37 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f442cf2b7289382513ef47d05e696daf.pdf 777827d8cdd46663b118b2c89983b62e PDF Text Text Non-intrusive conservation focussed monitoring of underwater cultural heritage by the public Gathering Information via Recreational and Technical (GIRT) Scientific Divers Andrew Viduka PhD FSA M.ICOMOS-ICUCH Archaeology Department, University of New England, Australia ORCID 0000-0002-0348-4544 Phone: +61 456265470 / Email: girtscientificdiver@gmail.com / http://www.girtsd.org ABSTRACT The no-impact maritime archaeological conservation-focused citizen science program Gathering Information via Recreational and Technical (GIRT) Scientific Divers formally started in January 2019, after an approximately six-month pilot project in South Australia. GIRT Scientific Divers was designed and developed to encourage interested people, businesses, and groups to have an active and positive underwater archaeology role. Launching in New Zealand and across Australia, GIRT has expanded to include members in ten countries. From a 2020/21 survey of member motivations and characteristics, GIRT has been demonstrated to be a gateway into maritime archaeology for previously non-engaged individuals. However, GIRT is very much still an evolving citizen science program, and this paper discusses some of the key learning outcomes the author has gained from developing and training members of the public in GIRT over the last five and half years. The paper candidly looks at challenges experienced by GIRT to maintain an engaged and active membership specifically addressing the key issues of time and funding, IT, the andragogical methodology used, and survey structure and complexity. Lastly, drawing from recent training activities in late 2022-2023, the paper highlights changes to the teaching program and survey structure that occurred in early 2022, with the introduction of a scaffolded learning approach and a rapid GIRT survey option to enable members to develop confidence and build from success. Keywords: Citizen science, site monitoring, conservation, underwater cultural heritage management List of figures Figure 1 Greenpeace MV Rainbow Warrior I (1987), Cavalli Islands, North Island, New Zealand. Figure 2 Screenshots of the GIRT Scientific Divers website and the GRT Scientific Divers Sketchfab pages. Figure 3 Post processing collected data from fieldwork on the Othello at Kaipipi Shipyard Figure 4 Screenshot of photogrammetry of the Othello wreck generated by two trainees on their first effort 1. INTRODUCTION Gathering Information via Recreational and Technical (GIRT) Scientific Divers is a conservation focused no-impact citizen-science project. It aims to train members to systematically document observable physical and natural features of historic shipwrecks, submerged aircraft and other submerged underwater cultural heritage (hereafter referred to as UCH) to facilitate the site’s ongoing protection and management. The focus of the GIRT citizen science project is to both encourage interested people to have an active and positive public archaeology role and to enable better understanding of the condition of UCH and the factors driving its preservation or deterioration (Viduka 2021a, 1-2; 2021b, 2; 2021c, 44). Through the public’s voluntary participation in GIRT, they can assist others, especially non-divers, to see the condition or threats to UCH from natural or human activity more easily (Figure 1). GIRT members (individuals, groups and businesses) ‘adopt-a-site’ that is of interest to them and agree to monitor the site periodically using the GIRT survey methodology, outlined in more detail below. By surveying the same site systematically and periodically, members can, at a minimum, directly compare photos of up to 10 survey points for change, as well as site sketches for new or changed detail. Undertaking the full survey, members can also compare qualitative and quantitative site environmental data, video transects, photogrammetry, and marine life survey data. 1 �Figure 1 Greenpeace MV Rainbow Warrior I (1987), Cavalli Islands, North Island, New Zealand, surveyed 2019 and 3D model produced in 2020. This 3D model was the first GIRT photogrammetry model to include site condition photos to assist in site condition interpretation (Viduka, Sutton and Hutchison 2021, 10). An important element of GIRT is to encourage communication and information sharing between GIRT members and persons responsible for managing such heritage in the relevant jurisdictional waters. As GIRT members are able to download a PDF version of their submitted data into the GIRT relational database, each GIRT member can choose to share their data with the relevant site manager for the purpose of the information becoming a part of the site’s formal condition record (Figure 2). This can contribute directly to science-based decision making by UCH management agencies and potentially the prioritisation of activities by these relevant authorities to protect or undertake rescue archaeology of submerged sites. Figure 2 Screenshots of the GIRT Scientific Divers website and the GRT Scientific Divers Sketchfab pages. Starting in the first year of observations, GIRT members are asked to also identify potential or known threats to their site, and to estimate the likelihood and consequence of those threats. Based on member’s subjective data, and sometimes following moderation discussions with a GIRT instructor, members allocate a ‘traffic light’ indication of threat to their adopted site’s preservation (Green, Yellow, Orange, Red). GIRT member’s indications of threat are shown on the publicly viewable adopted sites map as their site’s location icon. This can be viewed at https://www.girtsd.org/wrecks. 2 �All survey records entered by members through the Survey Reporting tab in the internal members pages of the GIRT website are linked to the names of the members who undertook the survey and their adopted site. Once data has been collected, GIRT members are encouraged to compare their results with other members, lead the analysis of aspects of research (i.e. site formation, marine life, correlation of storm data with observed sediment movements, modelling observed change to other proximal sites…..) or simply conduct further archival research on their adopted site, and present the results of their surveys or broader analysis of data to dive clubs or at conferences. Separate to their initial training, GIRT members are ongoingly supported through three options. The first option is a regularly updated version of a guidance document which can be downloaded, with current survey sheets, at the register to JOIN page on the GIRT website ( https://www.girtsd.org/register ). The second option is through content added in the members internal TRAINING pages. The third option is by being able to contact local GIRT instructors through the members BLOG pages, via email or via phone. 2. RESOURCES In order to collect data on a site, besides standard dive gear, members need: ● access to a camera with an underwater housing; ● 30m fibreglass tape; ● at least three photogrammetry scales; ● one photography scale; ● slate and pencil; and ● relevant GIRT monitoring templates printed on waterproof paper. In addition, members need access to a computer and the internet. 3. FRAMEWORK - KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES The GIRT citizen science program has now been taught for five and half years. In that time, the author has gained a better understanding of issues faced by the public to be an engaged and active citizen science member and of in-built barriers in the initial design, architecture and teaching of GIRT to their active and fulfilling participation. Below, I highlight some of the key issues encountered. Time and Funding The two biggest issues which crosscut and exacerbate all other problems are the classic, time and money. GIRT remains a very small citizen science program predominantly led solely by the author. Time constraints are real issues to building the program. While efforts are underway to bring in GIRT instructors (see below), issues around insurance and work-place health and safety make it necessary for any potential GIRT instructors to deliver the training under their existing workplace arrangements. Equally, as a full-time employee in a busy role, GIRT is very much managed around the margins of daily life with an occasionally focussed training activity. 3 �Money is always the main problem in small projects. Currently, funding for GIRT is mainly covered by myself and my wife (please don’t tell her!). Periodically, GIRT is partially compensated to deliver training in a particular country or jurisdiction. This funding typically does not cover the cost of delivery, or the time of the instructor to prepare, travel and deliver the training. In business terms, a fairly non-sustainable product. IT The website and relational database in GIRT are key to the programs objectives of recognising the public's input, connecting members with each other, and making collected data saved, searchable, comparable, and openly accessible to all (Viduka, Illukkumbura and Abeygunawardena 2020, 7-8). Another facet of the impact of the lack of money and time is delayed development of the IT infrastructure. This has been perhaps the most problematic aspect of running the project in the terms of making the project fulfilling for members, and an issue that is not fully resolved to date. Members who have undertaken surveys and who have their data, have struggled to enter the data into the SURVEY REPORTING tool because of IT issues. This has resulted in frustration for all and certainly impacted enthusiastic ongoing member participation. Maintaining the website, and developing and refining the survey reporting tool and associated relational database, so it aligns with the latest version of the survey sheets, takes development time. As a non-IT developer, I am currently totally reliant on working with free or very cheap third parties to deliver changes, including updating features of the website that annually need refreshing. The andragogical methodology GIRT was developed as an adult based learning programme. This is because GIRT is targeted at individuals over 18 years of age who have more than 50 logged dives. Adult learning (androgogy), as different to children focussed learn (pedagogy), recognises that adult learners bring their varied experience and are more self-directed and self-motivated. Adult learning also has a focus on hands-on learning (learn through play). Since 2018, GIRT has been taught in several ways to meet community interest to dive with a purpose and monitor underwater cultural heritage sites. Initially GIRT was only taught as a one-day face-to-face program. The GIRT one-day training sought to explain why members should participate, what would be the value of their contribution, and then how to apply the methodology. The choice of one-day teaching was initially driven by financial expediency and available time. The one-day training program quickly evolved into a two-day training program, with the second day focused on using the GIRT method as a team. This was in recognition of the need to reinforce class-based learning with hands-on activities. In all training options, GIRT is taught as an activity broadly comprised of three parts: 1. planning and preparing for a survey activity; 2. doing the survey activity, and saving and labelling the data on the day; and 3. post-processing the collected data and entering it as a report. The reason it was taught in this way was to emphasize the importance of each stage and to assist members to recognise that the survey is not finished until a survey report is submitted. During COVID, GIRT training was delivered online, with an adaptation of the original one-day workshop delivered during two blocks of three hours over two days. It was recognised at the time that this was not the ideal for teaching GIRT however it was seen as an opportunity to offer 4 �something to the community during COVID, an opportunity to promote GIRT, raise broader awareness of the threats to underwater cultural heritage, and to identify people who wished to participate who could receive further support in the future. Retrospectively, both the one day intensive and online teaching versions were found to be simply too much information for participants with very little ongoing activity by individuals who took part in this type of training. In addition, several factors, which in hindsight are key to adult participation, were not sufficiently initially highlighted in the teaching of the program. These include: the need to focus on promoting working with a group (make it a friends based activity); being inclusive of people with a marine science focus (broadening the groups knowledge base and ensuring site and environment are equally considered); the rule of three parts to a survey (recognising that planning, doing and post fieldwork data processing all require time); and highlighting the need to plan a diving day to leave sufficient time to save, label data and backup results. Survey structure and complexity The GIRT survey requirements were initially based on what a non-impact maritime archaeological conservation survey of a site would endeavour to do to obtain a baseline of date for longitudinal site monitoring. Early on in the process of delivering GIRT, and with good advice from other people who deliver citizen science programs, it became evident that the initial structure of the GIRT survey methodology in totality, was too much for most new members who had little scientific diving background. 4. RESULTS - CHANGES TO THE TEACHING PROGRAM AND SURVEY STRUCTURE While no change has occurred to the issues of IT, or time and money, since 2022 GIRT Scientific Divers has operated within a Pty Ltd company structure, with a constitution that only allows the company to pursue charitable purposes. The GIRT Director is now supported by three other Board members who separately specialise in law, IT, and public archaeology. The andragogical methodology updated In 2022, significant adjustments were made to the training presentations and a restructuring of the survey activity, reflecting a response to the issues outlined above. To support members, the GIRT guidelines were also updated to the currently available version 3. The new guidelines outline the updated GIRT teaching program approach, which will hopefully go some way to remedy the issues of the identified critical need to immediately reinforce learning activities through doing, and making the initial learning outcomes more achievable so that people can build from success. To better understand who is interested to participate in GIRT, why, and what it is they seek to get out of their participation, a survey was sent out to the first 119 people who undertook training. Prior to the survey’s close on 30 June 2020, 100 people responded providing information about the demographics of participants, their background in heritage and protection, diving, science and conservation, and volunteering. Survey results show that GIRT is acting as a gateway into maritime archaeology for previously non-engaged individuals (Viduka and Edney 2021a, 14). This further emphasises the need to re-scale initial expectations of a citizen scientist to a more achievable level for a group largely previously not engaged by other public archaeology programs. The new teaching approach recognises that many people trained to be GIRT members to date, have not yet completed a survey report. Putting IT issues aside, which are anecdotally the most explained reason, this still leaves the majority of members not having completed a survey and or not attempting to input the data. 5 �While a number of people outside Australia continue to request the online training option, the updated GIRT teaching program solely incorporates the two-day GIRT training model and re-structures the curriculum, so it is more achievable for members. A key facet of the two-day program is post-processing collected data to finalise a clean site sketch, save Figures, video and data and label everything properly immediately after diving (Figure 3). Since its implementation, the two-day training program has been trialled in Norfolk Island, Australia (20-21 August 2022), Adelaide, South Australia (17-18 September 2022), and Rakiura/Stewart Island, New Zealand (25-26 February 2023) (Figure 4) with increasing success demonstrated by participants at Stewart Island completing the training having done the rapid survey elements and all four additional survey activities. Another significant recent development is endeavouring to have regionally located GIRT instructors to drive training and engagement with divers locally and to amplify opportunities for interested people to be trained. The first dedicated GIRT Instructor training occurred on 18 February 2023 in Auckland, New Zealand with Dr Kurt Bennett. GIRT is still in discussions with Kurt’s employer to ascertain if he can deliver GIRT training as a workplace activity so as to get around the current GIRT insurance/workplace health and safety/funding Gordian knot. Figure 3 Post processing collected data from fieldwork on the Othello at Kaipipi Shipyard, Raikura/Stewart Island, New Zealand, February 2023 and an early screen shot of the developing 3D model from images collected by participants in the training event. 6 �Figure 4 Screenshot of photogrammetry of the Othello wreck generated by two trainees on their first effort and processed by Dr Andrew Hutchison. GIRT Rapid Survey In the updated guidelines a scaffolded learning approach is outlined for the survey activity. This approach aims to systematically build on a members’ experiences and knowledge so they can learn new skills more comfortably. The scaffolded learning program uses the original GIRT survey components however it breaks the learning down to a small core survey component (GIRT rapid survey), that can be more easily done underwater and followed with simple and quicker post processing of data requirements before successfully submitting a survey report. Up to four additional survey activities are then outlined. These additional survey activities can be undertaken to any scale and in any combination, subject to a members’ knowledge level, comfort, interest, the environmental conditions, diving safety parameters and commitment. The GIRT rapid survey is designed to be completed in one or two dives by a buddy pair and is less complex and time consuming both underwater and during data post-processing for members. This rapid survey comprises completing a site identification sheet, a site sketch sheet, and a photo condition sheet. Members joining GIRT, and who do not bring experience in collecting data, should first use the GIRT rapid survey method until they are comfortable with the in-water survey process, post-diving data management, post-survey data processing and submission of their survey report. Once a member is comfortable with undertaking a GIRT rapid survey and can complete all aspects, members are then encouraged to choose to undertake one, some, or all of the four additional survey activities: a video-transect survey; photogrammetry of features/site; collecting additional site and conservation data; and or undertaking a marine-life survey. Survey sheets for the video-transect survey; photogrammetry survey and site and conservation data survey are available to be downloaded from the GIRT website at https://www.girtsd.org/register. Any data collected by a member for a marine-life survey simply needs to be saved as a PDF to be included in the final site SURVEY REPORT. To undertake a complete GIRT survey, even in shallow water on a relatively small site, more than two dives by a dive buddy pair will be required. It is important to note that, while it is ideal to collect as much data as possible in each survey activity, for any and all activities, the survey method is scalable. Only complete as much of each survey sheet as possible within the limitations of your safe diving and conditions. When entering data into the Survey Reporting tab in the GIRT website, the 7 �reporting tool only requires a few mandatory data fields from the Surface Sheet. All other data fields need only be populated as data is available. The GIRT method includes a video transect survey of the site environment, on the site and off the site, which acts as a minimum of environmental data being recorded. However, members are encouraged to also collect data for another established marine citizen science program on their site (undertaking a marine-life survey). More broadly, and to emphasise the importance of understanding the marine environment associated with a site, members are encouraged to include a GIRT diver who is primarily interested in the marine environment in their survey team. CONCLUDING REMARKS While GIRT Scientific Divers has been operating for five and half years, some critical milestones for success are yet to be met. The most significant of these is a fully functioning website and associated relational database that aligns with the rapid and additional survey reporting sheets. Secondly, while GIRT has expanded to include members in ten countries, the ability to train and have GIRT regionally based instructors is a significant limiting factor to GIRT’s broader uptake. Thirdly, the most ideal training model, two-days, is also the costliest. While developing a funding stream can resolve this, the author is determined to try and develop GIRT so that it can operate without charging people so there is no barrier to participation in site monitoring to the interested public. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would particularly like to thank Jessica Viduka for her ongoing support for the development and delivery of the GIRT Scientific Divers citizen science program and her ability to not notice the credit card expenses. I would also like to acknowledge and thank Prasanna Illukkumbura for his fantastic and unwavering support to develop and maintain the GIRT website and SRA Information Technology for their support. Lastly, I would like to thank GIRT member Dr Andrew Hutchison for his dedication to helping members, including myself, process their images into 3D photogrammetry. BIBLIOGRAPHY Viduka, Andrew. “Going for the win-win: including the public in underwater cultural heritage management through citizen science.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 49 (2020a): 87-106. https://doi.org/10.1111/1095-9270.12412. Viduka, Andrew. “A maritime archaeological conservation focussed citizen science program for individual benefit and public good outcomes: the GIRT Scientific Diver programme.” Journal of Community Archaeology and Heritage 9:2 (2020b):71-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/20518196.2020.1858544. Viduka, Andrew. “A View from Across the Ditch: Public Engagement, Community Archaeology and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management and The Impact of GIRT Scientific Divers in New Zealand.” Australasian Journal of Maritime Archaeology 44: (2020c): 23-40. Viduka, Andrew; Illukkumbura, Prasanna and Abeygunawardena, Sajana. “Electric Oceans: The Features, Functionality and Utility of the GIRT Website and Associated Database for Citizen Science, Site Conservation and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management Outcomes.” Australasian Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 44 (2020): 3-21. Viduka, Andrew; Sutton, Brett; Hutchison, Andrew et al. “A Report on the GIRT Scientific Diver Survey of the Rainbow Warrior, Cavalli Islands, New Zealand.” J Mari Arch 16 (2021): 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-020-09279-5 Viduka, Andrew and Edney, Joanne. “GIRT Scientific Divers citizen science programme: Volunteer motivations and characteristics.” Journal of Community Archaeology and Heritage, 9:3 (2021a): 143-160. https://doi.org/10.1080/20518196.2021.2005411. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Non-intrusive conservation focussed monitoring of underwater cultural heritage by the public -Gathering Information via Recreational and Technical (GIRT) Scientific Divers Description An account of the resource The no-impact maritime archaeological conservation-focused citizen science program Gathering Information via Recreational and Technical (GIRT) Scientific Divers formally started in January 2019, after an approximately six-month pilot project in South Australia. GIRT Scientific Divers was designed and developed to encourage interested people, businesses, and groups to have an active and positive underwater archaeology role. Launching in New Zealand and across Australia, GIRT has expanded to include members in ten countries. From a 2020/21 survey of member motivations and characteristics, GIRT has been demonstrated to be a gateway into maritime archaeology for previously non-engaged individuals. However, GIRT is very much still an evolving citizen science program, and this paper discusses some of the key learning outcomes the author has gained from developing and training members of the public in GIRT over the last five and half years. The paper candidly looks at challenges experienced by GIRT to maintain an engaged and active membership specifically addressing the key issues of time and funding, IT, the andragogical methodology used, and survey structure and complexity. Lastly, drawing from recent training activities in late 2022-2023, the paper highlights changes to the teaching program and survey structure that occurred in early 2022, with the introduction of a scaffolded learning approach and a rapid GIRT survey option to enable members to develop confidence and build from success. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Andrew Viduka Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Viduka, Andrew. 2023. “Non-intrusive monitoring of underwater cultural heritage by the public - Gathering Information via Recreational and Technical (GIRT) Scientific Divers.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Veronica Walker-Vadillo. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2001 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5ed56c643dc7d77453175c2bbd02196c.pdf b115931d4feda2bc01ae7229595aed48 PDF Text Text Observations on developing a maritime cultural landscape approach to managing US National Marine Sanctuaries Bradley W. Barr National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries Scituate, Massachusetts 02066, USA Email: Brad.Barr@noaa.gov Abstract Effectively managing marine protected areas requires considerable knowledge of these special places people value and to which they are sometimes strongly attached. Usually, this knowledge is limited to the present state of resources and changes observed in the recent past, which is used to inform the development of management actions to address current and emerging threats to biodiversity and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) resources. However, while acquiring this “snapshot” of the current status of natural and cultural resources is necessary, it is often not sufficient. Understanding the longer-term history of that site, illuminating its “maritime cultural landscape” (MCL), can provide critical context to interpreting that somewhat static “snapshot”. MCLs represent the historical imprint of human interactions with these special places, providing a deeper base of social and historical information to inform and empower stewardship of natural and UCH resources. The National Marine Sanctuary System (NMSS) sites are already managed as landscapes – through ongoing implementation of ecosystem-based management (EBM) – and integrating MCL approaches offers opportunities to expand and enhance our deeper understanding of how these socio-ecological systems were formed, changed over time, and how coastal communities adapted to, and influenced, these changes. Better understanding these historical interactions can offer significant insights, integrated with knowledge attained through EBM, that can inform and guide contemporary management decision making. The NMSS has developed a vision and strategy for implementing an integrated EBM/MCL approach to stewardship, and is in the process of implementing that strategy. Key words: Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Underwater cultural heritage, Ecosystembased management, Marine protected areas, Stewardship Introduction: Valued Places We all have “special places”. Places that have deeper meaning to us, places that evoke especially memorable activities or events, or places we seek out, either physically or in our minds, when we need a retreat from the pressures of life. It is our deep connection to these places that imbues our lives with meaning, defines who we are, and influences our values and behavior. These places are, in turn, affected by our connection to them, our reliance on them for physical and spiritual sustenance, our recreation and 1 �livelihoods. Senegalese conservationist Baba Dioum has written “in the end, we will only conserve what we love”. Given this, it should not be too surprising that many of these special places have been preserved by society under law and policy as protected areas. It should also not be too surprising that the managers of these protected areas would have a keen interest in this essential human/environment relationship, what people find special about the place they manage, and how they can effectively preserve whatever compels and elicits such connections. If we do not have some knowledge of this relationship, of what people value about that place, how can we possibly offer the stewardship such a special place deserves? Protecting these special places in the coastal and ocean waters of the United States is the mission of the National Marine Sanctuary System (NMSS). The National Marine Sanctuaries Act (U.S.C. 16, Chapter 32, Sections 1431 et seq.), the principal statutory authority for establishing and managing marine protected areas in the waters of the US Exclusive Economic Zone, provides the framework for protection and management of such special places. This authority extends to preserving both ecosystem biodiversity and integrity, as well as maritime cultural heritage. The former is addressed in the NMSS through the implementation of ecosystem-based management (EBM), generally defined for the marine environment, by Leslie and McLeod (2007), as follows: “Marine EBM is about interactions: interactions among different spatial and temporal scales, within and among ecological and social systems, and among stakeholder groups and communities interested in the present and future health of coastal and marine areas”. It is about explicitly integrating humans into management, recognizing and accounting for the potential affect that humans have on ecosystem structure and function, but also incorporating their interests and aspirations into how places are managed and what strategies are used to accomplish management goals established collaboratively with these communities. As the authors clearly state, however, it is the communities’ interests in the “present and future” of these places that embodies EBM. It is largely based on understanding the present state, the drivers that are currently influencing the ecosystem and management strategies that lead to a future state that sustains, or improves, the ecosystem over time. Conversely, preserving the cultural heritage of that place is necessarily focused on the past, how humans have influenced these places 2 �through time, and how those communities have, in turn, been shaped by these places. Understanding the cultural heritage of a place offers the knowledge and experience acquired by the community over a broader sweep of history. It involves a deeper understanding of how that community has responded to ecosystem changes in the past, how their actions have altered the socio-ecological system over time, and perhaps shedding some light on how resilient that community might be to adapting to future changes. To effectively integrate this cultural heritage preservation component into the management of national marine sanctuaries, the concept of maritime cultural landscapes (MCL) was identified as a complementary mechanism to EBM that offers a compatible framework for understanding, and ultimately more effectively managing, these special places in the oceans and along the coasts. What are “Maritime Cultural Landscapes?” As described in Barr (2013), the concept of “maritime cultural landscapes” builds on the older and more widely applied notion of cultural landscape in terrestrial environments. As first suggested by Westerdahl (1992), maritime cultural landscapes (MCL) were defined as “human utilization of maritime space by boat, settlement, fishing, hunting, shipping and its attendant subcultures”. MCL “comprises the whole network of sailing routes, old as well as new, with ports and harbors along the coast, and its related constructions and remains of human activity, underwater as well as terrestrial” (Westerdahl, 1992). Jensen et al., (2011) provided an eloquent definition of “cultural landscapes”: “Cultural landscapes capture the living past that surrounds us and give us a better understanding of the links the natural history and human history of a place. They illustrate how we have shaped the world, and how the world’s natural environments have shaped us. Perhaps most importantly, cultural landscapes can also provide us with valuable insights into the future, such as the relationship between the heath of natural resources and human well-being and prosperity. At their most basic, cultural landscapes are specific places where combinations of human activity and natural forces have left a discernable mark on the world. Cultural landscapes are reservoirs of human experience that preserve undeniable examples of human triumph and loss. Retaining the intangible as well as the tangible parts of human culture, cultural landscapes can do what the natural sciences alone cannot. They convey the human meaning of places”. 3 �MCL encompasses not only this cultural history of the physical maritime environment, but also the “cognitive landscape”, defined as “the mapping and imprinting of the functional aspects of the surroundings in the human mind. Man in landscape, landscape in man” (Lofgren, 1981; cf Westerdahl, 1992). It embraces both the changes observed over time with regard to the physical environment and human use, but also the perception of these changes by the people who have lived, and are living, in that place throughout history. How this maritime and ecological landscape has shaped and been shaped by the human activities that have occurred there throughout its history provides the foundation for understanding, and ultimately more effectively preserving, these cultural landscapes. As Tuan (1974) has observed, geographic spaces become “places” when people imbue them with meaning, a process that influences self-identity and affects the way in which we perceive and behave toward these places. Understanding the maritime cultural landscape of a place identifies not only our collective contributions to sustaining and improving these places we have given meaning, but of how people have contributed to what they have become, offering insights and experience acquired by the community along the way. Such deeper knowledge of place is likely to be a valuable asset to guide and inform place-based management. This last point is worthy of emphasis. This deeper knowledge may indeed have considerable potential value that contributes to a more holistic and effective management approach to preserving the natural and cultural resources of an MPA, but a more traditional reading of the literature on cultural landscapes suggests that there should be no direct connection between the process of cultural landscape analysis and place-based management. Cultural landscape approaches are focused on engaging the various stakeholder and cultural communities in acquiring knowledge about the human/environment relationship through time, and offering a forum for this engagement. Integrating EBM and MCL EBM is about including the “human dimension” in sustaining ecosystem structure and function through collaborative management, engaging the community in establishing management goals for that place, and the strategies implemented to achieve those goals. It is a prospective process, informed with knowledge of the current state of the 4 �ecosystem, and leading to some agreed upon desired future state. In most cases, EBM utilizes various management tools and strategies, such as zoning, regulations, and voluntary mechanisms to balance sustainable use and preservation. MCL approaches also involve these same people as a key element in understanding and preserving heritage resources of this valued place, but it is a retrospective process. It focuses on the history of the human use of that place, illuminating what has happened, through time, which has left an imprint of this use on the socio-ecological system. It identifies how the system has changed over time, how human uses have changed, and how the system has responded to those changes. MCLs also held to ascertain what attributes and elements of the human/environment relationship are relevant and contribute to the deeper meaning and value the communities ascribe to this place, thereby offering some insight into which of these elements and attributes are most important to preserve and protect. While EBM and MCL could be implemented independently - which would be an easier path to follow - an integrated management approach involving both EBM and MCL would seem to offer opportunities not readily available if executed separately. Clearly, both EBM and MCL involve “taking a step back”, looking at the “bigger picture” of why this place is valued, which human uses have (and are leaving) an imprint on the environment. The both have people as a central and important element of their implementation. MCL offers the opportunity to acquire deeper knowledge of place through the lens of history (both remote and recent) to learn what the state of the ecosystem is today, what human activities may have led to the current state, and what knowledge was acquired as these communities adapted to, accommodated, and caused environmental change. They appear to be quite complementary, and are likely, as they both seek the active engagement of the interested and affected pubic, to potentially offer some efficiency in implementing them together rather than individually and separately. With regard to the practice of MPA management, one other rationale to consider in this integrated implementation of EBM and MCL is the potential to break down some of the internal barriers between those MPA management staff focusing on natural resource protection, and their counterparts that apply their energies to preserving cultural heritage. In this age of specialization, when it is beyond the capabilities of anyone to 5 �become what used to be called a “Renaissance Man” (or woman), managers cleave to their specialties, and organizations of MPA programs are almost always set up with “natural resource” and “cultural resource” staff in different organizational units. Through the integrated implementation of EBM and MCL, there is greater opportunity for collaboration and knowledge sharing between these two usually isolated operational units within an MPA program. If Young (2010) is correct in his assertion that institutions, particularly environmental governance systems, are similar to other socio-ecological systems in that they are made more resilient, adaptive, and more resistant to stress through effective implementation of adaptive management and social learning, this sort of interdisciplinary integration may contribute to not only successfully achieving the mission of the program, but also to sustaining the organization over time, avoiding what Olson (1982) has termed “institutional arthritis”. “The Devil is in the Details” Making such an integrated approach operational for an MPA program like the NMS System is no small feat. There are institutional and practical challenges to effectively integrating EBM and MCL. Seeking acceptance of the idea of broadening the way managers think about their sites to include MCL, let alone integrating EBM and MCL, represents a challenge to MPA Programs that have been in operations for decades and where their approach to management has become rigid and somewhat inflexible (“the way we’ve always done it...”). For an MPA system like the NMSS, which includes fourteen sites operating largely under a single statutory authority but quite different in composition and management focus, not all sites will embrace this change simply because the leadership of the MPA program has decided it should be so. Not all sites have the necessary staff with expertise relevant to cultural heritage preservation, and the site budgets may be insufficient to consider the additional costs associated with the background research and public engagement required to successfully implement an MCL approach. Therefore, it has been determined that the implementation of this approach should be on an opportunistic basis, with each site deciding whether they will incorporate MCL, and the integration of MCL with EBM, into their management planning when their site plans are being reviewed and updated. If they choose to do this, additional support will be provided to them from the national program, bringing needed 6 �expertise in history, archaeology, and relevant planning and public engagement support from NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program (MHP) and operating units from other sites and headquarters who can offer such expertise. For sites that express a willingness to begin the process, an MCL “synopsis document” is developed that generally identifies the scope and elements of what the MCL for that site would include, providing an overview of the historical human uses of the area, the various cultures that were involved in that use, discussions of how those cultures left their imprint on the ecosystem, both physically and cognitively (through such things as place names and knowledge of differing perceptions of the cultural landscape among the cultures who lived in that place). Such a “synopsis document” has been prepared by the MHP for the proposed expansion of the Gulf of the Farallones and Cordell Banks National Marine Sanctuaries along the Northern California “Redwoods” coast (Delgado, Unpublished MS). This document is made available to those who are developing the proposed management planning documents for this possible expansion of these sanctuaries, with the promise of further support should the sites agree to proceed with the implementation of this MCL initiative. Other opportunities may involve more targeted support toward implementation. There has been some interest expressed by the State of Wisconsin for a possible sanctuary in the waters of Lake Michigan off their coast. While a considerable amount of research has been assembled on the shipwrecks of this region, this is the home lands and waters of a number of maritime indigenous cultures, and little was known about their use and habitation of this place over time. To begin to identify and collect relevant information regarding this indigenous cultural landscape, a MHP Graduate Fellow was identified to conduct this essential research (Tate, Unpublished MS). In this case, the more specific focus on the Indigenous contribution to the MCL was essential, and the research provides a starting point for better understanding and incorporating these cultures’ contributions to the MCL of this area that may be considered for sanctuary designation at some point in the future. Where there are many cultures that value a place all need to be heard and given the opportunity to contribute to our deeper understanding of that place. 7 �It is expected that the implementation of an Integrated EBM/MCL approach to management for the NMSS will be something that will take considerable time and effort, but this will be addressed as opportunities arise. Budgets and staff resources, both currently in short supply are contributing to this slow pace of implementation. However, perhaps this is not the issue is might appear to be. Organizational cultures change and adapt very slowly. Therefore, even if resources were not severely limited, it is likely that the pace of adoption of this proposed change in the management approach for the national marine sanctuaries across the System would only progress as the institutional culture continues to evolve and adapt. We have built the trough, have filled it with fresh, clean water, and have led the horse to it, but are prepared to wait until it gets thirsty enough to drink. Not another Solution in Search of a Problem All too frequently, we encounter situations where, in times of great uncertainty, we reorganize or begin another round of strategic planning. Neither should careful scrutiny of our organizational structure nor strategic planning be considered unworthy endeavors when there is a demonstrated need to engage in these actions. However, they are pointless when the strategic plan for an organization is serving its purpose, and the organizational structure is sufficient to get the job done. When we are resource limited, we should spend what time and energy we have on addressing real problems, seeking innovative and creative solutions to the many challenges we face. As Barr (2013) offers, the oceans and coasts, and the communities that inhabit these areas, are facing many complex and significant problems. Global climate change is increasing the severity and frequency of storms. Coastlines are being altered, sometimes significantly, and there is considerable damage to infrastructure from these storm events. While these has been some recovery of the economy, coastal communities remain hard hit, with collapses in fisheries, and the increasing reliance on tourism providing less well-paying jobs but also resulting in seasonal surges in population and increasing demands for services. The societal burdens from the continued economic pressures are being exacted on coastal communities in these challenging times. To add to the challenges, these are “wicked problems”, difficult or impossible to solve because of incomplete, contradictory, and changing requirements that are often difficult to recognize (Skaburskis, 2008). Finding 8 �practical solutions will not be an easy task. Concurrently, as summarized by Barr (2013) our governance system is also being challenged: “...as the severity of these problems increases, potential management responses that involve trade-offs and compromise are perceived as unacceptable. Communities are deeply polarized by diminishing resources and challenges that exceed our capacity to effectively address using more traditional management approaches. There is also sometimes deep mistrust of others who may have differing views and perspectives. In the history of those places, however, similar challenges have confronted, and these communities have successfully adapted to those changes, or learned much by their failures. This history and experience has considerable value in offering some hope for resolving problems being encountered today”. MCL can provide this historical context for our management of these special places. It offers a forum for public engagement that involves not just addressing problems, but speaks to the proud heritage of these communities, resilient places that have “weathered the storms” and persisted. EBM is necessary, as incorporating the “human element” in ocean and coastal stewardship has demonstrated its importance, but it may not be sufficient. We can benefit considerably by “learning from the past”, so that we are not “doomed to repeat it”. The effective integration of MCL and EBM in addressing these challenges has the potential to be one of the creative and innovative solutions to help “turn the tide” for coastal communities, and the MPA managers that work with them to sustain their way of life. Acknowledgements Thanks to Jim Delgado, Hans van Tilburg, and Paul Orlando for helpful comments and advice regarding the ideas presented in this paper. Disclaimer: The opinions expressed herein are solely the author’s, and do not reflect the views of the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, NOAA or any of its sub-agencies, nor of the US Government. References Barr, B. W., 2013. Understanding and managing marine protected areas through integrating ecosystem-based management within maritime cultural landscapes: Moving from theory to practice. Ocean and Coastal Management, Vol. 84: 1984-192. Delgado, J. P., (Unpublished Manuscript). The “Redwood Coast:” The maritime cultural landscape of the potential expansion of Cordell Bank and Gulf of the Farallones 9 �National Marine Sanctuaries. NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Maritime Heritage Program. Jensen, J. O., Mather, R., and Gray, J., 2011. Viewing the future through the lens of maritime cultural landscapes. Sanctuary Watch, Vol. Fall: 2-3. Leslie, H. M., and McLeod, K. L., 2007. Confronting the challenges of implementing marine ecosystem-based management. Front. Ecol. Environment, Vol. 5: 540-548. Lofgren, O., 1981.Manniskanilandskapet-landskapetimanniskan. In L. Honko, and O. Lofgren (Eds.), Tradition OchMiljii, Lund, Sweden: 235e261. Olson Jr., M., 1982. The Rise and Decline of Nations. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. Skaburskis, A., 2008. The origin of “wicked problems”. Planning Theory and Practice, Vol. 9 (2): 277-280. Tate, S., (Unpublished Manuscript). Native American Cultural Presence and Usage of Wisconsin’s Lake Michigan Coasts. NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Maritime Heritage Program. Tuan, Y. F., 1974. Topophilia: a Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes, and Values. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Westerdahl, C., 1992. The maritime cultural landscape. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 21 (1): 5-14. Young, O., 2010. Institutional dynamics: Resilience, vulnerability and adaptability in environmental and resource regimes. Global Climate Change, Vol. 20: 378-385. Brad Barr received a BS from the University of Maine, a MS from the University of Massachusetts, and PhD at the University of Alaska. He is currently a Senior Policy Advisor in the NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Adjunct Professor at the School of Marine Sciences and Ocean Engineering at the University of New Hampshire, and a Visiting Professor at the University Center of the Westfjords in Iceland. He is a member of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas, and the International Committee on Marine Mammal Protected Areas/IUCN Marine Mammal Protected Areas Task Force. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 2: New Approaches in UCH Management in the US Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 2 chair Dr. Hans Van Tilburg and links to the papers included in the session. Description An account of the resource In 2009, responding to the effort to protect the significant natural and cultural resources within the marine environment for the benefit of present and future generations, the U.S. National Marine Protected Areas Center formed a Cultural Heritage Resources Working Group to provide expert advice on improving the conservation and management of maritime heritage resources. The resulting White Paper provided a series of recommendations to both the U.S. Department of Commerce and the Department of the Interior, including new definitions for cultural heritage, marine cultural resources, tribes, indigenous peoples, and cultural landscapes. Central to these recommendations was a strong endorsement for the Cultural Landscape Approach in the understanding and management of maritime heritage resources (or UCH). Subsequently, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Maritime Heritage Program has adopted the recommendations of this paper and is implementing a “maritime cultural landscape” approach to the management of cultural resources within the National Marine Sanctuary System. Also as a part of this initiative, NOAA and the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management (BOEM) have teamed up to support maritime cultural landscape studies of heritage resources by Native American Tribes and Native Hawaiian communities in the Pacific region. These projects on the U.S. West Coast and in the Hawaiian Islands demonstrate the necessity of adapting a broader range of recognized cultural resources and a more inclusive and participatory management and preservation process. Charismatic resources like historic shipwrecks will always provide unique information for archaeologists and historians, but we do ourselves a disservice if we focus solely on these types of properties, and neglect other perspectives and the broader nature of all types and traces of human existence that lie underwater. Participants in this session will focus on the status of these ongoing ground-breaking projects, the advantages of a broader and more inclusive approach compared to the previous cultural heritage management paradigm in the U.S., and the challenges that this creates. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Hans Van Tilburg Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Observations on developing a maritime cultural landscape approach to managing US National Marine Sanctuaries Description An account of the resource Effectively managing marine protected areas requires considerable knowledge of these special places people value and to which they are sometimes strongly attached. Usually, this knowledge is limited to the present state of resources and changes observed in the recent past, which is used to inform the development of management actions to address current and emerging threats to biodiversity and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) resources. However, while acquiring this “snapshot” of the current status of natural and cultural resources is necessary, it is often not sufficient. Understanding the longer-term history of that site, illuminating its “maritime cultural landscape” (MCL), can provide critical context to interpreting that somewhat static “snapshot”. MCLs represent the historical imprint of human interactions with these special places, providing a deeper base of social and historical information to inform and empower stewardship of natural and UCH resources. The National Marine Sanctuary System (NMSS) sites are already managed as landscapes – through ongoing implementation of ecosystem-based management (EBM) – and integrating MCL approaches offers opportunities to expand and enhance our deeper understanding of how these socio-ecological systems were formed, changed over time, and how coastal communities adapted to, and influenced, these changes. Better understanding these historical interactions can offer significant insights, integrated with knowledge attained through EBM, that can inform and guide contemporary management decision making. The NMSS has developed a vision and strategy for implementing an integrated EBM/MCL approach to stewardship, and is in the process of implementing that strategy. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bradley W. Barr, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 2 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6a7473ea5a87a40995343a3ec25a99f0.pdf efd5864c643ce2e369d34295003c00cd PDF Text Text Oceanic deaths aboard the Manila galleons Miguel Luque-Talaván Complutense University of Madrid Geography and History Faculty Department of American History I 28040 Madrid Spain Email: mluque_t@ghis.ucm.es Abstract In the present investigation we aim to make an approach to some aspects concerning life aboard the Manila Galleon (from the 16th to the 19th centuries), such as diseases, death and burial of bodies, the psychology of the crew in face of these facts, etc. All with the aim of contributing to a better knowledge of the life of the crew and the passengers on one of the most complex and long-lasting sea trade routes that have ever existed in the Modern Age. Keywords: Manila Galleon, Tornaviaje, Acapulco, Life Aboard, Marquis of Ovando Introduction The present text focuses on an event that happened quite often on the Manila Galleon trade route: the death of some, sometimes many of its passengers, especially during the Tornaviaje (return journey) from Manila to Acapulco. There are several cases that we have been able to collect as examples during the course of our investigation. One of these cases is particularly significant based on the importance of the person involved in it. We refer to the death of Don Francisco José de Ovando y Solís, marquis of Ovando, in 1755, who was on his way back to Spain after having served as Governor and Captain General of the Philippines from 1750 to 1754. Through the analysis of this case and similar others we aim to approach the way in which death was confronted in one of the hardest and oldest overseas communication routes in History. A hard and long journey: the trans-pacific galleon Both the Acapulco-Manila outward route (which set sail in the month of April) and the Manila-Acapulco return route (which set sail in the month of June) were long and full of difficulties. More than 2000 leagues were covered from Acapulco to Manila. The Tornaviaje, which was longer, used to take about five or six months. Although in 1724, 1 �the La Sagrada Familia galleon took nine months to complete the voyage (Luque Talaván, 2013: 64). In such a long journey, diseases were very frequent, with scurvy being very common and one of the diseases that claimed more casualties. This feared illness, of which nineteen crew members of the Fernando de Magallanes – Juan Sebastian Elcano journey (1519-1522) were the first casualties in the Pacific, used to appear in about two or three months from the beginning of the route due to the lack of vitamine C (Pigafetta, 1988: 61-62)1. One of the ships of the expedition lead by Miguel López de Legazpi, the famous patache San Lucas, would reach the novohispanic port of La Navidad in 1565 after a very hard voyage: lack of water and supplies, scurvy and an attempted revolt aboard that ended with two men thrown into the sea as a measure of punishment and to set an example. Even at the late date of 1806, the San Andrés galleon suffered the loss of thirty six men due to the scurvy (Carrera Stampa, 1959: 104-105; Schurtz, 1992: 207, 241-242; Veyrat, 1995: 186; Vas Mingo and Luque Talaván, 2002: II, 603-618). Judging from the preserved testimonies, the journey, especially from Manila to Acapulco, was very harsh; which caused great mortality (Cruz, 1962: 139-141)2. The severity of this navigation is attested by, for example, the statements of father Pedro Cubero Sebastián dated to the 17th century (Cubero Sebastián, 1680, chapter XLV); or the ones made by the Italian passenger Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri, who took the mentioned journey from 1697 to 1698 and left the statements written in his renowned Giro del Mondo3. Health issues aboard Health issues aboard the Manila Galleon were similar to those given in the West Indies Fleet. Thus, to diseases that might appear on journeys across the Pacific like colds and other lung conditions arising from the ascent towards the north in order to avoid the 1 In this same expedition travelled a surgeon and three barbers, of whom only one survived (Pollak, 1973: 231). Domingo Galán Ahumada has transcribed the list of products of which the expedition first aid kit consisted of, see: Galán Ahumada, 1988: 16-18. 2 In regard to the voyagem see: Schurz, 1919: 632-638; Cruz, 1962: 97-118; Velázquez, 1968: 159-178; García de los Arcos, 1996: 175-180; Yuste, 2000: 139-150. 3 In recent days a new study about Gemelli Careri’s work has been published: Bernabéu Albert, 2012: 229-317. 2 �trade winds; several types of dermatitis, the already mentioned scurvy, dysentery, etc. we need to add the ones transmitted by mice and insects (Veyrat, 1995: 186, Nussio, 2001: 106). Many of the aforementioned diseases were contracted or made worse due to the weakness of the passengers and the crew, which had its origin in sudden changes of temperature, along with undernourishment or lack of hygiene. Diet was, for most people, poor in variety and quality; consisting mainly of biscuits made from bran, salted fish and meat, and some legumes. Big quantities of water that tended to go bad a few weeks after having boarded and was strictly rationed 4, and wine were stored in clay pots in order to drink (Pérez-Mallaína Bueno, 1992: 152; Nussio, 2001: 103-104). Due to their importance, provisions in the Manila galleons were under the care of a master of provisions and rations, a cook, a storekeeper and a waterkeeper (Lorente Rodrigáñez, 1944: 112-113; Carrera Stampa, 1959: 103). Meanwhile, prophylaxis was almost non-existent. The limited space of the ships resulted in overcrowding and, along with it, in the accumulation of waste and odours coming from stagnant water in the holds, excrements, stored food and body effluvia, that rarefied the atmosphere aboard. This became a breeding ground for numerous infectious-contagious diseases. To gain a clear understanding of the problem, it should be taken into account that there were between four and six hundred people in each ship, passengers and crew combined (Lorente Rodrigáñez, 1944: 113; Landín Carrasco, 1978: 68; Pérez-Mallaína Bueno, 1992: 139-148; Veyrat, 1995: 176). Another important matter in these sailings was the psychological suffering that came from the fear and the mental exhaustion of people obliged to live in the limited space of the ships, under dangerous circumstances and with no sign of land for months. This situation kept happening well into the 19th century on the sailing ships en route between Cadiz and Manila. Furthermore, this situation could cause all sort of conflicts and arguments among the members of the crew and the passage (Fernández Palacios, 2011: 111-119). 4 For example, the San Diego transported fifty five barrels of water —the equivalent of 24000 litres—; valid for a month of self-sufficient navigation (Veyrat, 1995: 182). Several large clay pots where the precious liquid was stored have been found in the wreckage of the ship, some of which are exhibited at the Naval Museum of Madrid (Spain), See: VV.AA., 2000: 260-261. 3 �The ships that made the trans-pacific route were not always provided with the services of a qualified health professional. Surgeons, doctors, pharmacists or barbers were taken on board many times only on the condition that they owned a well-stocked medicine chest. In each case, these persons had to face the medical emergencies resulting from the previously described diseases or from the accidents that tended to happen aboard the ship bruises after sudden swerves of the ship, blows from the sea, falls from the yard arm, etc (Veyrat, 1995: 186-187; Vas Mingo and Luque Talaván, 2002: II, 603618). The naval health staff’s medicine chests from the 16th and 17th centuries were mainly stocked with remedies of vegetable origin that were applied by using the language of those times anointings, rubbings, garglings and fumigations, antidotes, syrups and purgatives (Ballesteros et al., 1947: 521-523; Zúñiga Cisneros, 1978: 381382; Veyrat, 1995: 186-187; Schaedel, 2000: 433; Gracia Rivas, 2006: 167-185). In addition to these medicines, health staff had tools such as saws, trepans, bandages, dressings, mortars and pestles in order to crush powders and prepare ointments, weighing scales to calculate dosages, funnels, palette knives, spoons, braziers to warm up preparations, etc 5 . The preferred methods to alleviate the patients’ diseases or humors were purging by means of enemas and syringes and bloodletting performed in the arms, sometimes on an ongoing basis, which instead of relief could cause the hastening of the death of a weak patient. These practices, as well as surgical operations, were performed at the bottom of the main mast; close the ship’s centre of gravity, in order to achieve the maximum possible stability to perform such delicate procedures. Medical attention in the ports of Manila and Acapulco Although health measures were taken on board, these were not always effective and either the patient died, or he reached the port of destination in a precarious state of health. For the latter case, two hospitals were built: one in Manila and another one in Acapulco. The one known as Hospital de las Naos del Comercio was built in Manila in 1625. The only information of it existence is provided by Díez de la Rosa, who says that 5 Several objects that must have belonged to a surgeon have been found in the wreckage of the San Diego galleon, such as a small golden porcelain jar for ointments, two big containers made of the same material, weighing scales lead weights in conical shapes and a bronze mortar (Veyrat, 1995: 186-187). 4 �its function was to give assistance to the crew of the merchant ships of the Philippines. The aforesaid hospital was funded by the Real Patronato, which set aside 1000 pesos per year for its maintenance. Francisco Guerra Pérez suggests that such amount was intended to pay the stay of the merchant ship sailors in the Hospital Real de Manila founded in 1571- therefore raising the question of the existence of a specific Hospital de las Naos del Comercio (Guerra Pérez, 1994: 548) 6 . Meanwhile, in Acapulco, the health facilities in which the crew and passengers that arrived sick to the novohispanic port were taken care of was the Hospital de Nuestra Señora de la Consolación, founded in 1570. Supported with the income of the Real Patronato, a two percent rate on the goods from the Philippines was used for its repair in 1651. At the beginning of the 18th century the Hospital gave assistance to numerous sailors and soldiers of the Fort of San Diego so, in practice, it was a military hospital. For this reason, those in charge - the Brothers of Charity first, and the Real Caja de Acapulco later - received two reales, later increased to three, for each sailor’s or soldier’s convalescence (Guerra Pérez, 1994: 262-263; Luque Talaván, 2008: I, 397-398)7. In addition to the port of Acapulco, the galleons anchored occasionally, and between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 19th century, in several locations of Baja California - like the Mission San José del Cabo -, as well as in the ports of San Blas, La Navidad or Barra de Navidad, Manzanillo and Zihuatanejo. The progressive development of this network of small ports of anchorage to support the navigation of the Manila galleon also served the purpose of the Crown of consolidating its presence in such a vast region, especially during the troublesome - from a warlike point of view 18th century8. In this regard, it should be noted that the first land that the ships on the Manila-Acapulco route spotted in months was the coast of California, where they could replenish provisions. “The journey of the Nuestra Señora del Rosario in 1706 can be considered to be representative. It set sail from Manila on July 6, it left behind the 6 In Manila, during the 16th century, there was a scarcity of doctors, pharmacists and medicines (GarcíaAbásolo Gónzález, 2000: 202). In regard to the Army health facilities on Philippine soil, see: Clavijo y Clavijo, 1944: 289-306; Clavijo y Clavijo, 1950a: 383-Ss; Clavijo y Clavijo, 1950b; Casero Nieto, 1985: 101-124. 7 Francisco Santiago Cruz tells how the Manila galleons used to leave some of those gravely ill in the Jesuit Mission San José del Cabo, located on the southern end of Baja California. After the expulsion of the Order in 1767, the mission was abandoned (Cruz, 1962: 141). 8 The following book is very useful: Pinzón Ríos, 2011. 5 �Embocadero9 on August 3, it crossed the meridian of the Marianas on September 29, it found “signs”10 on November 16, it sailed past Cabo San Lucas on December 4 and entered the port of Acapulco on December 20, after a journey of five months and fifteen days” (Schurtz, 1992: 240). Religious practices on the high seas: oceanic death and burials The issue of death on the sea is deeply related to the sailors’ and passengers’ devotions and religious practices, who were obliged to use this uncertain means of transportation. Orations, prayers, ex-votos, rituals, faiths and legends are plentiful in this transport. These questions have been addressed very efficiently by specialized historiography, for different ages and geographical spaces (Gil Muñoz, 2004; Ferrer Albelda et al., 2012). We are only going to address then the issue of death and burial on the high seas of the members of the crew and passengers that died during the course of the navigations. For example, the 1606 galleon registered a total of eighty deaths during its journey; while the 1629 galleon only had five deaths. A very tragic case is that of the San José, which was found drifting in 1657, a year after it set sail from Manila, with all its crew and passengers dead. In 1678, father Cubero Sebastián made the journey to Acapulco aboard the San Antonio de Padua galleon, where only a hundred and ninety two men out of the four hundred who left Manila arrived alive. Just on the journey between the coasts of California and Acapulco he officiated at a hundred and ninety two funerals (Cubero Sebastián, 1680: 321-339; Schurtz, 1992: 241-242). The ceremonial followed in these occasions was very simple for the sailors, whereas a more elaborate funeral could be arranged for distinguished people. The bodies, wrapped in a shroud, were weighed down with stones or water pots (Tempère, 2002: 115-116). It is not hard to imagine the terrible feeling that the death of their colleagues might cause among the persons embarked. The oceanic death of the marquis of Ovando (1755) We could mention innumerable examples of all of the aforesaid until now. In this regard, documentation is well explicit, but we will only focus on one of them 11: the death of the 9 Particular reference is made to the Embocadero of San Bernardino [Strait of San Bernardino]. Natural signs that indicated the proximity of the American coast. 11 In the Archivo General de Indias, we have been able to locate one of them. For example, that referred to the death of the Bishop of Troas, Friar Ginés de Barrientos (OP), aboard the Nuestra Señora del 10 6 �marquis of Ovando, who died aboard the Santísima Trinidad y Nuestra Señora del Buen Fin galleon during the return journey to Spain across New Spain. The large ship left Manila on July 23rd 1755 commanded by the marquis of Villamediana. The diseased and casualty statistics are highly significant: twenty sick persons on October 1st, sixty on November 30th, eighty on December 24th, one hundred and two on January 4th 1756; one hundred and fifty on the 13th of the same month. On February 1st, two hundred sick persons were disembarked in Cabo San Lucas, at the southern end of the Baja California peninsula, and left to the care of the Jesuits of Mission San José del Cabo. Out of the four hundred and thirty five crew members that initially left Manila, eighty two died on the high seas. The cause of such many deaths was a tabardillo or typhus epidemic outbreak that made a significant dent in great part of the members of the crew and passengers. William Lytle Schurtz notes that upon arriving in Acapulco, the ship had no more than twenty seven men able to stand on their own feet. It was a thankless journey for Ovando since, in addition to the terrible disease and its fatal outcome he suffered the loss of his infant son, Ignacio José Camilo, on August 5th born aboard the ship on July 29th. Ovando fell ill on August 16th. On December 6th he was brought the Viaticum. Finally, death took him on December 9th, 1755 when the ship was sailing on the same latitude as the Gulf of California, in whose waters, following the seafaring tradition, he was laid to rest (Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse, 1974: 241-242; Zárate Toscano, 2000: 418). Before his death, he was able to make his will; a document rich in information in which he wanted to leave his earthly and spiritual matters sorted out. Among the aspects related to his burial, Ovando ordered to be shrouded in the habit of St. Francis, to whose Third Order he belonged; to have his heart extracted in order for it to be placed inside a reliquary at the foot of the Nuestra Señora del Buen Fin statue in the convent of Santa Clara in Cáceres (Spain), and to have masses celebrated for the eternal repose of his soul. Ovando’s firstborn son, José Francisco, II marquis of Ovando12, unable to comply with the request relating to his father’s heart, ordered a Rosario, San Francisco Javier y Santa Rosa galleon, in 1698 – Archivo General de Indias (Seville), Filipinas, 119, N. 4-. 12 He himself born aboard the Nuestra Señora del Rosario galleon on April 15 1750, on his parents’ outward journey from Acapulco to Philippines (Zárate Toscano, 2000: 418). 7 �golden heart to be made so it could replace that of his father’s and be placed in the location stated in his will (Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse, 1974: 242-243). Final thoughts The aforementioned Gemelli Careri’s words in relation to the oceanic voyage may serve as a good summary of what has been said above: “The voyage from the Philippine Islands to the American continent can be considered the longest and hardest that exists worldwide, not only because of the vastness of the ocean to be crossed, almost half of the globe, against the headwinds, the storms that take place in it, one after the other, and the diseases that afflict the people on board for seven or eight months, remaining for a long period of time close to la Línea, sometimes in the cold, sometimes in temperate weather, sometimes in warm weather, which is sufficient to wreck a man as tough as iron, and much more a man of flesh and blood, who during the navigation is not fed very well (…).” (translated from: Schurtz, 1992: 233). In short, what we have intended is to point out, with several examples, some of the aspects related to life aboard the Manila galleon, contributing to delve deeper in the understanding of a sea route that is still in need of new studies of the many aspects that compose it. Acknowledgements I am particularly grateful for the commentaries of José María Fernández Palacios, and the translation of José Luis Sedano Rosa. References Ballesteros Gaibrois, M. R., Santaella, D., Espinosa Navarro., 1947. Aportaciones de los médicos y farmacéuticos españoles a la obra de España en América. Anuario de Estudios Americanos (Sevilla), Vol. 4: 521-578. Bernabéu Albert, S., (coordinador), 2012. Dossier: los trabajos y los días en el Galeón de Manila: el relato de Gemelli Carreri. Anuario de Estudios Americanos (Sevilla), Vol. 69 (1): 229-317. Carrera Stampa, M., 1959. La nao de la China. Historia Mexicana (México), Vol. 9 (1): 97-118. Casero Nieto, J. A., 1985. Hospitales y enfermerías navales en las islas Filipinas durante la colonización española. Revista de Historia Naval (Madrid), Vol. 9: 101-124. 8 �Clavijo y Clavijo, S., 1950a. La Orden hospitalaria de San Juan de Dios en la Marina de guerra de España: Presencia y nexo IV centenario de la muerte del Santo Fundador 1550-1950. S.n., Madrid. Clavijo y Clavijo, S., 1950b. La obra de la Orden Hospitalaria de San Juan de Dios en América y Filipinas. Artes Gráficas Arges, Madrid. Clavijo y Clavijo, S., 1944. La trayectoria hospitalaria de la Armada española. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Instituto Histórico de la Marina, Madrid. Cruz, F. S., 1962. La Nao de China. Editorial Jus (figuras y episodios de la historia de México), México, D.F. Cubero Sebastián, P., 1680. Breve relación, de la peregrinación que ha hecho de la mayor parte del Mundo Don Pedro Cubero Sebastián, Predicador Apostolico del Assia, natural del Reyno de Aragon; con las cosas mas singulares que le han sucedido, y visto, entre tan barbaras Naciones, su Religion, Ritos, Ceremonias, y otras cosas memorables, y Curiosas que hà podido inquirir; con el viage por tierra, desde España, hasta las Indias Orientales. Escrita por el mismo Don Pedro Cubero Sebastian. Por Iuan Garcia Infançon, Madrid. Fernández Palacios, J. Mª., 2011. De la aventura incierta al placer de viajar en el siglo XIX: la evolución de las comunicaciones navales entre España y Filipinas a través del relato de los viajeros. Revista Española del Pacífico (Madrid), Vol. 24: 101-131. Ferrer Albelda, E., Mª C. Marín Ceballos, Á. Pereira Delgado., (coordinadores), 2012. La religión del mar. Dioses y ritos de navegación en el Mediterráneo antiguo. Universidad de Sevilla, Secretariado de Publicaciones (Spal monografías; 16), Sevilla. Galán Ahumada, D., 1988. La farmacia y la botánica en el Hospital Real de Marina de Cádiz. Editorial Naval (Hombres, hechos e ideas; XX), Madrid. García de los Arcos, Mª F., 1996. Forzados y reclutas: Los criollos novohispanos en Asia (1756-1808). Potrerillos Editores, México, D.F. García-Abásolo Gónzález, A. F., 2000. Formación de las Indias orientales españolas. Filipinas en el siglo XVI. In L. Cabrero Fernández (coordinador), Historia General de Filipinas, Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica (Historia): Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional (Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores), Madrid: 171-205. 9 �Gil Muñoz, M., 2004. La vida religiosa de los mareantes. Devociones y prácticas. Ministerio de Defensa, Secretaría General Técnica : Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Madrid. Gracia Rivas, M., 2006. La Sanidad naval española: De Lepanto a Trafalgar. Cuadernos de Historia Moderna. Anejos (Madrid), Vol. 5: 167-185. Guerra Pérez, F., 1994. El hospital en Hispanoamérica y Filipinas 1492-1898. Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo, Secretaría General Técnica, Madrid. Landín Carrasco, A., 1978. Mourelle de la Rua. Explorador del Pacífico. Ediciones Cultura Hispánica del Centro Iberoamericano de Cooperación, Madrid. Lorente Rodrigáñez, L. Mª., 1944. El Galeón de Manila. Revista de Indias (Madrid), Vol. 15: 105-120. Luque Talaván, M., 2013. Océano Pacífico, océano de intercambios. In Varela, J.; A. Gutiérrez; M. Luque; A. Reséndez, De La Florida de Ponce al Pacífico de Balboa (1513-2013), Ayuntamiento de Valladolid: Fundación Consejo España-EE.UU: Centro de Estudios de América (Casa Colón): Universidad de Valladolid, Seminario Iberoamericano de Descubrimientos y Cartografía, Valladolid: 59-82. Luque Talaván, M., 2008. Galeón de Manila. In L. Cabrero Fernández; M. Luque Talaván; F. Palanco Aguado (coordinación y dirección), Diccionario histórico, geográfico y cultural de Filipinas y el Pacífico, Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo (Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y de Cooperación de España): Fundación Carolina, Madrid: Vol. I, 397-398. Nussio, E., 2001. Vida y muerte en los viajes a las Américas, durante el siglo XVI. In E. Martín Acosta; C. Parcero Torre; A. Sagarra Gamazo (compiladoras), Metodología y nuevas líneas de investigación de la Historia de América, Servicio de Publicaciones, Universidad de Burgos, Burgos: 103-114. Ortiz de la Tabla Ducasse, J., 1974. El Marqués de Ovando, Gobernador de Filipinas (1750-1754). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos, Sevilla. Pérez-Mallaína Bueno, P. E., 1992. Los hombres del Océano. Vida cotidiana de los tripulantes de las flotas de Indias. Siglo XVI. Sociedad Estatal para la Exposición Universal Sevilla 92 : Servicio de Publicaciones de la Diputación de Sevilla, Sevilla. 10 �Pigafetta, A., 1988. Primer viaje alrededor del globo, Ediciones Grech, Madrid. Pinzón Ríos, G., 2011. Acciones y reacciones en los puertos del Mar del Sur. Desarrollo portuario del Pacífico novohispano a partir de sus políticas defensivas, 17131789. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas (Serie Historia Novohispana; 87) : Instituto Mora, México, D.F. Pollak, K., 1973. Los discípulos de Hipócrates. Una historia de la Medicina. Círculo de Lectores, Barcelona. Schaedel, R. P., 2000. La nueva farmacopea. In Historia General de América Latina. Volumen II. Director del volumen: Franflin Pease, G.arcía-Y.rigoyen. Codirector: Frank Moya Pons, Ediciones Unesco: Editorial Trotta, París: 433-451. Schurt, W. L., 1992. El Galeón de Manila. Estudio introductorio, notas y bibliografía de L. Cabrero [Fernández]. Traducción al español de P. Ortiz Armengol, Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica, Madrid. Schurz, W. L., 1919. The Voyage of the Manila Galleon from Acapulco to Manila. Hispanic American Historical Review , Vol. 2 (4): 632-638. Tempère, D., 2002. Vida y muerte en alta mar. Pajes, grumetes y marineros en la navegación española del siglo XVII. Iberoamericana (Berlín), Vol. 5: 103-120. Vas Mingo, M. M. del; M. Luque Talaván., 2002. Medicina y terapéutica medicamentosa en las navegaciones transpacíficas del Galeón de Manila (1565-1815). Notas para su estudio. In F. A. Antón Burgos; L. Ó. Ramos Alonso, Traspasando fronteras: el reto de Asia y el Pacífico, Asociación Española de Estudios del Pacífico: Universidad de Valladolid, Centro de Estudios del Asia, Valladolid: II, 603-618. Velázquez, Mª del C., 1968. La navegación transpacífica. Historia Mexicana (México), Vol. 18 (2): 159-178. Veyrat, E., 1995. Vida a bordo. In VV.AA., El San Diego. Un tesoro bajo el mar, Compañía Española de Petróleos, S.A. CEPSA, Madrid: 170-194. VV. AA., 2000. El galeón de Manila. Catálogo. Aldeasa: Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, s.l.. Yuste, C., 2000. Un océano de intercambios. In VV.AA., El galeón de Manila. Catálogo, Aldeasa, Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, s.l.: 139-150. 11 �Zárate Toscano, V., 2000. Los nobles ante la muerte en México. Actitudes, ceremonias y memoria (1750-1850). El Colegio de México, Centro de Estudios Históricos: Instituto Mora, México, D.F. Zúñiga Cisneros, M., 1978. Historia de la Medicina. Tomo II. La Medicina de los tiempos modernos: siglos XVI y XVII. Ediciones Edime, Caracas-Madrid. Biography Miguel Luque-Talaván is a lecturer at the Department of American History I of the Complutense University of Madrid. He has directed and taken part in several research projects, the last one under the title "Ethnohistoric and Topogenetics Atlas of The Philippine Islands". He has received several grants that allowed him to conduct researches in Mexico, Peru, Great Britain, USA, Portugal and the Philippines. His principal areas of specialization are the Derecho Indiano and the Iberoasia's History. As author or publisher, has published fourteen books and more than one hundred works. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Oceanic deaths aboard the Manila galleons Description An account of the resource In the present investigation we aim to make an approach to some aspects concerning life aboard the Manila Galleon (from the 16th to the 19th centuries), such as diseases, death and burial of bodies, the psychology of the crew in face of these facts, etc. All with the aim of contributing to a better knowledge of the life of the crew and the passengers on one of the most complex and long-lasting sea trade routes that have ever existed in the Modern Age. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Miguel Luque-Talaván, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Official Relations Between China and Japan, 1368-1549 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Yit‘ung Wang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Yit‘ung Wang Item Type Book Call Number DS740.5.J3W3 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1953 Extra Series: (Harvard-Yenching Institute studies ; 9) Item info: Place Hold Physical description: xi, 128 p. ; 26 cm Series: (Harvard-Yenching Institute studies ; 9) Bibliography note: Bibliographical references included in "Notes" (p. 112-116) LCCN: 53005062 Control Number: rla00041695 Library Catalog lib-app3.usc.edu Library Catalog Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Title A name given to the resource Official Relations Between China and Japan, 1368-1549 China Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0c1b2ecb8556ec307b9bda615458b7e0.pdf f21284b0bbace28faa2a5d5d7d3587e5 PDF Text Text Oil Spill Analysis on Ambon Bay, Moluccas, Indonesia: Its Influence on the SS Aquila Shipwreck Site Ulung Jantama Wisha Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia email: ulungjantama@gmail.com Guntur Adhi Rahmawan Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia email: guntura06@gmail.com Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia email: niahasanah79@gmail.com Gunardi Kusumah Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia email: lrkpl.balitbangkp@gmail.com Abstract The Steam Ship (SS) Duke of Sparta or SS Aquila shipwreck site is one of the underwater cultural heritages (UCH) discovered in Ambon Bay, Moluccas waters, Indonesia. Currently, this 1940-s British-Italian shipwreck is threatened by an oil spill contamination on Ambon Bay. In Ambon Bay, there is Wayaime Port, which is a transit port for ships, and the port for oil tankers to loading and unloading their oil cargoes. One of the biggest oil spill incidents in Ambon Bay occurred in August 2005, when a fishing boat of MV Fu Yuan Fu F66 was exploded. This on-going oil spill occurrence can affect SS Aquila site sustainability due to corrosion issue, disrupt marine tourism activities, and harm marine biota in the surrounding area. One purpose of the study conducted by Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2016 is to determine the oil spill distribution inside the Ambon Bay which is threatening the SS Aquila shipwreck site. The method employed in this �research is a hydrodynamic modelling approach of oil spill module. The result of oil spill modeling is then analysed spatially. The study results show the period of diesel oil distribution is reached ± 285 hours, with the spread direction is toward to Southwest (outer of the bay). The processes found in this oil spills event includes a process of dissolution, evaporation, and vertical dispersion. Based on the study, it can be concluded that the intake of the oil spill on Ambon Bay waters is undoubtedly threatening the preservation of the SS Aquila underwater cultural heritage along with its marine environment, and the development of marine heritage utilization. Keywords: SS Aquila, hydrodynamic modelling, oil spill analysis, underwater cultural heritage preservation Introduction The waters of Indonesian Archipelago, both in east and west parts, are significant on the regional-interregional maritime trade routes, and is wellknown as the center of the spice trade. The eastern part of Indonesian Archipelago became a vital area of global sea navigation due to abundant spices resources such as cloves, nutmegs, and cinnamon. While, the western part was important in the spice trade routes due to its position as the center of pepper trade (Harkantiningsih, 2013). That condition is caused by the strategic geographical location and the existence of the transportation network which facilitated the distribution of these primary trade commodities since an ancient time (Fig. 1). One of the essential spice trading spots in Indonesia is the Moluccas, which is also popular as Spice Islands. �Fig. 1: Map of Maritime Trade Routes (Source: http://juliansoplanit.blogspot.co.id/2011/11 modified by authors) The center city of Moluccas is Ambon city. This city has a long history of World War II (WWII) incident which involved the Japanese imperial troops and Allied Forces including Dutch Het Koninklijke Nederlands(ch)Indische Leger (KNIL) and Australia. After WWII was over in 1945, Ambon city along with other cities in eastern part of Indonesia faced a rebel movement incident committed by Perdjuangan Rakjat Semesta (PERMESTA) or The Universal People Struggle Army in 1957-1958. This rebellion to attack the Indonesian central government, and implicitly, to reestablished the Dutch colonialism in Indonesia, was supported by Allied Forces, particularly Dutch and United States of America (USA). In this PERMESTA rebellion time, the trade ship of SS Aquila was bombed by a Douglas B26 Invader plane in 1958 in the northern of Ambon Bay. This bombing of SS Aquila was planned by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of USA to clutter up the economic sector from trading activities in Indonesia (Amal, 2006). �Today, the location of SS Aquila is well-known as a dive site among the locals and international divers. It becomes one of the underwater cultural heritage sites discovered in Ambon Bay1 . This shipwreck is located on a slope on the seabed off Ambon, with its stern about 15 meters (8 fathoms) below the surface and its bow about 35 meters (19 fathoms) depth2 . Besides Aquila, there are some other shipwreck sites which have not been identified yet found in this bay. Recently, the existence of SS Aquila shipwreck is threatened by disposal waste, sedimentation, marine litters, and oil spill contamination which directly stream to SS Aquila and other UCH sites in the inner of Ambon Bay. A Wayaime Port in Ambon Bay is a transit port for many types of ships, and also the port for oil tankers to loading and unloading their oil cargoes. Therefore, oil spill incident becomes quite common in this bay. In August 2005, a fishing boat of MV Fu Yuan Fu F66 was exploded3 and became one of the biggest oil spill incidents in Ambon Bay. This on-going oil spill occurrence may affect SS Aquila site sustainability due to corrosion issue, disrupt marine tourism activities, and harm marine biota in the surrounding area. In addition, the lack of heritage knowledge and awareness of the local community, local authorities, oil and shipping companies, and general public regarding the importance of UCH preservation in Ambon Bay require immediate attention. Those conditions can endanger the wreck site and inhibit the site preservation, the development of maritime conservation area, and can decrease shipwreck diving tourism activities. Due to that reason, the research which deeply concerns in the oil spill impact to the shipwreck site is necessary to be conducted. Besides identifying the shipwreck site in Ambon Bay and researching its current physical condition, the underwater archaeological study carried out by the research team of Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2016 was also aimed �to determine the oil spill distribution inside the Ambon Bay which is threatening SS Aquila shipwreck. The History of SS Aquila (SS Duke of Sparta) SS Aquila was a cargo ship which initially named as SS Duke of Sparta. This Duke of Sparta was launched in 1940 from William Gray Shipyard, West Hartlepool, and later on, sold to a Napoli Italian company in 1951. Its name was changed and became SS Aquila. In Indonesian history, SS Aquila has been targetted to be destroyed by USA to support PERMESTA rebel movement interest in disrupting an economic sector of Indonesia. Besides SS Aquila, there are two other cargo ships in Ambon Bay, which were a Yunani ship, SS Armania, and Panama ship, SS Flying Lark. Those ships had been raided by Allen Lawrence Pope, a USA paramillitary aviator who flew CIA bombing missions in the PERMESTA rebellion. He joined USA Air Force officer, William H. Beale Jr, to operate a bomber aircraft Douglas B-26 Invader for PERMESTA rebels. In 27th April 1958, Allen Pope did his first mission at the same time of William Beale's 3rd bomb mission. The air raid of SS Aquila by Allen Pope was not resulting in any fatalities, and that ship was sunk one month after bombing incident on 27th May 1958. The Potential of Maritime Archaeological Resources of SS Aquila The top position of SS Aquila shipwreck was found in the depth of 15-35 meters with the bow position facing to southwest. The shipwreck body was still intact and several parts has collapsed, such as the crane, chimney, and the crane wall. Some parts of the shipwreck were damaged due to human pillaging. The ship engines, which were still intact and covered by cables and stairs, were found in the depth of ± 40 meters. While, the profiler cannot be seen anymore. Coral covered the shipboard name. �According to the information obtained from local people, there were massive lootings of SS Aquila shipwreck committed by irresponsible people using makeshift tools. It is assumed that the looters salvaged the ship profiler which has high economic value. The dimension of SS Aquila can be seen in Table 1. At the time of diving SS Aquila, the team still could penetrate some parts of the shipwreck to take a video and photo documentation. Figure 2 shows the underwater documentation of SS Aquila, and the location of Aquila shipwreck site is shown in Fig. 3. Table 1. The Specification of SS Aquila (Source: Tony, 2013) Name Type The sunken date Weight Length Width Height Propulsion Power SS. Aquila (1951-1958) SS. Duke of Sparta (1940-1951) Cargo ship 27th May 1958 in Wayame, Ambon Bay 5397 Ton 441.1 ft. (134.4 m) 57.8 ft. (17.6 m) 25.4 ft. (7.7 m) 3-cylinder triple-expansion steam engine 492 NHP �Fig. 2: SS Aquila and its current condition. Fig. 3: The location of the SS Aquila. There were a lot of biota living in the shipwreck site including 42 types of reefs which are covering the ship's body. Additionally, some types of fish can also be seen around the site. Local communities and foreigners �have known the presence of Aquila shipwreck. However, even though today it has been utilized for diving tourism, this Aquila site has not been managed properly by government, both local and central. The underwater cultural heritage potential in Indonesia is tremendously huge (Ridwan, 2011) in the form of shipwreck sites. This includes some shipwreck sites discovered across the Moluccas waters which related to the significance of sea trading activities in the maritime history of Moluccas waters. According to Amal (2006), the trading strategy implemented was expropriated the spice production area to facilitate monitoring. While, they also developed the collecting area of spices, such as Ambon waters, where the spices later on will be sent to Europe. Therefore, it is clear that the Moluccas is one of the most important regions of spice sea trading at that time with large number of sailing ships from many countries and regions. This situation added by many incidents from WWII until the PERMESTA rebellion caused the richness of UCH found in this area. The Oil Spill Problem in the Inner of Ambon Bay The presence of oil spill in the inner of Ambon Bay was severe alarming. The ships daily activities in Waiyame Port in Ambon Bay affect and increase the oil concentration in this sea waters area. This condition which is also supported by the weak water mass dynamics can result in the deposition of the oil spilled. According to Huang (1983), nine processes (including the physical, chemical, and biological processes) can cause the providence and behavior of spilled oil such as advection, spreading, evaporation, dissolution, emulsification, dispersion, auto-oxidation, biodegradation, and sinking/sedimentation. The spilled oil does not only inhibit the environmental condition but also affects negatively the biota. Moreover, all of part of sea water in the area will be polluted, and �consequently will also affect SS Aquila site sustainability and cause a corrosion issue on the shipwreck. The explosion incident of MV Fu Yuan Fu 66 resulted in the water pollution in Ambon Bay (Research Center of Biotechnology, 2009), which widespreaded along the coastline around the exploded ship. The source of explosion was an engine room and caused the ship's engine leaking, therefore, the oil spilled into the sea water (Helut, 2015). The prevention action was done by the local people using an oil boom net. However, the effort did not really work in reducing the impact of this oil spilled incident. Oil Spill Simulation Result The oil spill simulation was supported by a hydrodynamic flow model implementation which simulated to determine the oil spill distribution. The simulation applied for 15 days to represent the oil distribution period until the oil degraded and deposited in the bottom of the water. Flow model was employed to build a hydrodynamics simulation which is shown in the form of two-dimensional form (Warren and Bach, 1992; Mehdiabadi et al., 2015). The input of the model is using winds, bathymetry, and coastline data digitized using Google Earth image 2016. The surface elevation is obtained from NAOtide tide forecasting in the form of time series data. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) was deployed in shipwreck site area for 2x24 hours. ADCP records several physical data such as tide, temperature, and current data. The tides data are used for the verification of the results of the hydrodynamic modeling which employed Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) formula. The simulation applied only used one scenario which employed the diesel oil with the oil viscosity of 6.9 %v/v. The distribution velocity of oil that spilled in the surface is based on the viscosity of that oil. Oil with low �viscosity will be easier to flow and vice versa (Mukhtasor, 2007). The source of diesel oil spill was implemented as well as the sunken point of MV Fu Yuan and Wayame Port. The model simulated the oil contamination from the source which is modeled based on the release of the particles. The model result must be validated. The model validated by comparing the model data and field measurement data obtained. The graph of model validation is shown in Figure 4, which shows that the fluctuation of surface elevation has the same phase between two data. The RMSE value obtained of 4.57 %. The current speed obtained by retrieving the ADCP measurement result, which ranged from 0.1-0.3 m/s. According to Wang et al. (2008), the amount of oil released at sea is distributed among a large number of particles which are tracked separately. These particles are driven by a combination of induced currents, waves, and wind velocities. Fig. 4: Model validation using Surface Elevation. Exposure time is the time needed by the oil spilled to move from one grid to another grid (DHI, 2007). Based on the 15 days simulation resulted the distribution pattern of spilled oil, it shows that the diesel oil has the exposure time of ± 285 hours. According to Simonato et al. (2010), the diesel oil is easier to be exposed due to the unsupported of residual fraction. Fig. 5 shows the spilled diesel oil which well distributed around �the border of inner and outer Ambon Bay. The oil flows gradually following the current direction. For 15 days simulation, the oil exposed to the area of UCH preservation in Ambon Bay. The processes found in this oil spills event includes a process of dissolution, evaporation, and vertical dispersion. McCAy and Paine (2001) stated that the dissolution rate of hydrocarbons in water is useful in predicting both weathering pathways and possible biological harm. The oil evaporation effects on the formation of emulsification which the different types of emulsification are formed under different condition (Xie et al., 2007). Li et al. (2008) pointed out that the effectiveness of dispersion can be found in the water column oil concentration and size distribution of dispersed oil droplets. It dispersed and diluted under the regular wave and breaking wave condition. �Fig. 5: Simulation for exposure time to diesel oil for 15 days. The thickness of the diesel oil surface layer ranged from 105-185mm. It shows that the surface layer of diesel oil is 60% wider in the surface water, and the diesel oil is more readily exposed by hydrodynamic factors. The influence of spilled oil is threatening the existence of SS Aquila including the biota around it. This on-going vertically dispersed oil might be evoking the corrosion issue of the shipwreck impacted. The impression of SS Aquila is dominated by the remains of the boiler, engine, and frames which are formed from steel and iron. In the tropical seawater which is warm, the corrosion of steel and iron are faster due to the support of encrusting organism’s encapsulation such as bryozoan, corals and coralline algae (MacLeod, 2002). The occurrence of oil spilled aggravated the corrosion issue. The oxidation processes occurred beneath the marine growth and oil compound separation is the major �factor in the seabed corrosion. Supporting by the high rate of sedimentation will destroying the UCH of SS Aquila. Conclusion Based on the study of oil spill incident in the area of SS Aquila shipwreck site in Ambon Bay, it can be concluded that the distribution of diesel oil dominantly caused by hydrodynamic factors which evoke the process of dissolution, evaporation, and vertical dispersion. The water column dispersed oil triggers corrosion of the iron material such as a sunken ship in Ambon Bay. The intake of the oil spill on Ambon Bay is undoubtedly threatening the preservation of the SS Aquila underwater cultural heritage along with its marine environment, and disrupting the development of marine heritage utilization. This study can be useful as a basis for the preservation of SS Aquila and other UCH sites in Moluccas waters. This research can also raise awareness of the local government to give more attention to oil spill incident, sea water pollution, and plundering activities of shipwreck sites cpommitted by local communities in Ambon Bay. The rich history and potential of UCH sites in Ambon Bay can be utilized for the sustainable tourism development that gives opportunities to prosper the society in the vicinity. A lot of method to resolve oil spill problems has been developed by researchers around the world such as by using oil booms, organic solvents, and superhydrophobic and superoloephilic sponges. It is recomended that the local government in particular the environmental agency to periodically control the condition of the waters and the symptoms of oil spills in Ambon Bay. Preventive action to safe the marine environment is urgently necessary to overcome the corrosion effects �which occur in SS Aquila. The corrosion and site destruction on shipwreck site are unavoidable. However, it can be reduced through monitoring effort of ships movement on shipwreck site, decrease oil spill incidents and other pollutants, and use cathodic protection method . Endnotes 1 Information related to SS Aquila shipwreck diving can be found in some blogs of local divers. http://www.divingmaluku.com/2017/03/ambonwreck-diving-ss-aquila-duke-sparta/. The integrated scientific research regarding SS Aquila shipwreck has never been done before the research conducted by Research Institute of Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2016. The specification of SS Aqulla can be found in the Lloyd’s Register, Streamers & Motorships. London: Lloyd’s Register 1941. 2 3 This information was retrieved from http://www.m.liputan6.com. (Tumpahan minyak di perairan Ambon meluas/11 July 2017) Acknowledgements The acknowledgement and gratitude are given to Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (LRSDKP) for DIPA research budget 2016 in the Ambon Bay. We pay tribute to all research member team and everyone who have assisted the completion of this work, particularly Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan who has supervised the writing of this paper. References Amal, M. A., 2006. Spice Islands: A Journey History of Moluccas 12501950, Cooperation of Gora Pustaka Indonesia Nala Cipta Litera And Eastern Indonesia Stock Exchange, Ternate, Indonesia. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute Water and Environment), 2007. Manual Mike 21 Particle and Spill Analysis, Scientific Background, DHI Headquarters Agem Alle, DK-2970 Horsholm, Denmark. �Harkantiningsih, N, 2013. Ceramics Along the Spice Trade Route in the Indonesian Archipelago in the 16th -19th Century. Forum Arkeologi, 26 (1), 29-37. Helut, S., 2005. Tumpahan Minyak di Perairan Ambon Meluas, Local news online report 2015. Website (http://news.liputan6.com/read/107719/tumpahan-minyak-diperairan-ambon-meluas). Retrieved on 11th July 2017. Huang, J. C., 1983. A review of the state-of-the-art of oil spill fate/behavior models. In International Oil Spill Conference, American Petroleum Institute, Rhode Island: 313-322. Li, Z., Lee, K., King, T., Boufadel, M. C., & Venosa, A. D., 2009. Evaluating crude oil chemical dispersion efficacy in a flow-through wave tank under regular non-breaking wave and breaking wave conditions. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 58 (5): 735-744. MacLeod, I. D., 2002. In situ corrosion measurements and management of shipwreck sites. In International handbook of underwater archaeology (pp. 697-714). Springer. USA. McCay, D. F., & Payne, J. R., 2001. Model of oil fate and water concentrations with and without application of dispersants. In Proceeding of the 24th Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, Environment Canada, Edmonton, Alberta: 611-646. Mehdiabadi, F. E., Mehdizadeh, M. M., & Rahbani, M., 2015. Simulating wind driven waves in the Strait of Hormuz using MIKE21. Indonesian Journal of Marine Sciences, Vol. 20 (1): 1-8. Mukhtasor, 2007. Coastal and Sea Pollution. Pt. Pradnya Paramita, Jakarta. Research Center for Biotechnology, 2009. Molecular analysis of olyaromatic Hydrocarbon-Dioxygenase Gene from Indonesia marine bacteria: Strategy for biomonitoring oil spill, Indonesia TORAY Science Foundation (ITSF TORAY) 2008, Monitoring Result 29th October 2009, Indonesian Institute of Science, Cibinong. Ridwan, N. N. H, 2011. The Importance of empowering local community in preserving underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia: Case study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi. In Staniforth, M. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2011 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila: 222-237. �Simonato, J. D., Guedes, C. L., & Martinez, C. B., 2008. Biochemical, physiological, and histological changes in the neotropical fish Prochilodus lineatus exposed to diesel oil. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 69 (1): 112-120. Tony, A., 2013. SS Aguila (II) (+1941). Website (http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?11832). Retrieved on 14th July 2017. Wang, S. D., Shen, Y. M., Guo, Y. K., & Tang, J., 2008. Three-dimensional numerical simulation for transport of oil spills in seas. Ocean Engineering, Vol. 35 (5): 503-510. Warren, I. R., & Bach, H.,1992. MIKE 21: a modeling system for estuaries, coastal waters and seas. Environmental Software, Vol. 7 (4): 229240. Xie, H., Yapa, P. D., & Nakata, K. 2007. Modeling emulsification after an oil spill in the sea. Journal of Marine Systems, Vol. 68 (3): 489-506. Biography Ulung Jantama Wisha is Oceanography Research Scientist who has been working in the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries since 2015. He was graduated from Oceanography Department of Diponegoro University in 2014. Until present, he has contributed in several research projects on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites in Indonesia which conducted by Research Institute of Coastal Resources and Vulnerability. In 2015, he attended an underwater archaeology summer school organized by Institute of Archaeology-ICOMOS-ICUCH-SEAMEO SPAFA-UNESCO in Vietnam. His research interest is an applied oceanography area, including maritime archaeology, ocean modeling, environmental aspects, as well as ocean climate issues. He has published 17 writings until today. Guntur Adhi Rahmawan is Geomatics Research Scientist working in Indonesian Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries since 2015. He was graduated from Department of Geomatics Engineering, Diponegoro University. His research interest is a coastal resources and vulnerability, particularly in Hydrography area. Last year, he and his team have conducted research maritime archaeological resources for conservation �area in Ambon Bay which eventually provided the basis data of this paper. He also frequently contributed to other archaeological researches in RICRV and assisted in the making of shipwreck sketches in complementary analyzes of coastal resources. Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan is Maritime Archaeology Researcher working in Ministry of Marine Affairs since 2005. She hold a Master of Social Science in Environment and Heritage from James Cook University. Until present, she has led some research projects on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites throughout Indonesian Water. For her dedication, The President of Indonesia awarded Satya Lancana Wira Karya Award in 2015. Nia's interests include the relationship between UCH and its environment; threats to UCH; UCH long term protection; maritime museum affairs, community engagement; marine-heritage tourism; and illicit trafficking. Nia had attended some trainings held by UNESCO, ICCROM-SEAMEO SPAFA-The Getty Foundation, and The Netherlands Cultural Heritage Agency. She has published 51 her research results. Gunardi Kusumah has been working in the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. In 2010, he was assigned as a Head of Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) until present. His research interest is an Environmental Geology area. In recent years, he has focused his research on hydrogeology and groundwater resources, especially their characteristics and potency, as well as the interaction with coastal environment. He was also involved in all maritime archaeological researches conducted by RICRV from 2012-2017, and dedicates his expertise on sedimentation process and marine geological aspects to examine the vulnerability of shipwreck sites. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 9: Maritime/Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Southeast Asia (SEA) has been rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) over a long period, from ancient pre-history, through the age of commerce, into the World War II era. Recently, UCH research, survey, and mapping activities; preservation and management efforts; as well as human capacity building programs show the promising progress in SEA countries. However, various threats to UCH preservation and some shortcomings still can be found in many SEA countries, for instance, lack of funds, inadequate technology, limited human resources, and also lack of public and government attention to UCH legal protection and its long-term preservation. This session will highlight some topics, including current status of UCH preservation; current research or investigation on maritime heritage or UCH in SEA countries; maritime history in SEA; current legislations; recent human and natural threats to UCH in SEA countries; raising awareness and public education programs; in-situ preservation of UCH; sustainable shipwreck tourism development and balancing preservation efforts with economic benefit; community and general public engagement in UCH management plan; regional capacity building in Southeast Asia; as well as collaboration opportunities among stakeholders and SEA countries in researching, protecting, preserving, and managing UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig, Mc Gill University Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Oil Spill Analysis on Ambon Bay, Moluccas, Indonesia: Its Influence on the SS Aquila Shipwreck Site Description An account of the resource The Steam Ship (SS) Duke of Sparta or SS Aquila shipwreck site is one of the underwater cultural heritages (UCH) discovered in Ambon Bay, Moluccas waters, Indonesia. Currently, this 1940-s British-Italian shipwreck is threatened by an oil spill contamination on Ambon Bay. In Ambon Bay, there is Wayaime Port, which is a transit port for ships, and the port for oil tankers to loading and unloading their oil cargoes. One of the biggest oil spill incidents in Ambon Bay occurred in August 2005, when a fishing boat of MV Fu Yuan Fu F66 was exploded. This on-going oil spill occurrence can affect SS Aquila site sustainability due to corrosion issue, disrupt marine tourism activities, and harm marine biota in the surrounding area. One purpose of the study conducted by Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2016 is to determine the oil spill distribution inside the Ambon Bay which is threatening the SS Aquila shipwreck site. The method employed in this research is a hydrodynamic modelling approach of oil spill module. The result of oil spill modeling is then analysed spatially. The study results show the period of diesel oil distribution is reached ± 285 hours, with the spread direction is toward to Southwest (outer of the bay). The processes found in this oil spills event includes a process of dissolution,evaporation, and vertical dispersion. Based on the study, it can be concluded that the intake of the oil spill on Ambon Bay waters is undoubtedly threatening the preservation of the SS Aquila underwater cultural heritage along with its marine environment, and the development of marine heritage utilization. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ulung Jantama Wisha, Guntur Adhi Rahmawan Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Gunardi Kusumah Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Okinawa; the Rise of an Island Kingdom: Archaeological and Cultural Perspectives. Proceedings of a Symposium, Kingdom of the Coral Seas, November 17, 2007 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard Pearson Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available British Archaeological Reports Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-12-31 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Richard Pearson Item Type Book ISBN 1407303805 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-12-31 Library Catalog Amazon.com Place Oxford, England Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available British Archaeological Reports Short Title Okinawa; the Rise of an Island Kingdom Title A name given to the resource Okinawa; the Rise of an Island Kingdom: Archaeological and Cultural Perspectives. Proceedings of a Symposium, Kingdom of the Coral Seas, November 17, 2007 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Old Friends, New Enemies: The Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Arthur Jacob Marder Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford : Clarendon Press ; New York : Oxford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1981-1990 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Arthur Jacob Marder Item Type Book ISBN 0198226047 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1981-1990 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford : Clarendon Press ; New York : Oxford University Press Short Title Old Friends, New Enemies Title A name given to the resource Old Friends, New Enemies: The Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource On the Bronze Age Ship Model from Flores, Indonesia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dirk R. Spennemann Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1985 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Dirk R. Spennemann Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1985 Issue 3 Pages 237-41 Publication Title Internationa Journal of Nautical Archaeology Title A name given to the resource On the Bronze Age Ship Model from Flores, Indonesia Volume 14 Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Richard Salomon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Richard Salomon Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Issue 2 Pages 271-79 Publication Title Journal of the American Oriental Society Title A name given to the resource On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts: A Review Article Volume 115 India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6f297d1340fc774e1a5f8b0fdb3aacdf.pdf 11414bb7be6c33f17693aa26270135b6 PDF Text Text On-going archaeological researches on shipwrecked junks in the Philippines Franck Goddio¹, David Fabre¹, Marie-Amande Coignard² ¹Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology, Manila ²Archaeological Artefacts Conservator FEFNA. 125, Suerte Street, Pasay City, 1300 Metro Manilla, Philippines Email: dfabre.ieasm@yahoo.fr, marieamande.coignard@gmail.com Abstract The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA) have been working with the National Museum of the Philippines for twenty-eight years. The researches aim at illustrating the maritime history of the Philippines through excavations and studies of shipwrecks lying in their territorial waters. This presentation on junks focuses on a case study, with few conservation points. Some of the junks have been discovered during a systematic research campaign alongside historical trade routes. Some excavations have also been performed at the request of the National Museum. Our knowledge of the “Nanhai trade” is enhanced by the cargoes study: a large panel of Asian production disclosing a dynamic network of cultural influences and commercial exchanges lasting from the 11th to the 16th centuries. Some historical maritime trading roads have been revealed. The Santa Cruz junk, late 15th century, is representative of a transitional time in Nanhai maritime trade. In a way, this ship is a landmark of the last inter-Asian trading phase in the Chinese “Mediterranean” area, before the 16th century “globalization”. In addition, the Santa Cruz hull’s condition enabled completion of the existing documentation and a larger scale reflexion on cargo stowage and shipbuilding process. Specific analyses on construction details and hypothesis on assembly methods result in original data on the evolution of nautical techniques and on reciprocal influence and coexistence of shipbuilding technologies. Hence, the construction study contributes to the renewal of Nanhai maritime transport understanding, as it shows some original characteristic and a perfect appropriateness to inter-Asian maritime trade organization. Keywords: Chinese Trade, Junk, Naval Architecture, Nanhai Trade, Santa Cruz junk Introduction Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology undertakes, with the National Museum of the Philippines, archaeological missions in the Philippines since 1985. This work is centred on the search for, and the study of, territorial waters’ shipwrecks. These junks were found either during systematic surveys1, either while searching for Spanish galleons and East India Company vessels2, or found by following up information given by fishermen3. To date these include the Breaker (11th century), Investigator (13th century), Lena (about 1490), 1 �Española and Santa Cruz (both from the end of 15th century), San Isidro (about 1510), and Royal Captain Shoal (1573-1619)4. Development of Chinese commerce The cargoes of these merchant ships offer an overview of Asian products and trade routes with their development over more than six centuries, not only in Southeast Asia – the “Nanhai trade” –, but also in the Indian Ocean, and the Middle East. About Far East trade we knew, until recently, only the final and European phase, which began with the arrival of the Portuguese in Asia in the 16th century. The study of the shipwrecked junks in the Philippines contributes to the understanding of exchanges and the wider political and economical circumstances that led to the development of trade in the China seas and beyond, from the 11th century, when China established important and constant commercial links with the archipelago, up to the 15th century. Factors included improved navigational techniques, the apparition of a mercantile class, the reform of taxation, the unification of coinage, the development of new routes, the use of the monsoon system, the fight against piracy, the reforestation for shipbuilding, the expeditions of Zheng He, etc. Furthermore, the richness and variety of junk cargoes from the 15th century belies the restrictions on maritime trade implemented by the Ming Dynasty. Either the decrees prohibiting maritime trade caused an explosion in the price of South-East Asian products and thus created an incentive for smuggling, which is difficult to prove archaeologically, or there was considerable movement of goods to and from China within the category of official tribute5. It is also at this time that exchanges between China and the Philippines experienced a considerable expansion, formalised through tributary relations and the sending of ambassadors. Successful trading operations between the two countries meant that many Chinese settled there, especially at the end of the fifteenth century and the sixteenth century. In the Mingshi6 the Philippines are the subject of the following comments: “Luzon (...). Because of the fertility of the island, thousands of merchants from Zhanzhou went there. Many settled there... A large number of vessels visited Mindoro which became prosperous. The Chinese who traded with the island were treated with fairness and respect”. 2 �In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the arrival of Europeans would increase the volume of trade off the southern Chinese coast. The Spanish settled in the Philippines and massively imported, in 'Manila galleons', coins minted with silver mined in Mexico and Peru. To absorb this silver, the Chinese developed a very active trade with the Philippines, reaching as far as the Sultanate of Jolo. Navigation to the Philippines The Sulu Sea, south of the Philippine archipelago, between Mindanao, Borneo and the Moluccas, was an area of passage and exchange, certainly from the Tang period on (618907). According to Chinese written sources, one of the main routes to reach Borneo, a junction of major shipping routes (Manguin, 2001: 8), utilised the interior sea of the archipelago and thus provided opportunities for interaction with the local populations. The Shung Feng Hsiang Sung7 states that starting from the southern ports, navigators could choose from two routes: the western coastal route, along the coast of China until the Malay Peninsula and then into the Indian Ocean, or the maritime route to the east, across the South China Sea to the islands of Luzon and Mindoro, then continuing along the east coast of Palawan to reach either Balambagan, Borneo and Java, or the Celebes or Maluku. Before the end of the seventeenth century written sources do not mention a route along the west coast of Palawan. But it is precisely in this “Palawan Passage” that the junks Investigator, Breaker, Lena, and Royal Captain shoal were found, providing evidence of a “Nanhai Trade” route along the west coast of the island (Goddio et al., 1987; Fig. 1 View of the junk Lena during excavations. (© Christoph Gerigk Goddio et al., 2002). and Franck Goddio/FEFNA). 3 �Merchandise and cargoes The Chu-fan-chi, written by Zhao Rugua, inspector of trade in Fujiang Province in the early thirteenth century (Southern Song), describes the lands visited by Chinese merchants and also gives valuable information on the products traded8. Silks and ceramics were the main goods sold or bartered in exchange for spices, fragrant products and medicines. Luxury goods were very present: fine beads, precious stones, ivory, precious woods, etc. The Chinese reports from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which describe tributes sent from the Philippines to the Ming court, list substantially identical products. The excavations of the junks offer unique insight of this international Asiatic trade, and most especially an overview of Chinese ceramic production for export (Goddio, et al., 1987: 22-73; Goddio et al., 2002; Dizon and Orillaneda 2002; Orillaneda, 2008). Under the Song Dynasty (960-1276), the production of ceramics is clearly motivated by intellectual and aesthetic concerns (Breaker). The conquest of China by the Mongols in the thirteenth century, and then the “Tartar peace”, favoured the reopening of the great trade routes by land and sea. The ports of southern China, such as Guangzhou, Quanzhou or Whenzou, exported Qinghai and shufu porcelain, as well as celadon and 4 �stoneware (Investigator). In return, the Chinese probably imported, amongst other goods, a form of prepared cobalt from the region of Kashan in Persia, which, in the workshops in Jingdezhen, produced large quantities of “blue and white”, in many forms and styles, in the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Lena, Española, Santa Cruz). The cargo of the junk Lena (Figs. 1-2) is dominated by Chinese porcelain from the last decade of the fifteenth century (the reign of Emperor Hongzhi), mainly decorated in underglaze cobalt blue, some white monochrome pieces sometimes incised with floral motifs, a dish exceptionally richly decorated with enamel overglaze, and some fragments of fahua porcelain and stoneware with “celadon” glaze. Much of this material is similar to that in the collections of the Topkapi Saray in Istanbul and the sanctuary of Ardebil in Iran. Beyond the typological study of the ceramics, there is the question of the destination of the Lena. The large “blue and white” and celadon dishes, from the workshops of potters in Jingdezhen and Longqan are generally considered to be export ceramics for the Middleeastern market. The jugs, bottles, large boxes, and the writing cases could confirm this hypothesis. However, the numerous Thai celadon, the large brown glazed jars, and some porcelain never noticed in the Near and Middle East, together with woks, basins and bronze bracelets suggest that an Asian destination is most probable. Moreover, since Islam, already installed in the Indonesian archipelago, had entered the Pacific Islands at the end of the 15th century, it is conceivable that the Lena was sailing towards one of the sultanates in the region9. In the beginning of the sixteenth century two types of porcelain predominate. The first keeps the classic designs but the composition tightens and often becomes overloaded, the blue has a grey tone, and the glaze is clouded (San Isidro). The second category, made for a Muslim clientele is decorated with Arabic and Persian characters. These are small pieces designed for the use of a scholar. In the last quarter of the sixteenth century, quality deteriorates – the clay is less fine, the drawing crude, the blue is less intense – like the china in the Royal Captain shoal, certainly intended for markets in South East Asia. As evidenced from both texts and archaeology, beads formed a traditional part of the “Nanhai trade”. The Lena and the Santa Cruz transported many thousands of beads of different sizes, shapes and colours, fired in the Tao Maenam Noi kilns and packaged in small ovoid jars from Sawankhalok (Goddio et al., 2002). Several hundred have been 5 �uncovered during excavations of the Royal Captain shoal (Goddio et al., 1987: 74-75). While the typology of these beads is not sufficient to identify their place of production, chemical analysis indicates a significant proportion of lead and barium, which could suggest a Chinese origin10. Ethnological studies conducted since the late nineteenth century, particularly in Borneo and the Philippines, have recorded that the beads, used for a long time and in large quantities, were often from China11. The metal objects allow us to see the regularity of this trade over the centuries (Goddio et al., 1987: 76-81; Goddio et al., 2002: 235-248). All the junks, from the sixteenth eleventh centuries, to the carried cast iron ingots and pans. Wrought iron needles were Fig. 3 Ceramics stacked in the hold compartments in the junk also found in a small porcelain Santa Cruz. (© Christoph Gerigk and Franck Goddio/FEFNA) “blue and white” vase carried on the Lena. Needles were traditionally exported by China, as still recorded at the end of the sixteenth century by the governor of Manila, Antonio de Morga. In addition, more than 180 tin ingots were distributed within the junk. The production of this metal was located east of Sumatra, on the island of Banca, on the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands. Textual sources indicate that the tin was imported at Calamian Islands, Busuanga and the Palawan region. Among the recurring finds are bronze gongs, were sold throughout South East Asia by the Chinese (Wang Ta-Yuan, Tao-i Chih-Lioh, 1350). Some thirty years after the sinking of the junks Lena and Santa Cruz, Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan during his visit to the Sultan of the island of Cebu, Homahon, reported several Chinese bronze gongs of Chinese origin12. The quantity of ivory loaded on the Lena has been estimated at a minimum of eighty tusks of various sizes and weights (Goddio et al., 2002: 249). Written sources provide details about the trade in this product from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java and Coromandel. 6 �During the Song Dynasty, its importation was heavily taxed, and it had to be made available to the official market and could only be purchased by licensed traders. The cargo of the Lena also contained combs and precious lacquer boxes. Cargo stowage and organization The remains of the junks evidences contribute to determine stowage techniques and cargo organization (Figs. 3-4). The Lena shows us that ceramics, selected by shape and not by decoration, were stacked in the hold compartments. No trace of protective cases has been found; only residual bark and rice straw used as packing materials. The Santa Cruz had sub-compartments formed by a small bamboo fence, held by poles, wooden hurdles and bamboo links (Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). One characteristic of the cargo of the wreck of the Lena is the accumulation of small globular jars with the green glaze of Sawankhalok from the kilns of Satchanaloi. In one compartment of the ship, 297 of them remained stacked against each other. It is to be noted that the porcelain was not packed in jars (Goddio et al., 2002: 1-41). Jars of glazed clay, which the Chinese were the first to be able to make, were however the appropriate packaging for the transport of fragile goods. From the eighth to the sixteenth century, Chinese ceramics exported overseas were nested inside each other and then stacked in jars. In the estuary of the Pearl River fishermen have recovered Tang Dynasty (617-907) jars, used to package bowls and pots. Excavation of the junk Breaker correlates the data from Pinszhou Ketan on merchant ships loading Fig. 4 Stowage of the cargo in the junk Santa Cruz. (© Christoph during the Sung (960-1279). Gerigk and Franck Goddio / FEFNA) 7 �Naval Architecture Analysis of the junks discovered in the Philippines began to fill the gaps left by standard documentation. The junk Lena display a hull bottom 18 meters long and 5 meters wide – overall length being estimated at 24 m, that of a medium-sized vessel (Goddio et al., 2002: 1-41). Unfortunately, a thick layer of concretion, product of iron ingots shipment now welded to the remains, complicated the study. The hull, 23 strakes of which are preserved, is double, confirming Marco Polo's observation that Chinese junks had “a hull with a double skin formed by two superposed planks throughout the length of the ship, carefully caulked with tow on both sides and held together with good iron Fig. 5 Prow of the junk Santa Cruz. (© Christoph Gerigk and nails”. The ship has a hull with Franck Goddio/FEFNA) planks, made of Shorea sp., which are fully assembled from the freeboard, using small cylindrical tenons of Palaquium sp., spaced at eleven to twelve centimetres. The planks are fitted edge to edge and cut so that they fit into each other. To form the strake, the planks are joined with “Jupiter scarfs”. The absence of ribs is not surprising; texts and archaeological excavations show a subdivision of the hold with perpendicular bulkheads constituting the transverse frame of the boat. Discovered off the west coast of Luzon, the merchant junk Santa Cruz, also from the Ming Dynasty, late fifteenth century, has a hull 80% preserved under the waterline (Fig. 5). This rare state of preservation is partly due to sand burial and partly to wood species used for the construction and known to be chemically and physically water resistant, as the long lasting Vitex sp., Verbenaceae, the shipworms-proof Mimusops sp., Sapotaceae or the rotproof Afzelia sp., Caesalpiniaceae. Teakwood also contributed, since its oleoresin is abrasion-resistant and helped preventing corrosion of the nails. With three masts and a compartmented hold acting as frame, decked and supporting a castle, its length is about 8 �25 m with a 5.8 m width. A detailed study of the construction techniques has been made (Fig. 6) (Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). Fig. 6 Plan of the junk Santa Cruz. Transverse bulkheads with compartmented hold serving as frame. (© Patrice Sandrin and Franck Goddio/FEFNA) Discussion The case of the Santa Cruz In considering the details of construction and their assumed assembly methods, points of analysis related to the evolution of naval technology appear, as the contamination of one technique by another, the coexistence of different processes of construction, etc. Thus, the Santa Cruz architectural study opens up the question of the nature of shipping in the China Sea before Portuguese and Spanish galleons arrival, showing the originality of certain techniques, and an efficiency and technology perfectly adapted to intra-Asian maritime trade organization. 9 �Vessel architecture, date and nature of unearthed material as well as shipwreck location (west of the island of Luzon), make it highly to be a “Chinese” wreck – in the broadest sense of the term, namely travelling to or from China. Certainly built outside of China – most likely in the Philippines – it was loaded with an eclectic cargo of goods from all the major production centres of the Celestial Empire, collected in the harbour warehouses of southern China, but also Siam, Vietnam and elsewhere, before travelling to their final markets .The junk was as “Chinese” as the ships in the western Mediterranean from the imperial era were “Roman”. The junk was also “Chinese” in its construction, with a hull shaped as a piece of split bamboo, transverse bulkheads with a compartmented hold serving as frame, hull planks joined with iron nails but also, following the traditional hybrid Southern China Sea style, with the keel playing an essential structural role, and using timber of tropical origin. All the wood species used in the construction of the Santa Cruz are found in the Philippine archipelago and most of the islands in the South China Sea, but not in China. The merchants who had chartered it therefore could not belong to the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, sailing on ships built in China. The essentially “Chinese” architecture seems to rule out the possibility that it was chartered by the peoples of South East Asia, very active on the eastern route between Melaka and Manila Bay (Reid, 1996: 34-35), but who sailed on craft built with local traditional techniques (Manguin, 2001). Ultimately, given the assumed departure port of the ship, wrecked off the coast of Luzon, and the fact that its ceramics all date from a period when the prohibition to build ships and trade abroad was strictly applied by the Ming, it is highly unlikely that the ship and its charterers were of continental origin. It is much more likely that they belonged to a Chinese community located in the commercial towns of the archipelago. Certainly made in collaboration with local shipbuilders, the junk benefited from their particular expertise. Its construction is consistent with a “tendency to crossing, identified in shipbuilding technology evolution, with a new type of ship in archaeological sites from between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, probably coinciding with the increasing role played by Chinese trade and ‘merchant adventurers’ in Southeast Asia” (Manguin, 2001: 15). The Santa Cruz marks out the final phase of the intra-Asian trade in the late fifteenth century Chinese “Mediterranean”, before the sixteenth century “globalization”, when a new 10 �global geography emerges from expanding traffic and desires for domination. While this future changes did not effect the Santa Cruz, it is poignant to note that it was wrecked a few miles northwest of Manila, the future Spanish colony that would be installed on the already well established maritime trade route. Is it possible that Manila (Luzon), on the eastern “Nanhai Trade” route played the same role as Maleka, on the western route? Before the Spanish conquest, Maleka took advantage of the Chinese emperor's closure of the seas. Located on a key point of Chinese Eastern trade route, the city was well placed to assert itself as an unavoidable stop for the tributary exchanges between Asia SouthEast and China, and as a regional depot for goods travelling to or from the Empire13. Like the Portuguese in Maleka in 1511, the Spaniards were not mistaking in settling down in Manila in 1571 in order to become the preferred trading partner of China. It was there, even before the lifting of the Ming ban in 1567, that Fujian merchants, deprived of their main source of income, foreign trade, rushed to build junks capable of transporting goods from both China and South East Asia. Conservation While hulls remain in situ, excavated artefacts are conserved in land. If some have been sent overseas for treatment, most of them have been treated in Manila, in partnership which the National Museum. Experts have been called sporadically for interventions, but all the long-term tasks, as desalinisation process, are in charged of local staff, with good maintenance and very good results. It is noticeable that standard European treatments for metals protection have to be reinforced to fit with the Philippines very high relative humidity, while ceramics will benefit of a low risk of salt crystallisation due to the same factor. In-situ preservation is facilitated by usually calm deep water and sand burial but cyclones and pillars are a threat (i.e. pillars damaged the Lena site before excavation and stole the metal foils maintaining reburial sand on the Santa Cruz site). The Lena hull was reburied under 150 centimetres of sand, from the site itself, with no system to maintain the sand in position. Last checking on the Santa Cruz site shows that the sand was still in position despite the lack of holding devices. Given the complexity, the cost and the constraints of waterlogged ship conservation, there are no current plans to unbury and treat the hulls. Even with recent developments 11 �in waterlogged wood conservation, raising a ship should not become a standard operation unless it’s under direct destruction threat. Iron-saturated wood of the Lena would still be a nightmare to conserve. Researches may eventually solve problems due to iron sulphates, consolidation products, and sensibility to relative humidity. Currently, we better stand with in-situ conservation and scientific data compilation. Endnotes 1 Geophysical surveys notably led to the discovery of junk San Isidro. Goddio et al., 1997. 2 As for the Royal Captain shoal (Goddio et al., 1987). 3 As for the junks Breaker, Lena and Santa Cruz (Goddio et al. 1997; Goddio et al. 2002; Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). 4 Named after the site of their discovery. 5 Official “tribute” trade did not prohibit trade market exchange. Lam, in Goddio et al, 2002: 50. In particular, in the early fifteenth century, the Muslim city-states that developed in Southeast Asia became prosperous thanks to embassies sent to China which wove strong economic ties with the continental power, i.e.: Brunei. Karim Osman, 2001: 21-22. 6 The official history of the Ming dynasty. Quotes from Lam, in Goddio et al, 2002: 52. 7 An anonymous compilation written in 1430, with additions in 1571, the Shun Feng Hsiang Sung is one of the most important sources for sea routes followed between South China and the Indonesian archipelago, the Malabar Coast, Yemen, the Red Sea, the Sunda Islands or the Sulu Sea. Shun Feng Sung Hsiang, Laud MS, Or 145, Bodleian Library, Oxford. Needham, 1971: 581; Mills, 1979. 8 Hirth and Rockhill, 1911 9 In the fifteenth century, relations between China and Brunei developed considerably. At the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century, Brunei experienced a golden age and became the hub of the region, collecting at its port most of the forest products of western Borneo, as well as those of the neighbouring Muslim communities of Sulu and Mindanao. Karim Osman, 2001: 20; Manguin, 2001: 9-10. 10 Spectrographic analysis has also shown the role of metal oxides in the colouration of the beads. However one should be cautious as bacterial reduction following the shipwreck might have changed the colour of the beads by reducing the metal oxides in the paste. 11 We know the extremely important role that the beads played and continue to play in the lives of indigenous people of Borneo. The Philippines also imported glass beads, just as they did porcelain, gold, lead and iron needles (Rugua Zhao Chu-fan-chi, 40 trad. Hirth & Rockhill, 1911). The distribution of these beads has been identified in the archaeological sites along the western side of Luzon and the south-western fringe of the Philippines. 12 �12 Pigafetta, Voyage autour du monde, Ms. Fr. 24224 B.N. Paris. Musical or ritual instrument, and a sign of opulence, gongs were also used on boats to sound the hour and to announce the arrival of a trading junk to the local population. Among the metal objects discovered not directly related to trade were the guns found on the Lena, of great significance for the study of the armament carried by Asian ships and its technology, especially before the arrival of Europeans (Goddio et al., 2002: 237-241). Three staff guns were found during the excavations of the Santa Cruz (Goddio and Fabre, forthcoming). 13 Not to mention Brunei and Banten on in the South China Sea which played an important role in international trade, being termini for navigation in the South China Sea. References Dizon, E., Orillaneda, R. 2002. Ming Blue and Whites from Shipwrecks in the Phillippines. In Yuan and Ming Blue and White Ware from Jiangxi. Jiangxi Provincial Museum and the Art Museum: 211-223. Goddio, F. et al. 1987. La fouille de la jonque du Royal Captain shoal. Dossiers d’Histoire et Archéologie 113. Paris. Goddio, F., Desroches, J.-P., Crick, M., 1997. Weisses Gold. Göttingen. Goddio, F., Crick, M., Pierson, S., Scott, R., Lam, P.Y.K., 2002. Lost at sea, The strange route of the Lena shoal Junk. London. Goddio, F., Fabre, D. (dir.), forthcoming. The Ming Dynasty Santa Cruz junk shipwreck in the Philippines. Oxford. Hirth, F., Rockhill, W., 1911. Zhao Rugua, Chu-fan-chi. Saint Petersburg. Karim, Pg. Dr., Osman, Pg. Haji, 2001. L’épave de Brunei et sa contribution à l’histoire maritime de Brunei. In M. L’Hour (dir.), La mémoire engloutie de Brunei. t. 2. Paris: 1927. Manguin, P.-Y., 2001. Réseaux marchands et navires en mer de Chine méridionale. In M. L’Hour (dir.), La mémoire engloutie de Brunei. t. 2. Paris: 7-17. Mills, J.V. 1979. Chinese navigators in Insulinde about A.D. 1500. Archipel 18: 37-62. Needham, J., 1971. Science and Civilization in China. Cambridge. Orillaneda, B.C., 2008. The Santa Cruz, Zambales Shipwreck Ceramics: Understanding Southeast Asian Ceramic trade during the late 15th Century C.E. University of the Philippines. Diliman Quezon City. Reid, A., 1996. Sojourners and settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese. St. Leonard. 13 �Biography Franck Goddio is the founder and president of the Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA), Manila, of the Institut Européen d’Archéologie Sous-Marine (IEASM), Paris, and co-founder of the Oxford Center for Maritime Archaeology. Under his direction the FEFNA excavated wrecks in the Philippines in collaboration with the National Museum of the Philippines : trading junks and native boats dating from the 11th to the 16th century, Spanish galleons – the San Diego (1600) and the San José (1794) –, vessels of the British East India Company – the Griffin (1761) and the Royal Captain (1773). David Fabre is Doctor in Archaeology, he graduated from Montpellier University in 2003 and has participated to numerous archaeological excavations in France and elsewhere the world, specifically in Egypt which he concentrated on maritime trade shipwrecks. In 2004, he joined European Institute of Underwater Archaeology (IEASM), directed by Franck Goddio. He coordinate the publication of the junk Santa Cruz – discovered in the Philippines by The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA, Manila) in collaboration with the National Museum of the Philippines. Marie-Amande Coignard is graduated from Sorbonne University Master degree in archaeological artefacts conservation. After holding internships in France, Greece and Western Australia, she worked mainly on underwater archaeological heritage, in France (Arles, Roman boat excavation and conservation; Marseille, museum artefacts and Roman boats conservation), in Egypt (Alexandria, underwater excavation artefacts), and in the Philippines (Manilla, mainly Santa Cruz junk artefacts). After a winter-over in Antarctica, working on historical frozen heritage, Marie-Amande is currently conserving another antique shipwreck at ARC-Nucleart conservation centre. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource On-going archaeological researches on shipwrecked junks in the Philippines Description An account of the resource The Far Eastern Foundation for Nautical Archaeology (FEFNA) have been working with the National Museum of the Philippines for twenty-eight years. The researches aim at illustrating the maritime history of the Philippines through excavations and studies of shipwrecks lying in their territorial waters. This presentation on junks focuses on a case study, with few conservation points. Some of the junks have been discovered during a systematic research campaign alongside historical trade routes. Some excavations have also been performed at the request of the National Museum. Our knowledge of the “Nanhai trade” is enhanced by the cargoes study: a large panel of Asian production disclosing a dynamic network of cultural influences and commercial exchanges lasting from the 11th to the 16th centuries. Some historical maritime trading roads have been revealed. The Santa Cruz junk, late 15th century, is representative of a transitional time in Nanhai maritime trade. In a way, this ship is a landmark of the last inter-Asian trading phase in the Chinese “Mediterranean” area, before the 16th century “globalization”. In addition, the Santa Cruz hull’s condition enabled completion of the existing documentation and a larger scale reflexion on cargo stowage and shipbuilding process. Specific analyses on construction details and hypothesis on assembly methods result in original data on the evolution of nautical techniques and on reciprocal influence and co- existence of shipbuilding technologies. Hence, the construction study contributes to the renewal of Nanhai maritime transport understanding, as it shows some original characteristic and a perfect appropriateness to inter-Asian maritime trade organization. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Franck Goddio David Fabre Marie-Amande Coignard, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014