwabuchi@kaiyodai.ac.jp Abstract The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale in semicircular, half-quadrilateral, or almost linear shape. At the flood tide these weirs are submerged beneath the sea, while they emerge into full view at the ebb. Using with nets or tridents, fishermen, inside the weirs at low tides, catch fish that fails to escape because of the stone walls. They could be observed in the Pacific or the Yap Islands, in the Indian Ocean or the east African coast, and in the Atlantic or Oleron and Ré Islands. The UNESCO’s 2001 Convention regards this weir as underwater cultural heritage, because it has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years; stone tidal weirs have been built in France since the 11th century and a historical record notes that one weir in the Ryukyu Islands was built in the 17th century. In Japan every weir is considered not to be buried cultural property or cultural heritage investigated by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset studied by anthropologists, according to its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties. Even now in many countries stone tidal weirs are continuously built or restored by locals. Owing to the contemporary trait, it is not easy to preserve them under the name of underwater cultural heritage. Sometimes their bases were constructed several hundred years ago while their upper parts were repaired very recently. Key words: stone weir, tide, fish trap, underwater cultural heritage, 2001 Convention Introduction The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks, boulders, or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale (Fig. 1), in semicircular, circular, half-quadrilateral, horseshoe, keyhole, or almost linear shape. At the flow tide it is completely submerged beneath the sea, while at the ebb, in particular during the spring tide, it gives its entire figure on the tidal zone. Then, fishermen step into such weirs in order to catch fish, which fails to escape from them owing to the stone walls, by hand or with small fishing gears such as hand-nets or tridents (Fig. 2). Occasionally, some opening spaces between stone walls or tunnels under each wall are cut through a weir for the purpose of being drained water easily and being gathered preys; outside such spaces or tunnels, fishing nets, gratings, or basket traps are usually 1 �set. The passive fishing gear of stone tidal weir, which operates only on the strength of tidal amplitude, is different from the active fishing gear of fish fence or trapped chamber, which guides the fish into the specially arranged ends or labyrinths where they are trapped (Gabriel et al., 2005). Fig. 1 Stone Tidal Weir in Japan. (A. Iwabuchi) Usually, however, we cannot draw a hard and fast line between those two kinds of gears. Some stone tidal weirs have pectinate fish fences which project from their walls, and some have labyrinths at their outer tips. A Wide Distribution Stone tidal weirs could widely be observed all over the world, viz. in tidal zones of western Japan, southern Korea, Formosa, Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Polynesia, Melanesia, the Indian Ocean, and Europe. In Kyushu Island and its adjacent small islands of western Japan, stone tidal weirs are named ishihibi or sukki. Around Ariake Bay of Kyushu Island, approximately 200 weirs did exist around 1707, and then until recently no less than 100 stone tidal weirs were still on active service. The most famous one was ‘Bora-zukki’ or ‘Mullet Tidal Weir’, which was filled up innumerable mullet in 1881; there is a stone monument in commemoration of this event on the seashore near this stone tidal weir’s ruin. In the Ryukyu or Okinawa Islands, they are named kaki, which used to number about 100 (Iwabuchi, 2012a). In 1972, there were 27 stone tidal weirs around Kohama Island: 7were still on active service, 11 were abandoned, and 9 were left only their traces. Other than the last 9 disappeared weirs, however, it is said that many small stone tidal weirs which has already faded completely out from sight seem to have existed before. In this isle of the Ryukyu Islands some stone tidal weirs have semicircular shape and some have linear one. The length of stone walls varies in stone tidal weirs; the longest wall is approximately 800 m, while the shortest one is 200 m (Yano et al., 2002). Generally in Japan, including this isle, stone tidal weirs are owned not by professional fishers but by local peasants. 2 �In southern Korea, the stone tidal weirs are called dŏksal, sŏkpangryŏm, sŏkchŏn, or wŏn. Although they used to be important at Korean traditional fishery, their number has already decreased to an extreme. Around Jeju Island in the Korea Strait, 4 stone tidal weirs are still being used, in particular, for the sake of catching anchovies. In Formosa around the Penghu Islands, there are still approximately 500 stone tidal weirs named chioh-ho. In terms of their types, they could be divided into three. The first consists of traditional semicircular or horseshoe-shaped stone tidal weirs. The second is composed ofstone tidal weirs, each of which has several pectinate Fig. 2 Japanese Fisher. (A. Iwabuchi) short stone walls extended inward from an original stone wall; these short walls serve for driving fish as well as for dividing a stone tidal weir into several parts with each family’s fishing right. The last type is stone tidal weirs, each of which has at its tip a labyrinth as fish trap. In the Penghu Islands, the golden age of stone tidal weirs, which used to one of the most important fishing methods at coastal villages there, was 100 years ago, but their economic or social value has already been diminished mainly because of modern onshore fishery. Nowadays their touristic and educational purposes are more stressed (Tawa, 2007). In Southeast Asia, stone tidal weirs are reported to be in the Philippines, Thailand, and Indonesia. In the Philippines, the stone tidal weirs named atob around the Visaya Islands already existed at the beginning of the 20th century, and then still in the 1970’s new weirs kept being built or old weirs kept being restored (Tawa, 2007). Eastern Indonesia seems perhaps to be the world-centre of stone tidal weirs: 3 �Stone walls in tidal areas can be used in a similar manner, as is done in Indonesia (western Flores). There, a wall is built in the shallow water parallel to the sea shore. As in some of the Japanese stone walls, there are passages through which the fish can enter with the flood, but they are prevented from escaping on the ebb tide. The outlets are closed and the fish remain in the water-filled channel behind the walls until they are collected (Gabriel et al., 2005). In Indonesia, fish fences set in the form of labyrinths, made of brushwood, are ubiquitous on tidal zones, and stone tidal weirs as primordial type of such fish fences are still widely used; new ones are also continuously built by locals, in particular, when famine strikes maritime settlements. Almost all islands of Micronesia, including the Caroline, Palau, or Gilbert Islands, used to have millions of stone tidal weirs around them. In the Chuuk Islands the stone tidal weirs are named maai and in the Yap Islands aech. In the former, there are three types, i.e. conventional semicircular type, tennis racket-shaped one, and inverted keyhole-shaped one. In the last type, the seaward open side of each weir seems to be closed by fishing nets or trap baskets when the tide is on the ebb. In the Yap Islands, the stone circle of the Chuuk’s second type is transformed into the boomerang-shaped or arrow-shaped stone circle, inside which people catch fish at the ebb. There, however, some do not have ‘racket’ shafts lying perpendicular to the shoreline. In olden times, moreover, there inverted triangular stone weirs seem to have existed; as the outward bottom of each triangle did not possess any stone walls, locals set nets or trap baskets when the tide was outgoing (Tawa, 2007). They say that possibly more than a thousand years or more ago these weirs were built, and from 700 to 800 stone tidal weirs have been documented (Guérin et al., 2010), but with reducing island population after Europeans arrived those stone tidal weirs began falling away into disuse. At the end of the last century, many seemed to have been abandoned and never been repaired again. In the Hawaii Islands, the stone tidal weirs are called loko ‘umeiki. There, there are also many fishponds named lokokuapa, of which shapes are entirely similar to conventional stone tidal weirs. Some fishponds are built across the mouth of a small bay or between two points of land, and some semicircular-shaped ones are built independently on seashores in order to be raised fish such as mullet or milkfish. Contrariwise, each stone tidal weir is surrounded by a low wall that is submerged at the high tide and has opening, 4 �walled on each side like lanes, leading in or out of the weir (Nishimura, 1981). In Rarotonga Island of the Cook Islands every tidal weir is also used as fish trap into which fish is driven toward nets between boulders by locals, although its detail is not clear. There it is named pā (Takeda, 1993), which originally means an eel weir in the Maori language. The Maori of New Zealand uses even today stone walls for their eel fishery; these are not artificial, but built by nature by the strong wave of the sea (Gabriel et al., 2005). Around many islands in Torres Strait as well as around Cape York at Melanesia, numerous stone tidal weirs could be observed, and they represent the most obvious fishing technique utilized in this area. On the eastern aspect of the large fringing reefs of a few of the western islands, but notably in the eastern islands, long low walls of unworked boulders of stone were built, or rather piled up, to a height of three or four feet. These walls enclosed large irregular areas of the reef, graz(W.), sai (E.). During the north-west monsoon, when the sea is calm on the lee-side of the island, large numbers of fish swim over the walls at high tide, they are prevented by the low night tide from escaping and so fall an easy prey (Haddon, 1912). Of the Eastern Islands around Darnley Island there are 34 stone tidal weirs, and in Stephens Island there are 23. Some have at their tips protruding navels without labyrinth where a lot of fish gather at the ebb (Barham, 2000). Similar navels are reported from stone tidal weirs of the Ryukyu Islands or of southern Korea. Around the Indian Ocean, much information upon stone tidal weirs is not available. It is said that the Mascarene Islands (Yabuuchi, 1978) and the Lakshadweep Islands have stone tidal weirs. In the latter, the stone tidal weirs are called padhi; as their open ends face the lagoon while the seaward ends are usually closed, fish that tries to leave the lagoon during receding tide enters and remains in the enclosure. They are family owned properties which are acquired by inheritance (Anand, 1996). Along the East African coast, there seem to be stone tidal weirs. Coast Bushmen and pastoral Hottentots are reported to have constructed and used stone tidal weirs (Nishimura, 1981). Near the towns of Stilbaai and Arniston in South Africa there are stone tidal weirs (Parthesius, 2011), but the relation between these weirs and ones by Bushman and Hottentots is obscure. Along the western coast of Africa, stone tidal weirs are constructed by natives, such as Guineans (Gabriel et al., 2005), but we do not really know much about them. 5 �There are many stone tidal weirs in Scotland (Bowens, 2009) or in western France. Ré, Aix, and Oleron Islands off the western coast of mainland France would be the European centre of stone tidal weirs. In Oleron Island there were about 40 stone tidal weirs at the end of the 19th century (Bithoneau et al., 1993), while in Ré Island there were something over beginning of 30 the weirs at the 15th century, approximately 140 in the latter part of the 19th century, and only 14 at the end of the 20th century. A French stone tidal weir is named l'écluseàpoissons and weirs are les éclusesàpoissons, but all tidal weirs have their own proper names. The largest stone tidal weir at Fig. 3 ‘Mouffet’ in Ré Island. (A. Iwabuchi) Ré Island, whose length is about 1000 m, is named 'Mouffet' or 'Skunk' (Fig. 3), and the smallest one, whose length is about 300 m only, is 'Le Petit-Port' or 'Small Port'. Every weir is collectively owned by local peasants who catch fish at time assigned as separately with a hand-net or a trident inside his weir sometimes in the daytime and sometimes at night. One stone tidal weirs named 'La Belle-Pointe' is equipped a metal basket trap, as replica of an old wooden basket, on the outer side of a drain gap between the stone walls (Fig. 4). Fish caught is only for domestic consumption; it is never on the distribution channel to commercial fish markets (Iwabuchi, 2002). Stone Tidal Weirs and the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention Article 1-1 of the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage provides that ‘underwater cultural heritage’ means all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character which have been 6 �partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years. First of all, all stone tidal weirs are partially or totally under water periodically, and so they do correspond to the first half of the above definition. However, not all stone tidal weirs are more than 100 years old. Indigenous people in Southeast Asia or in the Pacific are still constructing new weirs every day. Owing to ecological conditions, nonetheless, they seem not to build stone tidal weirs on completely virgin tidal zones. They always build them exactly on traces for old weirs or, at least, on tidal zones which used to have millions of old stone tidal weirs. These days, in other words, most locals are, not constructing, but repairing old weirs every day. According to A. C. Haddon, no native within the memory of man ever made a stone tidal weir around Torres strait, and all they can do now is to repair them (Haddon, 1912). Fig. 4 ‘Le Petit-Port’ in Ré Island. (A. Iwabuchi) It is within the bounds of possibility that only the lower parts or stones of a new tidal weir or its basement are more than 100 years old. However, it is extremely difficult to guess 7 �how old even its base is, mainly because no written historical material is recorded for almost all stone tidal weirs. Some anthropologists insist that the stone tidal weir itself is considered a very old fishing method, and some existing today date back to early Neolithic times, and even to the pre-Sapiens phase of human evolution (Nishimura, 1968). It is true that contemporary foragers are also using a kind of stone tidal weir. Canadian Eskimo, for example, uses not only fish traps but also stone tidal weirs named haput’. This horseshoe-shaped weir is built at a river mouth. Its stone wall seems to be extremely low, in comparison with Taiwanese or French walls, but it is completely submerged at the high tide and then at the ebb foragers go into the weir, which has depth 60 cm only, to catch charr. Similarly, northwest coast Indians used to build stone tidal weirs, in particular, at river mouths (Stewart, 1993). It is said that Australian aborigines also use stone tidal weirs. Impounding shallow enclosure of boulder fences were formerly in use among them, although Hornell classifies this technology as fish trap, not as stone tidal weir (Hornell, 1950). Nevertheless, stone tidal weirs among primitive foragers are rather smaller-scaled than modern tidal weirs observed in Japan, Formosa, or France. Very few written records say that the large-scaled stone tidal weirs were all constructed during the feudal age. In Ré Island, stone tidal weirs were started to be constructed at the 11th century or at the Middle Age (Boucard, 1984). In Kyushu Island of western Japan their golden age was around 1707; the local feudal lord imposed corvée to the peasants to construct or restore large-scaled stone tidal weirs. In the Ryukyu Islands, there is one historical document written in 1824 telling us that a female priest who was granted an official court rank by the lord of Ryukyu kingdom mobilized commoners by royal decree to build a stone tidal weir whose length was about 1200 m around the 17th century (Nishimura, 1975; 1981). In Korea and Formosa, there is no evidence that the class of rulers played a large role in constructing stone tidal weirs, but usually all the villagers seem to have turned out in full force for restoring or building them. Without substantial labour power, it would not have succeeded in constructing large-scaled stone weirs. In the Hawaii islands as well, the remarkably well-preserved chain of offshore fishponds is a leftover of local chiefs, and the ponds are raised fish to feed the ruling class (Nishimura, 1981). Indeed, for example, the Torres Strait Islands do not have any feudal systems, but at 8 �least the society is not a band-based foraging one but a horticultural chiefdom. At those coastal hamlets there seem to have been powerful builders or chiefs who had mobilized villagers in order to construct or repair stone tidal weirs (Haddon, 1912). Building stone tidal weirs might have something to with the population growth as well as with the pressure on food production, with which people in power had normally to cope. In the Yap Islands, the peak of stone tidal weirs seems to have been at the beginning of the 19th century, when they had the largest population. These stone tidal weirs at the chiefdom level would not look directly to link up with ones at the band level, although their method and concept could ‘take place sometimes in antiquity’ (Barham, 2000). Judging from instances from the Far East and the South Pacific, it is morally certain that almost all stone tidal weirs, or at least their bases, all over the worldat present might have been constructed more than 100 years ago. Perhaps, however, weirs which we could see these days could date back only to not more than several hundred years ago, not to more than 100 thousand years.In short, most stone tidal weirs may not be objects of prehistoric character, but important human sites, structures, buildings, or artifacts together with their archaeological and natural context. How to Protect Stone Tidal Weirs Although stone tidal weirs are still being constructed or restored in remote regions on the earth, they are quickly disappearing, being destroyed, or being abandoned, in particular, in civilized countries. Nowadays, first of all, stone tidal weirs cannot catch fish as much as in olden times, because of the intensification of modern fishery on their outsides. Owners of stone tidal weirs are normally local peasants, while onshore fishing are conducted by professional fishers who think weirs as fish stealing traps or as shipping obstacles. Secondly, the modern coastal management for tourism or for industrialization is not always happy with stone tidal weirs which occupy the huge area of tidal zones. For many hotels or fishers stone tidal weirs are only eyesores and real pains in the neck; in actual practice tourists’ water motorcycles as well as commercial fishing boats sometimes split on stone tidal weirs. On the contrary, however, the new movements, in which locals make good use of stone tidal weirs for tourism or for activity aimed at enlivening coastal communities, have just begun on grassroots levels, although they are still minor. In France' Association de défense des eclusesà poissons 9 �de l'île de Ré'or in Japan ‘Ishihimi Summit’ has been organized to plan events, for instance, so tourists could experience fishing inside stone tidal weirs, or to restore old weirs jointly. On national levels, on the other hand, the conservation activity or management of stone tidal weirs as underwater cultural heritage has not been started yet. Even in France, which has already ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention, we have never heard that the Département des recherchesarchéologiquessubaquatiqueset sous-marines were doing research upon stone tidal weirs in western France. In Japan, some stone tidal weirs are under the control of the domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, but they are not to be buried cultural property, which is normally studied by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset or cultural landscape, which is always studied by anthropologists or by folklorists. Famous Mongolian shipwrecks of northern Kyushu Island are, of course, designated as buried cultural property. In 2006, owing to the bureaucratic sectionalism, not the Agent for Cultural Affairs, but the Fisheries Agency was designated two stone tidal weirs in Japan as selections of 100 historical and cultural heritage sites and heirlooms related to fisheries and fishing villages which we would like to hand down to future generations. However, both central government offices would not plan to excavate either bases of any stone tidal weirs or traces of their old ruins to identify, for instance, when they were built or how large they used to be, because no Japanese civil servant regards them as study object of archaeology, i.e. underwater cultural heritage. Conclusion In Japan a research group from Waseda University, Tokyo, which was directed by an anthropologist, started its academic investigation upon stone tidal weirs in 1956, which might be the world-first comprehensive field survey on them. However, no introductory book to underwater archaeology does not mention this important research. On the other hand, all books give the detailed description of the Swedish Vasa project which began in the same year. Even in Japan, no underwater archeological booklet treats this historical research activity, while all do the salvage of the wreck of Kaiyo-maru at northern Japan which began in 1974. Besides as for stone tidal weirs themselves, only two introductory books to underwater archaeology have referred to them unusually: one 10 �is in English (Bowens, 2009), and the other is in Japanese (Iwabuchi, 2012b). Indeed, underwater archeologists have not much been interested in stone tidal weirs, partly because they have been or are concerned about conventional shipwrecks, and partly because stone tidal weirs have mainly been studied, not by archaeologists, but by anthropologists, by folklorists, or by geographers. As mentioned before, nevertheless, the stone tidal weir does be true underwater cultural heritage according to the UNESCO’s 2001 Convention. Stone tidal weirs are as important as shipwrecks such as the Uluburun or the Sinan ship. References Anand, P. E. V., 1996. Fishing Methods in Lakshadweep. Infofish International, Vol. 3: 57-65. Barham, A. J., 2000. Late Holocene Maritime Societies in the Torres Strait Islands, Northern Australia. In S. O’Connor and P. Veth (Eds.), East of Wallace’s Line, Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam: 223-314. Bithoneau, R., and Morisset, C., 1993. Les éclusesàpoissons de l'îled'Oleron. Les Cahiers d'Oleron, (2nd edition), Vol. 10: 5-9 Boucard, J., 1984. Les éclusesàpoisonsdansl'île de Ré. Rupella, La Rochelle. Bowens, A., (Ed.), 2009. Underwater Archaeology. Blackwell, Oxford, (2nd edition). Gabriel, O., Lange, K., Dahm, E.,and Wendt, T., (Eds.), 2005. Fish Catching Methods of the World, Blackwell, Oxford, (4th edition). Guérin, U., Egger, B., and Penalva, V., (Eds), 2010. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania. UNESCO, Paris. Haddon, A. C., 1912. Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, Vol. 4 (Arts and Crafts), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hornell, J., 1950. Fishing in Many Waters. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Iwabuchi, A., 2002. Stone Tidal Weirs at Ré Island of Western France. Proceedings of the Lecture Meeting at Tokyo University of Mercantile Marine, Vol. 50: 45-48 (in Japanese). Iwabuchi, A., 2012a. Stone Tidal Weirs. In Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology (Ed.), The Database of Underwater Cultural Heritage and Promotion of Underwater Archaeology: the Nansei Islands, the Asian Research Institute of 11 �Underwater Archaeology, Fukuoka: 97-99 (in Japanese). Iwabuchi, A., 2012b. The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage. Kagaku-dojin, Kyoto (in Japanese). Nishimura, A., 1968. Primitive Fishing Methods. In A. Smith (Ed.), Ryukyuan Culture and Society, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: 67-77. Nishimura, A., 1975. Cultural and Social Change in the Modes of Ownership of Stone Tidal Weirs. In R. W. Casteel and G. I. Quimby (Eds.), Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific, Mouton Publishers, The Hague: 77-88. Nishimura, A., 1981. Maritime Counterpart to Megalithic Culture on Land. Journal de la Société des Océanistes, Vol. 37: 255-266. Parthesius, R., 2011. Shared Heritage? Shared Responsibility? In M. Staniforth, J. Craig, S. C. Jago-on, B. Orillaneda and L. Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 Nov. 2011, Manila: 641-651. Stewart, H., 1993. A Tidal Stone Weir in the Arctic. The Historical Review, Vol. 128: 6479 (in Japanese). Takeda, J., 1993. Offerings from the Sea. Shiosai, Vol. 9: 48-51 (in Japanese). Tawa, M., 2007. Stone Tidal Weirs. Hosei University Press, Tokyo (in Japanese). Yabuuchi, Y., 1978. A Basic Written Material of Fishing Anthropology and its Complementary Study. Kazama-shobo, Tokyo (in Japanese). Yano, T., Nakamura, T.and Yamazaki, M., 2002.The Stone Tidal Weirs in Kohama Island, Ryukyu. Waseda Studies in Human Sciences, Vol. 15 (1): 47-83 (in Japanese). Biography Akifumi Iwabuchi is professor of Marine Culturology at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, being also a director of the Japan Society for Nautical Research and ARIUA, ICOMOS-ICUCH delegate for Japan, and INA research associate. He received his PhD from the University of Oxford in 1990. His publications include The People of the Alas Valley (Clarendon Press, 1994) and The Sea Possessing Cultural Heritage (Kagaku-dojin, 2012). His university, UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unit win Network member, is the only one academic institution, teaching and studying nautical archaeology, inside Japan; to PhD candidates from foreign countries the governmental scholarship schemes are available. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Stone Tidal Weirs, Underwater Cultural Heritage or Not? Description An account of the resource The stone tidal weir is a kind of fish trap, made of numerous rocks or reef limestones, which extends along the shoreline on a colossal scale in semicircular, half-quadrilateral, or almost linear shape. At the flood tide these weirs are submerged beneath the sea, while they emerge into full view at the ebb. Using with nets or tridents, fishermen, inside the weirs at low tides, catch fish that fails to escape because of the stone walls. They could be observed in the Pacific or the Yap Islands, in the Indian Ocean or the east African coast, and in the Atlantic or Oleron and Ré Islands. The UNESCO’s 2001 Convention regards this weir as underwater cultural heritage, because it has been partially or totally under water, periodically or continuously, for at least 100 years; stone tidal weirs have been built in France since the 11th century and a historical record notes that one weir in the Ryukyu Islands was built in the 17th century. In Japan every weir is considered not to be buried cultural property or cultural heritage investigated by archaeologists, but to be folk cultural asset studied by anthropologists, according to its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties. Even now in many countries stone tidal weirs are continuously built or restored by locals. Owing to the contemporary trait, it is not easy to preserve them under the name of underwater cultural heritage. Sometimes their bases were constructed several hundred years ago while their upper parts were repaired very recently. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014