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Title A name given to the resource Proceedings of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Papers presented at the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. 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Title A name given to the resource Opening Key Note Speaker Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2021 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Relation A related resource &lt;iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/B6U3o1BKhrk?si=2JFAj5fhsgVVnJrB" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture; web-share" referrerpolicy="strict-origin-when-cross-origin" allowfullscreen&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt; Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource P’u Shou-keng, a Man of the Western Regions, who was Superintendent of the Trading Ships Office in Ch'uan-chou towards the end of the Sung Dynasty Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jitsuzo Kuwabara Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1928 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Jitsuzo Kuwabara Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1928 Pages 1-79 Publication Title Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (The Oriental Library) Title A name given to the resource P’u Shou-keng, a Man of the Western Regions, who was Superintendent of the Trading Ships Office in Ch'uan-chou towards the end of the Sung Dynasty Volume 2 China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b10e7eea2dea15cbc0c27701d29acdcc.pdf 1950e94d81e8924ecd859d07a4c1e260 PDF Text Text Packaging and Loading Methods of Goryeo Dynasty Ceramics Excavated Underwater Mr Soon Seok Yang1 Abstract A total of 17 underwater excavations have taken place in Korea. Out of these 14 of them yielded Goryeo Dynasty (AD918~1392) artefacts and in 8 cases remains of the shipwreck itself was also discovered. These are clear examples showing the active maritime exchange of the Goryeo Dynasty. These ships are conjectured to have been travelling to Gaegyeong (the capital city of Goryeo) with private and/or public purposes. Similar to underwater excavations in other countries, most of the excavated artefacts are ceramics. This paper focuses on the packaging and loading methods of the Goryeo period ships that have been excavated. Taeanseon was discovered at Daeseom Island, Taean, Chungcheongnam-do Province, and was loaded with a large number of ceramics. Taeanseon was buried in an eastwest axis and the shipwreck was tilted 95° to the south. 4 columns were found which are conjectured to be the outer plates of the ship. The ceramics were loaded at the bow and stern of the ship and the central part was the living compartment of the sailors. Due to the impact made whilst the ship was sinking, ceramics were found scattered in the central part. However the ceramics loaded in the bow and stern sections of the ship were preserved intact. Also the ceramics were packed in a way to prevent shattering utilizing wooden sticks and glue. Similarities and differences in packaging and loading methods to Taeanseon can be found in other ships such as the Shibidongpadoseon, Wandoseon, and Madoseon No. 1. Also the methods are different from the ones found on the Chinese shipwreck of Sinanseon. This article aims to analyze and compare the packaging and loading methods of the ships. 1 Underwater Excavation & Conservation Division, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, KOREA, yang4435@hanmail.net �1. Introduction A total of 18 cases of underwater excavations have been completed in Korea up to the end of 2010. Artifacts concerning the Goryeo period (918 ~ 1392) were salvaged at 14 of the sites. At 8 of these sites artifacts within the vessels were excavated. Through such excavations, the prevalent maritime transport procedures during the Goryeo period have been more fully understood. These vessels had either a private or public purpose sailing towards Gyegyeong, the capital of the Goryeo kingdom. In some of these vessels (Taean Daeseom, Taean Mado 1) wooden tablets that kept a record of the shipment were also excavated. The tablets included important information such as the date of the shipment, consignor, recipient, contents, and quantities. This research primarily considers the cargo loading methods on the ancient vessels of the Goryeo period, but also considers to a lesser degree, 1) a possible sea route and, 2)speculation on what life might have been like for seamen during the Goryeo period. 2. The present state of underwater excavation investigation <Table 1> Excavated sites and the present state of excavated relics A serial Excavation number year 1 Excavated artifacts Excavated remains Shinan Bangchug-ri, A 14th Century Chinese merchant Shinan-vessel excavated vessel, 28 tons of coins and (Junnam Shian-gun 1976～1984 ceramic, approximately 22,000 Jeungdomyeon Bangchungartifacts. ri) �2 1980,1983, 1996 Jeju Shinchangri underwater excavation (Jejudo north Jeju-gun Hangyung-myeon Shinchang-ri) 12th~13th Century golden jewellery, and Chinese potteries Taean peninsula underwater excavation 3 14th~17th Century artifacts including 40 Goryeo celedons and 1981～1987 (Near Chungnam BoryeongChosun white porcelains gun Taean peninsula) Wando Odu-ri, Wandovessel excavated (Junnam Yaksan-myeon Odu-ri) A 12th Century vessel, 30,000 ceramics and crewmen's living facilities 4 1983～1984 ·5 Jindo Byeokpa-ri, Jindovessel excavated 1991～1992 (Junnam Jindo-gun Gogunmyeon Byeokpa-ri) A 13th~14th Century Chinese dugout canoe 6 Muan Doripo underwater excavation 1995～1996 (Junnam Muan-gun Haejemyeon Songsuk-ri) 1,638 pieces of 13th Century Goryeo inlaid celadons 7 8 9 1995 Mokpo Dalido-vessel excavated (Junnam Mokpo-si Chungmu-dong Dali-do) A 13th~14th Century Goryeo vessel 2002～2003 Gunsan Bian-do underwater excavation (Junbuk Gunsan-si Okdomyeon Biando) 2,939 artifacts including 12th~13th Century Goryeo celadon 2003～2004 Gunsan Sibidongpadovessel underwater excavation (Junbuk Gunsan-si Okdomyeon Sibidongpado) A 12th Century Goryeo vessel and Goryeo celadon, 8,122 artifacts �10 Boryeong Wonsan-do underwater excavation 2004～2005 (Chungnam Boryeong-si Ochun-myeon Wonsan-do) An early 13th Century incense burner of celadon porcelain Shinan Anjwado-vessel excavated 11 12 13 2005 2006～2009 2006 4 artifacts including a 14th century vessel of the Goryeo period, and (Junnam Sinan-gun AnjwaGoryeo inlaid celadons do Geumsan-ri) Gunsan-si Yami-do underwater excavation (JunbukGunsan-siOkdomyeon Yamido-ri) 4,547 pieces of 12th Century Goryeo celadons Ansan-si Daebudo-vessel 12th～13th Century hull collected, excavated (Kyeongki-do Ansan-si not intact Daebudo western coast) Taean Daeseom Taeanvessel excavated (Near Chungnam Taeangun Geunheung-myeon Daeseom) A mid-12th century Goryeo vessel, 24,887 artifacts including Goryeo celadons 14 2007～2008 15 Taean Mado-1 excavated (Near Chungnam Taean- A 13th century Goryeo vessel, 940 2008～2010 gun Geunheung-myeon artifacts including Goryeo celadons Mado) 16 Taean Mado-2 excavated (Near Chungnam Taean- A 13th century Goryeo vessel, 974 2009～2010 gun Geunheung-myeon artifacts including Goryeo celadons Mado) 17 2010 Taean Wonan sea area excavated (Near Chungnam Taeangun Wonan beach) Taean Mado-3 excavated 18 2011 (Near Chungnam Taeangun Geunheung-myeon Mado) 106 artifacts including Goryeo celadons 9 artifacts including Goryeo celadons, (excavated: may-october 2011) �3. Cargo loading methods in underwater excavations completed after 2000 3.1 Artifacts at Gunsan Biando Island The existing sea route of Gunsan Biando Island site has been affected by the Saemangeum reclamation project. The site where the artifacts were found is situated 1km east of Biando, 2km southwest from the sea wall. 3,000 pieces of 12th~13th century Goryeo celadons were salvaged at this site. Most of the artifacts were found in a trough formed by the drift of a strong and constantly changing current, which spread these artifacts widely throughout. 1,932 pieces were salvaged west-east for 30m, and south-north for 13m over the main excavation site. Although the hull was not discovered, cargo loading methods were still ascertained because the same ceramic styles had been packed in a similar fashion at other excavated sites. 3.2 Gunsan Sibidongpado underwater remains Gunsan Sibidongpado is an uninhabited region 30km west of Gunsan harbor, and 26km from Maldo located at the south end of Gogunsangundo. The area from which the artifacts were pulled is called "Anpum", meaning the safe area. Because the excavation site is surrounded by 12 islands, it is not affected by the severe southern tidal current. Therefore, the investigative environment has remained relatively intact. On this excavation, 8100 artifacts, such as bowls, plates, bowl, cauldrons made of cast iron, and anchor stocks were salvaged. The excavated artifacts, which were produced in Junnam Haenam-Gun Sanimyoen Jinsan-ri and Sinduck-ri Dojayo, appear to have been sunk while being transported to Gaekyeong. �The main findings were pieces of the hull and ceramics, however bronze spoons, cast iron cauldrons, and some equal sized stones were also found. This indicated that food preparation may possibly have been done in the midsection of the lower part of the ship. The cargo loading methods were such that the ceramics were stacked in a row according to different types. The loaded ceramics were secured in packing wood on all 4 sides along the row and then secured with a rope at the end. The end of the packing wood was drilled and tied with string. The ceramic's arrangement in the ship was classified in two ways, 1) arranged side by side with hoengkangryeogje(ship's timber) for an outer board and garyongmok(ship's timber), and 2) parallel to the outer board's direction. This would indicate that the ceramics were either loaded widthwise or lengthwise on the same level. Straw and reeds were thickly laid underneath the ceramics to absorb shock and prevent damage. The advantage of this cargo loading method, rather than loading goods in boxes, was that the ceramics could be packed by different types in larger amounts. Most likely the excavated vessel at Sibidongpado was intended to sail in open water, thereby avoiding any hidden reefs. However, the ship would have sunk while being adrift during deteriorating weather conditions and storms. 3.3 Gunsan Yamido underwater remains Gunsan Yamido underwater remains were situated at the Saemangeum seawall, approximately 15km from Biando Island. The excavation took place from 2006 to 2009. 4,500 artifacts were found. The investigation site was transformed into an inland sea after completion of the Coffer dam. In this case, the current's speed was weak with new tidal mud being continuously accumulated up to 20~50cm. The stratum in which artifacts were buried was at 30~90cm depth between shell stratums of mixed sand under the firmed mud stratum. During the �process of removing the mud, one or two artifacts were moved and 30~40 artifacts were found overlapped. Similar to the Biando Island remains, the cargo loading methods could not be ascertained, but excavation revealed that the artifacts were overlapped and packed according to same types. 3.4 Taean Daeseom Island remains In May, 2007, a fisherman reported to authorities that a Goryeo celadon had been found in his net while he was fishing for octopus ocellatus. Accordingly, excavation began at Chungnam Taean Daeseom Island, The vessel located at this site was loaded with ceramics made in Jeollanam-do Kangjin. 25,000 ceramics (including fragments) had remained in the same condition as when they were loaded. The vessel was buried in an east-west direction and leaned at about 95°. The ceramics were loaded on 4 levels presumed to be a topside plating but was barely existent. The ceramics were stored in the stem and stern of the vessel. The midsection (D6) was used as a kitchen. The midsection was in disarray because some of the loaded cargo had collapsed on impact with the ocean floor after sinking. However, the stem and stern were excavated intact without any displacement of cargo. The ceramics were loaded using the same method as the Gunsan sibidongpado and Wando vessels. They were packed in straw, contained in packing wood, and secured with reed rope. Some of these artifacts (jar, celadon plates) were packed using logs on which the bark had not yet been peeled off. celadon bottle had packing wood in the middle, which allowed the mouth of a bottle to face each other. The two loads were then secured to each other with rope attached around the neck of the jars. In the case of the superior quality of celadon pitcher, the jars were packed with straw to prevent breakage while being loaded. �Celadon bowls were not loaded according to different sizes but according to sets. Shock-absorbing straw was packed between them as precaution against any damage. Straw was then settled into the gaps between all the ceramics in a row. Cast iron cauldrons, bronze bowl, and pottery apparently used by the crewmen were also found. Seasoned fish bones (salted fish) were discovered in some of pottery. A pottery jar was found which had 2 bronze bowls and a basket inside it. Markings on the necks of some pottery indicated the pieces had been bound by kinds of grass(reeds) to reduce vibration while the vessel was at sail. The most crucial find at the Taean excavation were the wooden tablet shipping manifests. This was the first of two instances of wooden tablets being discovered at an underwater excavation. The Shinan vessel is the second instance of wooden tablets being discovered. The wooden tablets were discovered mainly in the same region as that of the celadon bowl and the superior quality of Goryeo celadon. They were buried in the same direction as that of the ceramic's loading direction. They are classified into two types, 1) the name of the shipping port, and 2) the label on the ceramic's packing wood. The perfectly preserved sentence “耽津縣在京隊正仁守戶” or “在京安永戶付沙器一裹” “崔大卿宅上” indicated the details of the transaction. 3.5 Taean Mado 1 underwater artifacts Taean Mado underwater excavation began as a result of the fisherman's report when artifacts were found in his fishing nets. In 2008 artifacts were excavated at 4 sites where the previously mentioned packed ceramics had been uncovrted, but the hull wasn't discovered. The hull was eventually found in 2009, and excavated from 2009 to 2010. Various artifacts such as ceramics, pottery, �wooden tablets, bronze spoons, combs, cast iron cauldrons, bamboo 반, bamboo baskets, paddies, millet, buckwheat, bean pods, and fish bones were salvaged from the excavated vessel. In the resulting decoding of the wooden tablet, it was learned that the cargo was loaded in 丁亥 from October to 戊辰 November, 19th. It was also revealed that the cargo had been dispatched from not one, but 3 locations, Juksanhyun(Haenam), Huijinhyun(Naju), and Jangheonghyun. The shippers were presumed to be mostly provincial officials, with the recipients being officials in Gaegyeong. Names of these officials and the name of the government office are clearly evident on the tablet. In 丁亥-year and 戊辰-year ‘大將軍金純永’ were written on some of the tablets, which was speculated to be in 1207 and 1208, referring to the period of Kimsunyoung's activity. In 2008, approximately 150 salvaged ceramics were found arranged in 3 lines. The specific amount and arrangement of packed artifacts was presumed to be the weight that one person was able to carry. When they were loaded into the vessel, they appear to have been arranged in triangles and as inverted triangles. These aspects were seen in Gunsan Mado and Taean Mado. In 2009, loaded artifacts such as grains and artisan craftwork were the main findings in the excavated vessel. Unlike the discovered ceramics, these artifacts were extremely cluttered by the impact when the vessel sunk. The sacks of rice were loaded on logs of the same size as the bottom of the ship, laid on it, and would have been arranged across it at a right angle. This method would allow the grains and the bottom of the ship to be separated, and carried safely, even when water leaked in, as it often did in ancient sailing vessels. The kitchen and dining facilities were located in the midsection of the vessel. The stove was constructed with stones, roof tiles and clay. Around this area, fish bones and large potteries as well as 13 bronze spoons were found, . �4. Cargo loading methods and features The excavated area included a total of 11 sites in which 7 vessels were found after the year 2000. Among those, Mado 1 and 2 are still in excavation with a report pending. The remaining 5 vessels are from the Goryeo period and include, 1 grain freighter, 2 ceramic freighters, and 3 empty freighters, The procedure for loading ceramics onto the vessels began first by spreading shockabsorbing rice straw or reeds on the bottom of ship. Next, the ceramics were placed in 3 rows both perpendicular and horizontal to the vessel and then finally secured in packing wood. The ceramics were packed differently and according to type. Celadon pitcher, 缸(bowls) were filled with rice straw which was then packed around it. Celadon bowl for which the packing wood was laid in the middle, allowed the cargo to face each other, and was then secured around the neck with rope. In many cases superior and inferior quality of celadons was all loaded together in the vessels, This packing method and amount of shock-absorbing material for inferior quality of celadons seemed insufficient. Inferior quality of jars were packed separately, without lids for the sets, but the superior quality of celadon cup with lid of the same size as the inferior quality of jars were packed with lids. The living quarters on the vessel were located mainly around the central mast. When the crew needed a fire, a stove made of stones, roof tiles and clay was used. Cast iron cauldrons (with has three legs), dishes, spoons, and large jars for drinking water were situated around the stove. In addition, fish and other salted sea foods that partially depict the life of the sailors were discovered there as well. �Conclusion A total of 18 cases of underwater excavation have been completed in Korea. Artifacts from the Goryeo period (918 ~ 1392) were salvaged in 14 of the sites. 8 sites contained artifacts excavated from within the vessels. Not a single vessel manufactured before the Goryeo period, or during the Chosun period has been found yet. Whether this is because of historical factors, or due to a change in the maritime environment has not been determined yet. Underwater investigation differs from that of terra firma investigation by the limitations of the physical environment at the sites. These limitations are compensated for and reduced with specialized investigative equipment. Continued advancements in underwater investigative equipment and the associated research methods will open up many more areas to underwater investigative research in the future. These advancements will also mean improved opportunities for locating vessels and loading methods from other as yet undiscovered eras. As the above research has indicated, we have briefly considered the cargo loading methods as well as the sailor's life based on the results these investigations. However, the results are limited in findings until such time that advancement in research equipment and associated methods will allow a greater in-depth study. Bibliography National Jeollabukdo 2004 Maritime National Maritime Museum, 2005 Museum, 『Underwater remains of Gunsan of Gunsan Bian-do island』 『Underwater remains Sibidongpado』 National Research Institute of Maritime 『Gunsan Yami-do island Ⅲ』 Cultural Heritage, 2009 �National Research Institute of Maritime 『The investigative report of Goryeo Cultural Heritage, celadon treasure ship of Taean island 2009 underwater excavation』 National Research Institute of Maritime 『The investigative report of Taean Cultural Heritage, 2010 Mado 1 underwater excavation』 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Packaging and Loading Methods of Goryeo Dynasty Ceramics Excavated Underwater Description An account of the resource A total of 17 underwater excavations have taken place in Korea. Out of these 14 of them yielded Goryeo Dynasty (AD918~1392) artefacts and in 8 cases remains of the shipwreck itself was also discovered. These are clear examples showing the active maritime exchange of the Goryeo Dynasty. These ships are conjectured to have been travelling to Gaegyeong (the capital city of Goryeo) with private and/or public purposes. Similar to underwater excavations in other countries, most of the excavated artefacts are ceramics. This paper focuses on the packaging and loading methods of the Goryeo period ships that have been excavated. Taeanseon was discovered at Daeseom Island, Taean, Chungcheongnam-do Province, and was loaded with a large number of ceramics. Taeanseon was buried in an east-west axis and the shipwreck was tilted 95° to the south. 4 columns were found which are conjectured to be the outer plates of the ship. The ceramics were loaded at the bow and stern of the ship and the central part was the living compartment of the sailors. Due to the impact made whilst the ship was sinking, ceramics were found scattered in the central part. However the ceramics loaded in the bow and stern sections of the ship were preserved intact. Also the ceramics were packed in a way to prevent shattering utilizing wooden sticks and glue. Similarities and differences in packaging and loading methods to Taeanseon can be found in other ships such as the Shibidongpadoseon, Wandoseon, and Madoseon No. 1. Also the methods are different from the ones found on the Chinese shipwreck of Sinanseon. This article aims to analyze and compare the packaging and loading methods of the ships. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Soon Seok Yang Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Underwater Excavation & Conservation Division, National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage, KOREA. Asia-Pac Session 4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Part III Civil Engineering and Nautics Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Joseph Needham Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Joseph Needham Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1971 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Cambridge University Press Series Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology Title A name given to the resource Part III Civil Engineering and Nautics China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7bdd0610e80d89fcb1c51cfce48d9ce0.pdf d2a03260c1349cf31ef7f5f0d2f31772 PDF Text Text Pattanam archaeological site : The wharf context and the maritime exchanges P. J Cherian1 Abstract Since 2007 the archaeological excavations at Pattanam, located on the southwestern coast of India, were undertaken by the Kerala Council for Historical Research (KCHR) Thiruvananthapuram. These efforts unearthed an early historic (1st c BCE – 5th c CE) multi-cultural port site, which is now widely considered as an integral part of the ancient port of Muziris. This paper discusses the material evidence related to the maritime exchanges at Pattanam, including a wharf context and the importance of the site in the transcontinental interfaces in antiquity. The most striking material evidence unearthed at Pattanam is the enormous quantity of terracotta objects, ranging from sherds of a variety of jars and pots to roof tiles and bricks. This paper will specifically examine the Indian and non-Indian distinct pottery of the Pattanam ceramic assemblage. The excavations in the northeastern part of the site revealed a wharf and warehouse structure, a wooden canoe made of anjili in a waterlogged context, along with nine bollards of teak. The wharf was a platform made of a mixture of laterite, clay and lime, with an elaborate brick lining where the reclining platform touches the water. The waterlogged area also produced a plethora of paleo-botanical and other archaeological evidence prompting one to propose a hypothesis that Pattanam is a major emporium of the spice trade network of the Early Historic Period (1st c BCE – 5th c CE). This ‘priceless’ evidence from the wharf context and the adjacent waterlogged area are breakthrough finds for understanding the Early Historic inter-continental exchanges that flourished as part of the ancient spice trail that linked Asia, Africa and Europe. The paper concludes by examining the domineering distribution of local pottery as an example in pointing out the problems of Euro-centrism in the perspectives on longdistance exchanges. Maritime exchanges and the southwest coast of India The processes and impacts of long distance maritime exchanges have always been fascinating fields of enquiry for researchers in archeology and history, the foci of investigations being mostly ancient port sites. Early maritime exchanges were taking place either through circuitous routes or mid-ocean routes or both and it is important to distinguish and correlate them for a better understanding of the early connectivities (Boivin and Fuller 2009:113-180; Fuller 2011:544-558). Small vessels shuttled between jetties and ports through the short distance circuitous routes, as "mobile bazaars", probably for the supply of essential items (Thapar 1997:11-40). Mid-ocean routes, on the other hand, mark a distinct phase of bulk trade in non-perishable/luxury items, new navigation technology, expertise and heavy investments. The establishment of mid ocean routes is often attributed to the "discovery" of monsoon winds without taking into 1 Director, KCHR & Pattanam Excavations, India. �account the long-term dynamics of maritime activities that existed before the "discovery". We have about half a dozen sources of various genres that refer to the key Early Historic port sites in the Indian Ocean Rim (Cherian 2009:65-79). The most important among them in the southwest coast of India were Tindis, Muziris, Nelcynda and Becare. Mostly they are mentioned in the non-Indian textual sources. The important ones are Strabo’s Geography (c.1st c BCE / CE), the Periplus Maris Erythraei (c.CE 40 -70) by an unknown author, Pliny’s Natural History (c.Mid 1st c CE published after 77) and Ptolemy’s Geography (c.150 CE). The other sources include the Muziris Papyrus ( 2nd century AD trade agreement between a Muziris merchant and a banker, probably based in Alexandria) that reveals in some detail the huge quantum of trade between Muziris and the Red Sea/Mediterranean network. Charition, a Greek play or mime about two lovers eloping to India, also has references on trade. Cosmas Indicopleustus refers to the St Thomas Christians on the Malabar Coast as well as the pepper trade through five ports. But interestingly, the port of Muziris is not in his list. The Peutinger table, a map of 2nd century trade routes, shows Muziris adjacent to the temple of Augustus; the Western Ghats is marked as, "where elephants are born". The Indian sources on maritime exchanges are mostly classical Tamil literature and epic poems like Sangam literature, and Chilappatikaram. The Malabar Coast also abounds in myths and legends that mention trade and ports, but being products of social imagination, they serve more as complex riddles than sources for the study of the past (Cherian, et al. 2007). Most of the ancient port sites elsewhere on the Indian Ocean littoral have been identified on land but those on the southwest coast of India were believed to have been wiped out forever since none of the searches for them was fruitful (Achan 1946). The southwest coast of India also had not yielded a single habitation site until the discovery of the Pattanam site. Though copiously mentioned in ancient literature and travelogues, their invisibility on ground was intriguing (Gurukkal, et al. 2001:35-50). The ethnographic history of this coastal belt is eloquent about various non-local trading communities and their belief systems that co-existed (The Semitic religions of early Judaism, Christianity and Islam claim to have had set foot on the Malabar Coast in their early days). It becomes more mysterious when most of the contemporary port sites such as Korkai, Alagankulam, Poompuhar (Kaveripattinam) and Vasavasamudram could be successfully investigated on the Coromandal coast (southeast coast of India) following Arikamedu (Veeram Pattanam) excavations (Begley 1996; Begley 2004). The southwest coast of India remained an archaeological vacuum (except a few coin hoards) as far as its legacy of international maritime exchanges was concerned. At the same time studies and excavations on contemporary sites and trade routes had yielded evidence for intercontinental maritime connectivity (Romanis, et al. 1997; Sidebotham 2011). Pattanam - background Pattanam is a typical Kerala coastal village, thickly populated and densely cultivated. Interestingly, the place name "Pattanam" has etymological significance, in nearly a dozen Indian languages, it means town or port city. The surface surveys in the 1990s were conducted by a small group of researchers who shared boundless excitement in teaching, learning and practicing �archaeology, and finally led them to the site (Shajan, et al. 2004:312-320). The present multi-disciplinary excavations evolved from that humble beginning. Pattanam - location Pattanam (N. Lat. 10° 09.434'; E Long 76° 12.587') is a densely populated hamlet in the Vadakkekkara revenue village in Paravur taluk of Ernakulam District in Kerala, India. The site is located in the delta of the river Periyar about 25 km north of Ernakulam /Kochi. About one km south of the site flows the Paravur Todu, a tributary of the river Periyar which is about six km to the north of Pattanam. The Arabian Sea is about 4 km west of the site. About one km from the western boundary of the site is the Tattapally River or Munambam kayal, a backwater body that runs parallel to the Arabian Sea. Another noteworthy feature of the site is the network of canals linking the area with the Paravur todu and the Tattappally river and many residents remember country boats plying these canals until the mid 20th century (Cherian 2008:5-20). Pattanam – chronology The chronology of the Pattanam site spans across three millennia: the story beginning with the Iron Age habitation, with the commercial peak between 1st c BCE and 5th c CE and life going on with its inbuilt continuities and discontinuities. High precision Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Carbon14 (C14) dating on the charcoal samples from the aeolian sandy layers at depths varying from 340 cm to 370 cm confirm that native settlement had begun at Pattanam in the Iron Age phase (around 1000 BCE) (Cherian, et al. 2009:236-40). Pattanam- features Pattanam has maritime features comprising a wharf context and other allied port features, urban features comprising of remains of planned architecture, personal adornment articles, fine wares and the industrial feature comprising lapidary workshops, kiln and furnace contexts (Cherian, et al. 2010; Cherian, et al. 2011). The attempt in this paper is to look closely at the wharf feature as well as the non-local pottery assemblage and initiate discussion on the significance of Pattanam in long distance and regional maritime contacts. To be more objective and balanced in assessing the long-distance exchanges, an effort is also made to bring in the role of the local in facilitating them. Respecting the primacy of material evidence, one of the fundamentals of the archaeology discipline, observations and inferences are made from literally touching and brooding over the objects excavated from Pattanam. �Table 1. PATTANAM EXCAVATIONS FROM 2007-2011 - ANTIQUITIES Sl no Name of object 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Grand total 1 Gold 1 2 4 38 22 67 2 Copper objects 6 27 18 68 42 161 3 Coins 13 12 18 31 24 98 4 Lead objects 4 19 23 63 100 209 5 Iron objects 529 758 906 3033 2358 7584 6 Glass beads 1122 1915 6373 22214 7094 38718 7 stone beads 50 7 108 234 148 547 8 Spindle whorl 4 6 5 15 9 39 9 Cameo blank 2 6 3 8 29 48 10 Glass fragments 35 53 138 334 778 1338 11 Lamps 0 4 4 8 22 38 12 Ring stones 0 0 0 15 9 15 TOTAL ANTIQUITIES 48,862 Table 2. PATTANAM EXCAVATIONS FROM 2007-2011 - CERAMICS Sl no Name of object 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Grand total 1 Amphora 177 286 572 2215 2779 6029 2 TGP 71 107 66 422 861 1527 3 Torpedo 50 156 142 767 1983 3098 4 Rouletted 1037 1266 442 3320 2469 8534 5 Terra sigillata 2 7 0 2 111 122 6 Chinese 10 31 28 106 64 239 7 Graffiti 41 0 33 19 2 95 8 Brahmi 5 2 0 1 2 10 9 Local ceramics 517831 367079 286475 1471870 894209 3537464 TOTAL CERAMICS Unidentified distinct pottery adds another 94671 sherds to the assemblage. 3557118 Pattanam – finds Five seasons of excavations have unearthed a treasure trove of antiquities of an unprecedented magnitude, probably exceeding all contemporary port sites on the Indian Ocean littoral. The major finds include ceramics, lapidary objects, metal objects, coins, faunal and botanical remains. (Cherian, et al. 2007; Cherian, et al. 2008; Cherian, et al. 2009; Cherian, et al. 2010; Cherian, et al. 2011) See the consolidated data of antiquities and ceramics in Tables 1 and 2. The voluminous quantity of antiquities unearthed at �Pattanam displays a picture of a 2000-year-old polychromatic and polyphonic urban culture with maritime connectivity to three continents - Asia, Africa and Europe. Ceramics and terracotta objects constitute the majority of artifacts from Pattanam. The terracotta objects include lamps, spindle whorls, toy wheels, discs (with and without perforation), hopscotches, oven knobs and stoppers, tiles, bricks, ring-wells and the enormous quantity of potsherds. We have broadly classified the ceramic assemblage into local pottery and fine/ distinct ceramics. The fine pottery includes the Indian, foreign and some unidentified types. The distinct ceramic assemblage comprises the Mediterranean (Roman) potterywhich includes amphora (6029), terra sigillata (122), the West Asian torpedo jar sherds (3098) and Turquoise Glazed Pottery (1527), along with the Indian Rouletted Ware (8534), and unidentified fine wares (94671). The local pottery has an astonishing dominance with around 3.5 million sherds. (Cherian, et al. 2007; Cherian, et al. 2008: Cherian, et al. 2009; Cherian, et al. 2010; Cherian, et al. 2011). Amphora is a terracotta jar, used across the Mediterranean world and beyond, for storage and transportation of wine, olive oil and garum (fish sauce) (Roberta, 2008 a). The Amphora sherds at Pattanam vouch for India’s linkages with the Roman world in the Early Historic period. Pattanam has yielded the maximum number of amphora sherds ever found from an archaeological site in the Indian Ocean rim. 6029 Amphora sherds were found from the five seasons of Pattanam excavations (Cherian, et al. 2007; Cherian, et al. 2008; Cherian, et al. 2009; Cherian, et al. 2010; Cherian, et al. 2011). According to Roberta Tomber (Tomber,2008 b), the majority of Roman amphorae sherds found at Pattanam, including those with double-rod handles, were transportcontainers for wine. The double rod style originated in the fourth century BCE, along with the Greek Koan amphorae produced on the island of Kos (Whitebread 1995). Their production was primarily during the Hellenistic period (c.336- 30BCE) but it continued into the Roman Empire period through the first century CE (Tomber 2008 b ). Tomber (2008; 2011) further identifies Dressel 2-4, the most common variety found at Pattanam as belonging to Kos, (Greek Island) Campania, (Southern Italy and Bay of Naples) and Cilicia (Eastern Turkey and Syria). The provenance of other identified sherds are Catalan (Spain), Goul (France), Rhodes islands (Greece) and Egypt. The amphora sherds from the five archaeology field seasons need to be studied comprehensively to understand more about the transactions between India and the Mediterranean and Red sea regions. Terra Sigillata is another imported Italian ceramic referred to earlier as Arretine ware. This is strong evidence for maritime exchanges. This fine quality, stamped table ware, has red slip, smooth waxy surface and fine gloss. A total number of 122 sherds (subject to confirmation by the expert) of Terra sigillata has been found from Pattanam (Cherian et al. 2011; Tomber 2011). Indian Rouletted Ware (IRW) are fragments of Indian fine pottery including bowls and dishes. wares from 1998). This Indian role Large quantities were unearthed at Pattanam. The provenance of rouletted other sites has already been identified as from the Bengal region (Gogte Indian fine pottery found in almost all Indian Ocean rim sites signifies the in the South Asian trade network. Pattanam excavations produced the �largest ever assemblage of the Indian rouletted ware. (Cherian et.al 2011) It should also be noted that roulette ware has not been reported from the southwestern coast of India till Pattanam excavations. The rouletted ware sherds are the largest in quantity (8534) among the Pattanam identified distinct ceramics. The occurrence of IRW at the lowest layers of occupation is a pointer to the probable contacts with other parts of India, even during the Buddhist and Jainist periods (Cherian, et al. 2007; Cherian, et al. 2008; Cherian, et al. 2009; Cherian, et al. 2010; Cherian, et al. 2011). These sherds can further deepen our understanding of the Indian Ocean trade dynamics. Turquoise Glazed Pottery (TGP) referred in literature also as ‘TURQ’, SassanoIslamic, alkaline ware and alkaline glazed ware, is the term used to refer to a glazed earthen ware that has a light beige fabric and a glaze that can be green, yellow, white or blue in colour. The glaze is often badly weathered. The forms normally consist of bowls, plates and jars of varying sizes. This class is part of a broad tradition of alkaline glaze earthenware that goes back to the Neo-Babylonian period (c.626 BCE - 539 BCE) in Mesopotamia and appears to have continued well into the Islamic period (post 7th c CE) (Kennet 2009). Earlier studies have identified the emergence of these glazed wares in Mesopotamia and Iran (Hannestad1983:i,15). It is also believed that TGP was principally manufactured in Southern Iraq possibly near Basra, although it is possible that other centers existed (Mason, et al. 1991: 52). TGP has wide distribution around the Indian Ocean, mostly but not exclusively on coastal sites, reaching as far as Japan in the Islamic period (Glover 2002). It has been traded to sites in Eastern Arabia as early as the 5th century BCE (Hojland and Anderson 1994). On the South Asian side of the Arabian Sea some TGP were found in coastal and inland archaeological sites of Srilanka and India (Kennet 2009). Derek Kennet (2009) further reports that Pattanam sherds could potentially, at the very broadest level, be dated as early as 5th century BCE to as late as the 14th century CE. However, based on his closer analysis of the sherds from the 2007 archaeological field season, Kennet (2009) concludes that, those may most likely be dated between the 3rd/2nd century BCE to the 7th/8th century CE. Unidentified distinct pottery is the substantial quantity of pottery (94671) and may be a clue to the linkages of the Malabar Coast with places and people hitherto unknown. The pre-occupation with the Romans would have submerged the local and other regional categories. Local Pottery is the largest assemblage and probably the most challenging study material at Pattanam. Truckloads of local pottery were recovered and sherds of 3 cm and above were quantified by size, number and weight. The diagnostic sherds are closely studied and the rest are stored. As mentioned earlier, the local pottery sherds amount to a staggering 3.5 million. They express the various aspects of the sociocultural life of the residents at the site of Pattanam. The local pottery included containers for day-to-day use, industrial use and architectural materials such as bricks, tiles and ring wells (Selvakumar 2010; Report on local pottery assemblage 2007). They would be crucial to the understanding of the social history of Tamilakam (the triangular �tip of South India comprising present states of Kerala, Tamilnadu, Pondicherry and parts of Karnataka). Stratigraphy sequence of amphorae and TGP are in resonance with the chronology suggested by Tomber (Tomber 2008 b) and Kennet (Kennet 2009). Most of the sherds are from the Early Historic layers when the commercial transactions were at their peak. Amphorae very clearly are of the Early Historic layers, while TGP sherds were found in the Iron Age-Transition layers. This may suggest commercial activity at Pattanam site in the pre-Roman phase. Interestingly, IRW was found in all the stratigraphic layers of Pattanam, except the Iron Age and modern layers, suggesting the prolonged role of regional trade. In spite of the intensely disturbed condition of the site, the stratigraphic pattern at Pattanam remains uniform. See the illustration of a trench section (Figure 1). Figure 1. Archaeological illustration of a trench section in the Pattanam site. The wharf context is the most striking structural feature at Pattanam. It is situated next to a port, with a canoe, bollards and an adjacent commercial ware house area. The wharf was found in the northeastern boundary of the site close to a water logged deposit. The part of the wharf that could be excavated was a huge structure (+6m in length and 7.3m in width), made of a mixture of laterite granules and had a nineteen course outer brick lining. The waterlogged area adjacent to the brick-lining had a dugout canoe made of single log of Anjili wood (Bhatt 2007). The intact portion of the highly decayed canoe measures ca 6m in length and 30 cm in breadth and the AMS dates put the C14 calibration age range from 1300 to 100 BCE (i.e.700± 600 cal. BCE with 95.4% probability) (Cherian, et al. 2009:236-40). The AMS dates for the teak bollard sample �puts the C14 calibrated age range from 1100 BCE to 1300 CE (i.e 100± 1200 cal. CE with 95.4% probability) (Cherian, et al. 2009:236-40). The layer below the canoe had amphorae, rouletted ware, TGP and other ceramics, as a floor for the water-logged area of the wharf. Paleo-botanical evidence. Beneath the ceramic layer of the water-logged area of the wharf, at a depth of 3m, was a rich collection of botanical remains with a layer of clay over them. Apparently this layer of 25-35 cm thick clay prevented oxidation at the lower layers and preserved the paleo-botanical remains. The botanical assemblage included black pepper, bread fruit seed, grape pips, teak, coconut fronds, coconut shells, prop root base of areca nut, bamboo pieces and indeterminate wooden tissues. In 2008, cardamom, rice, wheat, green gram, lentil, mango seeds, Indian gooseberry, Indian jujube, Borassus palm, brinjal, ladies finger and gourds were added to the list (Kajale 2007; Kajale 2008). Another important botanical item distributed in almost all the trenches was frankincense. In 2007 and 2008 archaeological field seasons Teak (Tectona grandis. L.f.) Anjili (Artocarpus hirsutus Lamk.), Punna (Calophyllum inophyllum.L), Kadukka (Terminalia chebula Retz.) and Karimaruthu/Thenmavu (Terminalia crinulata H.heyni ex Roth.) were identified (Bhatt 2007; Bhatt 2008). The ecofacts from the wharf context, as well as the antiquity of the local canoe reiterate the available information on the spice trade that flourished in the period of the Roman empire (27 BCE to 393 CE). The akananooru poem 149, refers to the pepper trade where as purananooru poem 343 mentions about a water craft kazhithoni resembling the dugout canoe excavated at Pattanam (Selvakumar 2008:21-28). This also corroborates with information from the Periplus that Roman ships anchored off shore and collected spices and other trade items using small watercrafts (lightering). Problems in perspective. Euro-centric perspectives, at the cost of the local, dominated the history of long distance trade. At no point has the local pottery been a tool for understanding dynamics nor used as a comparative balance sheet of long distance trade. However, over the years, perspectives have shifted from Imperial Roman to Indo-Roman and Indian, but the latter is yet to gain its equilibrium and rightful place. It would have been impossible for long distance maritime trade to evolve, survive and flourish without adequate regional resources - both men and material. Pattanam had the presence of artisan groups as evidenced by remains of lapidary, metallurgical and kiln activities.(for details Cherian et al 2010&’11). The regional support systems and networks were never duly acknowledged while discussing the larger exchanges across the oceans. The cultural transmissions too were considered unilateral affairs. The reference to the local pottery is made in this paper mainly to bring parity in the understanding of long distance maritime contacts. Earlier perspectives (colonial) concentrated on the non-local antiquities and ceramics and projected Indian port sites as Roman sites or at the most as Indo-Roman sites! The Pattanam site needs to be understood primarily as an Indian site with Roman or West Asian connections. Bibliography Achan A.P., 1946 Annual Report of the Archaeological Department, Cochin State, for the Year 1121 M.E. (1945-46), Cochin �Begley V., 1996 Begley V., 2004 Bhatt, K.V., 2007 Bhatt KV., 2008 Boivin, N., and Fuller, D.Q., 2009 Cherian P. J., Selvakumar V., Shajan K P., 2007 Cherian, P.J., Selvakumar, V., and Shajan K.P., 2007a Cherian P. J. Selvakumar, V., and Shajan K.P., 2007b Cherian, P.J., 2008 Cherian, P. J., Selvakumar V., Shajan, K. P., Rajan, K., 2008 Cherian, P. J., Selvakumar, V., Shajan, K. P., Rajan, K., 2009 Cherian, P. J., Nambirajan, M., Selvakumar, V., Shajan, K. P., Rajan, K., 2010 The ancient Port of Arikamedu; New Excavations and Researches, 1989-92, Vol.I, Centre D'histoire Et D'archeologie, Ecole Francaise D'extreme-orient, Paris. The ancient Port of Arikamedu; New Excavations and Researches, 1989-92, Vol.II, Ecole Francaise D' Extreme Orient, Paris. ‘Test Report of the Wood Samples from Pattanam’, Kerala Council for Historical Research, (hereafter KCHR) Trivandrum. ‘Test Report of the Wood Samples from Pattanam’, KCHR, Trivandrum. Shell middens, ships and seeds: Exploring coastal subsistence, maritime trade and the dispersal of domesticates in and around the ancient Arabian peninsula. Journal of World Prehistory 22: pp. 113-180. Pattanam Excavations: Interim Reports, 2007, KCHR, Trivandrum. "The Muziris Heritage Project: Excavations at Pattanam- 2007", in Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology, New Delhi, Vol 4, pp.1–10. "Pattanam in the maritime History of South West India", in Proceedings of the International Seminar on Marine Archaeology, Indian Navy and Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. "Muziris Heritage Project and the Archaeological Research at Pattanam: An Overview", in The Living Dead and the Lost Knowledge, International Seminar on Muziris Heritage Project,: State Archaeology Department Trivandrum, pp.5-20. Pattanam Excavations: Interim Reports, 2008, KCHR, Trivandrum. Pattanam Excavations: Interim Reports, 2009, KCHR, Trivandrum. Pattanam Excavations: Interim Reports, 2010, KCHR, Trivandrum. �Cherian, P. J., Nambirajan, M., Shajan, K. P., Selvakumar, V., Rajan, K., 2011 Cherian, P. J., Raviprasad, G. V., Koushik Datta, Dinesh Kr Ray, Selvakumar, V., and Shajan, K.P., 2009, Cherian P. J 2009 Fuller, D.Q., Boivin, N., Hoogervorst, T., and Allaby, R., Pattanam Excavations: Interim Reports, 2011,KCHR, Trivandrum. "Chronology of Pattanam: a multi-cultural port site on the Malabar Coast", in Current Science, Vol. 97, no. 2, pp.236-240. “The Exchanges between the Early Historic Ports on the Malabar Coast and the Red Sea Port of Berenike”, in Proceedings of the Thirtieth Annual Seminar-Maritime History Society, Mumbai, pp 65 -79 “Across the Indian Ocean: The prehistoric movement of plants and animals”, in Antiquity 85, pp.544-558 2011 Glover, I., 2002 Gurukkal R., Whittakar, C.R., 2001 Hannestad, L., 1983 Hojland, F., and Andersen, H. H., 1994 Kajale, M., 2007 Kajale, M., 2008 Kennet, D., 2009 Mason, R. B., Keall, E. J., 1991 Rajan K., "West Asian Sassanian ceramics in the Indian Ocean, South, Southeast and East Asia", in Man and Environment, 27,1, pp.165177. "In search of Muziris", in Journal of Roman Archaeology, 14, pp.335-50. "Ikaros the Hellenistic settlements, Vol. 2." in Hellenistic Pottery from Failaka, Jutland Archaeological Society Publications, Arhus, 16, 2. "Qala’at al – Bahrain, Vol.1", in The Northern City Wall and the Islamic Fortress, Jutland Archaeological Society Publications, Arhus, 30, 1. Analysis of archaeo-botanical samples from Pattanam, KCHR, Trivandrum. Analysis of archaeo-botanical samples from Pattanam, KCHR, Trivandrum. Report on the TGP from Pattanam excavation 2007 Season, KCHR, Trivandrum "The Abbasid glazed wares of Siraf and the Basra connection: petrographic analysis", in Iran, 29, pp.51-56. “ Maritime Trade in Early Historic Tamil Nadu” , Man and �2002 Romanis Federico, D.E., and Tchernia A., 1997 Shajan, K.P., Tomber, R., Selvakumar, V., and Cherian, P.J., 2004 Selvakumar, V., 2008 Selvakumar, V., 2010 Selvakumar, V., 2010 a Sidebotham, S. E., 2010 Thapar, R., 1997 Tomber, R., 2008 a Tomber, R., 2008 b Wheeler, R.E.M., Ghosh, A., and Deva, K., 1946 Whitbread, I.K., 1995 Environment, 27(1), pp 83-98 Crossings - Early Mediterranean Contacts with India, Manohar, New Delhi. "Locating the Ancient Port of Muziris: Fresh Findings from Pattanam", in Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol 17, pp.312-320. "Indo-Roman trade and the internal exchange systems of ancient Tamil country", in The Living Dead and the Lost Knowledge, International Seminar on Muziris Heritage Project, State Archaeology Department Trivandrum, pp.21-28. Report on local pottery assemblage; 2007 excavations, KCHR, Trivandrum. Tamil Cultural Connections Across the World (upto 1600 CE), Tamil University, Tanjavur Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route, University of California Press, London. "Early Mediterranean contacts with India: An Overview", in (eds.) Romanis (Federico DE), Tchernia A, Crossings-Early Mediterranean Contacts with India, New Delhi, pp.11-40. Indo-Roman Trade – from Pots to Pepper, Duckworth, London Roman pottery from the Pattanam 2007 excavations: preliminary report, KCHR, Trivandrum. "Arikamedu: an Indo-Roman Trading-station on the East Coast of India", in Ancient India, Vol 2, pp.17-125. Greek Transport Amphore A Petrological and Archaeological Study, The British School at Athens, p 22. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pattanam archaeological site : The wharf context and the maritime exchanges Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource Since 2007 the archaeological excavations at Pattanam, located on the southwestern coast of India, were undertaken by the Kerala Council for Historical Research (KCHR) Thiruvananthapuram. These efforts unearthed an early historic (1st c BCE – 5th c CE) multi-cultural port site, which is now widely considered as an integral part of the ancient port of Muziris. This paper discusses the material evidence related to the maritime exchanges at Pattanam, including a wharf context and the importance of the site in the transcontinental interfaces in antiquity. The most striking material evidence unearthed at Pattanam is the enormous quantity of terracotta objects, ranging from sherds of a variety of jars and pots to roof tiles and bricks. This paper will specifically examine the Indian and non-Indian distinct pottery of the Pattanam ceramic assemblage. The excavations in the northeastern part of the site revealed a wharf and warehouse structure, a wooden canoe made of anjili in a waterlogged context, along with nine bollards of teak. The wharf was a platform made of a mixture of laterite, clay and lime, with an elaborate brick lining where the reclining platform touches the water. The waterlogged area also produced a plethora of paleo-botanical and other archaeological evidence prompting one to propose a hypothesis that Pattanam is a major emporium of the spice trade network of the Early Historic Period (1st c BCE – 5th c CE). This ‘priceless’ evidence from the wharf context and the adjacent waterlogged area are breakthrough finds for understanding the Early Historic inter-continental exchanges that flourished as part of the ancient spice trail that linked Asia, Africa and Europe. The paper concludes by examining the domineering distribution of local pottery as an example in pointing out the problems of Euro-centrism in the perspectives on long-distance exchanges. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource P. J Cherian Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pattinapalai Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Uruthirankannanar J. V. Chelliah Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tamil University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1985 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Uruthirankannanar Editor J. V. Chelliah Item Type Book Section Book Title Pattupattu: Ten Tamil Idylls Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1985 Place Thanjavur Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Tamil University Press Title A name given to the resource Pattinapalai Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource PEM | Peabody Essex Museum Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:20:32 Type The nature or genre of the resource Web Page Museum Zotero Item Type Web Page Access Date 2011-10-07 10:20:32 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:20:32 Title A name given to the resource PEM | Peabody Essex Museum URL http://www.pem.org/ Website Type Museum Attachment Title PEM | Peabody Essex Museum Attachment URL http://www.pem.org/ Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Pepper Trade in East Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ts'Ao Yung-Ho 曹永和 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Ts'Ao Yung-Ho 曹永和 Item Type Journal Article ISSN 00825433 Access Date 2009-10-26 07:29:30 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1982 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: 1982 / Copyright © 1982 BRILL Issue 4/5 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 221-247 Publication Title T'oung Pao Series Second Series Title A name given to the resource Pepper Trade in East Asia URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/4528265 Volume 68 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ca88233c6996ee19eb64ba5411c8101b.pdf 43826b11056e75b5836f820f000cf64f PDF Text Text Poket Xinwu App game for promotion of the Stone Tidal Weirs cultural heritage and collaboration with local communities in Taiwan Lai, Chen-Min（Professional Teachers from the Industries of National Central University＆Chief Operating Officer of Dream Maker） Tai, Yu-Hsin (Teacher of Dream Maker & Founder of Astro Stream Technologies Studio ) Lee, Jen-Fu（Graduate student of College of Hakka Studies, National Central University ） Cheng, Tsung-Han（Chief executive officer of Tempest Digital Co., Ltd.） ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 12 because the study aims to investigate the potential of digital technologies in promoting the cultural heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs, also known as "Stone Tidal Weirs" in Taiwan. The Stone Tidal Weirs are an integral part of Taiwan's history and culture, yet their significance is often overlooked. This study aims to address this by utilizing digital technologies to raise awareness about Stone Tidal Weirs and their cultural significance, as well as the ecological significance of the Stone Tidal Weirs in near-shore ecosystems. A mobile application, Poket Xinwu, was developed in collaboration with local communities and university groups to ensure the authenticity and accuracy of the information provided. The app features interactive content that allows users to learn about the Stone Tidal Weirs and their surroundings in an engaging and intuitive way. Additionally, the app aims to raise awareness about the environmental issues surrounding Stone Tidal Weirs and the importance of preserving the local ecosystems. The app also serves as a tourism promotion tool, encouraging visitors to explore the Stone Tidal Weirs and learn more about marine culture. The study found that the app game was successful in promoting the cultural heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs and raising awareness about their significance. The app's interactive content and the collaboration with local communities were identified as key factors in its success. The study concludes that digital technologies can be effectively utilized to promote and preserve cultural heritage and can foster collaboration and understanding between local communities and visitors. List of Figures Figure 1 Distribution of Stone Tidal Weirs in the World (Tawa, 2007) Figure 2 Schematic map of the location of the No. 1 Stone Weir in Shenzhen Figure 3 Poket Xinwu app Figure (4): Collection of fish ecology around stone weirs. INTRODUCTION The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 12 because the study aims to investigate the potential of digital technologies in promoting the cultural heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs, also known as "Stone Tidal Weirs" in Taiwan. Dr. Asahitaro Nishimura, a maritime anthropologist and a leading authority on the study of Stone Tidal Weirs, referred to this traditional fishing equipment as a "living fossil of the oldest fishing gear," believed to be the world's oldest. (Nishimura 1969; Nishimura 1979). Fish traps are one of the most widespread and enduring features of the maritime landscape. And research also in Ireland has identified a great number of traps, most of which date from the early to late medieval periods (Montgomery, Forsythe & Breen 2015). Stone Tidal Weirs were once widely distributed in coastal areas with remarkable tidal action and coral reef areas with developed lagoons throughout the world. Figure 1 shows the areas in which Stone Tidal Weirs were distributed (Tawa 2007). 1 �Figure 1 Distribution of Stone Tidal Weirs in the World (Tawa 2007) In the latter part of the 1980s, geographers in Taiwan conducted a survey of Stone Tidal Weirs, including the author's study of those located along the northwestern coast of the main island. In the 1990s, extensive research was undertaken on Stone Tidal Weir fishing in the Penghu Archipelago, with active involvement from researchers, local school teachers, and their students (Chen 1992;1996). More recently, research has focused on a complete census of Stone Tidal Weirs, providing valuable insights into the cultural heritage of Taiwan and clarifying the use of fishing villages and grounds in the Penghu Archipelago (Hong 1999). The Stone Tidal Weir is constructed on seaward slopes or fringing reefs, and comprises a semicircular or horseshoe-shaped wall built from stones or coral lime stones. Its design is closely linked to tidal changes, with fish swimming or being swept into the weir during high tide but unable to escape during low tide. The fish are then caught in the shallow water within the weir using small push nets or dip nets. The Penghu Archipelago in the Strait of Taiwan is home to over 500 Stone Tidal Weirs, the highest concentration in the world, while the western coastal region of the main island also has a significant number of weirs, with some still in use today. In Taiwan, the Penghu Archipelago in the Strait of Taiwan is the region with the world’s largest concentration of Stone Tidal Weirs, with over 500 weirs in total. The western coastal region of the main island is another area where a large number of weirs were once distributed, with some remaining today (Tawa 2010). The Stone Tidal Weirs are an integral part of Taiwan's history and culture, yet their significance is often overlooked. This study aims to address this by utilizing digital technologies to raise awareness about Stone Tidal Weirs and their cultural significance, as well as the ecological significance of the Stone Tidal Weirs in near-shore ecosystems. The Stone Tidal Weirs form art and game exploration narratives which virtually experienced many of these traditions in indigenous community of the region. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the following. The research background of this study originates from the team's discovery of the Xinwu's Stone Tidal Weirs in 2017. The structure of the Stone Tidal Weirs and its significant role in the lives of coastal residents fascinated the team, and led to the conception of a 'coastal library'. 2 �After conducting multiple visits and interviews with local residents, the team learned that the local community has made several attempts to preserve and promote the culture of Stone Tidal Weirs. These efforts include developing environmental tours, organizing community events, and promoting extended local specialties. However, the irregular frequency of events, the need to consider tidal conditions for activities, and the natural seasonal limitations along the coast have proven to be major obstacles. Therefore, this study aims to address these limitations by focusing on Xinwu’s Stone Tidal Weirs, the largest and most well-preserved area on Taiwan's mainland, with 9 Stone Tidal Weirs completely according to the Taoyuan City Government Marine Engineering Bureau (Office of Coast Administration Construction, Taoyuan 2023). The study's objective is to promote the culture of the Stone Tidal Weirs through a digital app platform, eliminating human, environmental, and seasonal factors. Moreover, by collaborating with the local community during the production process, this study seeks to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the Stone Tidal Weir’s culture. 1. Project planning and team recruitment: Xinwu People's Association collaborated with the local enterprise Tempest Digital Co., Ltd. to plan the development of the Poket Xinwu app. A student development team was formed by recruiting interested members from National Central University's Game Creator Club. 2. Research and data collection: The main interactive teaching tool used in the Poket Xinwu app was the No. 1 stone weir (Figure 2). To better present the actual characteristics of the stone weir in the app, multiple visits and data collections were conducted with the community. The community also took the team to repair the stone weir and explained the architectural structure of the heart-shaped six-stone weir. The stone weir was built in the 13th year of the Qing Dynasty and was an arc-shaped weir with many oysters and shells attached to the stones that form a fishdragon shape. It was not listed as a national cultural heritage site until 2013 (Taoyuan City Government Cultural Affairs Bureau, 2019). Currently, the stone weir is continuously repaired and patrolled, and the local area is mainly engaged in agricultural production with fishing as a supplementary activity. 3 �Figure (2). Schematic map of the location of the No. 1 Stone Weir in Shenzhen, with a total length of 250 meters (top). (Source: 2011 Shenzhen Stone Weir Landscape Maintenance Plan). Repair work is in progress on the No. 1 Stone Weir, with association members providing guidance to a game maker on the repair process (bottom). 3. Feature extraction: To develop the Poket Xinwu app (Figure 3), the cultural features of the stone weir were extracted. After understanding the basic architecture and history, the app mainly focused on two directions as the main features: ecological features and surrounding attractions. The unique fish and ecological environment of the New House Stone Weir were locked as the ecological feature. Common fish names and photos found in the stone weir were collected through several visits to the local community and on-site inspections (Figure 4). The fishing scenes of the stone weir were restored as much as possible. Surrounding attractions were identified as another key feature. As the New House Stone Weir is a connecting point for the whole community, surrounding attractions were identified along the coastal and inland areas. Members of the New House Love Township Association were interviewed, and field visits were conducted to identify unique local attractions. 4 �Figure 3. Poket Xinwu app (Source: https://apps.apple.com/tw/app/%E6%8E%8C%E4%B8%8A%E6%96%B0%E5%B1%8B/id1555679247) Figure 4. Collection of fish ecology around stone weirs. (Source: Marine species identification manual for horizontal longline fishermen 2006. https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=2304667786405092&set=a.1116075205264362&type=3) 4. Game mechanics: The Poket Xinwu app's gameplay is based on the story of sister Jiang Mina returning to New House to assist her father's business. By managing attractions, new surrounding attractions are unlocked. Each attraction unlocks various rewards, and players progress through the game by collecting rewards and managing the business successfully. In this study, we developed an app to promote the ecology and history of stone water. Before the app's development, we did not have a complete compilation of information on the fish 5 �ecology in Stone Tidal Weirs. However, after the app's development, we successfully created a fish map of Stone Tidal Weirs. We put it into the Stone Tidal Weirs Storytelling Museum to introduce the ecology, which is an important function of the app that allows users to understand more about the ecology and history of Stone Tidal Weirs. Before the app was created, the local association used tours and excursions to protect and promote Stone Tidal Weirs. However, in the course of the app, we found that more and more people joined the app and began to describe their impressions of Stone Shanghai and their memories of the past, such as the aunt who collected sea melon seeds and vegetables and the uncle who collected driftwood for carving, which reflected the important role of the Poket Xinwu app in promoting the culture of Stone Tidal Weirs. In addition, we found that the ecocircle1 of the Stone Tidal Weirs-community is known and promoted after the production of the Poket Xinwu app. This shows that the app we developed has successfully contributed to transmitting and promoting Stone Tidal Weirs culture. The number of visitors to the experience of high school students in using the app show that the app has good experience and promotion benefits. For example, a student pointed out that the app cooperated with local merchants to launch coupons to promote tourism. In addition, the UI of the app is quite simple and easy to use, and there is no problem with cards or unpleasant operations. In addition, we noticed that some students, generally rated the app highly, saying that it was good and had an important role in promoting Stone Tidal Weirs culture. On the other hand, some students suggested that the game would be more enjoyable if it could be presented in a non-idle format to increase interactivity. In conclusion, the Stone Tidal Weirs app developed in this study has achieved positive results in promoting Stone Tidal Weirs culture and promoting Stone Tidal Weirs ecological protection and has promotional benefits and good usage experience. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct this research project include the participation of the community in the development of an interactive mobile application, the process of collaboration between the research team and the local community, Xinwu People’s Association, the marine ecology, field surveys of nearby attractions, and a wealth of community data and relevant documentary sources. The development of the interactive mobile application involved the use of Unity software, the collection of artistic materials, and the creation of a script for the storyline. In addition, a large number of interviews were conducted to align the storyline of the mobile application with the cultural significance of Xinwu People’s Association. The application called Poket Xinwu app was published on Google Play, which allowed for analysis of downloads and market feedback, giving us insights into user backgrounds and qualitative evaluations. Since its release on March 27, 2021, the Poket Xinwu app has received a total rating of 4.4 stars on Google Play as of April 5, 2023. The app has had an average distribution of downloads over time, with a total of 207 installations and 151 uninstalls. The current user retention rate is 27%. The app also features a mechanism for providing discount coupons to local shops, which some users have already redeemed. These insights into user behavior and feedback from the Google Play platform can help inform future updates and improvements to the app. The collaboration between the research team and the local community proved to be an indispensable resource in achieving a co-creation of knowledge and a deep understanding of the cultural significance of Xinwu People’s Association. Through this fruitful partnership, we 1 eco-circle: eco-circle promotes and protects traditional fish weirs through an app-based marketing approach, community engagement, and environmental conservation efforts. This creates a cycle of promotion and protection for fish weirs, resulting in positive impacts on local ecosystems and communities while achieving both environmental and economic benefits. 6 �were able to identify and prioritize research questions, and to develop a comprehensive research plan that effectively met the needs and aspirations of the local community. Direct access to the local marine management agency through government-sponsored activities provided us with crucial information on the Stone Tidal Weir’s culture and surrounding scenic spots. Additionally, we gained valuable insights into the government and local community's perspectives, goals, and plans regarding Stone Tidal Weir culture and the site's management. The local association has adopted a cautious approach that prioritizes the preservation of the local ecology, which allows for limited tourism to avoid coastal waste and damage to the stone weir. In contrast, the government supports sustainable commercial applications that aim to efficiently manage and promote the site while catering to the needs of a large number of tourists interested in understanding Stone Tidal Weir's cultural ecology. During our research process, we observed that developing an application that promotes and protects the culture of Stone Tidal Weir is in line with the positions and needs of both parties. The consensus framework2 for this proposal proved to be highly conducive to the successful promotion and preservation of Stone Tidal Weir. Our findings highlight the importance of effective collaboration between research teams and local communities, especially in preserving culture and promoting sustainable development. Xinwu People’s Association and the nearby marine ecology were important resources that provided us with a unique research opportunity. Xinwu People's Association is a local organization in Xinwu that is dedicated to the protection and promotion of Stone Tidal Weir culture, and the marine ecology in the area is diverse and complex. These resources allowed us to study the historical and ecological significance of the area and gain a deeper understanding of the cultural and natural heritage of the community. Field surveys of nearby attractions provided us with additional resources for our research. We conducted surveys of nearby tourist sites to understand their impact on Xinwu People’s Association and local communities. This allowed us to identify potential threats to the site and the community and develop recommendations for sustainable tourism practices. Finally, a wealth of community data and relevant documentary sources allowed us to stay upto-date with the latest research developments and incorporate this knowledge into our work. We collected and analyzed global articles related to Stone Tidal Weirs and integrated this information into our research, providing a broader perspective and deeper understanding of the significance of Stone Tidal Weirs. FRAMEWORK The research problem is the marketing and promotion of the stone tidal weirs is insufficient. In the past, the promotion of stone weirs was mainly through academic research and event organization. As a result, the general public's understanding of stone weirs is insufficient, and with the changing times, the number of users of stone weirs has also decreased. Therefore, to address the problem of insufficient promotion of stone weirs, this study employs game base marketing to develop an APP game to help the public learn about and virtually experience the culture of stone tidal weirs. RESULTS (expected) In the past, the promotion of stone fish weirs was mainly through academic research and physical activities. By creating an app game-based marketing, the cultural significance of stone 2 Consensus framework: A structured approach to establish agreement among individuals with different opinions, promoting collaboration and guiding decision-making. 7 �fish weirs can be easily promoted. In the future, this can be combined with LINE application for digital marketing and the establishment of a virtual world Stone Fish Weir Museum. The United Nations Environment Programmed released a report titled "War and Environment: Destruction, Pollution and Recovery" in November 2021. The report states that the destruction and damage caused by war and armed conflict to the environment and ecosystems has reached unprecedented levels, and that these damages will have long-term effects on local and global environments and human health. The report proposes solutions such as strengthening international legal frameworks, protecting cultural heritage, and supporting sustainable development. By promoting and preserving the data of stone fish weirs through an app game, we can prevent the loss of cultural information caused by destruction during war and armed conflict. CONCLUSION To conclude, the study found that the app game was successful in promoting the cultural heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs and raising awareness about their significance. The app's interactive content and the collaboration with local communities were identified as key factors in its success. The study also reveals that digital technologies can be effectively utilized to promote and preserve cultural heritage and can foster collaboration and understanding between local communities and visitors. Therefore, In the future research and development phase, further data accumulation and indepth analysis of its effectiveness can be conducted. Subsequently, it can be extended to more mature regions or countries for research and organization, such as Penghu County in Taiwan and Japan. In the future educational promotion phase, it can continue to serve as a teaching tool for communities, schools, and tourism, educating people about stone weirs and their significance to the local area. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chen, H. M. . An ecological approach to the fishing community of a coral island: Study of Niao Yu, the Penghu Islands. Geographical Research 18 (1992): 109−158. Chen, H. M. Investigation into the Stone Tidal Weirs in the Penghu Islands. Geographical Research 25 (1996): 117−140. Hong, G. H. The Stone Tidal Weirs in the Penghu islands. Penghu Hsien Culture Center, Taiwan, (1999): 257. Montgomery, P., Forsythe, W., & Breen, C. Intertidal fish traps from Ireland: some recent discoveries in Lough Swilly, Co. Donegal. Journal of Maritime Archaeology 10, (2015): 117-139. Nishimura, A.西村朝日太郎「漁具の生ける化石，石 い し ひ び干見の法的諸関係」(Legal Conditions of Ishihibi , Living Fossil of the Oldest Fishing Gear)『比較法学』5（1・2合併）(1969): 73-116。 Nishimura, A.西村朝日太郎「生きている漁具の化石―沖縄宮古群島におけるkakiの研究」(Living Fossils of Fixed Fishing Gear: Investigation into the Relics of Stone Tidal Weirs Constructed along the Coast of the Miyako Archipelago in Okinawa)『民族学研究』44 , no. 3 (1979):223-259。 Office of Coast Administration Construction, Taoyuan 新屋石滬故事館. Retrieved from https://www.tyoca.gov.tw/海洋教育/環境教育設施場所/新屋石滬故事館/(2023). Taoyuan City Government Cultural Affairs Bureau. Feasibility Evaluation of Tangible Cultural Assets Designated or Registered in Grass Lotion Sand Dunes and New House Stone Weir, Taoyuan City. Taoyuan City Government Cultural Affairs Bureau.(2019). Tawa, M. 「伝統漁石干見の過去と現在」 (A Phase of Traditional Fishing Gear Ishihibi) ，小長谷有紀・中 里亜夫・藤田佳久編『林野・草原・水域』 (In Konagaya, Y., Nakazato, T., and Fujita, Y., eds., Forests, Grasslands, and Waters), 朝倉書店 (Asakura Shoten) (2007): 194−207. Tawa, M. Stone Tidal Weirs of East Asia in Transition. 人文論究, 59, no. 4 (2010): 95-107. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poket Xinwu App game for promotion of the Stone Tidal Weirs cultural heritage and collaboration with local communities in Taiwan Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session 12 because the study aims to investigate the potential of digital technologies in promoting the cultural heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs, also known as "Stone Tidal Weirs" in Taiwan. The Stone Tidal Weirs are an integral part of Taiwan's history and culture, yet their significance is often overlooked. This study aims to address this by utilizing digital technologies to raise awareness about Stone Tidal Weirs and their cultural significance, as well as the ecological significance of the Stone Tidal Weirs in near-shore ecosystems. A mobile application, Poket Xinwu, was developed in collaboration with local communities and university groups to ensure the authenticity and accuracy of the information provided. The app features interactive content that allows users to learn about the Stone Tidal Weirs and their surroundings in an engaging and intuitive way. Additionally, the app aims to raise awareness about the environmental issues surrounding Stone Tidal Weirs and the importance of preserving the local ecosystems. The app also serves as a tourism promotion tool, encouraging visitors to explore the Stone Tidal Weirs and learn more about marine culture. The study found that the app game was successful in promoting the cultural heritage of Stone Tidal Weirs and raising awareness about their significance. The app's interactive content and the collaboration with local communities were identified as key factors in its success. The study concludes that digital technologies can be effectively utilized to promote and preserve cultural heritage and can foster collaboration and understanding between local communities and visitors. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lai, Chen-Min Tai, Yu-Hsin Lee, Jen-Fu Cheng, Tsung-Han Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Lai, Chen-Min, Tai, Yu-Hsin, Lee, Jen-Fu, and Cheng, Tsung-Han. 2023. “Poket Xinwu App game for promotion of the stone tidal weirs cultural heritage and collaboration with local communities in Taiwan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, Paul Montgomery, and Bill Jeffrey. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2010 Asia-Pac Session 11 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/34ac6c1e58d3d45d3d72a1fc5d7f679e.pdf d159a4b3c2c916039b59f95bd2004ea2 PDF Text Text Ports and Trade Networks of the Tamiraparani Delta of Tamil Nadu V. Selvakumar (Associate Professor, Tamil University) ABSTRACT The deltas of Tamil Nadu in southern part of India have several ports that acted as nodes of maritime networks. Evidence of prehistoric hunter-gatherers is found in the Tamiraparani delta in the red sand dunes of Teri in the form of microliths. In the Iron Age the Tamiraparani region witnessed megalithic settlements with burial sites. The famous urn burial site of Adichanallur is located in this region. Evidence for early historic trade interaction is found at the site of Korkai, which has been identified as the center of the early Pandyan kings. The port of Korkai is discussed in the early Tamil literature and archaeological excavation has revealed evidence for urban activities. In the Medieval period, Kayal became an important port of trade and it is referred to in the medieval textual sources. It was a major center for horse trade and the temple of Tiruppudaimaraudir in the Tamiraparani region has evidence of Arab horse traders in the form of mural paintings. The region is well connected with the Western Ghats and a trade route connecting Kerala and Tamil Nadu region. The main research problem of the paper is to understand the nature, function and foreland and hinterland networks of the ports of Tamiraparani valley. The paper discusses the archaeological evidence of ports of the early historic and medieval periods (Korkai and Kayal) and the maritime networks that connected with these ports using textual and archaeological sources. The data sources are collected from the author's fieldwork, critical study of primary sources and collection of secondary literature. Keywords: Korkai; Indian Ocean Trade; Indo-Roman Trade; Kayal; Horse Trade INTRODUCTION The Tamiraparani delta lies in the southern part of Tamil Nadu, adjacent to the Palk Strait that separates India and the island of Sri Lanka. The Tamiraparani river originates near Agastiyakoodam in the Western Ghats mountains and meets the Gulf of Mannar, which is part of the Bay of Bengal, near the ancient port of Korkai and south of the modern port of Tutukudy/Tuticorin. The Tamiraparani river valley is one of the historically important regions of Tamil Nadu with the evidence of the cultural remains of the Microlithic, Iron Age, Early Historic and historical periods. This paper discusses the ports and trade networks of the Tamiraparani delta mainly in the Early Historic and Medieval periods. ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND The Tamiraparani river valley lies between Latitudes 8º 21’N and longitudes 9º 13’ N; and 77º 10’ E and 78º 15’ E. The river flows for about 130 km towards the east before joining the Gulf of Mannar and it is known as Porunai in the Tamil texts and inscriptions (PAN 2021, 19-23). Tirunelveli, district headquarters in the west, and Tutukudy (Thuthukudy), district headquarters and port in the east, are the important centres located in the river valley. The popular name of the river “Tamiraparani” is known as Tambapanni in Prakrit language, and is cognate with the name of Sri Lanka, which is referred to as Tambapanni in the inscriptions of Asoka (Sen 1956, 66). The Korkai bay, which is near the coast, abounds in tanks and backwater-bodies now. It has been argued that the river Tamiraparani might have flowed further north, from its current course, in the early historic period and then moved southwards (Arunachalam et al. 2006, 278-280). Kayal was another port that developed in the medieval period and is located further east of Korkai in the Tamiraparani delta. Geological investigations reveal that the Korkai bay must have been a prominent feature adjacent to the coast, in the early historic period (Arunachalam et al. 2006, 278-280). 1 �The trenches excavated at the site of Korkai as part of archaeological excavation by Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department in 2021 revealed water-logging in the lower level, below 1.5 m from the surface level (Tangadurai, Personal Communication, 2023) suggesting possible lower sea-level in the early historic period. Although the Tamiraparani river valley forms a distinct drainage system, south of the Tamiraparani river flows the Nambiyar, which originates near Tirukkurungudi and flows parallel in the south, can also be treated as part of the broader cultural region of the Tamiraparani river valley. The Gulf of Mannar is famous for pearl fishery and marine shells are abundant in this region (Athiyaman 2000, 1-5; Arunachalam 2011, 1-8), the river valley is suitable for agrarian produce, and the Western Ghats has rich forest resources including spices. Figure 1. Map of Southern Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka with important Sites, by Shika Rai HISTORY OF RESEARCH Arch Bishop Robert Caldwell published on the history of this region (1881). He excavated the sites of Korkai and Kayal and identified urn burials (1887, 80-82, 82-83, 279-290). Based on the study of the urn burials and the human bones, it has been argued that the people who were buried in the urns were physically similar to the contemporary population of Tiruneveli region. Robert Bruce Foote explored this area and identified microlithic sites and the Mesolithic formations of the Teri Sand dunes (Foote 1884, 1-98) and artifacts of microliths have been identified by Zeuner and Allchin (1956, 4-20). Alexander Rea explored several megalithic burials sites in this river valley and excavated the famous urn burial site of Adichanallur and unearthed voluminous cultural materials (Rea 1915, 1-40). Mangudi in Sankarankoil 2 �Taluk further north of the Tamiraparani valley excavated by Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology exposed microliths beneath the Iron Age-Early Historic remains (Shetty 2003, 1-3). Subsequently, the urn burial site of Adichanallur was re-excavated by Archaeological Survey of India in 2005 (Satyamurthy 2007, 55-66; Bhadreenath 2021, 1-15; Nambirajan et al. 2009, 57-61). Archaeological excavation is ongoing now to establish the site museum at Adichanallur and the task is undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India from 2021 (Arunraj et al. 2022, 6-13). Tamil Nadu State Department undertook excavations at the habitation site in the village of Adichanallur in 2021 and also at Korkai (PAN, 2021). An archaeological survey of Tamiraparani region has been undertaken by Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department in 2021-2022 and they have identified several archaeological sites (Tangadurai, Personal Communication, 2023). The Megalithic burial site of Sivakalai in the Tamiraparani delta has been excavated and dates of ca. 1155 BCE has been obtained on the urn burials (Rajan et al. 2021, 57-86). N. Athiyaman has discussed the importance of the ports of southern Tamil Nadu, mainly in the Gulf of Mannar region (Athiyaman 2014, 1-15). This region has paintings and sculptures related to the maritime activities in the temples and they have been studied by Athiyaman (2015, 99-111). The excavated materials from Adichanallur, especially the copper-bronze artifacts have been studied for their metallurgical contents and it has been found that these artifacts have high tin content as found in other megalithic bronze artifacts (Paramasivan 1944, 87-93; Srinivasan 2017, 807-812). KORKAI IN LITERATURE Korkai is spoken in early Tamil as well the Greek literature as an important port and centre for marine resources, especially pearl and chank (Turbinella Pyrum). This section describes the poetic narration of Korkai in early Tamil literature. Tamil Literature The Tamil Sangam texts are generally placed in the early centuries of the Common Era and a few of these texts could extend to the early medieval period (Zvelebil 1974, 1-50). While the information and composition of some of these poems were undertaken in the early period, these texts were compiled into a corpus in the early medieval period, ca. sixth to ninth centuries CE. Marine Resources of Korkai The Sangam Tamil texts often refer to the importance of the town of Korkai for pearl fishery and marine shell industries. Akananuru (poem 27) mentions that the large port (perunturai, Peru = large and turai = port, in Tamil) of Korkai was protected ethically and peacefully by the Pandya king who was involved in bloody, violent battles. The town was famous for pearl fishery, and the pearls from the town are compared to the teeth of the heroine in the poem. Akananuru (poem 201) refers to the shining pearl of Korkai munturai (Mun = front and turai = port, in Tamil), and conch (Turnbinella pyrum). In the famous town of the Pandya, who were victorious with the support of elephants efficient in warfare and the women of the fisher-folk, who wear leaf dress, deposit pearl and the Turbinella pyrum with the opening on the right-side. The chank shells with the opening on the right-side are considered rare and more valuable. Such chanks are known as valampuri in Tamil and are highly priced even today. 3 �Narrinai refers to the front port (munturai) of Korkai as yielding pearls (Narrinai 23:5). Here the Tamil term of munturai used to refer to the port is interesting. Some scholars suggest that munturai as a front port, which was very close to the mouth of the river and perunturai (large port or main port) was in the interior. Munturai might have referred to the actual port or ferry context nearby the river, while Perunturai referred to the town in a broad sense. Aingurunuru (185, -2) poem mentions the munturai port of Korkai where neytal flowers (Nymphaea nouchali) and pearls are scattered and they resemble the teeth of the heroine. The poem narrates that the waves bring the shining pearls onto the shore and the pearls trouble the hooves of the moving horses. She wears the fine shell bangles cut out of Turbinella pyrum, by a sharp tool. Such poetic narrations are exaggerations that speak about the abundance of pearls in the region. Cilappatikaram, an epic work in Tamil, mentions the pearl from the Korkai perunturai (14. 180). Maduraikkanchi, another text of the Sangam corpus, has a more vivid narration. Pearls, and the bangles cut from Turbinella pyrum, and the various commodities of Paratar, and the salt, the dry fish supplied by those who drove the timil boats, and the sailors of navai and kalam who brought horses reached Madurai (Maduraikkanchi, 316 – 325). Here navai and kalam are two types of seagoing watercraft used by merchants, while timil was the boat often used by the fisherfolk. The same text talks about the quarters where the bangle makers lived (Maduraikanchi 134–138). The literary narratives are very clear that pearls and marine shells were extensively exploited in the region of Tamiraparani delta. Political Control of the Pandyas An important category of information from the literature pertains to the political control of the port of Korkai. Although the existence of strong political control in the early historic period was a matter of debate (Gurukkal 2012, 1-20), the poems are very categorical that the port of Korkai was controlled by the political power of the Pandyas. Akananuru poem 130 refers to Korkai as narrer Valuti Korkai munturai, which means the front port of Korkai, belonged to the king Vazhuti, who had fine chariots. Aingurunuru (185:1-2) poem is clear that the port of Korkai was controlled by the Pandya king Vazhuti. Several Pandya kings had the title Vazhuti; for example Ukkirapperuvazuti and Maran vazhuti. Coins of the early historic period with the name “vazhuti” have been found in Tamil Nadu. The title Korkai Koman (Sirupanarruppatai 62-63), which means the headman of Korkai and another title ‘Korkai Ventu’ (Cilappatikaram 10, 65), which means the ‘chief of Korkai,’ strongly suggest that the Pandya king controlled Korkai. Greco-Roman Literature The Periplus Marei Erythrea mentions Korkai as Colchi and it also refers to the pearl fishery here was undertaken by condemned criminals. It also states that the town was under the control of the Pandyas (Schoff 1912, 46). The text of Ptolemy which is dated to the second century CE also speaks about Korkai as ‘Kolkhoi’ and also as an emporium (Renou 1925, 6). While describing the area north of Korkai it says “Beyond Colchi there follows another district called the Coast Country, which lies on a bay, and has a region inland called Argaru. At this place, and nowhere else, are bought the pearls gathered on the coast thereabouts; and from there are exported muslins, those called Argaritic.” (Schoff 1912, 46). The identity of this settlement and interior region is not certain. The place of Argaru was identified with Uraiyur, the capital of the Cholas lying further north, and based on the excavation and the finding of tanks identified as dying-vat (Raman 1988, 1-5); it is argued that such 4 �clothes were produced at Uraiyur. Since pearls and other marine resources were brought to this town, it could well be the area near Alagankulam (Sridhar et al. 2005, 1-5) and the hinterland could be the region east of Madurai. Keeladi in this region could be a potential early historic urban settlement associated with textile production (Amarnath Ramakrishna et al. 2019). The name Argaru could be the contemporary name of Arrankarai near the mouth of the river Vaigai or the ancient name of Aruppukkottai, which is famous for the textile industry. The textile class of aruvai referred to in the early Sangam texts (Athiyaman and Athithan 2018, 41-50) could have been the original name of argaru of the Periplus. IMPORTANT ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN THE TAMIRAPARANI VALLEY Archaeological surveys have revealed several prehistoric, Iron Age and Historical sites in the Tamiraparani valley. This region is also rich in historical settlements, inscriptions and temples. Some of the important historical settlements related to maritime activities are discussed here in this section. Exploitation of marine resources in the Tamiraparani region might have begun in the mid- second millennium BCE, although archaeological evidence has not been identified in this region. Excavations at Molapalayam near Coimbatore have produced marine shells of Turbinella pyrum and Oliva sp. used as ornaments in 1600-1400 BCE context (Selvakumar et al. 2022). Such shells are found in the Deccan Chalcolithic and Southern Neolithic cultures of India suggesting the early exchange in marine shells (Deshpande-Mukherjee 2006, 259-83). Evidence of Iron Age settlements are found in large numbers in the Tamiraparani river valley. Korkai Korkai is in Sri Vaikuntam Taluk of Tirunelveli district and lies in the delta of Tamiraparani valley. Adichanallur lies about 15 km further inland and the microlithic site of Sawyerpuram lies three km from the site. Korkai was excavated by Tamil Nadu Archaeological Department in 1968-69 and in 2020-21. Based on the excavations, three cultural periods have been identified and they can be described as Early Historic, Early Medieval and Mid-Medieval (Majeed 1987, 73-77; Sridhar 2004, 48). Brick architectural remains, urns, ring wells, soakage jars, pottery with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, cut pieces of shells and bangles, beads of semi-precious stones, Northern Black Polished Ware, rouletted ware fragments have been excavated at the site (Figures. 2-3). A radiocarbon date of 785 BCE was obtained from a trench (Sridhar 2004, 56). The re-excavation of the site in 2021 produced similar findings. 5 �Figure 2. A ring well or Soakage Jar (?), Korkai, Courtesy: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department 6 �Figure 3. Brick Structure, Korkai, Courtesy: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department Sivakalai Sivakalai is an urn burial site in Tamiraparani valley. The areas of Srimoolakarai, Sivakalai Parambu. and Parakiramapandi Thiradu have been excavated by Tamil Nadu State archaeology department in 2020 onwards. They have found evidence of urn burials, human skeletons and evidence of rice husk. An AMS date of 1155 BCE (PAN 202, 16-171; Rajan et al. 2021) is available for the site. The early date suggests the possible beginning of the Iron Age in the late second millennium BCE. Adichanallur Adichanallur was an important Iron Age burial site in this region which has been investigated for more than a century since 1877 (Rea 2015, 1-40; Satyamurthy 2007, 55-66; Bhadhreenath 2021; Arunraj et al. 2022, 6-13). The burial site has produced a vast quantity of grave-goods including iron objects, copper bronze artifacts and gold objects indicating the establishment of agricultural and pastoral communities. Although the habitation site associated with the burial site has not been identified, the evidence proves that the Tamiraparani valley was extensively occupied by the Iron Age communities, who were involved in rice cultivation and had some degree of craft specialization from early first millennium BCE (Table 1). The diverse varieties of metal objects suggest possible long distance trade. 7 �Kayal Kayal area with a cluster of settlements variously known as Pazhayakayal and Kayalpattinam was the port of the Medieval period from about 12th century CE and it is mentioned as Cail and Qail in the literary accounts. Marco Polo, Wassaf and the Arab sources (Dayalan 2019, 28-29) and the Chinese accounts (Roderich 1993) mention the port and its activities. Kayalpattinam has evidence of medieval Islamic architecture (Shokoohy 1993). Kayal was famous for trade in horses and it was a major centre for Arab traders (Anas Babu 2015, 1-15). Marco Polo describes it as an important port and says "all ships touch that come from the west, as from Hormos and from Kis and from Aden, and all Arabia" (Roderich 1993, note 2). The continued importance of Kayal in the later period indicates the strategic location of the Tamiraparani delta in the maritime trade routes of the Indian Ocean network. Tiruppudaimarudur Tiruppudaimarudur is a settlement with a temple depicting the paintings of Arab ships (Athiyaman 2015, 99-111). While Tiruppudaimarudur is in the interior at the confluence of the Kadana river with the Tamiraparani river, the depiction of theme of an Arab ship loaded with horses indicates the predominance of the horse trade and its impact on the overall political and social developments in the Later Medieval period and more particularly the role of this region in the maritime trade associated with horse trade. Tirukkurungudi Tirukkurunkudi is another medieval temple with sculptures of an Arab ship and maritime activities (Athiyaman 2015, 99-111). Tirukkurunkudi is located in Nanguneri taluk of Tirunelvei district. It lies 40 km north of Kanniyakumari and 45 km from Tirunelveli. Table 1 Radiocarbon Dating for the Iron Age sites in Tamil Nadu*Calibrated using http://calib.org/calib/ Site Name Radiocarbon Date Cal BCE Reference Sivakalai 1155 BCE Rajan et al. 2021 Adichanallur 855 BCE Rajan et al. 2021 Adichanallur 640-650 BCE Bhadhreenath 2021, 144 Adichanallur* 770-795 BCE Bhadhreenath 2021, 144 Adichanallur* 795 -830 BCE Bhadhreenath 2021, 144 Adichanallur* 795-835 BCE Bhadhreenath 2021, 144 Korkai 785 BCE Maloney 1976 Adichanallur 682 BCE Rajan et al. 2021 8 �HINTERLAND AND MARITIME NETWORKS OF THE TAMIRAPARANI VALLEY The network of the Tamiraparani river valley incorporated many Iron Age-Early historic settlements in the hinterland and the port of Korkai. Adichanallur is one of the important Iron Age Early Historic burial sites indicating several agrarian settlements nearby. The rich grave goods including the iron objects and bronze and gold ornaments and the finding of rice suggest an agrarian economy with craft production in the Iron Age. The coastal region of the river valley would have been an ideal location for the exploitation of the marine resources as evidenced by the archaeological excavations at Korkai. Korkai has also revealed rouletted ware and Northern Black polished ware suggesting strong networking with Northern India and Sri Lanka. However, no evidence of amphora seems to have been coming from this site to indicate direct Roman contact as of now. It could be because of limited excavations and the lack of identification of the excavated ceramics. Korkai is one of the southern-most entry points of Southeastern India and it would have been an ideal location for the ships coming the West, which could have had quicker access to the southern part of peninsular rather than Alagankulam, which is located beyond Rameshwaram island. Alagankulam has produced large varieties Roman Ceramics unlike Korkai. It needs to be researched further to understand if the Roman ships and or goods came to Korkai from the south and then reached Alagankulam through the Palk Strait or they skipped Korkai and the Palk strait and reach Alagakulam by sailing around Sri Lanka. In the Medieval period, definitely the Arab ships reached Korkai as revealed by the literary accounts. Perhaps, it was easier for the ships from West to Southeast Asia to reach Korkai and then proceed to Southeast Asia around Sri Lanka or through the Palk Straits. Periyapattinam in the north to the south of Alagankulam was another important medieval port (Karashima 2002, 166-169). The coastal network of Tamiraparani must have had links with the port of Korkai primarily and also with the networks of Comari (Kanniyakumari) in the South, and Vaigai valley and Alagankulam in the north and Sri Lanka including Mantai. The network of Tamiraparani was linked with the network of the Vaigai valley, and the Periyar valley of Kerala through the inland trade routes linking Madurai (Selvakumar 2023, 333-368). The Punalur pass across the Western Ghats connecting Kollam with the Southern part of Tamil Nadu is another important gateway for the supply of spices and pepper into the port of Korkai from the Kerala region. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The Tamiraparani region is a culturally rich zone with the rise of agro-pastoral communities and craftgroups by the Iron Age. There is a probability for the beginning of shell exploitation and shell exchange in this region in the mid-second millennium BCE. The Iron Age burials of this region have the rich gravegoods indicating long distance interactions in the Iron Age early historic period. The Western Ghats region of Southern India was a major source of spices and this region was accessed through several ports of Southern India from Naura in the North to Arikamedu in the east. Korkai was also part of this network in the Early Historic period. But, more evidence is required for understanding the nature of Roman trade connection at Korkai. In the Medieval period, the Tamiraparani delta became more prominent because of its strategic location very near the maritime corridor linking West Asia and Southeast Asia in the Indian Ocean. 9 �BIBLIOGRPAHY Amarnath Ramakrishna, K., Nanda Kishor Swain, M. Rajesh and N. Veeraraghavan “Excavations at Keeladi, Sivaganga District, Tamil Nadu (2014 ‐ 2015 and 2015 ‐ 16).”  Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 6, (2018): 30‐72 Anas Babu ,T. “Horse Trade at Kayal (c. 1250- c. 1500 A.D).” Paper presented in the 35th Session of South Indian History Congress, 2015. Arunachalam, S. 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Paramasivan, S. “Investigations on ancient Indian metallurgy. I. A pre-historic bronze bowl.” Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Section A, 13 no. 2, (1941): 87-93. Rajan, K., V.P. Yathees Kumar, M. Rajesh, R. Sivanantham, J. Ranjith and J. Bhaskar “Recent Radiometric Dates and Their Implications in Understanding the Early Writing System and Early Historic Archaeology” Man and Environment 46 no. 1, 2021 :57-86. Raman, K.V. Excavations at Uraiyur (Tiruchirappalli) 1965-69. Madras: University of Madras, 1988. Rea, A. Catalogue of the Prehistoric Antiquities from Adichchanallur and Perumbair, 1915. Madras: Government Press. Renou, L., La Géographie De Ptolémée L'Inde VII (1925): 1-4. Paris: Librairie ancienne  Édouard Champion Roderich, Ptak. “Yuan and Early Ming Notices on the Kayal Area in South India” Bulletin de l'Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient. Tome 80, (1993): 137-156; doi : https://doi.org/10.3406/befeo.1993.2596 Satyamurthy, T.,”Adichchanallur: New Discoveries in the light of Rea’s Excavation.” Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology 4 (2007): 55-66. Selvakumar, V. G.S. Abhayan, Veena Muzhrif Tripathi, Sathish S. Naik, S. Gowrishankar,R. Kathikeyan, Don Wesley, A. Sankar, Bhavani Jagadesan “Neolithic Evidence from Molapalayam, Noyyal River Valley Coimbatore District, Western Tamil Nadu. IPPA Conference Abstract, November 2022. Selvakumar, V. “Early Historic Cultural Landscapes Of The Periyār And Vaigai Valleys In South India And The Afro-Eurasian–Indian Ocean World Interactions,” The Economic History Of India: Historiographical Issues And Perspectives: Essays In Honour Of Professor Ranabir Chakravarti, edited by R. Mahalakshmi and Suchandra Ghosh, 333-368 . New Delhi: Primus, 2023. Sen, S. Asoka’s Edicts. Calcutta: Indian Institute of Indology, 1956. Shetty, S. Mangudi Excavations. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, 2003. Shokoohy, Mehrdad . “Architecture of the Muslim Port of Qā'il on the Coromandel Coast, South India. Part One, History and the 14th–15th Century Monuments,” South Asian Studies 9, no. 1, (1993):137-166, DOI: 10.1080/02666030.1993.9628470 . Srinivasan, Sharada  “Iron Age beta (23% tin) bronze: Peninsular Indian bowls of Adichanallur, Nilgiris, and Boregaon.” Materials and Manufacturing Processes 32, (2017):7-8, 807-812, DOI: 10.1080/10426914.2016.1244843 Sridhar, T.S. Excavations at Archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu 1969-1995. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department, 2004. Sridhar, T.S., D. Thulasiraman, S. Selvaraj, S. Vasanthi. Alagankulam, an ancient Roman port city of Tamil Nadu. Chennai: Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department. Zeuner, F. E. and Allchin, B. 1 “The Microlithic Sites of the Tinnevelly District, Madras State.” Ancient India 12, (1956):4-20. Zvelebil, K. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden:  E. J. Brill, 1974.  11 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Ports and Trade Networks of the Tamiraparani Delta of Tamil Nadu Description An account of the resource The deltas of Tamil Nadu in southern part of India have several ports that acted as nodes of maritime networks. Evidence of prehistoric hunter-gatherers is found in the Tamiraparani delta in the red sand dunes of Teri in the form of microliths. In the Iron Age the Tamiraparani region witnessed megalithic settlements with burial sites. The famous urn burial site of Adichanallur is located in this region. Evidence for early historic trade interaction is found at the site of Korkai, which has been identified as the center of the early Pandyan kings. The port of Korkai is discussed in the early Tamil literature and archaeological excavation has revealed evidence for urban activities. In the Medieval period, Kayal became an important port of trade and it is referred to in the medieval textual sources. It was a major center for horse trade and the temple of Tiruppudaimaraudir in the Tamiraparani region has evidence of Arab horse traders in the form of mural paintings. The region is well connected with the Western Ghats and a trade route connecting Kerala and Tamil Nadu region. The main research problem of the paper is to understand the nature, function and foreland and hinterland networks of the ports of Tamiraparani valley. The paper discusses the archaeological evidence of ports of the early historic and medieval periods (Korkai and Kayal) and the maritime networks that connected with these ports using textual and archaeological sources. The data sources are collected from the author's fieldwork, critical study of primary sources and collection of secondary literature Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource V. Selvakumar Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Selvakumar, V. 2023. “Ports and Trade Networks of the Tamiraparani Delta of Tamil Nadu.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Brian Fahy. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1991 Asia-Pac Session 9 2023