38 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/fdb0a720f37183e3f34b0a7a9cd5acc1.pdf d91ca93cfb06e2f35f5605d2f3f18de9 PDF Text Text Potential for Spanish Colonial Archaeology in the Northern Mariana Islands Jennifer F. McKinnon and Jason T. Raupp Abstract Spanish cultural heritage continues to play a role in social, cultural and political developments in Micronesia and can contribute to a broader understanding of Indigenous and Spanish histories in the Pacific. Thus, Spanish cultural heritage should be appropriately identified and incorporated into a cultural heritage management and research framework in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). Unfortunately, this is not the case and Spanish cultural heritage is long overdue for serious investigation and research in the CNMI. This paper is the result of a preliminary project conducted in 2009 into the potential for research on Spanish cultural heritage in the CNMI. This project aimed at facilitating the process of documenting Spanish cultural heritage by identifying known and potential heritage recorded in disparate sources such as grey literature, primary and secondary historical sources located in library, archive and museum holdings and conversations with heritage practitioners. The methodology used during this survey included a thematic assessment framework whereby the known and potential Spanish cultural heritage was categorised into research themes. It is hoped that this approach will contribute to evaluating the significance of Spanish cultural heritage for research and management purposes in the CNMI. Introduction This year marks the 490th anniversary of the first recorded landing of the Spanish in the Mariana Islands. This occurred when Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to visit the islands on 6 March 1521 and named the archipelago Islas de los Ladrones (Islands of the Thieves) due to a misunderstanding in trade practices (Russell 1998). Over a century later in 1667 Spain officially claimed the island chain and named it Las Marianas in honour of Queen Mariana of Austria (Coomans 2000). Spanish occupation of the islands began in 1668, a point at which the lives of both the colonizing Spaniards and the Indigenous Chamorro peoples who had inhabited the islands for thousands of years were forever altered (Hezel 2000). The Marianas served as a strategic provisioning location for Spanish trading ships voyaging between Manila and Acapulco for 250 years and were vital to the success of Spain’s commerce system (Cushner 1971). The islands remained a Spanish colony until 1898 when Guam was taken by the United States (U.S.) in the Spanish-American War and the Northern Mariana Islands were transferred to Germany (Carrell 2009). For over two hundred years (1668-1898) Spanish colonists interacted with the Chamorro peoples and constructed forts, ports, towns and missions in the Mariana Islands. As a result, these islands demonstrate a rich and diverse Spanish cultural heritage. Spanish cultural heritage places in the Marianas represent some of the most culturally and archaeologically significant European heritage places in Micronesia. However today, these sites are poorly understood from an archaeological perspective and very little is known about where they were located or specifically what may be preserved in the archaeological record. �To date, no comprehensive archaeological survey of Spanish cultural heritage sites in the Northern Mariana Islands has been conducted. Nevertheless, a small network of historians has researched the history of Spanish heritage in the archipelago over the last thirty years. The Micronesian Area Research Center (MARC) on Guam has translated an astonishing amount of primary documents and produced secondary histories on individuals and events from the Spanish period (Brunal-Perry, et al. 2009; Driver 1987; Driver 1990; Driver 1993a; Driver 1993b; Driver 1994). In addition, Francis Hezel’s (2000) publication From Conquest to Colonization: Spain in the Mariana Islands 1690 to 1740 reviews primary source documents related to this period and has introduced this subject to a larger audience and confirmed the need for more research. The research of both Marjorie Driver and Hezel, among others, has provided the basis for historical investigations into the Spanish period in the Mariana Islands. While this time period has been the interest of historians, the archaeology of these events and interactions has yet to be explored. In other areas of the world such as the south-eastern United States (Florida, Georgia, Texas, Louisiana), the southwest and west coast of the United States (New Mexico, Arizona, California) and \ Latin America, the archaeology of Spanish cultural heritage is well-developed. The Pacific region, with the exception of the Philippines (Skowronek 2009), has some distance to go in terms of catching up with current scholarship on this subject and remains open for long-term investigations and research (see Orillenada and Ronquillo this volume). The recognition of Spanish heritage in Micronesia continues to play a role in socio-political developments in the Marianas. Much like in Latin America, there are descendant communities who are interested in the circumstances of their historical roots. They want to understand how their ancestors resisted, embraced, negotiated, transformed and were transformed through the processes of colonisation and to what extent their families and communities are still involved in this process. Therefore, it would be expected that Spanish cultural heritage should be appropriately recognized in the cultural heritage management and research framework of the Northern Mariana Islands. Serious academic research on this topic is long overdue. A preliminary investigation was conducted in 2009 into the potential for identifying Spanish cultural heritage in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). These investigations aimed at facilitating the process of documenting Spanish cultural heritage by identifying known and potential heritage that has been recorded in disparate sources such as grey literature (i.e. reports, site files), as well as primary and secondary historical sources located in library and museum holdings. This paper presents a summary of those findings and should be used simply as a guide for potential Spanish colonial research in the CNMI. �Conceptual and Methodological Approach This project consisted primarily of an intensive literature review to identify and compile pertinent information into a searchable database that can be queried to develop heritage type profiles by which a thematic research framework could be created. The heritage type profiling is aimed at examining the full range of Spanish cultural heritage on the islands of Saipan, Tinian and Rota. Spanish cultural heritage ranges in size, location and features, and includes the richness and diversity of cultural materials from both European and Indigenous cultures. It may include tangible heritage such as landscapes, structures, burials, shipwrecks or ceramics, or intangible heritage such as place names, oral traditions or customs. Thematic frameworks have proven to be successful in the assessment of cultural heritage values and the subsequent application of research and conservation strategies (ICOMOS 2005; Smith and Jones 2007). Thematic frameworks outline major themes and concepts that help identify, describe and analyse the multiple layers of human culture and interaction. The thematic research framework for this project was formulated on the basis of heritage type identification. The benefit of this framework is threefold: • It can be used by future researchers to capture the complexity and meaning of human interaction and experience during culture contact events; • It can be used by the CNMI Historic Preservation Office (HPO) or other regulatory agencies to evaluate the significance of such cultural heritage and to make efficient and effective decisions regarding its management and conservation; and • It can be used by the island community to better understand this interesting and complex history and the unique interaction that occurs when two cultures made contact in the first instance. Data Collection Strategy The Mariana archipelago is located east of the Philippines, north of New Guinea, and south-southeast of Japan (see McKinnon this volume). From north to south the CNMI includes the islands of Farallon de Pajaros, Maug, Asuncion, Agrihan, Pagan, Alamagan, Guguan, Sarigan, Anatahan, Farallon de Medinilla, Saipan, Tinian, Aguijan, and Rota (Figure 1). Guam is part of the Mariana Islands but not part of the CNMI as it is an unincorporated territory of the United States. Thus, this study area only includes data concerning the islands in CNMI which from this point forward will be referred to as the Northern Mariana Islands. �Figure 1. The Mariana Islands (Perry-Castañeda Library). The data collection strategy was designed on a basic principle of identifying and documenting known and previously unknown Spanish cultural heritage in the Northern Mariana Islands. The information recovered during this data capture project included information about heritage locations, heritage descriptions, excavation reports, photographs, archival material, and oral �histories. This data was collected through visits to the HPO on Saipan and Rota. HPO is the agency charged with managing and protecting cultural heritage in the Northern Mariana Islands. As a result, they maintain the archaeological site files and reports from all archaeological surveys that have been conducted in the islands. At present these site files are not digitized and only paper copies are available for review. Five days were spent in the site files of Saipan and one day was spent in the site files of Rota. During these visits, a database query was conducted by searching for keywords such as “Spanish” for sites that were related to Spanish heritage. Identified file numbers were then investigated further for content. Locations, descriptions, dates, artefact descriptions, and additional information were recorded into a project database. In addition to the site files, all archaeological reports on file were reviewed for Spanish colonial heritage sites. The main methodology was to review the table of contents for relevant key words and to review the appendices or final chapters for discussions of Spanish heritage. Pertinent information was extracted and added to the project database. In addition to the HPO visits, project personnel visited local museums, including the Northern Mariana Islands Museum of Culture and History on Saipan and the Cave Museum on Rota, to note and photograph relevant Spanish heritage material and speak with curators about their collections and provenance. Local historians and consulting archaeologists also were contacted for discussions concerning their knowledge of sites and the potential for investigating Spanish colonial period sites on the islands. Finally, some site visits were made to specific Spanish colonial sites to investigate research potential. One limitation worth noting relates to the HPO site files. In the 1980s a fire destroyed many of the archaeological site files and reports stored at the Saipan HPO. While the HPO made attempts to retrieve copies of those reports from consultants and other offices, not all could be recovered. Thus, some files and reports prior to the 1980s were unavailable for review during this project. Database development of heritage type profiles A database was created using Microsoft Excel which consisted of multiple categories of data including: heritage type, name, location, time period, features, description, sources, dates investigated and comments. In addition, an Endnote database of bibliographic data was created in order to cross-reference data with sources. Once the databases were complete, heritage types were assigned and then organised into a thematic research framework which can be assessed for potential research areas and management considerations. Results Seventy heritage “sites” (including tangible and intangible heritage) were identified during this project. Of those 70, 25 were located on the island of Tinian, 21 on Rota, 14 on Saipan, four on Agrihan, four on Pagan, and two were located in the general vicinity of the Mariana Islands. It is unlikely that these numbers reflect the amount and type of activities that occurred in relation to the Spanish �colonial period but may be a better reflection of the amount of archaeological survey conducted on each island. The heritage ranged in nature from intangible heritage, such as the introduction of non-native foods and oral histories, to the tangible physical remains of Indigenous and Spanish activities. Table 1 includes a list of the heritage types recorded. Table 1. Heritage types. Indigenous site/ Latte site Shipwreck Mission Cemetery Government Building Church Leprosarium Ranchero Anchorage/Harbour/Port Village/Settlement Rock art Burial Artefact/ artefact scatters Oral story or tradition Landing Bridge/Road/Trail/Wall/Navigational direction Disease Food/Subsistence Temple Salt production Garrison Encampment/house Shipwreck survivor camp Convento Chapel Rectory Seminary House Barrack Well Hunting area Warehouse From these heritage types a thematic research framework was developed and several thematic research areas were identified in an effort to understand the activities and processes associated with this tangible and intangible heritage. The development of a thematic research framework should be grounded in existing areas of scholarship in the field of Spanish colonial research from other �parts of the world, but also account for an understanding of local and regional issues. For that reason, two recent publications were considered crucial to the development of a research framework in the Northern Mariana Islands: Russell Skowronek’s (2009) On the Fringes of New Spain: The Northern Borderlands and the Pacific and Mary Van Buren’s (2010) The Archaeological Study of Spanish Colonialism in the Americas. These two articles offer current reviews of both the general and more specific (Pacific) Spanish colonial research that has been conducted by archaeologists in the last half-century. Thus they provide a starting point for identifying key thematic research areas in the Northern Mariana Islands. While the thematic areas identified in this project are inclusive of many activities and their resulting material culture, they are not exclusive and some heritage and genres of studies may fit within and overlap multiple areas. Further, these themes can be edited, expanded upon or further subdivided as necessary in the future. Below is a discussion of just five of the thematic research areas identified in this project. Theme 1: Culture Change and Identity The concepts acculturation, creolization, transculturation, and ethnogenesis have been used by archaeologists to explore and understand the process of culture change and identity in relation to colonisation from the culture and community scale to specific individuals (see Van Buren 2010 for a discussion of this subject). These same processes occurred in the Mariana Islands from the point of first contact, through the process of occupation and colonial construction, Indigenous resistance and warfare, missionization, Indigenous negotiation, changes in demographics, colonial collapse and post-colonial deconstruction. Two foci of research that may be useful in the Mariana Islands with regard to culture change and identity would be the investigation of spatial organisation and material culture. The landscape and seascape itself and the built environment of the precontact, colonial and post-colonial periods and the maintenance and changes that were made are ripe for investigation; specifically, the movement to different islands, centralization, and resistance of Indigenous Chamorro peoples, the introduction of Filipino and Carolinian groups, and the Spanish private, commercial and government construction and control of the area (Figure 2). �Figure 2. The Spanish government building located on Rota (J. McKinnon). For example, through the process of colonisation and missionization, restrictions were imposed on Chamorro people which eventually resulted in a loss of knowledge about the construction and use of ocean-going canoes, a tradition that had been around for thousands of years (Russell 2009:85). These restrictions particularly affected the cultural tradition and potential heritage and knowledge of watercraft construction within the Chamorro culture – an effect that is felt to this day with regards to the maintenance of a maritime identity. This example also demonstrates the wider view that needs to be taken in relation to control, in that it does not stop at the water’s edge or with the building of structures, fences or walls; instead it extends onto the vast expanses of the water surrounding these islands. Thus, control over water transport and marine resources must be considered within the setting of Pacific island groups if archaeologists are to understand the whole picture. Material culture with regards to culture change and identity is in immediate need of research. The location and function of the Mariana Islands as a provisioning station and a strategic holding raises some interesting questions concerning the availability of goods and the need for self-reliance. The combination of multiple culture groups in the form of Spanish, Chamorro, Carolinian, Filipino and visitors in the form of whalers, beche-de-mer fishers, scientific expeditions and traders creates an interesting case study for material culture and exchange. In the Marianas, there exists obvious evidence of a synthesis of Indigenous and Spanish ceramics in the form of colonoware, the reuse of Spanish shipwreck materials by Indigenous peoples such as clavos (decorative nails) for coconut oil lamps, and the decorative use of specie �collected from shipwrecks by the Chamorro peoples (Figure 3). Unfortunately, as of yet, no attention has been given to these types of material culture studies or studies of spatial organisation with relation to culture change and identity on the Northern Marianas. Figure 3. Clavos (decorative nail heads) from the Santa Margarita wreck in collections at the Cave Museum on Rota. Local Chamorros salvaged clavos and used them as coconut oil lamps (J. McKinnon). Theme 2: Missionization An area of research that dominates Spanish colonial archaeology is the process of missionization. No archaeological research has been conducted to date on missions in the Northern Mariana Islands; thus baseline data needs to be acquired including site locations and assessment of preservation. Beyond this, addressing larger questions, the Marianas missions are an excellent opportunity for comparative research within the islands and with other areas of the world such as Florida, whose mission system was ongoing at the same time (McEwan 1993). Within the Marianas were missions operated by Jesuit Orders; some of which were “successful” from the standpoint of Spanish administration (i.e. Rota mission), while others were resisted violently (i.e. Saipan) (Hezel 2000). While most of the missionaries on Guam where Spanish, other missionaries sent to the hinterlands were not Spanish but Bohemian, Dutch and Austrian, among others (Hezel 2000:25). Did the difference in cultural background have any effect on the missions’ successes or failures? Questions surrounding these issues could be �addressed through investigating mission architecture and layout, burial practices, economic strategies that paralleled the mission process such as food production, and the indigenization of missionaries through ethnohistorical accounts and material culture studies at missions. Theme 3: Changing Nature of Economic Activities While much archaeological research with regards to Indigenous political and social economies has been conducted in the Marianas, little of that has focussed on the colonial or post-colonial periods. Chamorro peoples no doubt had a system of political and social organisation that was altered upon Spanish colonial occupation. Through disease and resettlement, the two-caste matrilineal system was disrupted (Carrell 2009). Further the repopulation of the islands with neighbouring Indigenous island groups (Carolinians) who were allowed to maintain a “maritime” lifestyle (i.e. continued tradition of boatbuilding and seafaring) would have also altered these economies. Additionally, the material remains of imported and assimilated non-native foods including livestock (i.e. cattle, pigs, deer) and other food products such as corn, as well as the coerced labour required to maintain the production of these resources, is an area of immediate interest with regards to changes in diet, production and export (Figure 4). Alongside Indigenous economies, questions concerning production of goods for Spanish economies, specifically supplies for the Manila galleon trade, would be particularly interesting, as would the political structure of the Marianas and comparisons between urban cores (i.e. Guam) and rural outposts (i.e. Saipan, Rota, Tinian), and at a larger scale between the Philippines, Mexico and the Marianas. Figure 4. Metate used for grinding corn identified by HPO archaeologists on Saipan. Site unknown. (CNMI HPO). Theme 4: Maritime Sphere Having a maritime archaeological interest, a research area that cannot be overlooked is that of the maritime sphere. The very fact that travel to, from and �within the Mariana Islands necessitates watercraft, indicates that the material culture available relating to maritime activities is ever-present. Though the potential for investigating Manila galleon wrecks has been overshadowed by commercial treasure hunting enterprises, all is not lost with regards to research in this area (see Junco this volume). Shipwrecks of Spanish and other colonial nations have yet to be located and salvaged by treasure hunters; thus information concerning economy, illicit trade and contraband, intra-island transport, and colonial ship construction is available. The study of ports, harbours, maritime infrastructure, and trade routes can provide a vast amount of information about contemporary knowledge of seafaring, actions and reactions to environment, and defence. Further, understanding the distinctive situation created by Spanish authorization of Carolinian movement and the restriction of Chamorro in intra-island trade, communication and commerce would provide a unique area of research. The maintenance of a maritime identity for the Chamorro peoples is a contemporary concern of living populations on the islands today and an area where archaeology might play a key role in teasing out that process. Theme 5: Indigenous Histories Two areas of research that significantly overlap and contribute to Spanish colonial archaeology are ethnohistory and ethnoarchaeology. Much of the historical research that has been conducted on this period in the Mariana Islands has included translation of Spanish accounts, journals, and travel diaries. These sources are a wealth of information for archaeologists looking for a more holistic interpretation of the archaeological record. They may allow archaeologists to, “look sideways, so to speak, rather than just up and down, to examine the interaction of people who were not distinguished primarily by differences in power” (Van Buren 2010:179). Further in reaching the Indigenous experience, ethnoarchaeological approaches can fill in the gaps in our knowledge of the past and present, as well as helping us to understand continuity and changes in tradition. Indigenous peoples of the Northern Mariana Islands maintain a strong tradition of oral history and there are many, many stories about the Spanish period that have yet to be recorded and linked with material culture and heritage sites. Conclusion While this paper is only a brief introduction to cultural heritage associated with the Spanish colonial period of the Mariana Islands, it provides evidence that this heritage still very much exists in both tangible and intangible forms. While many colonial occupiers passed through the Mariana archipelago, there still exists today a strong connection with the history of the Spanish colonial period which appears in every aspect of island life from food to religion (i.e. Catholicism). A more intensive and holistic archaeological investigation of this heritage will not only provide protection through identification and recognition of sites, it will provide the community of the Marianas with a fuller understanding of their shared �heritage – a heritage shared not only between Spanish and Chamorro peoples, but of all the culture groups who lived in the islands during this period. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the staff of the CNMI Historic Preservation Offices for your kindness and support in allowing us to access your site files. We would particularly like to thank Ronnie, J.P. and Diego for taking time out of their schedule to assist us with finding the data we needed. We’d also like to thank Antonelli Santos for his assistance with recording the Spanish administration building and the memorable tour of Rota. This project was made possible by funding from Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia. Bibliography Brunal-Perry, O., Driver, M.G., and L. Carrell, T., 2009 Carrell. T., 2009 Coomans, P., 2000 Cushner, N.P. 1971 Driver, M.G., 1987 Driver, M.G., 1990 Driver, M.G., 1993a Driver, M.G., 1993b Early European Exploration and the Spanish Period in the Marianas 1521-1898. In Maritime History and Archaeology of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, edited by T. Carrell, pp.95-142. Submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation. Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc., Texas. Maritime History and Archaeology of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation. Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc., Texas. History of the Mission in the Mariana Islands, 1667-1673, Translated by Rodrique Lévesque, Occasional Historical Papers Series, No. 4. Division of Historic Preservation, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan. Spain in the Philippines from Conquest to Revolution, Ateneo de Manila University, Quezon City, Philippines. Navigation Data for the Mariana Islands, Published by the Spanish Hydrographic Office, Madrid 1863, Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam. Guam Diary of Naturalist Antonio de Pineda, 1792, Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam. Fray Juan Pobre in the Marianas 1602, Miscellaneous Series, No. 8. Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam. "Mariana de Austria", in (ed) Emilie.G. Johnson, Father San Vitores: His Life, Times, and Martyrdom, pp. 5–12. Publication Series, No. 6. Micronesian. Area Research Center, University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam. �Driver, M.G., and Brunal-Perry, O., 1994 Hezel, F. X., 2000 ICOMOS, 2005 McEwan, B., 1993 Skowronek, R.K., 2009 Smith, A. and Jones, K., 2007 Van Buren, M., 2010 Architectural Sketches of the Spanish Era Forts of Guam, Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam. From Conquest to Colonization: Spain in the Mariana Islands 1690 to 1740, Occasional Historical Papers Series No. 2, Division of Historic Preservation, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan. The World Heritage List: Filling the Gaps – an Action Plan for the Future, ICOMOS, viewed 12 August 2009, <http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity590-1.pdf > The Spanish Missions of La Florida, University Press of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. "On the Fringes of New Spain: The Northern Borderlands and the Pacific", in (eds) Terisita Majewski and David Gaimster, International Handbook of Historical Archaeology, pp. 471-505, Springer Press. Cultural Landscapes of the Pacific Islands. ICOMOS Thematic Study, accessed 12 August 2009, <http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity5-2.pdf> “The Archaeological Study of Spanish Colonialism in the Americas”, in Journal of Archaeological Research, 18, pp.151-201. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Potential for Spanish Colonial Archaeology in the Northern Mariana Islands Subject The topic of the resource Session 9 Spain and the Asia-Pacific region Description An account of the resource Spanish cultural heritage continues to play a role in social, cultural and political developments in Micronesia and can contribute to a broader understanding of Indigenous and Spanish histories in the Pacific. Thus, Spanish cultural heritage should be appropriately identified and incorporated into a cultural heritage management and research framework in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). Unfortunately, this is not the case and Spanish cultural heritage is long overdue for serious investigation and research in the CNMI. This paper is the result of a preliminary project conducted in 2009 into the potential for research on Spanish cultural heritage in the CNMI. This project aimed at facilitating the process of documenting Spanish cultural heritage by identifying known and potential heritage recorded in disparate sources such as grey literature, primary and secondary historical sources located in library, archive and museum holdings and conversations with heritage practitioners. The methodology used during this survey included a thematic assessment framework whereby the known and potential Spanish cultural heritage was categorised into research themes. It is hoped that this approach will contribute to evaluating the significance of Spanish cultural heritage for research and management purposes in the CNMI. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon Jason T. Raupp Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 9 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b7d9aff03a8c0676f5a05b52d4bdbe12.pdf b6dc12bffc52c199e9dac72e2bf88705 PDF Text Text Multidisciplinary Research Potential of Whaling Heritage in the Pacific Region 1 2 Jason T. Raupp , Suzanne S. Finney , Kelly Gleason 3 Abstract From the time that whaleships first rounded Cape Horn at the end of the eighteenth century, the activities of European and American whalers transformed the landscape and seascape of the Pacific region. While systematic hunting had a profound effect on cetacean populations, whaling affected more than just the hunted. The pursuit of new whaling grounds, the need to replenish food, water and firewood, and the frequent occurrence of shipwrecks and desertion, all led to interactions with the indigenous inhabitants and environments of virtually every archipelago. These interactions generated enduring influences, both positive and negative, on the cultural and material heritage of the Pacific. The archaeological evidence of whaling can be seen through the wrecks of whaling ships, the remains of whaling stations, and shipwreck survivors' camps that are found in even the most distant corners of the Pacific. The information contained in such sites has proven potential to inform researchers from a range of disciplines including archaeology, historical ecology, biology, and conservation science. Due to the remote locations of many of these sites and the limited resources available for accessing and studying them, multidisciplinary approaches to their investigation offer researchers and heritage managers cost effective options for gleaning valuable data. Introduction From the time that whaleships first rounded Cape Horn, the activities of European and American whalers transformed the landscape and seascape of the Pacific. The archaeological evidence of whaling operations can be seen through the wrecks of whaling ships, the remains of whaling stations, and the shipwreck survivor camps that are found in even the most distant corners of the Pacific. The information contained in such sites has proven potential to inform researchers from a range of disciplines. Due to the fact that many of these sites are hard to reach and that often resources available for accessing and studying them are limited, multidisciplinary approaches to their investigations offer researchers and heritage managers cost-effective options for gleaning data. This paper provides a discussion of the benefits of such an approach and offers practical examples from studies of wrecked whaleships in the Pacific region. History of whaling in the Pacific region and its legacy In the late 18th century whale ships first entered the Pacific Ocean, where they found new hunting grounds with seemingly endless stocks of sperm whales (Raupp and Gleason 2010:66). Exploration of the Pacific Region soon led to the discovery of new grounds and an understanding of the seasonal movements of whale species. This knowledge brought increasing numbers of 1 Maritime Archaeology Program, Flinders University, AUSTRALIA 2 President, Maritime Archaeology and History of the Hawaiian Islands Foundation (MAHHI), USA 3 Maritime Heritage Program Coordinator, Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, USA Style Definition: Heading 2: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 0 pt Style Definition: Heading 3: Space Before: 0 pt, After: 0 pt �ships that roamed throughout the region year-round in search of prey, and by the 1850s the grounds extended in a rough triangle from just north of Cape Horn, west to New Zealand and north to the Arctic (Rydell 1952:68). Over the next century, hundreds of ships recorded thousands of voyages from European and American whaling ports to the Pacific Ocean and the islands scattered within (Finney 1999:33; Raupp and Gleason 2010:67). While this systematic hunting had a profound effect on cetacean populations, whaling affected more than just the hunted. The pursuit of whales, the need to replenish supplies, and the frequent occurrence of shipwrecks and desertion, all led whalers to virtually every island in the Pacific region, both populated and not. There they interacted with the local indigenous populations and traded Western consumer goods for food, wood and fresh water. These interactions generated enduring influences on the cultural and material heritage of the islands. Sometimes these interactions resulted in tragic consequences, such as the introduction of communicable diseases like measles, small pox and syphilis; at other times intimate interaction with islander populations led to offspring, who in some instances carry the names of their whaling ancestors to this day (Finney and Graves 2000:9). Intentional or accidental, benign or catastrophic, whaling has left an indelible mark on many cultures throughout the Pacific region. Multidisciplinary approaches to whaling heritage research Whaleships reached some of the most remote parts of the Pacific while hunting for whales. Being nomads of the sea with no fixed course and no immediate purpose for arrival, whalers were content to drift wherever the currents carried them, so long as they found whales (Thrum 1915:135). Such drifting often led them into uncharted areas where they encountered barely visible and treacherous reefs. As a result, many of the known sites of wrecked whaleships, and ensuing survivor camps, are in difficult to reach locations. For archaeologists wishing to study those sites, accessibility is often the largest hurdle. One way to mitigate some of the challenges involved with whaling research is to investigate collaborative opportunities with researchers in complimentary fields. The issue of finding the most cost-effective means to conducting field research is much the same case with wrecks located in deep water. Deep water wrecks are often miles off shore and require large research vessels to travel and stay out at sea for long periods of time. The excessive depths encountered generally means that they are out of reach for conventional archaeological recording methods by divers and consequently require expensive remote sensing equipment, remotely operated vehicles and sometimes autonomous underwater vehicles to investigate sites hundreds of meters below the surface.. Therefore a multidisciplinary approach allows research teams to maximize expensive ship time and draw on a wide range of expertise and equipment for a holistic approach to studying shipwreck sites (Church and Warren 2009:20). An example of this can be seen in the resources needed to reach the shipwreck sites found in Papahānaumokuākea National Marine Monument (PMNM). PMNM is located in the central north Pacific Ocean and is comprised of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, a chain of islands, atolls, and shoals extending approximately 2,000 kilometers (km) northwest from the th main Hawaiian Islands (PMNM 2011:1). Situated between 19 century whaling ports in Hawaii and the rich hunting grounds of the north Pacific, the region became a trap for whaleships and at least ten are historically reported lost there. These archaeological remains represent the largest known concentration of such sites anywhere in the world and thanks to the protection afforded them by Monument status, their preservation and that of the surrounding reef environments make them ideal for detailed archaeological investigation. However, due to its remote location, accessing the wrecks in PMNM involves a great deal of infrastructure and planning. Access to the northwestern Hawaiian Islands for NOAA maritime archaeologists is facilitated through ship time requests by PMNM for the 68 metre (m) long NOAA ship Hi’ialakai. This ex-US military vessel has been fully converted for marine research and is capable of traversing heavy seas and carrying enough supplies to accommodate the month long expeditions. But while this kind of infrastructure support helps to facilitate maritime heritage goals, it is important to note that such research trips would be cost-prohibitive if ship time was not shared with other scientific teams working on separate, non-heritage related research in the Monument. �Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Not Bold, Not Italic Historical and Archaeological Data As with all historical archaeological research, the archaeology of whaling heritage benefits from collaborative efforts with historians and archivists. The identification of whaling shipwrecks or associated terrestrial sites usually occurs either through active research or accidental discovery. Wrecked whaleships and survivor camps are often mentioned in contemporary accounts and the locations of such sites are usually gleaned through years of searching archives for relevant data. Alternatively, occasionally stars align and wrecks are located through accidental discovery during routine survey work. In those cases divers locate material remains of ships which are later identified as whaling wrecks through diagnostic artifacts found at the sites. Each of the above mentioned situations has occurred in Papahānaumokuākea National Marine Monument. Of the ten whaleships historically known to have wrecked within the Monument’s boundaries, the wrecks of five have so far been located and archaeologically investigated. The approximate locations of four of these sites were identified through data contained in survivor’s accounts and maps drawn by either the wrecked whalers themselves or later voyagers to the region (The Friend, 3 September 1859). Using such sources PMNM archaeologists were able to narrow down survey areas and had little trouble finding two of the sites, those of the British whaleship Gledstanes (1837) and the American whaler Parker (1842). Historic descriptions were also used to positively identify the wrecks of the British whalers Pearl and Hermes (1822) once the sites were identified by NOAA Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (marine debris) divers in 2004 (Van Tilburg 2005:1). On the other hand, as in the case of the Nantucket whaleship Two Brothers, serendipity played a part in site identification. In this case, historical research pertaining to this wrecking event indicated that it was lost at French Frigate Shoals (FFS), within the boundaries of PMNM. Though this presented an enormous search area from which to begin, ultimately the site was located purely by chance while PMNM researchers conducted tow-board surveys near Shark Island, on the edge of FFS. Combined historical and archaeological research can also provide evidence of site formation and indications of the locations of possible survivor’s camps. Due to the weather conditions encountered in the open Pacific Ocean and the shallow nature of the reefs and shoals on which many whaleships came to grief, archaeological remains are scattered for hundreds of meters in pockets and sand channels in various reefs. This not only makes the systematic recording of these sites incredibly challenging, it can also make site identification nearly impossible. However careful scrutiny of historical documents pertaining to wrecking can be compared to the archaeological data to recreate the event and ultimately help to determine site identity. Once determined, the data about the wreck can be further mined to determine if crews were able to escape, and if so, whether a survivor’s camp exists and its approximate location. One particular wreck that shows how detailed research into site formation processes can be useful for site identification is that of the British whaler Litherland. Historic records state that this vessel struck rocks off of Clarke Island in Bass Strait (Australia) and sank in 1853. A detailed account of the wrecking event and a description of the ultimate disposition of the vessel were published in a local newspaper (Hobart Town Courier, 30 June 1853; Nash 1990:14). Physical data recorded about the main site, other remains scattered on the seabed and the locations, and the positions of anchors and chain enabled a number of conclusions to be made concerning the wrecking process and site formation (Nash 1990:20). Thus by combining relevant data contained within historical sources with that recovered during archaeological investigations, researchers were able to not only positively identify the site as that of Litherland, they also recreated the loss of the vessel and deduced information about historical environmental conditions on the day that the wreck occurred. As each of these examples illustrates, the value of combining preliminary historical research into project planning should not be underestimated when it comes to conducting research in remote locations. However heritage management offices are often inundated with massive workloads and lack of staff, and simply do not have the spare time necessary to chase sources listed in logbooks, journals, account ledgers and other archival materials that are scattered in libraries and museums around the world. Because of this, a comprehensive �approach to researching whaling heritage is not feasible for the individual archaeologist; thus building relationships with historical researchers is extremely important. Geophysical Survey As mentioned previously, whaleships hunting in the Pacific were occasionally lost on shallow reefs and crews were forced to abandon their vessels and seek refuge. In some cases they narrowly escaped and drifted in whaleboats until rescued, but in others they were able to find suitable locations to establish camps where they lived until rescued. Martin Gibbs (2003:128) has shown that the study of shipwreck survivor camps can provide a range of information related to human behavior in crisis situations including social organization, salvage, subsistence and rescue strategies. Examples of such occurrences from the Pacific region include whaleships wrecked in Fiji, Palau and Hawaii (see Holden 1836; Twynings 1850; DuPont 1954). Accounts of each of these incidents exist which provide details of life at the camps, contact with indigenous cultures, and the construction of rescue vessels. Archaeologically such sites can be difficult to detect due to the low lying nature of the islands and their tendency to be washed over in heavy weather conditions. However, impacts and alterations made to the physical environment by activities such as shipbuilding can often be revealed through remote sensing surveys. Clark and de Biran (2010) recently conducted a geophysical and archaeological survey of the shipwreck survivor camp for the British packet ship Antelope, which wrecked in Palau in 1783. By combining terrestrial remote sensing techniques with traditional archaeological investigation and historical research, the researchers were able to accurately identify and interpret the remains of the camp. The positive results of this project are encouraging and provide evidence that geophysical surveys make an important contribution to successful archaeological research into shipwreck survivor camp sites. Historical Ecology Historical ecologists use a range of information to understand the histories of past ecosystems which in turn may be used in helping to better manage current ecosystems and resources. Included in their data sets are archaeological data, anecdotal historical accounts, ethnographic information and modern ecological and social data (Kittinger 2010). It has been postulated that fishing and whaling were the first massive human-induced alteration of the marine environment and preceded other impacts such as pollution and climate change (Jackson, et al. 2001; Worm, et al. 2007:333). Historical information pertaining to whaling activities in the Pacific region has great potential to inform studies of historical ecology throughout the region. Whalers are known to have kept detailed records of their catches, of daily activities such as subsistence fishing, and of sightings of other animals in their logbooks and journals; thousands of these sources exist in museums, libraries and private collections around the world and can be scoured for ecological data that is invaluable to researchers. As the editors of the International Whaling Commission’s report on Historical Whaling Records stated, they were “… enthralled by the discovery of the rich treasure of biological data which resided within old, musty whaling logbooks and journals”, (Tillman and Donovan 1983:ii). The potential for archaeologists and historical ecologists to work together is evident in their use of the same historical sources. Such sources record not only whale catches but also information about shipwrecks, shipwreck sightings, and exploitation of other biological resources on land and on the sea. Historical ecologists have the ability to supply archaeologists with sets of data that outline the numbers and species of whales spotted and their movements, to which whaling captains would have inevitably responded. As a result some predictive modeling for shipwrecks, whaling stations and survivor camps may be drawn from this data. Alternatively, archaeologists studying shipwrecks and their shipwreck survivor camps may provide historical ecologists with evidence of diet and utilization of native wildlife through faunal remains recorded during excavations (Nash 2005:19). One such study is currently underway using data pertaining to the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, where university researchers and an agency archaeologist are collaborating to better understand the effects that shipwreck survivors had on island ecology (Kittinger, et al. 2011). �Biological Science For many years the assistance of biologists has been requested on archaeological projects because they can provide species identification and condition assessments on shipwrecks. However in the past decade there has been a growing interest among maritime archaeologists and marine biologists to work together to gain a more holistic understanding of how shipwrecks have altered site environments through the addition of unintentional artificial structure and changes to the natural reef structure. There are a variety of scientific techniques for collecting data that biologists can contribute to archaeological sites including site formation studies and the dating of shipwrecks through schlerochronology, or dating of associated coral via core examination (Smith, et al. 2005:10). And just as biological studies can aid archaeologists in better understanding site environments and the processes acting upon the wrecks, archaeological and historical information gives biologists insight into the structure of artificial reefs (i.e. shipwrecks) and the temporal contexts of their formation (Church and Warren 2009:21). Such is the case with a recent study on biodiversity in the ecology of shipwrecks in PMNM (Smith 2010). This innovative project aimed to determine whether shipwreck sites supported distinct ecosystems and if residual effects from disturbances caused by the wrecking create differences between wreck sites and surrounding coral communities. Data recovered from this project not only provided answers to questions about reef recovery, it also proved invaluable for archaeologists investigating site formation processes and served as the foundation for longterm monitoring protocols. The study found that the growth and health of a reef system on a shipwreck can provide clues as to its age and the amount of cultural or natural interference that may occur short and long-term (MMP 2010). The results of this research exemplify the value of multidisciplinary research through the various types of practical information that can be gleaned from viewing shipwrecks from a different perspective. Conservation – In Situ studies The remote locations in which many whaling shipwrecks have been found would provide an excellent opportunity to undertake baseline in situ conservation studies. In situ conservation surveys involve collecting data to assess the preservation of sites, and the value of these surveys to managers cannot be understated (Richards and McKinnon 2009:i). Most of the whaling sites identified in Pacific waters are subjected to very little cultural disturbance due to their remote nature. They are not impacted by recreational divers or souvenir collectors and in many instances were not contemporarily salvaged. This lack of cultural disturbance means that only natural impacts are affecting these sites. This presents an excellent case for conservation scientists who study preservation and deterioration rates. Additionally, due to the dynamic nature of the environment and the conditions in which these vessels wrecked, their archaeological remains are represented by collections of artefact clusters generally dispersed over large areas. According to David Gregory (2010:3) in open seawater the physical effects of scouring and biological processes are the major causes of deterioration of wooden and organic materials. This explains the almost complete lack of wooden structure encountered on several whaling wreck sites that have been identified in the Pacific region. Instead, these sites are characterized by the heavy iron objects associated with the various industrial activities involved in onboard whaling operations such as trypots and blubber 4 hooks. Metal submerged in seawater corrodes in a micro-environment that prevents the formation of protective oxide layers normally associated with terrestrial corrosion processes (Carpenter, et al. 2010:34). Thus corrosion processes are constantly weakening and breaking down these metal artefacts. 4 Pelagic whaling operations involved activities that centred on preparing and processing whale blubber into valuable oil. Known as “cutting in” and “trying out”, these processes employed sturdy iron hooks and reinforced rigging tackle to lift blubber pieces onto the deck, where they were further trimmed and then placed into large cast iron trypots built into brick hearths for rendering the oil. In most cases when wrecked whaleships have been located, the presence of these artefacts provides diagnostic evidence. �In situ conservation surveys and monitoring programs are becoming a commonly used method for managing site preservation in many parts of the world. Its relatively low costs when built into a research design at the early stages would be a suitable option for whaling wreck sites and would allow conservation scientists the ability to study sites affected only, in many cases, by their natural environment. Conclusion This paper has attempted to highlight the nature of whaling shipwreck sites found in the Pacific region and the usefulness of multidisciplinary approaches to their investigation. In an age when budgetary restrictions are the norm and fuel costs are on the rise, archaeologists must think laterally about the way they organize their field research. Collaboration has been a strong suit of the discipline of archaeology for many years and this paper illustrates how this type of collaboration is successful and can continue to be cultivated in future explorations of the impact of whaling in the Pacific and throughout the oceans of the world. Formatted: Font: 12 pt, Not Bold Bibliography Carpenter, J., MacLeod, I., and Richards, V., 2009 Church, R.A. and Warren, D.J., 2009 Clark, G. and de Biran, A. 2010 DuPont, R.P. 1954 Finney, S.S., 1999 Finney, S.S. and Graves, M.W., 2000 Gibbs, M., 2003 Gregory, D., 2009 Holden, H. 1836 “Conserving the WW II wrecks of Truk Lagoon”, in (eds.) Vicki Richards & Jennifer McKinnon, In-situ Conservation of Cultural Heritage: Public, Professionals and Preservation, PAST Foundation Publications, pp.32-39. Deep-water archaeology in the Gulf of Mexico: a multidisciplinary approach. Proceedings of the US Hydro 2009 Conference, Norfolk, VA. “Geophysical and Archaeological Investigation of the Survivor-Camp of the Antelope (1783) in the Palau Islands, Western Pacific”, in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 39(2), pp. 345-356. “The Holder Borden”, The New England Quarterly 27(3), pp. 355-365. “Whaling and the expansion of the University of Hawaii maritime archaeology and history program into the Pacific”, in Underwater Archaeology, pp. 33-38. “Site identification and documentation of a Civil War shipwreck thought to be sunk by the C.S.S. Shenandoah in April 1865”, Unpublished report prepared for The American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington D.C “The Archaeology of Crisis: Shipwreck Survivor Camps in Australasia”, in Historical Archaeology, 37(1), pp. 128-135. “In situ preservation of marine archaeological sites: out of site but not out of mind”, in In-situ Conservation of Cultural Heritage: Public, Professionals and Preservation, (eds.) V. Richards and J. McKinnon, PAST Foundation Publications, pp. 1-16. Hobart Town Courier, 30 June 1853. A narrative of the shipwreck, captivity and sufferings of Horace Holden and Benj. H. Nute; who were cast away in the American ship “Mentor”, on the Pelew Islands, in the year 1832; and for two years afterwards were subjected to unheard of sufferings among the barbarous inhabitants of Formatted Table �Lord North's Island. Russell, Shattuck, and Co., Boston, Mass. Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H., Bjorndal, K.A., Botsford, L.W., Bourque, B.J., Bradbury, R., Cooke, R., Erlandson, J., Estes, J.A., Hughes, T.P., Kidwell, S., Lange, C.B., Lenihan, H.S., Pandolfi, J.M., Peterson, C.H., Steneck, R.S., Tegner, M.J., and Warner, R., 2001 Kittinger, J.N., 2010 Kittinger, J., Raupp, J.T., 2011 Gleason, K and Nash, M., 1990 Nash, M., 2005 Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 2011 Raupp, J. T. and Gleason, K., 2010 Richards, V. and McKinnon, J., 2009 Rydell, R. A., 1952 Smith, D.M., 2010 Smith, R.C., Scott-Ireton, D., McKinnon, J., Beckwith, S., Altmeier, B., and MacLaughlin, L., 2006 “Pacific Wrecks” Thrum, T.G., 1915 Tillman, M. F. and Donovan, G. P., (eds.), 1983 “Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems”, in Science, 293, pp. 629–638. “Historical ecology of coral reefs in the Hawaiian Archipelago”, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii at Mānoa, Honolulu. 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Cape Horn to the Pacific: the rise and fall of an ocean highway, University of California Press, Los Angeles. “The ecology of shipwrecks in the Hawaiian Archipelago: an assessment of biodiversity”, Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Hawaii at Mānoa, Honolulu. “Archaeological and biological examination of ‘The Mystery Wreck’ (8MO143) off Vaca Key, Monroe County, Florida”, Unpublished Report, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, in Fulfillment of a NOAA Maritime Heritage Program Mini-grant. The Friend, 3 September 1859. Hawaiian almanac and annual: the reference book of information and statistics relating to the Territory of Hawaii, or value to merchants, tourists and others, Published by Author, Honolulu. Historical whaling records. Report of the International Whaling Commission (Special Issue 5). �Twyning, J.R. 1850 Shipwreck and adventures of John P. Twyning, among the South Sea Islanders: giving an account of their feasts, massacres, etc., etc. London, England. Van Tilburg, H.K. 2005 “Activity report for Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Department of the Interior, maritime heritage resources assessment 2005”, Unpublished submitted to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service National Marine Sanctuary Program and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. “Ecosystem effects of fishing and whaling in the North Pacific and Atlantic Ocean”, in Whales, whaling and ocean ecosystems, (eds.) James A. Estes, Douglas P. DeMaster, Daniel F. Doak, Terrie M. Williams & Robert L. Brownell, Jr., University of California Press, Berkley. Worm, B., Lotze, H.K., and Myers, R.A., 2007 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Multidisciplinary Research Potential of Whaling Heritage in the Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource From the time that whaleships first rounded Cape Horn at the end of the eighteenth century, the activities of European and American whalers transformed the landscape and seascape of the Pacific region. While systematic hunting had a profound effect on cetacean populations, whaling affected more than just the hunted. The pursuit of new whaling grounds, the need to replenish food, water and firewood, and the frequent occurrence of shipwrecks and desertion, all led to interactions with the indigenous inhabitants and environments of virtually every archipelago. These interactions generated enduring influences, both positive and negative, on the cultural and material heritage of the Pacific. The archaeological evidence of whaling can be seen through the wrecks of whaling ships, the remains of whaling stations, and shipwreck survivors' camps that are found in even the most distant corners of the Pacific. The information contained in such sites has proven potential to inform researchers from a range of disciplines including archaeology, historical ecology, biology, and conservation science. Due to the remote locations of many of these sites and the limited resources available for accessing and studying them, multidisciplinary approaches to their investigation offer researchers and heritage managers cost effective options for gleaning valuable data. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jason T. Raupp Suzanne S. Finney Kelly Gleason Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/784b54b32524e81495e98918d0c23b07.pdf 0aebe55a1801867239cb797bb5bead16 PDF Text Text Exploring the Sunken Military Heritage of Midway Atoll Madeline J. Roth East Carolina University Jason T. Raupp East Carolina University Kelly A. Keogh Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument Bert Ho, Submerged Resources Center, National Park Service Abstract Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Japanese Imperial Navy readied their forces to secure the Pacific Theatre through one final blow to the US aircraft carrier fleet. The target of that attack was the US base at Midway Atoll, which provided support as a naval air station and submarine refit center. In June 1942, the Japanese Navy launched an aerial attack on Midway in an effort to destroy its defenses and lure the remaining aircraft carriers into combat. Although outgunned and outnumbered, US aviators surprised the Japanese fleet and succeeded in destroying four of their carriers, thereby crippling Japanese aerial defenses for the remainder of the war. Today, Midway Atoll is situated within the boundaries of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument and many of its World War II naval facilities are preserved as a memorial to those who lost their lives. Recent interest in the battle has led to a renewed effort to locate and document the submerged cultural heritage of the atoll and to create outreach materials addressing both the tangible and intangible heritage of the battle. This paper provides an overview of the history of the atoll and the Battle of Midway, describes significant archaeological sites so far located there, and discusses recent survey projects focused on identifying the remains of aircraft associated with the battle. Key words: Midway, World War II, survey, aircraft Introduction Located at the northwest end of the Hawaiian island chain (Fig. 1), Midway atoll is geographically isolated, sitting approximately 1300 miles northwest of Honolulu (FWS, 2000). Managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service �(FWS) and part of the larger Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM), the atoll is protected as a National Wildlife Refuge, National Memorial, and a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site (NOAA, 2017). Furthermore, the WWII-era facilities on Eastern and Sand Islands are designated as historic structures on the US National Register of Historic Places (Thompson, 1986). Visitation to the atoll is currently restricted, limiting public interaction with the atoll's historic resources to outreach materials. As such, there has been an increased interest by PMNM (in partnership with FWS and the US National Park Service, NPS) to better understand and present the historical significance of Midway atoll to the public through archival research, archaeological site detection and documentation, site visitation, and mapping. Fig. 1: Midway Atoll, located at the eastern part of the Northwestern Hawaiian Island chain. (NOAA) �Historical Background Concerned with the increasing Japanese presence in the Pacific, the United States (US) Navy began construction on a naval air station at Midway atoll in 1938 (FWS, 2000). The two islands within the atoll soon became host to the 6th Marine Defense Battalion and the 2nd Raider Battalion when construction of the base was completed in 1941 (Thompson, 1986). As Midway was (and remains) geographically isolated, the islands' infrastructures emphasized coastal defense, fuel storage, and air transport facilities. In May 1942, the Imperial Japanese Naval code was deciphered, revealing an imminent attack on the base (Layton et al., 2006). Reinforcements of submarines, motor torpedo (PT) boats, and aircraft were sent to Midway while the US aircraft carriers sailed north of the atoll (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943:3). Submarines and small craft began patrolling nearby waters while aircraft stationed at the base participated in daily scouting trips (Nimitz, 1942:4). The evening of 3 June 1942, US scout bombers located Japanese ships to the west of the atoll, approximately 470 miles from the air station (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943:9). By 6:00 a.m., on 4 June, radar stationed at the atoll had picked up numerous aircraft flying at 12,000 feet approximately 93 miles from the base (Simard, 1942:2). Targeting communications buildings, the power plant, and fuel storage areas, Japanese aviators succeeded in disrupting communications and caused substantial damage to the seaplane base (Fig. 2). Furthermore, many of the base's defenses proved useless against Japanese planes. Antiaircraft guns were too slow to match Japanese bombers, as were American fighter planes; of the 27 Brewster F2A-3 Buffalos and Grumman F4F Wildcats which had departed Midway to meet the coming onslaught, �only a handful of planes returned unharmed (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943). Fig. 2: Japanese attack on Midway Atoll as depicted by Norman Bel Geddes for Life Magazine (Official U.S. Navy Photograph). As personnel on Midway prepared for a second attack, Japanese aircraft on carriers faced an escalating emergency; bomber aircraft from US carriers had located the Japanese fleet. A carrier war emerged out of the chaos—by 7 June, US forces had destroyed the Japanese carriers Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū and Hiryū while a Japanese submarine succeeded in sinking the carrier USS Yorktown. A total of 332 Japanese and 147 American aircraft were lost during the battle (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943:54; Thompson, 1986). With the Japanese carrier fleet destroyed, the Imperial Japanese Navy was forced to retreat. Those stationed at Midway began rebuilding and strengthening the islands’ defenses (Thompson, 1986:3). Publicized as the ‘turning point’ for war in the Pacific, the battle of Midway has become �synonymous with American valor (Thompson, 1986). However, heroes emerged on both sides of the during the attack and the battle was not without sacrifice—over 300 Americans and 2,400 Japanese gave their lives in service to their countries (Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943: 54; Thompson, 1986). Following the battle, the Japanese Navy remained a formidable opponent. While US forces had succeeded in keeping control of the atoll, American aircraft were repeatedly out-maneuvered by their Japanese counterparts such as the Mitsubishi A6M Zero Fighter. Major Jo Warner who was stationed at Midway during the attack would later state, "…the saddest story was our fighters. The PBYs and dive bombers are slow, but the Grumman and Brewsters used by the marine fighter outfits didn't have a chance against the Zeros” (Warner, 1942:7). Following the battle, engineers strove to redesign American fighter aircraft. The resulting F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair proved far superior to the Buffalos and remained in use through the end of the war. Following the battle of Midway, the atoll remained important in the US Navy’s Pacific strategy through the construction of a submarine base (Ellis, 2002). After WWII, it was used as a US Naval base for the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Downgraded to a Naval Air Facility in 1978, the atoll was designated a National Wildlife Refuge in 1988. In 1993, the atoll was transferred to FWS Papahānaumokuākea following Marine base National closure. Expansion of Monument (formerly the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument) in 2006 placed atoll management under the jurisdiction of FWS and NOAA. Currently, the atoll is closed to visitors; as such, emphasis is currently placed on digital outreach by cultural resource managers. Archaeological Investigations of Midway’s Submerged Heritage �Archaeological investigations of Midway atoll’s sunken heritage began in 1998 (Van Tilburg, 2002a). Since that time, surveys have focused on the documentation of previously known wrecked or dumped watercraft and airplanes, as well as searching particular areas in the vicinity of historically reported wrecks. Along with the many craft lost at the Battle of Midway, historical accounts indicate that a number of 19th and early 20th century vessels are known to have come to grief upon the atoll’s reefs. These include the two-masted schooner Julia E. Whalen (1903), the schooner General Seigel (1886), the bark Wandering Minstrel (1888), the threemasted bark Carrolton (1906), the sloop Helene (1915), and an unidentified Japanese sampan lost in 1925 (Van Tilburg, 2002b; PMNM, 2011). Of those sites, only the bark Carrolton has been identified and thoroughly documented (Maynard et al., 1998; Van Tilburg, 2002b; Van Tilburg, 2003; Van Tilburg, 2005). Towboarding and drift diving have been the most fruitful methods for identifying underwater cultural heritage that represents many of the various events and activities that have occurred at Midway over time. Such surveys have resulted in the discovery of a range of materials and sites such as 19th and 20th century anchors and chain, WWII-era aircraft wreckage and unexploded ordinance, and sites of 20th century scientific data collection (Raupp, 2015). USS Macaw The wreck of the submarine rescue vessel USS Macaw is among the most prominent and well-known underwater archaeological sites at Midway Atoll. Situated on the eastern side of the main shipping channel, the site lies in 8-12 meters (m) (25-45 feet (ft)) of water. The wreck was first investigated in 1998 with a detailed site plan and photomosaic produced by an archaeological team from NOAA, East Carolina University, and University of Hawaii in 2003 (Van Tilburg, 2003; PMNM, 2011). In 2005, �the wreck was extensively documented using high definition video equipment and digital still photography (Van Tilburg, 2005) and monitoring surveys are conducted regularly with a focus on photographic and video documentation. Although US Navy divers attempted to reduce the ship’s superstructure and clear the channel post-wrecking, substantial hull remains – including the relatively intact bow section – are scattered over an approximately 75 m (240 ft) area. Associated material culture including three large anchors, the detached rudder anchor chains, and heavy bronze artifacts remain scattered throughout the site (Van Tilburg, 2003). A Midway-based dive shop took advantage of the easy access to the site and for several years ran tours during slack tide and optimum weather conditions; however, no changes are known to have occurred to the site since salvage operations ended in 1944 (Van Tilburg, 2003a; Van Tilburg, 2003b). The location and remains of USS Macaw have been further researched since the time of its wrecking. Archival data indicates that the Chanticleer class USS Macaw (ASR-11) was launched in 1942 in Oakland, California and received a commission by the US Navy in July 1943. The vessel first sailed to the south Pacific to participate in a hydrographic survey of uncharted coral reefs. Soon after it was sent on its first salvage mission to Midway Atoll, where in January 1944 it ran aground while attempting to assist the submarine USS Flier (Van Tilburg, 2003a; Van Tilburg, 2003b; PMNM, 2008). Foul weather and sea conditions thwarted the numerous efforts to extract USS Macaw from the reef and it was ultimately abandoned and sunk. The ship was later salvaged of useful equipment before explosives flattened the superstructure and cleared the channel (Van Tilburg, 2003a). Vought F4U Corsair �The remains of a Vought F4U Corsair aircraft were first identified by members of the "Coral King Dive Club" in 1976 (NOAA, 2017). Resting in approximately 35 m (115 ft) of water on a sand seabed, the site is situated off the south shore runway on Sand Island. Archaeological surveys conducted between 2002 and 2008 focused on site documentation and a special photographic survey of the site was conducted in 2008 to capture data for use in the creation of a computer generated three-dimensional rendering of the site (Fig. 3)(Gleason, 2008; PMNM, 2011). The wreck site is comprised of two distinct areas situated approximately 200 m apart; one incorporates the largely inverted fuslage and wing portion of the plane with its retractable landing gear down and the other is a large and wellpreserved radial engine. The fuselage and wing section is largely intact and the artifacts identified on the seabed are pieces of the plexiglass from the cockpit canopy and rolls of .50-caliber ammunition (Van Tilburg, 2002). Due to the mostly flat and featureless bottom, the site provides a wide variety of fish species with a wealth of habitats in which to shelter” (Van Tilburg, 2007:4). �Fig. 3: Photogrammetric model of the Vought F4U Corsair at Midway Atoll (Image courtesy of Bert Ho, Exploring the Sunken Heritage of Midway Atoll expedition 2017). The distinctive bent-wing design of the wrecked aircraft make it easily identifiable as a F4U Corsair. In production between 1942 and 1952, the Corsair was powered by a Pratt and Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp aircooled radial engine with a large Hamilton Standard propeller which produced a top speed of over 400 miles per hour (Tillman, 2001). Although the exact date for the loss of this F4U Corsair is unknown, it occurred sometime after Battle of Midway since the type was only introduced to the Pacific theater in 1943. Based on the postion of the retractable landing gear, it is likely that the plane crashed either on appraoch or shortly after take off from the runway at Sand Island (Van Tilburg, 2002a). F2A Brewster Buffalo In 2012, divers from NOAA’s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center Coral Reef Ecosystem Division located the remains of a wrecked Brewster �F2A Buffalo while conducting marine debris surveys at Midway Atoll. Located in approximately 3 m (10 ft) of water on the eastern side of the lagoon, the site consists of disarticulated military aircraft components concentrated in a discreet area of the seabed. An archaeological survey of the site by a team of researchers from PMNM produced detailed sketches of artifacts, a site plan, photographic and video records, and a photogrammetric model of the main concentration of wreckage. Reconnaissance surveys of the surrounding area found a large scatter of associated wreckage, which suggests that the plane likely broke up on impact with the water. Artifacts recorded at the site include a Wright R1820-40 Cyclone radial engine and mangled propeller, four .50-caliber Browning machine guns, .50-caliber ammunition, cockpit canopy glass, a control column, a tail cone, and multiple components of a Buffalo’s distinctive landing gear (Raupp and Green, 2012). No previous knowledge of the site or evidence of anthropogenic impacts have been located in archives or historic documents. The shallow nature of the site and the fact that no fuselage remains were identified, however, suggest that the majority of the wreckage may have been recovered sometime after impact for disposal. Archival research did provide information on the aircraft and the wrecking event; in February 1942, a squall caused United States Marine Corps (USMC) Lt. Col. Charles W. Somers, Jr. to crash into the lagoon at Midway Atoll while trying to land at Eastern Island (TIGHAR, 2012:27). Somers survived the crash and went on to fight in the Battle of Midway. He was later appointed as the first commanding officer of VMF-214, also known as the Black Sheep Squadron (Allison, 2003:68). �P40 Warhawk While conducting routine towboarding operations in 2014, PMNM archaeologists discovered the remains of a P-40K Warhawk fighter aircraft off the southeastern portion of Midway Atoll’s barrier reef. Resting at a depth of approximately 8m (25 ft) and situated in two distinct areas within a relatively small area of the spur and groove reef system, the site is located just offshore of one Eastern Island’s historic runways. Site surveys produced detailed sketches of individual artifacts and a site plan, as well as photographic and video records of the site. Identified among the scattered wreckage were a large inline engine, components of landing gear, two propeller blades, three .50-caliber machine guns, a machine gun muzzle, and .50-caliber ammunition (Gleason, 2014). Determination of the aircraft type proved simple due to the distinct design of the motor; identified as an Allison V-1710 12 cylinder liquid-cooled engine, it was used to power the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk aircraft. Markings on some of the artifacts further supported this identification. The .50caliber shells marked “1941” offered at date of production, and manufacturing on the muzzle indicated that was intended for use with a .50-caliber Browning machine gun (Gleason, 2014). No previous knowledge of this site or any impacts that have occurred to the wreck over time have been located. The fact that no fuselage remains were identified is unsurprising, given the large swells created by winter storms which have likely broken up and displaced the lightweight aluminum hull and deposited only heavier iron objects. Archival research indicates that only one P-40K Warhawk is known to have wrecked off the eastern shore of Eastern Island. In February 1943, US Army Air Force (USAAF) Lt. Ray Obenshain, Jr. was forced to ditch �his P-40 and parachute to safety when the controls froze shortly after takeoff (NOAA, 2017). This plane was one of twenty-four aircraft detailed to the USAAF 78th Fighter Squadron, which set an aviation milestone when they arrived at Midway in January 1943. After equipping the planes with special belly tanks to provide extra fuel, the squadron departed Barking Sands Air Force Base on Kauai and flew 1100 miles, the longest over-water flight of a single engine, land-based airplane ever attempted (Bennett, 2009). Aircraft Wreck SW Components of an unidentified aircraft wreck were identified in the southwestern portion of the barrier reef in 2015. Phenomenal sea conditions allowed a team PMNM of researchers to conduct towboard surveys close to the reef in the generally difficult to operate portion of the atoll. Lying in approximately 3 m (10 ft) of water in a channel of the spur and groove reef topography, an intact three-bladed propeller, hub, shaft, gears, and other engine components were identified. Time constraints allowed for only preliminary archaeological recording of the site but produced sketches of artifacts, photographic and video records, and a photogrammetric model of the propeller and nearby artifacts. Artifacts identified in the surrounding area included a tailhook painted with alternating red and white stripes, two .50-caliber machine guns, a cylinder cover from a radial engine, rubber fittings, wiring, a loaded ammunition canister, and deteriorated portions of the plane’s hull (Raupp et al., 2015). The area was considered a priority for survey as archival research suggested a P-40 Warhawk had been lost in the vicinity (Linville, 2010:12). While the aircraft has not been identified as a Warhawk—and is in need of further archaeological and archival research—limited survey of the site suggests the aircraft hit the water and/or reef very hard, �breaking apart on impact. As with the P-40K site identified off the southeast of Midway’s barrier reef, the lack of substantial fuselage remains identified in this location is unsurprising. Heavy swells appear to have displaced hull structure by forcing lightweight artifacts into crevices under the reef and depositing heavier objects on the seabed. 2017 Survey A total of 31 WWII-era aircraft wrecks occurring within 5 miles of Midway have been identified through archival research (Linville, 2010:10-14). As only four of these sites were documented archaeologically, NOAA and NPS archaeologists (in partnership with FWS personnel) returned to Midway in 2017 (coinciding with the 75th anniversary of the battle) to continue surveying for material culture. Funded through the NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, the project was aimed at identification of submerged aircraft remains associated with the atoll’s World War II heritage. Over the course of one week, 200 linear nautical miles were surveyed with a magnetometer. 102 anomalies were identified, 86 of which yielded material culture. While many of these findings date to the 19th and early 20th century, two WWII era sites were located during the survey. The first site has been (tentatively) identified as a Pratt and Whitney Twin Wasp Engine (Ho and Keogh, 2017). While this model was prevalent during the war, an F4U Corsair was the only plane with this engine flown at Midway. As the Corsair only arrived at the atoll in October 1942, this site post-dates the battle. The second site, found during the last day of diving operations, consists of a partial radial engine. Due to the fragmented nature of the site, further research must be conducted before a positive identification can be made (Ho and Keogh, 2017). �Ongoing Research Additional research addressing the WWII cultural heritage at Midway were conducted as part of the 2017 fieldwork. Prior to physical fieldwork at the atoll, researchers revisited archival material to assess the battle’s military terrain through KOCOA analysis (Roth and McKinnon, 2017). Widely used to interpret historic naval and terrestrial engagements, little has been done to adapt KOCOA to historic aerial combat (Babits et al., 2011, Spennemann, 2011:360, Frye and Resnick, 2013). Thus, re-evaluating KOCOA parameters to include aerial combat aided researchers in better understanding decisions made by pilots during the battle. Furthermore, the KOCOA data could be presented in cartographic form (Fig. 4). Fig. 4: WWII Era Facilities at Midway Atoll. (Authors 2017) The resulting geo-spatial data was used in conjunction with biographies of WWII-era crash casualties at Midway (see Linville, 2017) to create an �ArcGIS Story Map. Archaeologists have found the Story Maps program is opening new avenues of interactive digital outreach (Alemy et al., 2017). Given the current constraints of visiting Midway and accessing the atoll’s tangible heritage, the Story Map presents interactive content and a platform for public outreach on a global scale. Conclusions Aircraft wrecked within the shallow waters of Midway have undergone extensive mechanical deterioration associated with the dynamic marine environment found at the atoll. Comparative preservation of the F4U Corsair, located in a much deeper and more stable environment, suggests that offshore survey may yield sites with better preservation. Nevertheless, the 2017 survey results suggest WWII heritage remains submerged in shallower atoll waters and can contribute to the ongoing study of war in the Pacific. Further research into the activities at the atoll post-battle may shed light on the newest WWII-era submerged sites. While none of the remains located thus far are associated with the battle, they are significant cultural resources which contribute to understanding the role Midway played in the War. Digital outreach materials addressing this history offers new ways for the public to engage with both tangible and intangible remains of a shared aviation heritage. �References Alemy, Alexis, Sophia Hudzik, and Christopher N. Matthews, 2017. Creating a User-Friendly Interactive Interpretive Resource with ESRI’s ArcGIS Story Map Program. Historical Archaeology. Vol. 51(2):288-297. Allison. F. H., 2003. The Black Sheep Squadron: A Case Study in the U.S. Marine Corps’ Innovation in Close Air Support. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Babits, Lawrence, Christopher T. Espenshade, and Sarah Lowry, 2011. Battlefield Analysis: Six Maritime Battles in Maryland Revolutionary War and War of 1812. Final Report. New South Associates, Stone Mountain, Georgia. Bennett, John D., 2009. Barking Sands Army Air Base World War II History. Manuscript on File at Pacific Missile Range Facility Barking Sands, Kekaha, Hawaii. Ellis, D.R., 2002. The History and Strategic Importance of the Midway Islands. USAWC Strategy Research Report, Carlisle Barrack, PA. Frye, Lori, and Benjamin Resnick, 2013. National Register of Historic Places Registration Form: Ewa Plain Battlefield. National Register of Historic Places Registration Form. GAI Consultants, Inc., Homestead, Pennsylvania. FWS, 2000. Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington D.C. http://hdl.handle.net/2027/umn.31951d01858169p. Gleason, K., 2008. Activity Report: Maritime Heritage Resources Survey HA-08-04. Submitted to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/ Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Gleason, K., 2014. Activity Report: Maritime Heritage Resources Survey HA-14-04. Submitted to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Ho, Bert and Kelly Keogh, 2017. Beneath the Surface: Exploring the Sunken Heritage of the Battle of Midway. Gooney Gazette, Summer 2017. Friends of Midway Atoll NWR, San Anselmo, CA. �Layton, Rear Admiral Edwin T., Captain Roger Pineau, and John Costello, 2006. And I Was There : Breaking the Secrets - Pearl Harbor and Midway. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD. Linville, Nicholas, 2010. Maritime Heritage Remote Sensing Survey of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Archival Research Report. Prepared for NOAA and PMNM by SEARCH, Inc. Linville, Nicholas, 2017. Biographical Study of World War II Aircraft Crash Casualties at Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, Midway Atoll, US Minor Outlying Islands. Prepared for NOAA by SEARCH, Inc. Maynard, Sherwood, Hans K. Van Tilburg, David Pence and Elizabeth Kumabe, 1998. University of Hawaii Team Visit to Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge 10-17 June 1998. Marine Option Program report submitted to USFWS July 1998. NOAA, 2017. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. January 30. http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/new-about/. Accessed 19 April 2017. Nimitz, C.W., 1942. Battle of Midway. United States Navy, Pearl Harbor, HI. Report on file at the National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD. Office of Naval Intelligence, 1943. Combat Narratives Battle of Midway June 3-6, 1942. United States Navy, Washington D.C. Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM). 2011. Maritime Heritage Research, Education, and Management Plan: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. Raupp, Jason T. 2015. PMNM RAMP Cruise 2015 Maritime Heritage Activity Report. Report Submitted to Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, HI. Raupp, Jason T. and Cathy Green, 2012. HI-12-03 Maritime Heritage Cruise Activity Log. Report Submitted to Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, HI. �Roth, Madeline and Jennifer F. McKinnon, 2017. Aerial Combat and Heritage: KOCOA Analysis of the Battle of Midway. Report prepared for NOAA by East Carolina University, Program in Maritime Studies, Greenville, NC. Spennemann, Dirk H. R., 2011. The Cultural Landscape of the World War II Battlefield of Kiska, Aleutian Islands: Findings of a Cultural Heritage Survey. Carried out in June 2009. ABPP Grant, U.S. NPS. Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, Albury, NSW, AU. Simard, C.T., 1942. Report of Engagement with Enemy, Battle of Midway 30 May to 7 June, 1942. Battle Report. United States Naval Air, Midway Island, HI. Report on file at the National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD. TIGHAR, 2012. “Lessons from a Buffalo:” TIGHAR Tracks: The Journal of the International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery, Vol. 28(1):26-29. Tillman, B., 2001. Warbird Tech Series, Volume 4: Vought F4U Corsair. Specialty Press Publishers and Wholesalers, North Branch, MN. Thompson, Erwin N., 1986. World War II-Era Military Facilities, Midway Islands National Register Nomination. National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form. National Park Service, Washington D.C. Van Tilburg, H., 2002a. Underwater Archaeology, Hawaiian Style, in C.V. Ruppé and J.F. Barstad (Eds.), International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers: 247-266. Van Tilburg, H., 2002b. Maritime cultural resources survey: Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Report Submitted to Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. Van Tilburg, H., 2003a. Kure and Midway Atoll Maritime Heritage Survey 2003. Report Submitted to Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. Van Tilburg, H.K., 2003b. U.S. Navy Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: An Inventory of Submerged Naval Property. Report Submitted to Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C. �Van Tilburg, H., 2005. Maritime Heritage Resources Assessment 2005 Activity Log. Report Submitted to Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. Van Tilburg, H., 2007. Activity Report: Maritime Heritage Resources Survey HI-07-07. Report Submitted to Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument. Warner, Jo K., 1942. Journal of VII Bomber Command Liaison Officer at Midway. Journal Entry. U.S. Navy, Midway Island, HI, June 13. Report on file at National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD. Biography Jason Raupp is the Staff Archaeologist for the Program in Maritime Studies at East Carolina University. He holds a B.A. in Anthropology from Northwestern State University, M.A. in History and Historical Archaeology from University of West Florida, and Ph.D. in Archaeology from Flinders University. Over the past twenty years he has been involved with maritime and terrestrial archaeological research in the US, West Africa, Australia, Asia, the Caribbean, and the Pacific region. He has extensive experience in public and private sector cultural heritage management, as well as diving and boating safety. Jason’s research interests include historical and maritime archaeology of the Pacific Ocean, culture contact, historic fisheries, military technologies, battlefield studies, and contact-period rock art. Madeline Roth is a current graduate student at the East Carolina University Program in Maritime Studies. Her research interests include WWII heritage, resource management, and identity construction. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 1: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology and Capacity Building in the Pacific Islands Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) spanning human history from the Stone Age to the atomic age. Since the first Pacific UCH Workshop held in Solomon Islands in 2009, the Pacific island nations have been progressing in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme by awareness raising, research and capacity building activities through inter-disciplinary cooperation and promoting synergy with the Pacific World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage Programmes. Notable progresses include, among others, the SIDS Accelerated Modalities of Action (SAMOA) Outcome Document of the 3rd UN International Cooperation on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) (Samoa, 2014) that contains references to the importance of UCH for sustainable development of SIDS and SIDS ratification of the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001), as well as the enhanced cooperation between universities in the Pacific islands and professional training institutions through UNESCO University Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN) for Underwater Archaeology. With this as its background, the session “Underwater and maritime archaeology and capacity building in the Pacific Islands” will be held with the aims to: i) share information on recent progress in awareness raising, research and capacity building activities in underwater and maritime archaeology in the Pacific Islands, ii) identify priority actions, iii) foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. The session especially welcomes presentations focusing on the protection and management of UCH belonging to indigenous community shared UCH in the Pacific, addressing challenges and opportunities facing Pacific SIDS in the implementation of the Pacific UCH Programme and the promotion of the UCH Convention, presenting good practice in ensuring the effective engagement of Pacific island countries and community in UCH management for their sustainable development, and proposing collaborative projects in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akatsuki Takahashi UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, Samoa Andrew Viduka, Maritime and Commonwealth Heritage, Australian Government, Nicolas Bigourdan, Western Australian Museum Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Exploring the Sunken Military Heritage of Midway Atoll Description An account of the resource Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the Japanese Imperial Navy readied their forces to secure the Pacific Theatre through one final blow to the US aircraft carrier fleet. The target of that attack was the US base at Midway Atoll, which provided support as a naval air station and submarine refit center. In June 1942, the Japanese Navy launched an aerial attack on Midway in an effort to destroy its defenses and lure the remaining aircraft carriers into combat. Although outgunned and outnumbered, US aviators surprised the Japanese fleet and succeeded in destroying four of their carriers, thereby crippling Japanese aerial defenses for the remainder of the war. Today, Midway Atoll is situated within the boundaries of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument and many of its World War II naval facilities are preserved as a memorial to those who lost their lives. Recent interest in the battle has led to a renewed effort to locate and document the submerged cultural heritage of the atoll and to create outreach materials addressing both the tangible and intangible heritage of the battle. This paper provides an overview of the history of the atoll and the Battle of Midway, describes significant archaeological sites so far located there, and discusses recent survey projects focused on identifying the remains of aircraft associated with the battle. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Madeline J. Roth Jason T. Raupp Kelly A. Keogh Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Madeline J. Roth Jason T. Raupp Kelly A. Keogh Asia-Pac Session 1 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/871225d8c8f8ddf27a623bf79ed29c0f.mp4 bd64bb0f3a7aa82c052c5d933f1d36c5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Proceedings of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Papers presented at the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 conference introduction video by Publications team member, Jay Mok. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jay Mok Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Asia-Pac 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Achaemenid and Hellenistic Trade in the Indian Ocean Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jean-Francois Salles Julian Reade Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Jean-Francois Salles Editor Julian Reade Item Type Book Section Book Title The Indian Ocean in Antiquity Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1996 Pages 251-67 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kegan Paul Title A name given to the resource Achaemenid and Hellenistic Trade in the Indian Ocean India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3da863b19839c75b0956a5eb20ca478e.mp4 005e930ae70b4b7e6a843870ae53554c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Conference Session 23 Introduction Video with Session Chair Jennifer Craig Subject The topic of the resource Introduction to Session 23 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer Craig Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/14/23 Contributor An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource Dr. Michelle Damian Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/097d8ca340195da89c1ef1e8f3cf194e.pdf bfc869a70600bc34c26f2ea60bc1758a PDF Text Text Beads on boats: testing the relation of expected cargo to Philippine maritime activities Jennifer Craig1 Abstract What must be considered in an attempt to critically analyse beads? Multiple historic period shipwrecks ranging in dates from the 11th century to the 18th century have been archaeologically excavated from Philippine waters. Past studies have either placed these shipwrecks in the larger network of shipping activities or singled-out one particular ship’s function. In this doctoral developing study the context of shipping activities in the wider Philippineoriented community was identified through style-types previously established in studies in Terrestrial Archaeology, Coastal Landscape and Historic Records; the core of which was revealed to be the material culture of navigation. Maritime Archaeology methodology was used to approach the tools and symbols used in pilotage by the four main cultural groups to have settled in the Philippines – Austronesian, Arab, Chinese and Spanish. This revealed that pilots may have shared a common language in mathematics. With this potential explanation for communication across the groups the research turned to the shipwreck collections to find a shared commodity, ubiquitously expected – BEADS. The hypothesis that particular beads, representative of specific cultural groups pointed to a probability of beads on all the shipwrecks. This is to be tested by objectively recording the beads in a database. It is expected the end result of which will point to the identification of the bead style, manufacture and provenance which in turn will then be used as indicators to strengthen known stylistic features and shipping activities associated with the th cultural groups. Preliminary results indicate this is not the case. The 16 century shipwrecks contain very few to no beads. This critical analysis will continue into the other Periods represented by shipwreck assemblages in the Museum’s collections. Could this study be a direct challenge to preconceived ideas of past Southeast Asian economic models? Introduction This paper lays out the methodology in the early development of the doctoral thesis ‘Historic Period Maritime Archaeology in the Philippines: A critical analysis of bead assemblages from shipwrecks and the coastal landscape of developing trade economies’ (Craig in-prep). It aims to reveal how an analysis of beads could interpret aspects of the negotiation between incoming groups and existing populations of the Philippines and how this was played out in the wider interdisciplinary maritime sphere. The framework is largely a critical analysis of beads archaeologically excavated from historic shipwrecks ranging in date from the 11th century to the 18th century. The general hypothesis is that beads recovered from underwater sites would compliment the terrestrial record. Record here refers to the documents with indicative settlement structures identified by names of the main cultural groups which occupied the archipelago. The stylistic 1 DPhil Candidate, Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, jennifer.craig@arch.ox.ac.uk �features of the associated built heritage and any remaining ‘footprint’ was further studied through text, photographs and visits to relevant coastal areas. Archaeological investigation in these areas has ranged from intensive to nonexistant. In the areas of intense analysis this work was discussed with local specialists and they have shared their expertise and publications. In the areas of no historic archaeology I have gone back into the records of previous archaeological investigation in proxy to the main sites of interest and kept record of what beads were found where. These separate approaches will all come together in one visual reference of mapping software. The main critical analysis for this project is to occur on artefacts recovered from shipwrecks, it is therefore relevant to have a background knowledge in the influential environmental science. Maritime Archaeology is the study of humankind with a directional focus from water to land. Geographic perameters of this paper will therefore adopt this vantage point. The Philippines is located in the centre of Southeast Asia, the far west of the Pacific Ocean and far east of the Indian Ocean. The natural oceanic phenomena of these areas run multiple currents along and through the archipelago of 7,142 islands (number from Oxford Philippine Society, based on Philippine National Tourism Statisitics). Context The material culture recovered from terrestrial archaeology throughout the AsiaPacific region points to large scale and long term trade (Glover and Bellwood 2006). These networks can be extended over the adjacent and proximal waters of the Philippines (Dizon and Ronquillo 2010). The South China Sea connects the shores of China (Bellwood 1978) and Taiwan (Campos et al 2009/10); Indochina/Malay Peninsula (Andaya 2010; Barnes and Parkin 2002) along the Maritime Silk Route to East Africa (Boivin-SEALINKS; Horton and Middleton 2000; Lane-HEEAL; Robinson and Wilson forthcoming), through Arabia (Hourani and Carswell 1995; Lunde 2005) and India (Carswell 2010; Cherian 2010; Varadarajan and Shah 2011). Across the Philippine Sea to the northeast is Japan (DeMorga translated by Cummins 1971). The Pacific Ocean opens to the islands of Micronesia, Macronesia, Polynesia (Clark et al. 2001) and the American Continents (Anderson et al. 2010)2. Changes in the scale and nature of this maritime trade can be seen in indigenous coastal landscapes, which for example in the Philippines has changed from roofed shelters along soft-sandy beaches (Pharma 2011; Stewart 2009) to the construction of piers and wharves to accommodate bulkier shipments (Levinson 2006). The main historic record of the Philippines is Blair and Robertson’s ‘The Philippine Islands’. These 55 volumes are a synopsis of the known historic accounts of Spanish occupation in the Philippines. Its review, along with other cartographic evidence in the Bodliean Library, noted relevant archive locations 2 This is a non-exhaustive list of references. There are of course many other Social Scientists to whom I could refer. �and specific coastal areas of intense activity related to Philippine marine trade. Awards granted by the Society for Nautical Research, Brasenose College, Friends of Darshak Itiahas Nidhi, the School of Archaeology and Study Abroad Department at the University of Oxford provided the funds and encouragment to travel and conduct anthropological fieldwork. Specifically, the opportunity to note stylistic preferences in architectural features of coastal infrustructure. This exercise has helped to point out culturally indicative patterns transmitted to the Philippines. Archaeological, anthropological, and historic document studies of past peoples indicate multiple cultural groups inhabited the Philippines during the historic period between 9th to 19th centuries (adapted from Beyer 1947: 2083). Historiography indicates Philippine Regions were periodically inhabited by Chinese, Spanish and Arab-Indian diasporas. Archaeologists who worked on the islands have produced monographs and publications identifying culturally distinct artefacts and features of Philippine inhabitants over time4. Attempts to pull together the cultural evidence from various environments and disciplinary approaches has been ongoing in the Philippines for decades (Dizon 2004:1363). To date, the most comprehensive book on economics based on archaeological-evidence is Laura Junker’s (1999) ‘Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Cheifdoms’. It compares historic, anthropologic, and archaeologic records spanning over two millenia from 1061 B.P to the end of the 15th century. Her fifteen years of experience working in Philippine archaeology, at the time of publication, connects the coastal and mountain people through their trade to reveal complex chiefdoms operated from the mountain tops to the coastal settlements across the whole of the archipelago. Wilhelm Solheim (1984-5) suggests a severance between marine and inland people and produced decades of publications on the coastal people of the archipelago, coining the term ‘Nusantao’ for maritime traders throughout Southeast Asia5. In fact, his work is based on beads dated to 2650 B.P.(Dizon 2004: 1362 based on Soliheim and Higham 1996). Anthropological methods have recorded a group of people severed from the land by choice - the Bajao (Hoogervorst in-prep; PCCO 46) - continuing to live as they have for centuries, perhaps millennia. Since the early 20th century Archaeology and Anthropology activities in the archipelago have been headed by the National Museum of the Philippines. An attempt to conduct thorough research on the Philippine culture lead to a reconnaissance trip to Manila6, courtesy of the Brasenose College Annual Fund 3 Henry Beyer dates these horizon's as Porcelain Age: (Pre-Spanish: 9th to 16th century A.D.); and Spanish Period Remains: (Historic; 17th-19th century). 4 Especially works by the Head of the Archaeology Division in the National Museum of the Philippines: Henry Otley Beyer, Robert Fox, Wilfredo Ronquillo; and at the University of the Philippines - Wilhelm Solhiem and William Scott. 5 Solheim first introduced the ‘Nusantao’ term in the Asian Perspectives journal in 1975 18(2):151-158. He expanded on the hypothesis in the same journal in 1984/5 26(1):77-88. 6 Meetings revealed that the publication record is wide-reaching as the staff travel abroad often to deliver papers or are invited to write chapters for books. A visit to the Archaeological Studies Program of the �and the Society of Nautical Research’s Tomlin/Anderson Fund. Meetings were held with the director and staff of the Museum, Head of the Archaeology Division, and the professionals within the Underwater Archaeology Section. Professionals within this department are now gathering the geographic information of underwater sites into a visually comprehensive medium (Ligaya Lacsina pers. comm.). This adds specific context information on provienence to other geographic focused projects within the country and surrounding Regions. For example, in the Philippines linguistic patterns (see www.muturzikin.com) largely parallel the archaeological record and can be identified in the poster map, ‘The Filipino People: Differentiation and Distribution based on Linguistic, Cultural and Racial Criteria’. Natural Science Science of the natural phenomena over sea-scapes can help to point-to optimum locations for settlements. Oceanographic data can indicate shallow-water currents (Bonjean and Lagerloef 2002) that run consistently due to natural universal laws. Meteorological studies point out regular weather patterns such as Monsoon Seasons when the winds move in particular directions. The Philippines have the Southwest Monsoon Season from June to September when winds blow profusely diagonally across the archipelago from the southwest to the northeast. The technology of marine-craft would have harnessed these phenomena so as to move as swiftly as possible over the water. The main logistical concerns when sailing are the speed at which vessels travel and the amount of people on board. With the domestic needs of food, water and sleeping facilities met, aside from warfare equipment, the rest of the craft can be used for cargo. Terrestrial/Coastal Forts with specific stylistic features were built by culturally distinct groups of people to defend their important economic transport features – ports. What constitutes a port can be widely debated according to the needs of the vessels7. To understand the phases of occupation of people on any island of the archipelago then it is useful to investigate the architectural features of their harbour structures. In keeping with the disciplinary vantage point we will turn to the maritime technology to define the terrestrial needs for the cultural groups. Specifically I will discuss the needs of the hull. The super-structure of masts, sails and rigging are more for use at sea and often tied-down and set-aside by sailors when porting. Nusantao sailed in outrigger-canoes (Galang 1941; Scott 1981; Scott 1994; Stead in-prep). These are long, narrow, shallow boats with one or two stablizer(s) off the port or starboard that can be sailed by one individual or the larger ones University of the Philippines indicated the program’s library to be a rich deposit for publications in Philippine social and natural sciences. 7 This is a major object of inquiry within the Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology. A large contributing factor to choosing this Centre for this doctoral research is due to this subject-oriented community of scholars. �can accommodate small groups of people (Eusebio Dizon – Anuta Lapita project notes; Hontiveros forthcoming). When beaching the boats are sailed in as far as the waves will naturally bring the boat; then carried, pushed and/or pulled ashore by man-power onto soft sandy beaches so as not to destroy the hull. To keep the wood of the vessel from too much sun exposure and therefore destructive dryingout it may be brought under the protection of a roofed hut-like structure (Pharma 2011). These boats are still used today and the hut-structures can be viewed along the edges of soft-sandy beaches (Pharma 2011). When the Spanish arrived in the 16th century they came on galleons. These are large, deep, wide ships8. Hundreds of people could sail aboard this vessel. It required deep harbours with wind-protected anchorages; and lighters to bring the sailors ashore (until wharves and piers were built). Various landscapes were built upon to accommodate these deep-hulled ships. Star-shaped forts were built on the raised land next to deep waters; examples include a hill-top next to a river billabong (Fort Santiago, Manila, Metro Manila Province, Philippines), a complex bathymetric approach (Fort St.Augustine, St.Augustine, Florida, USA) or a mountain encased deep-water harbour (Fort San Diego, Acapulco, Guerrero, Mexico). These structures were made of brick, stone, wood and plaster. Their characteristic feature being the compass-needle-like pointed bastions on which sat large guns to fire cannon-balls on foes. Arabs sailed markab (or the better known term daw/dhow), the smaller of which would have been of similar dimensions to the outrigger-canoe, or larger double-ended boats ending with pointed stern and bow (Hourani and Carswell 1995: 89) probably similar in size to the galleon. The terrestrial structures required for these vessel-types probably varied between the structures built by the Nusantao to the Spanish forts. Arabs occupied Manila before the Spanish and had built a wooden structure (Bacus 2004: 207). What this exactly entailed is still to be investigated. However, in order to get a sense of the possibilities I traced the Arab background to Arabia via Gujarat, India (Craig 2011). At the Darshak Itihas Nidhi Conference held in Mandvi (within Kutch, Gujarat, India) I had the opportunity to walk around the river-side harbour with reporter and curator Sarah Bancroft9, where boatbuilding facilties loomed along the edge of the estuary. Perhaps the wooden structures Bacus (2004:207) refers to were not fortifications as descibed by the 16th century Spanish governor Antonio deMorga (trans. by Cummins 1971: 281) but instead the large boat-encased frameworks as noted along the littoral of the River Tapi of Mandvi. The Chinese from China sailed into Manila on somas and junks (deMorga trans. Cummins 1971: 305); while sampans were used to lighter from the larger ships to shore the cargo of mainly silks, spices, metals and beads (deMorga trans. Cummins 1971: 306,307). Those who lived in the Philippines10 sailed small 8 According to the Oxford English dictionary ships are defined as ‘a sailing vessel with a bowsprit and three or four square-rigged masts’ (Soanes and Stevenson 2008:1329). 9 Sarah Bancroft curator for ‘Gujarat and the Sea: the Theatre of the World’, Darshak Itihas Nidhi, Exhibition on ‘Gujarat and the Sea’ in Mandvi, Gujarat, India, 1-3 October 2010. 10 The Spanish called them Sangley and forced them to live outside the Spanish quarters and in their own ‘suburb’ called parians. This is where the main Chinese trade within the Philippines was conducted. The �shallow-hulled sampans (deMorga trans. Cummins 1971: 314; for description see Worcester 1971) so for this reason the coastal landscape boat-needs were similar to the Nusantao. The Chinese also traded with the Muslim-run southern islands of Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago and the Calamianes, especially for their pearls (deMorga trans. Cummins 1971:261-2). The main harbours in the Southern Region were Butuan of Mindanao and Cebu of Cebu. Both of these harbours are naturally safe, large and at the estuaries’ mouth of the Butuan/Agusan River and the complex southeast coastline due to the proximity of Mactan Island. These conditions seem similar to the needs of the Spanish galleons so perhaps this trade was conducted by the larger somas (perhaps in conjunction with sampans but the sailors aboard the smaller vessel would not have been the main trader and instead facilited the porting of sailors from the larger vessel to trade with the islanders). Historical One of the benefits to working during the historical period is the ability to turn to historic records to locate sites of occupation. Keeping in mind the needs of the marine technology (as described in the previous section – Terrestrial/Coastal) and the scientific data of the natural phenomena (see Natural Science section) we can largely view charts and read rutters to find exact areas to then survey. The formulation of charts has also become an important point of investigation but this has been severed from the doctoral study and instead is being developed as part of the major-collaboration of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada project ‘The Indian Ocean World: The Making of the First Global Economy in the Context of Human-Environment Interaction’ headed by Gwyn Campbell at McGill University11. Underwater If vessel stylistic features are known and partnered with scientific data, historic records and terrestrial/coastal architecture one can narrow down the location of culturally specific clusters of shipwrecks (Craig 2004). In the Philippines variations of this approach have been undertaken and resulted in large-scale bathymetric survey (Goddio 2009) and site-specific archaeological excavation (Dizon and Ronquillo 2010; Goddio 1988; Goddio 1994; Goddio 1996). Of which the indicative artefacts have been stored at the National Museum of the Philippines. term was also adopted in Mexico City, and is still used today, for the trade of goods from the ManilaAcapulco Galleon Trade. 11 In this major collaboration I am a Research Assistant to Professor Brendan Gillon of the Philosophy Department at McGill University. We are undertaking research in how navigation tools reveal sailors’ metaphysics and their transmission of ideas over the Indian and Pacific Oceans. �Further Research I have noticed a gap in the knowledge on artefacts recovered from ship’s cargo. I intend to address this gap by running a parallel seriation study to ceramics - on beads. Beads and ceramics are ubiquidous objects throughout the world. Ceramics has had much attention and now with the identification of pottery in an archaeological site one can date the site as clearly as using numistics. The Philippines is an excellent location for this study due to its established terrestrial/coastal Type Collection of Beads at the National Museum of the Philippines. The main foci of this research are the nautical archaeology sites of the Philippines. These include the 11th century junk Breaker; the 13th century junk Investigator; the 15th century 12 junks Lena Shoal, Santa Cruz, and southeast asian boat Pandanan; the 16th century13 southeast asian boat San Isidro, and galleon San Diego; and 17th century galleon the San Jose. Depending on the volume of materials this project may extend to include the 18th century galleon Santo Christo and East Indiamen Griffin and Royal Captain. The general hypothesis is that beads recovered from underwater sites would compliment the terrestrial record. In order to appreciate the terrestrial record I am currently researching the extent of known historic period sites within the Philippines and gathering descriptions of each sites’ beads. This is possible through publications and reports produced by archaeologists and anthropologists associated with the National Museum of the Philippines and the University of the Philippines. The reviews largely focus on works produced by Robert Fox and Rey Santiago as their discussions figure largely on beads recovered from terrestrial and coastal Philippine sites. I am also conducting a literature review of known historic sites with bead assemblages throughout the the Asia-Pacific Region. Much work has been done on this due to the prevalence of bead enthusiasts in the region. The review includes multiple journals, books and websites. Standard Database This research aims to add a database of bead-artefacts from archaeologically excavated shipwrecks of Philippine waters to the established Type Collection of Beads in the National Museum of the Philippines. A preliminary visit to the National Museum of the Philippines confirmed beads recovered from the above mentioned historic shipwrecks are included in the Museum’s archaeological inventories. However, this database is currently incomplete. The database to be produced from this thesis work will add to the Museum’s larger site database. In order to conduct this work I plan to travel to the Philippines and analyze the beads. First the beads will be gathered from storage. All the beads are in plastic baggies with labels indicating where in the shipwreck they were excavated. Keeping the beads associated to these labels is of utmost importance in 12 I will also look at the Española site artefacts but this is not a wreck site (pers. comm. Gay Lacsina and Bobby Orillaneda). 13 I also considered the Royal Capitan Shoal site but this is not a wreck, its only ceramic concretion (pers. comm. Gay Lacsina). Comment [GL1]: San Isidro is a southeast Asian boat �understanding their archaeological context. So the beads will be analyzed baggie by baggie. Headings will be adapted from the Type Collection of Beads in the National Museum of the Philippines. The specifics of the analysis are still to be confirmed as I am to undergo a training internship at the Western Australian Maritime Museum14. This internship will result in transferable skills with which I can successfully record the beads in a database, analyze their material and appreciate the context of this study in the larger Material Culture Studies and historical sea-scape of shipwrecks in the surrounding seas of the Philippines. Once the typology is complete an analysis comparing the beads from the shipwrecks to contemporary sites will be conducted. Jun Cayron’s (2006) ‘Stringing the Past: an archaeological understanding of early Southeast Asian glass bead trade’ is the first work in the Philippines to show strong evidence of similarities in beads excavated from shipwrecks to land sites. Peter Francis Jr’s (2002) ‘Asia’s Maritime Bead Trade: 300BC to present’ also discusses comparison of shipwreck assemblages with terrestrial finds in an attempt to connect vast networks of shipments over the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Large assumptions of the marine activities have been proposed based on very few examples of critical analysis of underwater sites. Further critical analysis of beads recovered from shipwrecks is required to test the ‘Francis hypotheses’. The examples Francis relies on are of the work produced by Laure Dussubieux’s Lazer Ablation - Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) Laboratory at the Field Museum in Chicago, Illinois. My thesis work will include review of this work as well as debates outside of chemical analysis. It will include the work of Bérénice Bellina-Pryce (2003; 2004:74), of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, on craft-style-identification theory for generally connecting networks from India to Southeast Asia. Preliminary results Research of the 16th century shipwrecks indicate that beads were not found as abundantly on all shipwrecks as suspected. It was assumed that boats transporting goods from the home port would be of the same cultural characteristics as the original manufacturing sites. However, this is not the case and it seems the Philippines may have been a mix of entrepôt and knowledgebased-item-trade. These results are inconclusive and require further investigation. The comparison to historic periods before and after the 16th century may also indicate presently unknown patterns. 14 In my career progression I have not conducted a formal analysis on a finite collection of categorically similar objects (i.e. pottery, beads) held in museum stores to note patterns in styles and materials; nor have I formulated a database to record such information. Through the literature and discipline’s network I have identified the strongest institution as the Department of Maritime Archaeology at the Western Australian Museum. I will train in a four month internship on a Southeast Asian pottery collection recovered from an underwater site. This transferable skill in database construction to record archaeological analysis will occur under the guidance of respected professionals in Maritime Archaeology. This arrangement is bilaterally beneficial in that it provides the Museum with a formal analysis of a collection previously not examined. �Remarks What is the significance of beads and what can it tell us about past peoples? The terrestrial context of beads can point to sites of manufacture or deposition. For example, part of what distinguishes the Manila Chinese settlement, or parian, from the Spanish quarters are the preference of beads as indicated in the archaeological record by type and quantity (Beyer 1947; Fox 1977). Rawmaterial sources can be deciphered from chemical analysis (Dussubieux et al. 2010; Pollard et al. 2007). Direct trade connections have been postulated by comparison of beads on shipwrecks to terrestrial manufacture centers (Cayron 2006; Francis 2002). This approach has indicated potential connections between the making of a bead and delivery to its intended destination (Cayron 2006; Cuevas unpublished; Dussubieux and Gratuze 2000; Francis 2002). By understanding the context of beads this small object can point to larger studies in the social sciences and humanities. Subjects centering on economic wealth, social-cultural preferences in fashion, and trade networks through cultural connections are some. Thus far, pottery is the only material culture capable of such world-wide and longue-durée intricate information. Local typologies of pottery and ceramics now expand across the globe and can be used to date sites, origins, indicate cultural connections and point to stylistic preferences. Could beads be as reliable a record as ceramics for the formulation of the trade routes and dating of archaeological sites? The cross-sections of this could reveal new connections, and cultural preferences hitherto unknown. Acknowledgments Without the many conversations with Dr Eusbio Dizon this project would not be possible, I would like to thank him for his wisdom and for sharing information on the underwater cultural heritage of the Philippines. I would like to thank my doctoral supervisor Damian Robinson for all his input and patience with my work. I am thankful to Gay Lacsina for her knowledge and kindness. I would also like to include thanks to Mark Staniforth for the opportunities I have had during the development of this conference and to Analyn Salvador-Amores for her assistance. Bibliography Andaya, L., 2010 Anderson, A., Barrett, J. and Boyle, K., 2010 Bacus, E., 2004 Barnes, R. and Parkin, D., 2002 "Malay Port Polities and Gujarati Traders in the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Centuries", Conference paper in Gujarat and the Sea. Darshak Itihas Nidhi, Mandvi. The Global Origins (and Development) of Seafaring, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge. The Archaeology of the Philippine Archipelago; Southeast Asia: From prehistory to history, (eds) Ian Glover and Peter Bellwood, RoutledgeCurzon, Oxford. Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean Series, Routledge Curzon, London. �Bellina, B., 2003 “Beads, Social chiange and interaction between India and South-east Asia”, in Antiquity, vol.77, 296, pp.285-297. Bellina, B. and Glover, I., “The Archaeology of Early Contact with India and 2004 the Mediterranean World, From the Fourth Century BC to the Fourth Century AD”, in (eds) Ian Glover and Peter Bellwood, Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History, RoutledgeCurzon Oxford. Man's Conquest of the Pacific: The Prehistory of Bellwood, P., 1978 Southeast Asia and Oceania, Collins, Auckland. Beyer, H. O., “Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by Islands and Provinces”, in The Philippines Jorunal 1947 of Science, vol. 77, no. 3-4, pp. 205-309, University of the Philippines Press, Manila. The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 : Explorations Blair, E. H., Robertson, J.A. and by Early Navigators, Descriptions of the Islands Bourne, E.G., and Their Peoples, Their History and Records of 1962 the Catholic Missions, as Related in Contemporaneous Books and Manuscripts, Showing the Political, Economic, 55 vols, Manila. Boivin, N., SEALINKS Project. Oxford: University of Oxford. (no date) URL: http://sealinks.arch.ox.ac.uk. Bonjean, F., and Lagerloef G.S.F., Indian Ocean Current Vectors, generated and 2002 downloaded from the Ocean Surface Current Analyses – Real Time (OSCAR) on the World Wide Web address http://www.oscar.noaa.gov/datadisplay/index.html accessed 23rd September 2010 Bonjean F. and Lagerloef, G.S.E., “Diagnostic Model and Analysis of the Surface Currents in the Tropical Pacific Ocean”, in Journal 2002 of Physical Oceanography, vol. 32, no. 10, pp. 2938-2954. Campos, F., Bellwood, P., Piper, Investigation of Early Fishing Practices in Batanes, Northern Philippines, conference paper in IndoP.J. and Dizon, E., 2009/10 Pacific Prehistory Association (IPPA), Hanoi, Vietnam, December 2009, proceedings 2010. Stringing the Past: An Archaeological Cayron, J.G., 2006 Understanding of Early Southeast Asian Glass Bead Trade. Paz, V. (ed.) Contributions to Archaeology Series, The University of Philippines Press, Quezon City. Cherian, P., "Multi-Cultural Contacts and Trans-Cultural 2010 Creativity - Evidence from the 'Indo-Roman' Port Site of Pattanham (Muziris)", conference paper in Contact and Creativity in the Ancient World.: SEALINKS project, University of Oxford, Keble �College, Oxford. The Archaeology of Lapita Dispersal in Oceania: Clark, G., Anderson, A. and Papers from the Fourth Lapita Conference, June Vunidilo, T., 2000, Canberra, Australia, Terra Australis, 2001 Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Pandanus Books, Canberra. Historic Period Maritime Archaeology in the Craig, J., Philippines: A critical analysis of bead in-prep assemblages from shipwrecks and the coastal landscape of developing trade economies, DPhil Thesis, Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, University of Oxford. Maritime Archaeology, Marine Science and History Craig, J., Collaborative Aproach to Shipwreck Predictive 2004, unpublished manuscript Modelling along the Canadian Scotian Coast; Masters Thesis, University of Bristol and the Archaeology Department of the Nova Scotia Museum. Carswell, J., "Gujarat: The Deccan, China and the Islamic World", conference paper in Gujarat and the Sea. 2010 Darshak Itihas Nidhi, Mandvi. Typological Analysis of Beads from the Royal Cuevas, M.A., Captain Wrecksite Underwater Archaeological 1985 unpublished manuscript Project, National Museum of the Philippines, Manila. Sucesos De Las Islas Filipinas, Works issued by De Morga, A. translated by Cummins, J. S., the Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press, 1971 Cambridge. Dizon, E. and Ronquillo, W., “Maritime and underwater archaeology in the Philippines”, in (ed) Jan Van Alphen, A Passage to 2010 Asia, Bozar, Brussels, pp.201-13. “Underwater/Maritime Archaeology in Southeast Dizon, E., Asia”, in Ooi Keat Gin (ed), Southeast Asia: 2004 Historical Encyclopedia, From Ankor Wat to East Timor, ABC-Clio Publishers, Santa Barbara, pp. 1361-1364. Dizon, E., “Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in the Philippines”, in Philippine Quarterly of Culture and 2003 Society, 31, pp. 1-25. Dussubieux, L. and Gratuze, B., Indo-Pacific Beads, Institut de Recherches sur les 2000. Archéomatériaux, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre Ernest Babelon, Orléans. Dussubieux, L., Lankton, J. and "Boonyarit Charisuwan : Trade Patterns in Bellina, B., Southeast Asia as revealed by the study of ancient 2010 glass bead compositions from coastal sites", conference presentation for Crossing Borders in �Southeast Asian Archaeology, held at the Freie Univeritat, European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Berlin. The Filipino People: Differentiation and Distribution Fox, R., Flory, E. and Peralta, J., based on Linguistic, Cultural and Racial Criteria, 2007 poster published by the National Museum of the Philippines in Consultation with the National Commission for Culture and the Arts, Manila. "Ancient Beads", in Roces, A. (ed.), Filipino Fox, R., Heritage, vol. 3. Lahing, Manila. 1977 Asia's Maritime Bead Trade : 300 B.C. To the Francis, P., Present, University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu. 2002 Galang, R.E., “Types of Watercraft in the Philippines” in Philippine Journal of Science,vol 75, no 3, pp. 2911941 320. Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History, Glover, I., and Bellwood, P., 2006 RoutledgeCurzon, London. Goddio, F., and Ayala Museum of Discovery and Archaeological Excavation of a 16th History and Iconographic Archives Century Trading Vessel in the Philippines, World 1988 Wide First, Lausanne. Goddio, F., Le San Diego: Un Tresor sous la mer, Association 1994 Francaise d’Action Artistique, Paris. The Treasures of the San Diego, Fondation Elf, Goddio, F., 1996 and Elf Aquitaine International Foundation Inc., New York. Goddio, F., “Underwater Archaeology in the Philippines 19852009, November 18. 2009”, presentation organized by Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford. Canoes of Oceania, Bishop Museum Press, Haddon, A. C., and Hornell, J., 1975 Honolulu. Hontiveros, G. “The Balangay Across Borders, Across Time”, forthcoming Conference Proceedings for the 13th European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists (EurASEAA), International conference held in Berlin, Germany, September 27th to October 1st, 2010. Water Transport: Origins and Early Evolution, Hornell, J., 1970 David and Charles Publishers, London. Horton, M. and Middleton, J., The Swahili: The Social Landscape of a Mercantile Society, Peoples of Africa Series, Blackwell, 2000 Oxford. Hoogervorst, T., “Linguistic fieldwork reveals Indian Ocean In-prep connections”, DPhil Thesis, in SEALINKS Project University of Oxford, Oxford. Arab Seafaring: In the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Hourani, G. and Carswell, J., �1995 Junker, L. L., 1999 Lane, P., (no date) Levinson, S., 2006 Lunde, P., 2005 Morga, A. (1609) translated by Cummins, J. S., 1971 PCCO Philippines-Canada Cooperation 46 Early Medieval Times, Princeton University Press, Princeton. Raiding, Trading, and Feasting : The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms, University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu. “HEEAL Aims and Objectives Overview”, in HEEAL Historical Ecology of East African Landscapes Project. Marie Curie Actions, Marie Curie Excellence Grants (EXT). The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Bigger, Princeton University Press, Princeton. “The Navigator: Ahmad Ibn Majid”, In Saudi Aramco World, vol. 56, 4, pp. 45-48. Last accessed Feburary 20 2011 on the World Wide Web address: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/de fault.htm Sucesos De Las Islas Filipinas, Hakluyt Society, Cambridge. "The Sea: Cradle of Home and of Heart", in Project Hope for Bajao People, Canadian International Development Agency, Sangali District, Zamboanga City. Pharma, Everest "The Voyage of the Balangay", last accessed 2011 Febuary 20 2011 on the World Wide Web address: http://www.balangay-voyage.com/index.php. Pollard, M., Batt, C. and Stern, B., Analytical Chemistry in Archaeology, Cambridge 2007 Manuals in Archaeology Series, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Quirinos, C., Philippine Cartography: 1320-1899, 2nd edition, 1963 Nico Israel, Amsterdam. Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Riddell, P., Transmission and Responses, University of Hawai’i 2001 Press, Honolulu. Robinson, D., “Shipwrecks and Sunken Cities – the work of the 2009, November 17 Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology”, presentation organized by Oxford Centre for Maritime Archaeology, in Corpus Christi College, University of Oxford, Oxford. Scott, W.H., “Boat Building and Seamanship in Classic 1981 Philippine Society”, in Anthropological Papers, no 9, National Museum of the Philippines, Manila. Barangay, Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Scott, W.H., Society, Ateneo de Manila University of the 1994 Philippines, Manila. �Soanes C. and Stevenson, A., 2008 Solheim, W., 1984/5 Solheim, W., 1996 Stead, R., In-prep Stewart, D., 2009 Varadarajan, L. and Shah, H., 2011 Worcester, G.R.G., 1971 Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th edited edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford. “The Nusantao Hypothesis: The Origin and Spread of Austronesian Speakers”, in Asian Perspectives, vol. 26, no. 1, pp.77-88. "The Nusantao and North-South Dispersals", in Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin Chiang Mai Papers 15, no. 2. PhD thesis, Department of Maritime Archaeology, Southampton University, Southampton. "The Incredible Human Journey", 59 minute documentary, British Broadcasting Corporation, Bristol. Gujarat and the Sea, Darshak Itihas Nidhi, Mandvi. The junks and sampans of the Yangtze, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Beads on Boats: Testing the Relation of Expected Cargo to Philippine Maritime Activities Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 The archaeological study of ships’ cargo, hull, and maritime infrastructure. Description An account of the resource What must be considered in an attempt to critically analyse beads? Multiple historic period shipwrecks ranging in dates from the 11th century to the 18th century have been archaeologically excavated from Philippine waters. Past studies have either placed these shipwrecks in the larger network of shipping activities or singled-out one particular ship’s function. In this doctoral developing study the context of shipping activities in the wider Philippine-oriented community was identified through style-types previously established in studies in Terrestrial Archaeology, Coastal Landscape and Historic Records; the core of which was revealed to be the material culture of navigation. Maritime Archaeology methodology was used to approach the tools and symbols used in pilotage by the four main cultural groups to have settled in the Philippines – Austronesian, Arab, Chinese and Spanish. This revealed that pilots may have shared a common language in mathematics. With this potential explanation for communication across the groups the research turned to the shipwreck collections to find a shared commodity, ubiquitously expected – BEADS. The hypothesis that particular beads, representative of specific cultural groups pointed to a probability of beads on all the shipwrecks. This is to be tested by objectively recording the beads in a database. It is expected the end result of which will point to the identification of the bead style, manufacture and provenance which in turn will then be used as indicators to strengthen known stylistic features and shipping activities associated with the cultural groups. Preliminary results indicate this is not the case. The 16th century shipwrecks contain very few to no beads. This critical analysis will continue into the other Periods represented by shipwreck assemblages in the Museum’s collections. Could this study be a direct challenge to preconceived ideas of past Southeast Asian economic models? Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer Craig Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Inaugural Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Electronic Publication by The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 4 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/783e11a20265edc73c816f763522b079.pdf a9cd0317c6c8144dd4d4a131e22ef128 PDF Text Text 15th century carnelian bead cargo of the Indian Ocean World: a conversation starter on collections-based research in the Asia-Pacific Jennifer Craig (APConf5 Committee Member, Publication Lead Coordinator) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within the Collections-based Research Session because existing museum collections of carnelian beads from two archaeological shipwreck sites were analyzed. The sites include different ship constructions located at the far ends, to the north and south, of the Philippines; and they carried comparable artefacts. Both the Pandanan (1460-1487 CE) and Santa Cruz (1488-1505 CE) shipwrecks carried cargoes of similar ceramics (i.e. Chinese Jingdezhen and Thai Maenam Noi) and black glass beads (i.e. west India soda alumina); yet these sites also carried dissimilar cargo in both the ceramics and glass beads. Both sites also carried disproportionate carnelian beads. The resources to conduct the work to study carnelian are the morphological analysis of measurement and descriptors, technological analysis of SEM and compositional analysis of LA-ICPMS. My research questions ask what geographic patterns these analyses indicate of the carnelian beads: What is the source of the carnelian? Where were the bead workshops? What sailing routes did the carnelian move over to ultimately shipwreck off the Philippines? The expected results are that riverine systems that connected interior Indian carnelian were used to move raw material to west India bead workshops, via the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal into the Straits of Malacca to Southeast Asian entrepôt. Keywords: Collections-based research, rigor, connectivities, shipwreck List of Tables and Figures: Table 1 lists the Santa Cruz and Pandanan carnelian cargo average concentrations and standard deviations for the elements used in the statistical analysis with samples in parts per million converted to log10 values. Table 2 Agate/Carnelian artefacts analyzed in this study and their primary predicted group memberships from Canonical Discriminant Analysis. Figure 1 A Principal Component Analysis scatterplot of the agate/carnelian geologic sources and the agate/carnelian artifacts plotted by their first and second components. Figure 2 A biplot of the agate/carnelian geologic sources with the agate/carnelian artifacts plotted by their first two discriminant functions. INTRODUCTION In January 2023 I attended the Society for Historical Archaeology conference. This North American focused conference included a luncheon on Collections and Curation that invited practitioners of Collections-based Research. Wondering if I might be an oblivious participant, as someone who had recently completed a PhD dissertation on shipwreck beads collections stored in the National Museum of the Philippines, in the luncheon I found that there was a very clear definition of what collection-based research entailed for the North American Archaeologist/Curator, “using existing collections to pose and answer scholarly questions/it is a form of archaeological excavation in its own right. Searching through the contents of boxes and old catalogs found deep in repositories is a process full of discoveries/collections that can be generated over a period of decades by academic institutions, museums, volunteer organizations, and cultural resource management firms” (King 2014). This led me to think that if I was unaware of this definition then perhaps it is because it is not a concept in the Asia Pacific Region. I was curious to discuss with colleagues in the APConf 2023 of our ideas of collectionsbased research, including how might we like to define our own regional version, and I also wanted to 1 �share what remained to published of my work on the NMPL collection of carnelian beads from two shipwrecks. The topic of this paper fits best within this Session 23 on Collections-based Research because my case studies are museum collections of carnelian beads from two archaeological shipwreck sites in the Philippines. My research questions and methodologies are grounded in maritime archaeology, linguistics and museology. I wanted a space to explore what epistemologies I bring to collections-based research within a session of peers doing work on “collections''. My archaeology epistemology intersects with maritime-historical –indigenous-material science archaeology. Maritime archaeology in that my theoretical framework is the maritime cultural landscape, connecting artefacts and places across land and water. Historical archaeology in that I mostly work with objects made within the second millennia, with a slant of Art History in that I work across decades. Finally, built out of my exploration of linguistic methodologies to study cultural concepts and a human worldview, I am guided professionally by Indigenous-feminist archaeology. I use heart-centered practices: (1) show care for the living and the dead; (2) recognize we are all emotional and social as well as intellectual beings; (3) act upon our needs for responsible relationships with each other, with a range of communities, and with archaeological records, and; (4) emphasize rigor (Supernant, Baxter, Lyons, & Atalay 2020). Archaeometry contributes to the rigor of my answers to research questions on connectivities across large areas in short periods of time. CASE STUDIES The case studies under consideration are the shipwrecks Pandanan (1460-1487 CE) and Santa Cruz (1488-1505 CE). The first was a Vietnamese-Chinese barge located in south-west Philippines and the second a South China Sea Tradition open-ocean vessel located in north-west Philippines. Aside from the hull design and location, several differences exist between the cargoes. The Pandanan cargo included Chinese Longquan celadon, Jingdezhen and Guangdong with Burmese Twante, Vietnamese Chu Dau and Thai Si Satchanalai; High magnesium black glass beads morphologically identical to black west India soda alumina (in similarities); Small and long red west India soda alumina glass beads; three agates (one pendant, two rough cornerless cube/pentagon). The Santa Cruz cargo included Minyao Chinese, blue and white Cham and Go Sanh Cham wares, Sukhothai fish plates; Waxy yellow east India glass beads; Potash high potassium blue wound glass beads; 54-106 hexagonal prism carnelians/agates; 2684 small lozenge carnelian/agates; one cornerless hexagon quartzite. Despite these differences the shipwrecks also carried three similar types of cargo: Chinese Jingdezhen and Thai Maenam Noi ceramics; black glass beads (i.e. west India soda alumina) (Craig 2021; Craig & Dussubieux 2022). I return to these details later as I consider context and connectivities across vast water bodies of the Indian Ocean and the seas in the Southeast Asia Region. This paper narrows into the discussion on the carnelian beads. Carnelian beads The range of carnelian/agate quantity comes from the inventory notes at the time of excavation and my morphology analysis results. The Pandanan excavation report included three agates. My morphological analysis recorded one pendant, and two rough cornerless cube/pentagon. The Santa Cruz inventory included 190 carnelians/agates beads. My morphological analysis recorded 54 hexagonal prisms and 26 small lozenge carnelian/agates. 2 �RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include the National Museum of the Philippines directors Jeremy Barns and Angel Baptiste, staff in the Archaeology Division Mary Jane Bolunia and Eusebio Dizon, staff in the Underwater Archaeology Division Clyde Jago-on and Bobby Orillaneda, and staff from the Records Section Nida Curvas. During fieldwork I appreciated the research assistance by Emil Bersamira and Bobby Orillaneda. The fieldwork was supported by the Social Science and Research Council of Canada MCRI, Society for Nautical Research, Brasenose College and Oxford University Meyerstein. The stone beads were exported for compositional analysis with Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), this details the elemental “recipe” (periodic table) of the stone to compare with known geological sources, by Laure Dussubieux (Chicago Field Museum, Elementary Analysis Laboratory) with funds from the National Science Foundation (BCS 1321731) and the Bruce and Barbara Trigger Award of the Anthropology Department McGill University; and statistical analysis and training supported by MITACS Research Training Award (2020). En route a fortuitous encounter with Dennys Frenez (Università di Bologna, Department of History and Cultures, Prehistory and Protohistory of Asia), Mark Kenoyer and Randall Law (University of Wisconsin– Madison, Department of Anthropology) with permission from NMPL colleagues, led to technical analysis of the bead bore putty impression samples at different magnifications (300X, 100X, 50X, 20X) with SEM- Hitachi 570 (University of Wisconsin–Madison, Laboratory of Experimental Archaeology). The technological analysis unanimously pointed to Indian craftsmanship where long faceted hexagonal beads are generally drilled with larger diameter diamond drills, and the smaller tabular lozenge shaped faceted beads are generally drilled with thinner diamond drills (Kenoyer pers. comm. 25 April 2017). Randall used statistical analysis with program SPSS [Table 1] using canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) to compare the Pandanan and Santa Cruz carnelian compositions to known agate sources (Carter & Dussubieux, 2016; Law et al., 2013). Table 1 lists the Santa Cruz and Pandanan carnelian cargo average concentrations and standard deviations for the elements used in the statistical analysis with samples in parts per million (PPM) converted to log10 values. These are compared to the four geologic sources Ratanpur, Mardak, Shahr-i-Sokhta and Ban Khao Mogul (reproduced/adapted from Carter and Dussubieux 2016:327, Table 3). When comparing these tables it is possible to see the difference between the elements and their ranges to notice how some line up but most are out of range. This indicates possible shared geography of source material but currently outside these locations. For example, with select elements the bead 1170E fits within the PPM range for Scandium (Sc) and Uranium (U) but not otherwise. 8829 A 8829 B 8829 C 8829 D 8829 E 1170 A 1170 B 1170 C 1170 D 1170 E B 23.31 23.15 41.12 6.61 24.42 B 10.51 33.41 15.45 24.89 16.08 Ni 3.39 1.95 2.66 2.94 1.78 Ni 2.66 1.55 1.44 1.56 1.15 Sb 1.16 0.48 1.16 0.66 1.19 Sb 1.00 3.78 0.28 2.11 0.88 Sc 2.86 2.19 2.28 2.85 2.00 Sc 2.21 2.12 1.96 1.88 1.81 U 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.05 U 0.35 0.09 0.01 0.02 0.01 1389 Ei 1389 Fi 1389 Gi 1389 Hi 1389 Mi 1389 Ni 1389 Oi 1389 Pi 1389 H 1389 I 1389 J 1389 K 1389 L 1389 M 1389 N B 9.28 9.48 12.97 3.52 15.02 4.05 32.18 6.21 20.23 58.89 12.41 37.05 18.21 26.78 12.98 Ni 0.76 3.54 0.69 0.2 1.97 1.98 1.96 1.90 4.86 2.50 1.91 2.61 1.74 0.96 0.92 Sb 1.51 1.32 1.14 1.21 1.66 1.50 1.62 0.64 4.52 2.97 0.73 1.72 1.55 2.32 1.38 Sc 1.58 1.40 1.22 1.32 2.12 1.96 1.42 1.34 2.59 2.84 2.29 1.97 1.95 1.58 1.62 U 0.55 0.95 0.12 0.04 0.08 0.18 0.10 1.02 0.08 0.04 0.14 0.06 0.08 0.01 0.03 3 �FRAMEWORK My research questions ask what geographic patterns these compositional, morphological, technological analyses indicate of the carnelian beads: What is the source of the carnelian? Where were the bead workshops? What sailing routes did the carnelian move over to ultimately shipwreck off the Philippines? The results indicate the first two questions are well researched and relatively clear routes can be drawn, while the third question points to gaps in the literature. RESULTS The expected results are that riverine systems that connected interior Indian carnelian were used to move raw material to west India bead workshops, via the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal into the Straits of Malacca to Southeast Asian entrepôt. My compositional results are that the Santa Cruz carnelian was sourced from an unknown location (Figure 1/TABLE 2), likely along the Deccan Traps of India (Carter & Dussubieux 2016). Perhaps there was some overlap with Ratanpur and Shahr-i-Sokhra but that's largely speculative (Figure 2). Technological analysis results of Indian craftsmanship adds details on the workshop location likelihood. The bead workshops near Ratanpur were in Limodara during the sixteenth century. The initial process of drying the stone and changing its colour by heating continued in Limodara (Dames 1918, 143; Lunde & Craig 2015, 22). Kenoyer, Vidale & Bhanet (1991, 45) show the location of agate bead production exclusively in Gujarat with raw materials from Ratanpur and Limodra, both situated along the Narmada River, flowing into the sea downstream of Broach (Lunde & Craig 2015, 27). 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 Shahr-i-Sokhra 0.05 Ratanpur (I) 0 Mardak Bet (I) Santa Cruz -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 Figure 1 A Principal Component Analysis (PCA) scatterplot of the agate/carnelian geologic sources and the agate/carnelian artifacts plotted by their first and second components (created 23/6/2016). This graph shows Santa Cruz carnelian of largely unknown source. Perhaps some overlap with Ratanpur andd Shahr-i-Sokhra but that's largely speculative. 4 �Table 2 Agate/Carnelian artefacts analyzed in this study and their primary predicted group memberships (PGM) from Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA). CDA assumes that all groups (sources) are present in the dataset when generating PGMs. That is, it will provide an assignment even if the true source is not present because data is expected to anchor to centroids. Site name and dates Santa Cruz 1488-1505 CE Pandanan 1460-1487 CE Database ID Agate/Carnelian Predicted Group Membership 8829_D Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 8829_B Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 1170_C Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 8829_A Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 8829_C Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 8829_E Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 1170_E Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 1170_A Agate Mardak Bet (MB), India 1170_B Agate Shahr-i-Sokhta (SiS), Iran 1170_D Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Mi Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Ni Agate Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Oi Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Pi Agate Shahr-i-Sokhta (SiS), Iran 11389_Ei Carnelian Shahr-i-Sokhta (SiS), Iran 11389_Fi Carnelian Ban Khao Mogul (BKM), Thailand 11389_Gi Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Hi Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Ii Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Ji Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Ki Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Li Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Ai Carnelian Mardak Bet (MB), India 11389_Bi Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Ci Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Di Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_Qi Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_I Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_J Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_K Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_H Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_L Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_M Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 11389_N Carnelian Ratanpur (RTP), India 3043_A Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 3043_B Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 1087_F Agate Ratanpur (RTP), India 5 �Figure 2 A biplot of the agate/carnelian geologic sources with the agate/carnelian artifacts plotted by their first two discriminant functions. The four labeled artifacts are outliers from those that have either a primary or secondary PGM assignment. All four were predicted to belong to one Indian source. Of those four, one had a PGM in the Thai source and three had PGMs in the Iran source. The importance of ports in the transport system is significant because the Gujarat area was strategically placed along the main shipping route. Early 16th century records by Ludovico di Varthema (travelled from 1503 to 1508), mentions the agate/carnelian trade of Cambay and the wide web of foreign markets, reached by ‘Mohammedan sea-faring traders’ along the Red Sea, East Coast of Africa, the Mediterranean and the Far East (Arkell 1936, 299). For the carnelian/agate source Shahr-i-Sokhra the port of Hormuz was likely. During the years 1325-1622 CE, the bulk of the India trade passed through Hormuz, and continued to do so even after the Portuguese took the city in 1514 CE (Lunde & Craig 2015, 26). Hormuz had a significant advantage over Aden, its main rival. “Ships out of Hormuz could sail to Gujarat almost all the year round, hugging the coasts of Makran and Sind, while Yemeni and Red Sea ships were completely dependent on the monsoon system, with narrow windows of opportunity for safely crossing the Indian Ocean.” (Lunde & Craig 2015, 26). Contemporary to the dates of the shipwrecks Pandanan and Santa Cruz, the port Rander (destroyed by Portuguese in 1530 CE) was described by Duarte Barbosa in 1514 CE as trading with Malacca, Bengal, Tenasserim, and Pegu. Prior to the silting of the estuary to Rander in the 16th century, stone beads were shipped out of Cambay by Portuguese and Gujarati merchants along with glass beads from Broach. The importance of Bharuch from the turn of the millennium through the 18th century, located 25 nautical miles from the sea on the north bank of the Narmada River (Maqbul Ahmad 1960, 58; Lunde & Craig 2015, 24), indicates the heavy riverine traffic of the Narmada River. Narmada River to Limodara and 6 �on to Bharuch/ Broach on southeast of Cambay’s estuary and Tapi River to Rander share a baseflow source in the Deccan Plateau grabens (Vanderkluysen et al. 2011). This is to say the mineral content of the geology is similar (Das, Krishnaswami & Kumar 2006). CONCLUSION In conclusion, presumably stone beads exported via Broach were along the river systems or in the saltwater on shallow lightering-craft. The archaeological and historical text evidence together indicates that bead production and port location were inextricably linked in Gujarat (Lunde & Craig 2015, 27). However, large gaps in the literature still remain for the story on how carnelian beads may have moved through the Bay of Bengal into the Straits of Malacca to Southeast Asian entrepôt. Returning to my raison d’etre of creating this session for discussion in our APConf 2023, on ideas of collections-based research, including how we might like to define a version in the Asia Pacific region. I consider the beads and Rey Santiago as I go into this question. Rey was my bead mentor. He curated the records and objects of bead collections in the NMPL, cultivated methodology of their study, (and the part that hooked me onto these small finds) extrapolated the stories of each bead from water and land. With these intangible and tangible inputs to my collections-based research, I propose that we, “pose and answer scholarly questions/it is a form of archaeological excavation in its own right. Searching [with mentors/ghosts/spirits/colleagues] through the contents of boxes and old catalogs found deep in repositories is a process full of discoveries[/magic/kinship-making/affirming that include] collections that can be generated over a period of decades by academic institutions, museums, volunteer organizations, and cultural resource management firms [so as to gather stories and storytell]” (King 2014; Supernant 2020; Supernant, Beisaw, Garrison, & Surface-Evans 2020). Acknowledgements To all of you mentioned in this text – Thank you! This includes the people who directly handled the beads, conducted paperwork to support this research, funded me and who produced the publications referenced below. Namely my thanks goes to Andre Costopoulos and Gwyn Campbell. Jeremy Barns, Angel Baptista, Mary Jane Bolunia, Clyde Jago-on and staff, Nida Curvas and staff, Dr Eusebio Dizon, Mauro Alvarez. I really appreciated the people who worked with me on a regular basis Bobby Orillaneda, Emil Bermisera, Vergil San Mateo, Allan Quinto, Paolo Tabirao, Larry Alba, Amelia Alhambra, Rey Bautista, Marcelo Cercado. Rey Santiago for his bead analysis training in 2011 and for providing access to photograph his Bead Typology Plates A - K. Nick Burningham for his mentorship and our long discussions and shared writing on ship construction technique. Along with Tom Vosmer, Eric Staples, Alessandro Ghidoni for our discussions on Arabian Sea People’s shipbuilding Laure Dussubieux for her compositional analysis of the beads at the Chicago Field Museum and dive buddy Mike Knight for his security in Chicago. Mark Kenoyer and Randall Law for their study of my stone beads after a chance meeting in an Oman Workshop on Shared Archaeological Heritage of Oman, India and Pakistan; and Dennys Frenez for helping me to learn how to conduct and record a technological analysis of bead bores. Financial support was provided by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada (specifically Major Collaborative Research Initiative / Indian Ocean World Center), the Nautical Research Society’s Tomlin Award, National Science Foundation administered by Elemental Laboratory Chicago Field Museum, and twice awarded Bruce Trigger Award from the Anthropology Department McGill University, McGill Faulty Excellence Award, Statistical training supported by Mitacs Research Training Award. Professional training in Museum Studies at the Western Australia Maritime Museum’s Department of Maritime Archaeology with the support of the prestigious Australia Endeavour Award. Many thanks go to Francisco Urbie of the Inter-Library Loans department at McGill University. Friends who worked with me along the way are namely Charlotte Pham, Veronica Walker Vadillo, Clifford Pereira, Brian Fahy, Kris Farmen, Kendra Besinger. This extends to my office colleagues and friends of the Indian Ocean World Center, McGill University: Lori Callahan, Tyler Yank, Omri Bassewitch Frenkel, Peter Hynd, Eric Bell, Rebekah McCallum, Caroline Seagle, Joseph Howard, Carl Hughes and Lillian Fradin, Pablo Arroyo. 7 �Bibliography Arkell, A.J. “Cambay and the Bead Trade”, Antiquity 10, no. 39, (1936): 292-305. Carter, A.K. & L, Dussubieux. “Geologic provenience analysis of agate and carnelian beads using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS): A case study from Iron Age Cambodia and Thailand'', Journal of Archaeological Science, (2016): 321-331. Craig, J. “Refining the chronology and distribution of mid-fifteenth to mid-seventeenth century Indian Ocean world glass”, Antiquity, (2021): 1-6. Craig, J. & L, Dussubieux. “Shifting patterns of glass bead cargo of 15th – 17th century Philippines shipwrecks.” In Glass Bead Technology, Chronology, and Exchange, LA-ICP-MS Glass Compositions from the Field Museum's Elemental Analysis Facility edited by Heather Walder and Laure Dussubieux, 177-195. Leuven: Catholic University of Leuven, 2022. Dames, M.L. (ed. and trans.). The Book of Duarte Barbosa, Volume 1. London: Hakluyt Society, 1918. Das, A., S. Krishnaswami, and A. Kumar. “Sr and 87Sr/86Sr in rivers draining the Deccan Traps (India): Implications to weathering, Sr fluxes, and the marine 87Sr/86Sr record around K/T.” Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 7, no 6 (2006): 114. Kenoyer, J. M., M. Vidale, and K. K. Bhan. “Contemporary Stone Beadmaking in Khambhat, India: Patterns of Craft Specialization and Organization of Production as Reflected in the Archaeological Record.” World Archaeology 23, (1991): 4463. Law, R., A. K. Carter, , B. Kuldeep, A. Malik, and M. D. Glascock. “INAA of agate sources and artifacts from the Indus, Helmand and Thailand regions”, In Proceedings of the 19th International Conference of the European Association of South Asian Archaeology, edited by D. Frenez and M. Tosi. Italy: Archaeopress, 2013. Lunde, P. and J. CRAIG. “Translocations of Mediaeval Ports in the Northern Indian Ocean and their Impact on Gujarat's Maritime Trade in Beads.” In Port Towns of Gujarat edited by Sara Keller and M.N. Pearson. 19-30. Gujarat: Darshak Ithihas Nidi, 2015. Maqbul S. Ahmad, India and the Neighbouring Territories in the Kitāb Nuzhat al-Muštāq fi’Ikhtirāq al-’Āfāq of al-Sharīf alIdrīsī. Leiden: Brill, 1960. Supernant, K., J. E. Baxter, N. Lyons, and S. Atalay. Archaeologies of the heart. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2020. Supernant, K. “From Haunted to Haunting: Métis Ghosts in the Past and Present.” In Blurring Timescapes: Subverting Erasure: Remembering Ghosts on the Margins of History, edited by S. Surface-Evans, A. Garrison, and K. Supernant, 85-103. New York: Berghahn, 2020. Supernant, K., A. M. Beisaw, A. E. Garrison, and S. Surface-Evans. “Epilogue: Ghosts, Haunting, and Refusals to Erasure.” In Blurring Timescapes: Subverting Erasure: Remembering Ghosts on the Margins of History, edited by S. Surface-Evans, A. Garrison, and K. Supernant, 185-195. New York:Berghahn, 2020. Vanderkluysen, Loÿc, John J. Mahoney, Peter R. Hooper, Hetu C. Sheth, and Ranjini Ray. “The Feeder System of the Deccan Traps (India): Insights from Dike Geochemistry.” Journal of Petrology 52, 2, (2011): 315–343. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 23: Collections-based Research Subject The topic of the resource Session 23 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 23 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 15th century carnelian bead cargo of the Indian Ocean World: a conversation starter on collections-based research in the Asia-Pacific Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within the Collections-based Research Session because existing museum collections of carnelian beads from two archaeological shipwreck sites were analyzed. The sites include different ship constructions located at the far ends, to the north and south, of the Philippines; and they carried comparable artefacts. Both the Pandanan (1460-1487 CE) and Santa Cruz (1488-1505 CE) shipwrecks carried cargoes of similar ceramics (i.e. Chinese Jingdezhen and Thai Maenam Noi) and black glass beads (i.e. west India soda alumina); yet these sites also carried dissimilar cargo in both the ceramics and glass beads. Both sites also carried disproportionate carnelian beads. The resources to conduct the work to study carnelian are the morphological analysis of measurement and descriptors, technological analysis of SEM and compositional analysis of LA-ICPMS. My research questions ask what geographic patterns these analyses indicate of the carnelian beads: What is the source of the carnelian? Where were the bead workshops? What sailing routes did the carnelian move over to ultimately shipwreck off the Philippines? The expected results are that riverine systems that connected interior Indian carnelian were used to move raw material to west India bead workshops, via the Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal into the Straits of Malacca to Southeast Asian entrepôt. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer Craig Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Craig, Jennifer. 2023. “15th century carnelian bead cargo of the Indian Ocean World.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Michelle Damian. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL:https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1918 Asia-Pac Session 23 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1fad8480ebfeee2e905a6e80ae0b91f9.pdf cb06b1c2a4e71c98b5e5e6787f619854 PDF Text Text Inclusion and Negotiation: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites for the Public Jennifer F. McKinnon Abstract The development of a World War Two (WWII) underwater heritage trail focusing on the Battle of Saipan has recently been undertaken in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands on Saipan. This WWII heritage trail was formulated out of the interest of the local Historic Preservation Office’s (HPO) desire to protect and interpret its underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Through a United States of America (U.S.) National Park Service American Battlefield Protection Program grant in collaboration with a non-profit organisation and university program this trail was developed during 2009-2010 and launched in 2011. The development of a heritage trail that interprets such a confronting, painful and tragic event for multiple culture groups is a difficult task. A balanced approach of interpreting battlefield heritage can only be achieved through the identification and inclusion of the various stakeholders and an awareness of what is being included, ignored or inadequately represented in the interpretation. Listening to the multiple stakeholders’ views about the significance of such sites and incorporating those views into interpretive and management practices is key to an inclusive and shared interpretation of heritage. Further, an awareness and acknowledgment of the social and political context in which one is working is fundamental to understanding how practitioners negotiate the process of interpretation. As Logan and Reeves (2009:13) have communicated so well, “Heritage conservation is a form of cultural politics; it is about the links between ideology, public policy, national and community identity formation, and celebration, just as much as it is about technical issues relating to restoration and adaptive re-use techniques”. This paper provides an in-depth discussion on the process of developing a battlefield heritage trail. It will explore the theory and practice, the pitfalls and highlights, and the problems and solutions of interpreting and managing a battlefield site. Introduction The remains of the WWII Battle of Saipan, fought between Japanese and U.S. forces in June-July 1944, were recently the focus of a large-scale archaeological project. This project was directed by the non-profit organisation Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc. of Corpus Christi, Texas (Ships of Discovery) and Flinders University of Adelaide, South Australia. Funded through a National Park Service (NPS) American Battlefield Protection Program (ABPP)1, the project goals were three-fold: to refine current knowledge of the Battle of Saipan through the documentation and study of the associated submerged heritage sites, to increase public awareness of their historical significance and to stimulate the local economy through the development of a maritime heritage trail. This WWII heritage trail was formulated out of interest from the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Island (CNMI) HPO desire to protect and interpret its 1 This material is based upon work assisted by a grant from the Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of the Interior. �UCH, and the local government’s desire to create sustainable, economicallybeneficial heritage tourism products. These objectives were achieved through three archaeological field seasons that occurred in July 2009, February 2010 and June 2010, as well as, ongoing historical research and public consultation with stakeholders throughout the project period. The development of a heritage trail that interprets such a confronting, painful and tragic event for multiple culture groups is a difficult task. A balanced approach of interpreting battlefield heritage can only be achieved through the identification and inclusion of the various stakeholders and an awareness of what is being included, ignored or inadequately represented in the interpretation. Listening to the views of the multiple stakeholders about the significance of such sites and incorporating those into interpretive materials and management practices is key to an inclusive and shared interpretation of heritage. Further, an awareness and acknowledgement of the social and political context in which one is working is fundamental to understanding how practitioners negotiate the process of interpretation. As Logan and Reeves (2009:13) have communicated so well, “Heritage conservation is a form of cultural politics; it is about the links between ideology, public policy, national and community identity formation, and celebration, just as much as it is about technical issues relating to restoration and adaptive re-use techniques.” This paper provides a discussion on the process of developing a battlefield heritage trail in Saipan. It will explore the theory and practice, the pitfalls and highlights, and the problems and solutions of interpreting and managing a battlefield site. Location and background The Mariana archipelago is located east of the Philippines, north of New Guinea, and south-southeast of Japan (Figure 1). Saipan, the capital of the CNMI and the largest and most populated island, was the site of arguably one of the most strategic battles in WWII’s Pacific Theatre. Saipan is 19 kilometres (km) long by 9km wide and is fringed by a barrier reef on its western side which creates a large lagoon. The lagoon is separated into three smaller ones, Garapan, Tanapag and Chalan Kanoa Lagoons, which range in width from 375 metres (m) to 3.5 km and in depth up to 14 m (Amesbury, et al. 1996). The clarity and consistently warm temperatures of the water make SCUBA diving in the lagoons possible year-round. �Figure 1. The Mariana Islands (Perry-Castañeda Map Collection). Several submerged cultural heritage surveys and assessments have been conducted in the waters surrounding Saipan from 1979 to 2008 (Thomas and Price 1980; Miculka and Manibusan 1983; Manibusan and Miculka 1983; Miculka, et al. 1984; Pacific Basin Environmental Consultants 1985; Thompson 1984; Miculka, et al. 1990; Carrell 1991; Lord and Plank 2003; SEARCH, Inc. �2008a; SEARCH, Inc. 2008b; Carrell, et al. 2009). These surveys provided invaluable baseline data for identifying and conducting further research on sites to be included in the heritage trail. Particularly useful were the surveys and publications produced by the NPS (Carrell 1991), Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc. (SEARCH, Inc.) (SEARCH, Inc. 2008a; SEARCH 2008b) and Ships of Discovery (Carrell, et al. 2009). In April and May of 2008, remote sensing and diver identification surveys in Saipan were conducted by SEARCH, Inc. The purpose of these investigations was to locate and identify archaeological resources inside and outside Tanapag and Garapan Lagoons. The remote sensing surveys including magnetometry and side scan sonar were broad in nature; however the focus of the historical research and diver identification was on WWII heritage. The surveys were intended to be a baseline inventory for future investigations to build upon and were funded through a historic preservation grant provided to HPO and administered by the NPS. A total of 1,543 anomalies were located, of which 142 were chosen for diver survey. According to the report of investigations, “The majority of identified anomalies represents material culture from WWII and offers a unique opportunity for Saipan to interpret its history through maritime heritage and dive trails” (SEARCH, Inc. 2008b:i). In 2009, a comprehensive overview of the maritime history and archaeology of the CNMI was completed by Ships of Discovery (Carrell 2009). The project was undertaken as part of the CNMI’s on-going efforts to meet its historic preservation and inventory mandates and also was funded through a historic preservation grant administered by the NPS. The maritime context document provided an in-depth discussion of the history of the CNMI from the pre-historic period to the present, and pulled together all of the currently available information on submerged cultural heritage sites in the islands. Together these two projects provided the background information and emphasis for the development of a more intensive archaeological investigation and a public interpretation program for the WWII heritage. In fact, at the same time that SEARCH, Inc. was conducting the remote sensing project in 2008, staff and students from Flinders University were on the island working with the HPO to create a plan for developing a “maritime unit” within their existing program. In an earlier trip to Saipan in 2007, the HPO had voiced concerns about their lack of ability to manage submerged heritage (due to a lack of training in underwater archaeological techniques) and the pressing need to do so due to the amount of tourist divers visiting the WWII sites. They also were interested in developing a maritime heritage trail which would provide two favourable outcomes: developing a presence on the water as the agency charged with managing the resources and developing a heritage tourism product that could promote sustainable use of the already heavily visited sites. Thus the idea was formulated to develop a plan to accomplish a number of objectives that would assist HPO in better managing their submerged heritage. These objectives included: • Training staff in underwater archaeological methods in order to create a team of diving archaeologists �• • Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism Training staff in underwater archaeological methods The first objective was accomplished in January 2009 when Flinders University and HPO supported archaeological technician John Castro to travel to Australia and participate in the Flinders University Maritime Archaeological Field School in South Australia. Castro’s extensive diving and archaeological background allowed him to participate as a supervisor in the two-week field school where he gained additional underwater archaeology experience. Next, training was held in July 2009 on Saipan for staff from several government agencies, including HPO, Coastal Resources Management (CRM), the NMI Museum of Culture and History, and Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), as well as few local interested divers. A total of 20 diving and non-diving participants took part in the two day course (Figure 2). Based on the Flinders University’s Underwater Archaeology Methods topic, it included classroom lectures, practical terrestrial exercises, a diving exercise and an intertidal exercise for those not SCUBA certified. The training was a great success and provided the agencies and locals with information about the importance of preserving underwater heritage. Figure 2. 2009 training participants, Saipan, CNMI (J. McKinnon). �In the final stages of the development of the trail, two Heritage Awareness Diving Seminars (HADS) were run on Saipan in April 2011. HADS is a specialty course run through the three largest diver certification agencies in the world, NAUI, PADI and SSI, and is training intended for course directors, instructor trainers, instructors, dive masters, boat captains and dive shop owners. It was developed to provide diving industry professionals with a greater knowledge of how to proactively protect shipwrecks and other submerged cultural heritage sites (Scott-Ireton 2008). The goal of HADS is to increase awareness of the fragility of submerged heritage, teach proper anchoring, mooring and diving behaviour on such sites, as well as demonstrate the need for preservation of such resources for future generations and the economic benefits of heritage diving tourism. A total of 16 participants took part in the HADS training, including dive shop owners, the president of a local dive professional organization, boat captains, dive instructors and dive masters, U.S. Coast Guard staff, and a staff member from the NMI Humanities Council. This training was funded through a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Region Grants Cooperative grant awarded to Pacific Marine Resources, Inc. (PMRI), a local non-profit organisation concerned with environmental and historical research and sustainability. This training was seen as a crucial element to the development of the trail and its sustainability. It aimed at educating the end users to protect the sites and educate their students and clients about using the sites appropriately. Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites In January 2009 Ships of Discovery applied for an ABPP grant for the archaeological and historical investigation of submerged WWII heritage and the collection of data for the development of a proposed maritime heritage trail. The planning for this grant application began in 2007-2008 and included a great deal of local consultation. Public lectures were given to gauge local interest, and meetings were held with several stakeholders including local divers and dive clubs, HPO, CRM, DEQ, NMI Humanities Council, and the Marianas Visitors Authority (MVA). This consultation centred on the needs and wants of the community and government in terms of their heritage and a heritage tourism product. As a result, three agencies (HPO, CRM, and DEQ) pledged their assistance with the project provided funding was secured. Funding was announced for $49,900(U.S.) in August 2009 and the project quickly began. HPO, CRM, and DEQ provided an invaluable amount of in-kind assistance during the project, including staff support both on and off the water, boats and vehicles, equipment and fuel. Their support was instrumental to the success and completion of the project. Archaeological survey The archaeological documentation survey took place within Garapan and Tanapag Lagoons, where most of the accessible shallow water WWII sites are located. The underwater surveys focused on locating and mapping individual �sites, groups of sites and artefacts relating to the pre-invasion, invasion, and post-invasion period. Most of these sites had been located and briefly recorded in previous archaeological surveys and were specifically targeted for potential inclusion on the heritage trail based on this knowledge. Twelve sites were subject to extensive archaeological survey; however additional unrecorded sites were encountered. These additional sites were cursorily recorded and basic details were collected for future investigation (Table 1.) Table 1: Table of submerged or partially submerged sites recorded in 2009-2010. Name of Site Trail (Y/N) Merchant Ship, presumably Shoan Y Maru/Chinsen (Japanese Shipwreck) Possible Auxiliary Submarine Chaser – Y Main Site (Japanese Shipwreck) Possible Auxiliary Submarine Chaser – N Second Site (Japanese Shipwreck) Sherman Tank 1 (U.S.) Y Sherman Tank 2 (U.S.) Y Sherman Tank 3 (U.S.) Y Landing Vehicle Tracked-(A)-4 (U.S.) Y Fishing base Landing Vehicle N Fishing base LVT N Landing Craft (U.S.) N Possible U.S. Landing Craft (in shoreline) N Barges (U.S.) N Barge near Japanese Lighthouse (U.S.) N Daihatsu Landing Craft 1 (Japanese) Y Daihatsu Landing Craft 2 (Japanese) Y Kawanishi H8K “Emily” (Japanese Aircraft) Y Aichi E13A “Jake” (Japanese Aircraft) Y Martin PBM Mariner (U.S. Aircraft) Y TBM Avenger (U.S. Aircraft) Y Navigational Marker (Japanese) N Visits to each of the sites listed in Table 1 included basic underwater survey recording (photographs, overall dimensions, general descriptions, site identification, site location and site condition). Some sites, particularly those to be included on the trail, warranted more extensive survey for the purposes of creating site plans and also collecting baseline data for future monitoring purposes. No archaeological excavation was conducted at the sites and no cultural materials were recovered. All cultural and natural features on and around the sites were recorded. Modifications, battle scars, presence of unexploded ordnance, identifying marks and any other features that may aid in the interpretation of the sites were detailed. An overall description of the site and its general environment (depth, �visibility, current and bottom composition) were also recorded. Cultural and natural impacts to the site were noted, including anchor damage, salvage, removal or movement of artefacts, and deterioration and scouring. Biological data including fish counts was also collected. Data about future access to the sites by the public, such as possible anchoring or mooring locations, was recorded and a reconnaissance of the surrounding area to search for associated sites and activity was conducted. Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism The ABPP funding received for documenting and researching submerged WWII sites also included using that data to develop a maritime heritage trail in conjunction with HPO. This trail was conceptualized as part of a plan to aid in the preservation and protection of submerged heritage sites which were already being impacted through tourist visitation. By providing interpretive literature which outlined each site’s history and importance, legal protection and proper etiquette for visiting such heritage sites, it was hoped that divers, snorkelers, and swimmers would be better educated and develop a greater appreciation for the heritage, thus avoiding impacting or harming the sites further. Planning the trail included a great deal of local and international consultation. Several leading experts in the field of heritage trail development were sought to provide input into the planning. More discussions were had with the agencies charged with managing historical and biological resources; particularly useful were relationships with CRM and DEQ, whose focus is primarily the environment. These agencies provided investigation permits and worked alongside the project staff to develop a program for placing moorings on all the sites for use by boaters and tour operators – a necessity for reducing anchor impacts to sites. Discussions with local divers, dive shops, dive boat operators, and other tourism operators were held concerning their needs and wants in terms of access, the types of sites they would like to see on the trail and what products would best suit. These conversations were most useful in gauging diver and snorkeler interest and behaviour on heritage sites. The trail was not intended to be exclusive to divers so sites particularly close to land that could be accessed by swimmers and snorkelers were also selected. The demographics of diving tourists were also sought from the MVA, who suggested that the products be printed in Korean and Russian, in addition to the already planned printing in English, Japanese, Chamorro, and Carolinian. Trail Products The end results of the fieldwork include the production of a 180-page, detailed report on the activities of the fieldwork and development of the trail (McKinnon and Carrell 2011). Nine underwater guides inclusive of site plans, site descriptions, access information, and a conservation message were produced on �100% waterproof, 100% recyclable, 100% tree-free paper (Figure 3). Each of these has a small hole punched in the corner so a lanyard can be attached. Figure 3. Aichi E13A dive guide (Ships of Discovery). Four themed posters also were produced including: U.S. Aircraft, Japanese Aircraft, Shipwrecks, and Assault Vehicles. The posters are 18 x 24 inches and double-sided; the front includes a glossy photograph of a site and the back is populated with photographs as well as historical and archaeological information about the battle and the wrecks (Figure 4). The posters are inclusive of multiple viewpoints and include quotes of several culture groups involved in the battle (i.e. Chamorro, Carolinian, Japanese, etc.). They also include a message about the importance of protecting sites, examples of how divers impact sites through intentional and non-intentional behaviour, and specific information about the legislation that protects submerged sites. All products were �printed in English and Japanese; funding is currently being sought to have them printed in Chamorro, Carolinian, Korean and Russian. Figure 4. Assault vehicle poster (English) (Ships of Discovery). Pitfalls and highlights The development of the WWII maritime heritage trail was a complex and lengthy process. There were many concerns that needed to be addressed from the very beginning stages of planning - concerns for the project director were multiple. We were very aware early on that we were yet another “colonial” entity with “grand ideas” arriving on the doorstep of an archipelago plagued with past colonial occupation. We were conscious that we were seeking U.S. federal funding to interpret a battle between and among people who were victims of our own country’s actions. We were aware that there were still survivors both on and off the island that were affected greatly by this tragic event. We knew the task of trying to include multiple viewpoints in the interpretive literature would be difficult. We were also aware that for the trail to be successful in terms of protecting the heritage rather than harming it, a comprehensive plan would need to be designed and that a strategy needed to be in place to monitor the heritage in the long-term. The only solution to our concerns appeared to be inclusion, consultation, and negotiation. These three actions were called upon numerous times during the process of the grant. For example, at a public consultation and presentation fishers on the island expressed concerns that their rights to fish sites would be impinged upon as a result of the trail. In this case the answer was “no it would �not”; had it been “yes”, a great deal more consultation with stakeholders would have been necessary. At times local interest and support for the project waned and negative comments appeared on in the comments section of newspaper websites. One such comment appeared just prior to a public lecture that provided an update regarding the completion of the trail. The post related concerns of yet another entity scoring public grants to spend money on travel to the island with little results or products (Marianas Variety, accessed 12 April 2011). Following the public lecture and several reports on local television and newspapers in both English and Chamorro, the same username posted, “This will make a good addition to the WWII sites already toured by visitors on Saipan. Japanese and other divers will have an even better reason to choose the waters of the CNMI to scuba in…” (Marianas Variety, accessed 26 April 2011). This example simply demonstrates that the community has an interest their heritage and a right to be involved in these processes. There is no doubt that there will be complications and issues that follow, such as finding funding for reprinting guides and posters. But steps have been made to alleviate such issues by providing the final artwork to multiple agencies on the islands and uploading the artwork to a website whereby it can be printed by anyone. Long-term monitoring and stabilisation of the sites on the trail will also be of concern. This will hopefully be addressed in another recently awarded ABPP grant which consists of conducting conservation surveys and the production of a management plan for long-term monitoring (American Battlefield Protection Program, accessed 20 September 2011). The list of questions and issues goes on, but in the end, as the situation stood, diving tourism activities related to WWII heritage were simply not sustainable. It is hoped that through the efforts of the local community, agencies, non-profits, and universities involved that the work conducted to record and interpret these sites will provide protection for them into the future. Bibliography American Battlefield Protection Program, 2011 Amesbury, J., Moore D., and HunterAnderson R., 1996 Carrell, T. L. (editor), 1991 Carrell, T. L., 2009 http://www.nps.gov/history/hps/abpp/grants/battlefieldgrants/20 11grantawards.htm, accessed 20 September 2011. “Cultural Adaptations and Late Holocene Sea Level Changes in the Marianas: Recent Excavations at Chalan Piao, Saipan, Micronesia”, in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: The Chiang Mai Papers, (eds.) Ian C. Glover and Peter Bellwood, Australian National University, Canberra, Volume 2, pp. 53-69. Micronesia Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment, National Park Service, Santa Fe, New Mexico. Maritime History and Archaeology of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic �Preservation. Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc. Texas. Logan, W., and Places Of Pain And Shame: Dealing With 'Difficult' Heritage, Reeves, K., Routledge, London. 2009 Lord, C. and Surveys of Abandoned Vessels: Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the National Plank, C., 2003 Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration by Research Planning, Inc. Columbia, South Carolina. Marianas http://www.mvariety.com/2011041135834/local-news/heritageVariety, awareness-seminar-today.php, accessed 12 April 2011. 2011 Marianas http://www.mvariety.com/2011042536232/localVariety, news/archaeologist-discusses-prospects-for-nmi-heritagetourism.php, accessed 26 April 2011. 2011 Manibusan, R. “Submerged Cultural Assessment American Memorial Park”, in and Miculka, J., War in the Pacific National Historical Park, Guam, manuscript 1983 on file, CNMI Historic Preservation Office, Saipan, MP. McKinnon, J.F. Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail. and Carrell, T., Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Corpus Christi, 2011 Texas. Miculka, J. E., “Submerged Cultural Assessment American Memorial Park”, in War in the Pacific National Historical Park, Guam, manuscript and Manibusan, on file, CNMI Historic Preservation Office, Saipan, MP. R.S.N., 1983 Miculka, J. E., “Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment Saipan Lagoon 03 – 05 December 1984”, in War in the Pacific National Carter, K. J., Historical Park, Guam, manuscript on file, CNMI Historic and Ichihara, N., Preservation Office, Saipan, MP. 1984 “Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment: Saipan”, in War Miculka, J. E., in the Pacific National Historical Park, Guam, Manuscript on Wood, E., Cooper, W., file, CNMI Historic Preservation Office, Saipan, MP. and Blackenbaker, D., 1990 Pacific Basin Underwater Survey of Tanapag Lagoon for Historic Properties, Environmental submitted to the Community and Cultural Affairs, Historic Consultants Preservation Office by Pacific Basin Environmental (PBEC), Consultants, Guam. 1985 Scott-Ireton, D., Teaching “Heritage” Awareness” Rather than “Skills” to Sport Diving Community. Journal of Maritime Archaeology 3.2:1192008 �Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., 2008a Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., 2008b Thomas, M., and Price, S., 1980 Thompson, N., 1984 E. 120. Archaeological Survey of Lagoons of on the West Coast of Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., FL. Archaeological Survey of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., FL. Cultural Resources Reconnaissance Report for the Saipan Small Boat Harbor Study Area. Submitted to the US Army Corps of Engineers Pacific Ocean Division by Pacific Studies Institute, Guam. National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. Landing Beaches, Aslito/Isley Field, and Marpi Point, Saipan Island. National Park Service Denver Service Center, Lakewood, CO. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/841cc9148660be49b2d1d129e4731f44.jpg 0cac07a954b17f38ba5cdaf1423cae51 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 756 Height 553 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0ade75279ddeac22a30adcb71b798539.jpg 5b8fbd5ef63dccf42552515dc01049ed Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 907 Height 542 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Inclusion and Negotiation: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites for the Public Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource The development of a World War Two (WWII) underwater heritage trail focusing on the Battle of Saipan has recently been undertaken in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands on Saipan. This WWII heritage trail was formulated out of the interest of the local Historic Preservation Office’s (HPO) desire to protect and interpret its underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Through a United States of America (U.S.) National Park Service American Battlefield Protection Program grant in collaboration with a non-profit organisation and university program this trail was developed during 2009-2010 and launched in 2011. The development of a heritage trail that interprets such a confronting, painful and tragic event for multiple culture groups is a difficult task. A balanced approach of interpreting battlefield heritage can only be achieved through the identification and inclusion of the various stakeholders and an awareness of what is being included, ignored or inadequately represented in the interpretation. Listening to the multiple stakeholders’ views about the significance of such sites and incorporating those views into interpretive and management practices is key to an inclusive and shared interpretation of heritage. Further, an awareness and acknowledgment of the social and political context in which one is working is fundamental to understanding how practitioners negotiate the process of interpretation. As Logan and Reeves (2009:13) have communicated so well, “Heritage conservation is a form of cultural politics; it is about the links between ideology, public policy, national and community identity formation, and celebration, just as much as it is about technical issues relating to restoration and adaptive re-use techniques”. This paper provides an in-depth discussion on the process of developing a battlefield heritage trail. It will explore the theory and practice, the pitfalls and highlights, and the problems and solutions of interpreting and managing a battlefield site. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/072a5e0b00325c6e4e9b54b795e2905d.pdf d7e89693e1ac7883c5cf34d5fea83127 PDF Text Text Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: A Case Study in Developing a Program of Protecting Underwater Cultural Heritage Jennifer F. McKinnon East Carolina University, Program in Maritime Studies, Greenville, 27858, USA Email: mckinnonje@ecu.edu Abstract This paper outlines a specific example, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and its effort to create and maintain a program for identifying, protecting and interpreting underwater cultural heritage (UCH). This paper suggests the process of developing such a program is most successful when it occurs in cooperation with all branches of the government that deal with marine/water resources and the local community who are stakeholders in the protection of their heritage. Key words: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Shipwrecks, Saipan, Sustainable Introduction The Mariana archipelago is located east of the Philippines and south-southeast of Japan. Saipan, the capital of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) and the largest and most populated island, is 19 km long by 9 km wide and is fringed by a barrier reef on its western side which creates a large, shallow lagoon (Fig. 1). On the eastern side of the island the water is much deeper, although Lau Lau Bay offers some shallower water. The clarity and consistently warm temperatures of the water make SCUBA diving in the waters of Saipan possible year-round. Historic shipwrecks and submerged underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the CNMI are protected by both Commonwealth and US federal laws. Several UCH surveys and assessments have been conducted in the waters surrounding Saipan from 1979 to the present which provide invaluable baseline data for identifying and conducting further research on UCH sites in the Marianas. More recently in 2008, remote sensing and diver identification surveys in Saipan were conducted by Southeastern Archaeological Research (SEARCH) (SEARCH, 2008a; SEARCH, 2008b). The remote sensing surveys, including magnetometry and side scan sonar, were broad in nature; however the focus of the 1 �historical research and diver identification was on WWII heritage. The surveys were intended to be a baseline inventory for future investigations to build upon and were funded through a historic preservation grant provided to the Historic Preservation Office (HPO) and administered by the National Park Service (NPS). A total of 1,543 anomalies were located and, “The majority of identified anomalies represents material culture from WWII and offers a unique opportunity for Saipan to interpret its history through maritime heritage and dive trails” (SEARCH, Inc. 2008b: i). In 2009, a comprehensive overview of the maritime history and Fig. 1 The Mariana Islands. (Perry-Castañeda was Library) completed by Ships of Discovery archaeology of the CNMI (SHIPS) (Carrell, 2009). The project was undertaken as part of the CNMI’s on-going efforts to meet its historic preservation and inventory mandates and also was funded through a historic preservation grant administered by the NPS. The maritime context document provided an in-depth discussion of the history of the CNMI from the prehistoric period to the present, and pulled together currently available information on UCH sites in the islands. Together these two projects provided the background information and emphasis for the development of a more intensive archaeological investigation and a public interpretation program for UCH in Saipan. In fact, at the same time that SEARCH, Inc. was conducting survey in 2008, staff and students from Flinders University were on the island working with the HPO to create a plan for developing a “maritime unit” within their existing program. In an earlier trip to Saipan in 2007, the 2 �HPO voiced concerns about their lack of ability to manage UCH (due to a lack of training in underwater archaeological techniques), and the pressing need due to the amount of tourist divers visiting the WWII sites. They also were interested in developing a maritime heritage trail which would provide two favorable outcomes: 1) developing a presence on the water as the agency charged with managing the resources and 2) developing a heritage tourism product that could promote sustainable use of the already heavily visited sites. Thus the idea was formulated to develop a plan to accomplish a number of objectives that would assist HPO in better managing their UCH. These objectives included:  Training staff in underwater archaeological methods in order to create a team of diving archaeologists  Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites  Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism All of the objectives have been achieved and even more developments have taken place. Below are some of the projects and initiatives that were instigated and a discussion on some of the obstacles encountered and ways forward. Training staff in underwater archaeological methods The first objective of developing a training opportunity was accomplished in January 2009 when Flinders University and HPO supported archaeological technician John Castro to travel to Australia and participate in the Flinders University Maritime Archaeological Field School in South Australia. Castro’s extensive diving and archaeological background allowed him to participate as a supervisor in the two-week field school where he gained additional underwater archaeology experience. A new training was developed by Flinders University specifically for the Mariana Islands context and was held in July 2009 on Saipan for staff from several government agencies, including HPO, Coastal Resources Management (CRM), the NMI Museum of Culture and History, and Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), as well as local interested divers. A total of 20 diving and non-diving participants took part in the twoday course. Based on the Flinders University’s Underwater Archaeology Methods topic, 3 �it included classroom lectures, practical terrestrial exercises, a diving exercise and an intertidal exercise for those not SCUBA certified (Fig. 2). The training was a great success and provided participants with information about the importance of preserving UCH. Fig. 2 Herman Tudela and John Starmer drafting during UCH training. (J. McKinnon) Another type of training was offered later when two Heritage Awareness Diving Seminars (HADS) were run in April 2011. HADS is a specialty course run through the three largest diver certification agencies in the world, NAUI, PADI and SSI, and is training intended for course directors, instructor trainers, instructors, dive masters, boat captains and dive shop owners. It was developed to provide diving industry professionals with a greater knowledge of how to proactively protect shipwrecks and other UCH sites (Scott-Ireton, 2008). The goal of HADS is to increase awareness of the fragility of UCH, teach proper anchoring, mooring and diving behaviour on such sites, as well as demonstrate the need for preservation of such resources for future generations and the economic benefits of heritage diving tourism. A total of 16 participants took part in the HADS training, including dive shop owners, the president of a local dive professional organization, boat captains, dive instructors and dive masters, U.S. Coast Guard staff, and a staff member from the NMI Humanities Council. This training was 4 �funded through a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Region Grants Cooperative grant awarded to Pacific Marine Resources, a local non-profit organisation concerned with environmental and historical research and sustainability. HPO and CRM staff presented lectures during this training. The training was seen as a crucial element to the development of the heritage trail and its sustainability. It aimed at educating the end users to protect the sites and educate their students and clients about using the sites appropriately. Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites In January 2009 SHIPS applied for an American Battlefield Protection Program (ABPP) grant for the archaeological and historical investigation of submerged WWII heritage and the collection of data for the development of a proposed maritime heritage trail. Funding was announced for $ 49,900 in August 2009 and the project quickly took shape. HPO, CRM, and DEQ provided an invaluable amount of in-kind assistance during the project including: staff support both on and off the water, boats and vehicles, equipment and fuel. Their support was instrumental to the success and completion of the project. To date, nearly 50 UCH sites have been recorded or investigated and several of these sites are included in the heritage trail that was developed. Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism The planning for a maritime heritage trail began in 2007-2008 and included a great deal of local consultation. Public lectures were given to gauge local interest, and meetings were held with several stakeholders including local divers and dive clubs, HPO, CRM, DEQ, NMI Humanities Council, and the Marianas Visitors Authority (MVA). This consultation centred on the needs and wants of the community and government in terms of their heritage and a heritage tourism product. As a result, three agencies (HPO, CRM, and DEQ) pledged their assistance to the project. The demographics of diving tourists were also sought from the MVA. Several leading experts in the field of heritage trail development were sought to provide input. More discussions were had with the agencies charged with managing environmental and biological resources; particularly useful were relationships with CRM and DEQ. These agencies provided research 5 �permits and worked alongside the project staff to develop a program for placing moorings on all the sites for use by boaters and tour operators – a necessity for reducing anchor impacts to sites. This trail was conceptualized as part of a plan to aid in the preservation and protection of UCH sites that were already being impacted through tourist visitation. By providing interpretive literature which outlined each site’s history and importance, legal protection and proper etiquette for visiting such heritage sites, it was hoped that divers, snorkelers, and swimmers would be better educated and develop a greater appreciation for the heritage, thus avoiding impacting or harming the sites further. In total nine sites were chosen for the trail including aircraft, landing vehicles, amphibious assault vehicles and shipwrecks of both Japanese and US forces. Printed waterproof dive guides were produced as well as four color posters, a website and an eighteen-minute interpretive video to be shown at the NPS American Memorial Park (Fig. 3). Management plan and in situ conservation survey The need to develop a management plan for submerged WWII maritime heritage in Saipan’s waters was identified during the implementation of the trail. Throughout the archaeological survey and subsequent development of the trail, it was noted by archaeologists that certain UCH sites were being negatively impacted by both natural and cultural factors (for a full review see Fig. 3 Japanese aircraft poster for heritage McKinnon and Carrell, 2011). trail. (SHIPS) These impacts were identified as contributing to an overall loss of archaeological and historical context and affecting the structural integrity of the sites and their long-term survival. While some of these impacts were recorded during the archaeological survey for the development of the trail in 2010, they 6 �were not the primary focus of the project and were treated cursorily. Upon completion of the trail it was deemed important to revisit selected sites and record baseline data to develop a plan to monitor, mitigate and manage the sites into the future. A plan to conduct further archaeological survey and initiate in situ conservation surveys was developed and supported by a follow up ABPP grant for $ 72,000 in 2011. In situ conservation surveys are different from standard archaeological surveys because they include the collection of data related to the natural environment (chemical and physical), which can allow for a better understanding of the destructive forces affecting sites and artifacts (MacLeod and Richards, 2011). They also record modern cultural impacts that can be used in the management of sites, including allowing or restricting access to sites and controls for altering behaviors of visitors. Finally, they often collect specific cultural information including data on material composition of objects. This data is vital to understanding the construction of these sites from an archaeological or cultural perspective, but also contributes to understanding the longevity of sites with relation to the material composition of metals and organics, how they react to and survive within the environment, and their overall structural integrity. In situ surveys and studies are critical to regions such as the Pacific because there are limited resources (i.e. funding, staff, and facilities) to conduct recovery and conservation of submerged objects and sites. While the CNMI does benefit from grant funds distributed by the NPS, this funding is limited and often only covers a small portion of the compliance needs of the HPO (Ronnie Rodgers personal communication, 2010). This means that the conservation and management of the resources must be done in situ. Further, understanding the condition of the resources through in situ and archaeological surveys is an important step in the management process. An agency cannot manage a site if they have no knowledge of its condition. The HPO needs information about the condition of the sites in order to make informed decisions about their management. Additional archaeological survey was conducted alongside the conservation survey in order to locate, record and identify new “control” sites not on the trail that could be monitored long-term for comparison purposes. Baseline data collected on new sites is useful because they can help managers understand the differential impacts of site visitation on those included in the trail. Currently the in situ conservation 7 �survey report and management plan is under review by the granting agency and cannot be discussed until approval is sought. Indigenous seascapes and intangible heritage The idea for a project to record Indigenous maritime sites began during discussions in 2008 about the development of the WWII maritime heritage trail, when community members expressed their desire to further investigate their own “maritime-related” heritage. Thus, a conversation began with local historian Genevieve Cabrera (Chamorro and Carolinian descent) and Herman Tudela (a traditional fisher and archaeological technician of Chamorro and Carolinian descent), who is, about the possibility of recording sites that are significant to their maritime past and present. Flinders University graduate student Julie Mushynsky used the idea and project as part of her thesis research and worked directly with Cabrera, Tudela and others to record selected sites. The result was a community archaeology project to record the tangible and intangible “seascape” of the island of Saipan in the Mariana Islands (McKinnon et al., In Press). The project recorded archaeological sites, oral histories, lived experiences and contemporary understandings of maritime-related heritage and life ways in community Rock art, conjunction members (Fig. potential with 4). fish procurement sites, access points, oral histories and other heritage, both tangible and intangible, were recorded and investigated as a result of this project. This type of Fig. 4 Colleague Genevieve Cabrera (center) leading project is critical to ensuring that site visit. (John Carpenter) colonial maritime history is not privileged over Indigenous maritime heritage and provides a balance to previous research conducted on the island. 8 �Obstacles and moving forward While the CNMI has the ability to utilize and enact any and all of the legislation outlined above and they do so effectively on terrestrial sites, the island is in need of a review of the possible ways that this legislation can be made most effective for UCH. This is not a call for harsher restrictions but a reference to applying the legislation most effectively. It is also important to investigate complementary forms of protection. This means recognizing the location of the sites within, for example, a Conservation Area or National Landmark, both of which exist. Further, it would be ideal if the Rules contained in the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 were used as a model in formulating this process. An obstacle in the effectiveness of the laws listed above is that at present there are no effective means by which the sites can be protected due to a lack of trained staff and equipment. Unfortunately, while there were three staff members at HPO who had the dive qualifications and training to conduct underwater archaeological survey (took training in 2009), today there is only one, and that person is no longer physically able to dive. Further the HPO does not own a boat or diving equipment for accessing the sites. This situation is contradictory to Part II, Guideline 5 of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act 1987 which states “The agencies responsible for the management of State-Owned waters should have (or have access to) adequate professional staff, office and laboratory facilities, vessels, diving and underwater survey equipment to carry out assigned responsibilities.” As a result, the community currently relies on off-island resources and expertise to assist them with the management of their submerged archaeological heritage through monies and projects such as those described in this paper, which is not an ideal situation. More archaeologists and archaeological technicians (a minimum of three) need to be hired, or existing staff needs to be trained in SCUBA and the ability to conduct archaeological assessments underwater. Further the HPO would be better equipped if they hired or purchased SCUBA gear and a boat for the purpose of conducting monitoring and assessment of underwater sites and investigating infractions. An alternative approach through interagency cooperation may provide a quicker solution as outlined below. 9 �Interagency Cooperation The involvement of other government bodies in the management of UCH is critical in the Pacific where resources and funding can be limited. In Saipan many UCH sites are located within the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area. The management plan for this conservation area could include provisions for the protection and management of UCH. To accomplish the legislative purpose of the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Act, the CNMI Department of Lands and Natural Resources (DLNR) was delegated the exclusive authority to manage the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area, as well as other marine conservation areas in the CNMI (Section 6 of PL 12-12). The role of the DLNR in regard to the management of UCH is to promote public access to the sites while protecting the physical remains. The 2005 management plan for the conservation area outlines DLNR has a role in providing logistic and financial support for placing moorings on sites to reduce impacts by anchoring. CRM was established on 11 February 1983, with the implementation of Public Law 3-47 within the Office of the Governor. The CRM program was established in order to promote the conservation and sustainable development of coastal resources. CRM is responsible for general permitting activities which impact coastal resources in Saipan and in particular permits for dive boats and dive tour operations. As a result the agency should develop language for permits that supports the protection of UCH. An effective way to increase enforcement of heritage laws is to train and enlist other agency staff whose job description includes enforcement of natural or environmental legislation. Agencies such as CRM, DLNR, DFW, and DEQ, which already operate boats and conduct regular inspections on water-related activities, could be trained in identifying infractions of cultural heritage law. Alternatively intra-agency agreements in which HPO staff accompany other agency enforcement officers during inspections would allow for increased regulation. Section 6 of Public Law 12-12 states that “...the Department [of Lands and Natural Resources] may coordinate and assist other Commonwealth or Federal agencies in performing their emergency or other agency functions within marine conservation areas, if the exercise of such functions is deemed prudent or necessary by the Department, or the performance of such functions is clearly permitted by law within marine conservation areas”. Thus there is a precedent set in law 10 �that allows for collaborative efforts in management of marine resources. The local natural environment in which a wreck is located and the assemblages that make a wreck have direct impact on the marine environment. A wreck can create a unique local environment for fauna and flora to thrive, and this has a bearing on defining the site's significance and issues of research and interpretation. Therefore there is a need for further understanding of UCH sites’ local marine environment and the habitat they create for marine life. Recent biological researcher was conducted in conjunction with the development of the heritage trail by a research from Sydney University. Fowler conducted two years of fish assemblage studies on the sites included within the trail. His research determined that “well- established vessel-reefs are capable of approximating fish abundances and assemblage parameters on natural coral reefs” (Fowler and Booth, 2012). This research indicates that UCH sites are of natural and environmental significance and should be protected as such. There are no provisions within Public Law 12-12, which regulates the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area, to identify UCH as aquatic reserves or equivalent. However access to the sites, if they are environmentally sensitive, maybe be controlled under provisions of the Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area management plan. Community Traditionally there has been little communication between local divers and CNMI HPO. Local divers report being frustrated when trying to report new sites to HPO and receive information about their history or significance. This disconnect is a result of HPO’s inability through training, equipment and funding to be involved in the management of submerged sites. However, the HPO could benefit from partnering or working with local divers, dive groups and dives shops in the location and identification of new sites. Those who know the waters best are those who use it regularly. It would be beneficial if HPO developed a public profile and engaged with divers, dives shops and dive groups. Education programs, meetings, information sessions and the development of a sitereporting program are all options for increasing communication. Conclusion In concluding this paper, it is pertinent to re‐state that the CNMI, and the Pacific region in general, has its own unique set of challenges and issues that are quite different from 11 �other parts of the world. Therefore, it is important when developing a UCH management program that other “models” or “programs” are not applied wholesale to this region. An approach that considers the challenges and difficulties CNMI is facing and a program that is suited to deal with these challenges and resolve them into the future is the most likely successful long-term management approach. This paper was written with the intention of outlining some of the successes of CNMI’s HPO and exploring ways in which they may move forward. The option of involving other interested agencies in managing UCH is likely the best immediate solution, but a long-term approach of hiring staff, increase funding and additional training will need to be undertaken. The information in this paper is meant to empower and encourage the local community to continue the positive steps they have made in protecting their UCH and to move forward. While much of the work on UCH has been on WWII UCH, it is important to remember that there are many more sites from previous and later periods that are significant to the history of the island. It is hoped that the HPO can continue to develop a program for managing those sites as well. Inclusive and collaborative efforts should be made with all regulatory agencies that deal with the marine environment, as well as other stakeholders such as tourism companies and divers. Further, it is important to understand that not only the interests of the U.S. and Japanese government are at the core of this heritage, but a local perspective that incorporates Chamorro, Carolinian, Filipino and Korean values should be considered (McKinnon 2013). Acknowledgments Thank you to the CNMI community for their interest and support in protecting your underwater cultural heritage. Thank you also to the colleagues and students who have been a huge part of the projects described within, particularly Toni Carrell and Jason Raupp. References Carrell, T. L., 2009. Maritime History and Archaeology of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SHIPS, Corpus Christi, Texas. 12 �Fowler, A. M., and Booth, D. J., 2012. How well do sunken vessels approximate fish assemblages on coral reefs? Conservation implications of vessel-reef deployments. Marine Biology, Vol. 159: 2787-2796. MacLeod, I. D., and Richards, V., 2011. In-situ conservation surveys of iron shipwrecks in Chuuk Lagoon and the impact of human intervention. Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material Bulletin, Vol. 32: 106-122. McKinnon, J. F., and Carrell, T., 2011. Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail. SHIPS, Corpus Christi, Texas. McKinnon, J. F., 2013. Difficult Heritage: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites. In D. Scott-Ireton (Ed.), Meeting Challenges in the Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Heritage - Between the Devil and the Deep. Springer Press, New York. McKinnon, J. F., Mushynsky, J., and Cabrera, G., In Press. A Fluid Sea in the Mariana Islands: Mapping the Seascape of Saipan. Journal of Maritime Archaeology. Scott-Ireton, D., 2008. Teaching “Heritage” Awareness” Rather than “Skills” to Sport Diving Community. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 3 (2): 119-120. SEARCH, 2008a. Archaeological Survey of Lagoons of on the West Coast of Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SEARCH, Pensacola, FL. SEARCH, 2008b. Archaeological Survey of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, SEARCH, Pensacola, FL. Thompson, E. N., 1984. National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. Landing Beaches, Aslito/Isley Field, and Marpi Point, Saipan Island. National Park Service Denver Service Center, Lakewood, CO. Biography Jennifer McKinnon is an Assistant Professor at East Carolina University in the Program in Maritime Studies. Prior to teaching at ECU, she was a Senior Lecturer at Flinders University, South Australia for seven years. Jennifer is a Research Associate of the non-profit organization SHIPS, Corpus Christi. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: A Case Study in Developing a Program of Protecting Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource This paper outlines a specific example, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and its effort to create and maintain a program for identifying, protecting and interpreting underwater cultural heritage (UCH). This paper suggests the process of developing such a program is most successful when it occurs in cooperation with all branches of the government that deal with marine/water resources and the local community who are stakeholders in the protection of their heritage. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014