37 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ac5b4fd48c9fca87015af730ac8d455f.pdf 75db4c90879bddfac25acef444421d28 PDF Text Text Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with Carbon fibre reinforced plastic Jae-Yang Kim (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, researcher) Jong-Rok Ha (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) Jun Seok (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) Jae-Hyung Jo(Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) ABSTRACT Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) is a high-strength, lightweight material that is widely used in the aerospace and automobile industries, and recently is also used in the shipbuilding field. However, the fibre volume fraction of the shipbuilding composite material process is less than 35% due to the hand lay-up process and the low-vacuum liquid resin transfer moulding process technology. The autoclave process and vacuum oven curing process are difficult to apply to the shipbuilding industry due to high equipment and processing costs. A vacuum liquid forming process must be used to increase the fibre volume fraction. In the project under study, the Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) must be equipped with various equipment, so it must be light and strong. Accordingly, ASV is being studied using CFRP among composite materials for shipbuilding. In this study, a vacuum liquid moulding process capable of manufacturing high-quality carbon composites is applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. In order to evaluate the manufacturing process of the unmanned probe carbon composite hull, the viscosity of the resin and the permeability of the fibre mat were measured. The permeability coefficient of the preform was determined as the in-plane time flow rate using the radial flow method. The fibre volume fraction was measured at 48, 50, and 52 per cent, and a study was conducted after process simulation based on the measurement results and basic data such as pressure gradient, inlet and outlet design, and process optimization. RTMWORX was used as a simulation program. Keywords: Autonomous surface vehicle, Carbon fibre reinforced plastic, Permeability, Fibre Volume Fraction List of Table Table 1. Result of permeability 1. INTRODUCTION The topic of this abstract fits best within Session 19 because the technology under study is the construction of technologies and systems for underwater cultural heritage surveys. In the case of carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP), they are mainly used in the aerospace field due to their high specific strength and specific stiffness. Recently, interest in eco-friendly ships has increased and research for application to the shipbuilding field to improve fuel efficiency is being actively conducted. The composite manufacturing process currently used in the shipbuilding field is a hand lay-up process, which is mainly used for manufacturing low-quality composites. Recently, a high-quality composite manufacturing process has become required, with a fibre volume ratio of 45 per cent or more (Um et al. year). In this study, the vacuum liquid forming process, which can manufacture high-quality carbon composites, will be applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. The vacuum liquid moulding process is a method in which resin is impregnated by fluidizing it by a difference in air pressure in a vacuum state and is mainly used in the production of large composite materials. In order to evaluate the manufacturing suitability of the carbon composite hull of the unmanned probe, a process simulation was performed based on basic data such as viscosity measurement of resin, permeability coefficient of fibre mat, and pressure gradient, and then inlet and outlet design and process optimization research were conducted. 1 �2. CASE STUDIES The case study under consideration is the development of an Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) for underwater cultural heritage investigation using autonomous navigation technology, and includes reference to a field demonstration. The outline of this research and development is to create a platform system that can operate autonomously in shallow waters and simultaneously utilise equipment used for underwater surface surveys. This research study aims to develop a twin-hull ASV platform that reduces errors by using autonomous navigation and ICT technology through machine learning. The ASV platform can automatically return in case of an emergency, has a navigation error of ±1m, and aims to develop a Dynamic Position (DP) system for apex three dimensional (3D) exploration. An autonomous driving system was introduced for cost-effective data acquisition. This study aims to develop unmanned technology that incorporates the core technologies of the fourth industrial revolution (artificial intelligence, internet of things, etc.). As for the use and application areas of the developed product, all survey activities listed in the buried cultural heritage work guidelines (topographic survey, high-frequency strata survey, seabed survey, geomagnetic survey, diving survey, etc.) be performed. 3. RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include resin, fibre utilisation knowledge, understanding of underwater environment and hull design, and manufacturing technology. Regarding the resin, all resin systems used in composite materials require properties such as excellent mechanical properties, excellent adhesive performance, excellent toughness, and excellent resistance against environmental degradation. Resins used in marine composites are thermosetting resins, and polyester or epoxy resins are mostly used. Thermosetting resins such as polyester and epoxy are more convenient to use in the process because they are cured without generating volatile by-products (ref. CMH). The mechanical properties of the resin should have high maximum strength and stiffness and exhibit high strain until fracture, which means that it is hard but not weak against brittle fracture at the same time. When the composite is subjected to tensile forces, the resin must deform at least as much as the fibres. The adhesive performance of resin is important because excellent adhesive performance between resin and fibre is required in the manufacture of composite materials, so to effectively transfer the load when a load is received, and to prevent cracks or separation between fibres and resin. Fibres used in manufacturing composites can be largely divided into carbon fibres, glass fibres, and natural fibres, and most of the fibres used in hull manufacturing are glass fibres. Carbon fibre has the highest mechanical properties, but its utilisation rate is low in hull manufacturing in terms of price. In order to increase the stability of the hull, the fibres are arranged in a fibre stacking pattern according to the direction of the load received by the hull. Since ASVs used in shallow waters are always exposed to marine environments such as salt water, ultraviolet rays, sea wind, and wave power, they have a high risk of corrosion and have a problem in that their lifespan is shortened by repeated loads from waves. As a solution to this, we want to manufacture an ASV hull using composite materials. 4. FRAMEWORK The research approach uses the hull concept of unmanned self-driving vehicles/unmanned probes and uses high-frequency geological exploration technology to investigate underwater cultural assets, the national heritage and heritage of human civilization. Underwater surface survey is conducted using underwater survey equipment, but there is no standard for systematic exploration research, exploration equipment, or methods for underwater cultural heritage exploration. The majority of underwater artefacts currently being excavated come from shallow coastal areas. When it is necessary to investigate these shallow seabed and intertidal areas, such as coastal areas and coastal estuary 2 �wetlands, which are inaccessible to general ships, shallow draft vessels are used, such as rubber boats. Although underwater surface surveys are being conducted using a micro-vessel, there are cases in which these surveys cannot be conducted due to problems in the operation of the vessel and or the safety of the investigators. The possibility of autonomous underwater surface survey for shallow water can be expected to increase the possibility of finding underwater artefacts several times. Recently, as the 4th industrial revolution is emerging, it is a national project in Korea for the development of unmanned free-running ships (autonomous USVs) that combine ICT and convergence industries to revitalise coastal surveys and observations, logistics transportation, and the stagnant shipbuilding industry. Research and development for self-driving ships is in progress, and miniaturised self-driving ships for marine surveys are developing rapidly. If an unmanned ASV for underwater cultural heritage research is developed, it will be possible to conduct a large-area underwater surface survey very efficiently, compared to the current underwater surface survey method. In addition, as economic and industrial activities in coastal waters increasingly occur, such as offshore plant construction, it is clear that data is important for preserving and managing underwater cultural heritage properties. It is therefore important to acquire high-quality marine information to determine the exact location of underwater cultural assets existing in sedimentary layers or on the seabed, and based on this, precise underwater surface survey (secondary survey) and excavation work must be conducted. In addition to the survey and exploration equipment currently used for underwater surface survey, there is 3D exploration to obtain more precise and accurate survey results, and based on the information obtained through this, accurate and precise result data suitable for the purpose of underwater surface survey. If a small self-driving marine survey vessel suitable for underwater cultural heritage exploration is developed and fitted out with equipment capable of precise investigation, the possibility of discovering underwater cultural heritage increases, even if the investigation is carried out in shallow water areas. Competing organisations that have technology related to unmanned autonomous ships in Korea are national research institutes such as Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Korea Ocean Research Institute, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Research Institute, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering ENR, and university industry-university cooperation foundations. In the case of ships, some small and medium-sized enterprises conducted research related to detection of hazardous materials through remote control and collection of wastes on the water, but it was confirmed that there was no research related to complex unmanned autonomous marine survey vessels (boats). As for technologies related to autonomous ships overseas, China and the West (USA and Europe) are leading the research and development of technologies and commercialised ships (boats) in marine-related companies. Representative companies include ASV Global, Unmanned Marine Systems, Maritime Robotics, and Oceanalpha (China), but the development of commercialised boats related to complex unmanned autonomous marine research vessels (boats) was developed by marine research related companies. In commercialised boats, marine survey equipment (baywater surveying equipment, etc.) is individually installed and operated on autonomous unmanned ships. 5. RESULTS The results are establishment of basic design conditions through identification of resin characteristics and inlet and outlet design and process optimization research were conducted. To evaluate the manufacturing processability of the carbon composite material, the permeability coefficient of the fibre mat was measured. To measure the permeability coefficient, a radial flow type permeability coefficient measurement equipment was fabricated. The permeability coefficient of the radial flow method can determine the fluidity of the in-plane (in-plane) direction resin. Silicone oil was used for stable flow of the liquid phase, and the permeability coefficient was measured using Darcy's equation by measuring the advancing distance of the resin over time. 3 �Ū= − 𝐾 µ 𝑃 [Darcy`s equation(Ū : Resin speed, K : Permeability, μ : Viscosity, P : pressure)] The rheological properties of the resin were analysed using a rheometer. The equipment used for rheological property analysis was HR-20 from TA Instruments, and the optimum temperature and pot life of the process were identified through dynamic and static analysis. Using the permeability coefficient and resin viscosity measured above, process design was performed using the RTMWORX program of POLYWORX in the Netherlands. The results of Table 1 below were obtained through the measurement of the permeability coefficient of the fibre mat. Based on the permeability coefficient measurement results, it will be applied to process simulation. In the process design of this study, the injection viscosity of the resin was determined to be 1 Pa.s, and at this time, the fluidity of the resin (1 Pa.s and pot life (about 70 min) were judged to be appropriate, and the optimal process design was performed through simulation in the future (Ha et al. 2022). Table 1. Result of permeability coefficient Vf 48 50 52 Test 1 2 3 Avg. 1 2 3 Avg. 1 2 3 Avg. K1 1.10E-09 1.28E-09 1.26E-09 1.18E-09 6.19E-10 6.03E-10 6.67E-10 6.30E-10 2.98E-10 2.89E-10 2.16E-10 2.68E-10 K2 6.88E-10 6.89E-10 6.99E-10 6.92E-10 4.59E-10 4.65E-10 4.44E-10 4.56E-10 2.76E-10 2.84E-10 1.94E-10 2.51E-10 K1/K2 6.85E-.01 5.37E-01 5.56E-01 5.93E-01 7.42E-01 7.70E-01 6.65E-01 7.26E-01 9.26E-01 9.83E-01 8.98E-01 9.36E-01 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported 2023 Cultural Heritage Smart Preservation & Utilization R&D Program by Cultural Heritage Administration, National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (Project Name: Development of ASV for underwater cultural heritage investigation using autonomous navigation technology and field demonstration, Project Number: 2022A01D10-002, Contribution Rate: 100 Per cent) BIBLIOGRAPHY CMH, “Resin system”, Composites Materials Handbook Ha, J.R Kim, J.YSeok, J. Cho, J. H. Evaluation of manufacturing fairness of hulls applied with CFRP for unmanned probes”, KSMTE Annual Spring Conference 2022, 158 Um, M.-K, Lee, S.-K., Kim, T.-W., Kim, J.-H and Kim, S.-W. A Study on the Determination of In - Plane Permeability of Fiber Preforms, Composites research 75-83. 4 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with Carbon fibre reinforced plastic Description An account of the resource Carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) is a high-strength, lightweight material that is widely used in the aerospace and automobile industries, and recently is also used in the shipbuilding field. However, the fibre volume fraction of the shipbuilding composite material process is less than 35% due to the hand lay-up process and the low-vacuum liquid resin transfer moulding process technology. The autoclave process and vacuum oven curing process are difficult to apply to the shipbuilding industry due to high equipment and processing costs. A vacuum liquid forming process must be used to increase the fibre volume fraction. In the project under study, the Autonomous Surface Vehicle (ASV) must be equipped with various equipment, so it must be light and strong. Accordingly, ASV is being studied using CFRP among composite materials for shipbuilding. In this study, a vacuum liquid moulding process capable of manufacturing high-quality carbon composites is applied to the hull of an unmanned probe. In order to evaluate the manufacturing process of the unmanned probe carbon composite hull, the viscosity of the resin and the permeability of the fibre mat were measured. The permeability coefficient of the preform was determined as the in-plane time flow rate using the radial flow method. The fibre volume fraction was measured at 48, 50, and 52 per cent, and a study was conducted after process simulation based on the measurement results and basic data such as pressure gradient, inlet and outlet design, and process optimization. RTMWORX was used as a simulation program. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jae-Yang Kim Jong-Rok Ha Jun Seok Jae-Hyung Jo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Kim, Jae Yang. 2023. “Evaluation of the Manufacturing Processability of Exploration Vessels Applied with CFRP.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2017 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f5710969a8340f73875e222544732b7f.pdf f11479bd2215048ddf6d8c0092d6cb0c PDF Text Text Development of Small Autonomous Surface Vehicle Design for Underwater Cultural Heritage Jun Seok (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) and Jae-Hyung Jo (Research Institute of Medium&small Shipbuilding, Senior researcher) ABSTRACT As part of research on unmanned exploration equipment, we conducted a study related to the development of a small autonomous surface vehicle for exploring underwater heritage in areas that are difficult to access by ship. In order to develop an autonomous surface vehicle, initial conceptual design was performed by examining the constraints of the vehicle, and the hull foam was developed based on the results of the conceptual design. In addition, the developed hull foam was used to estimate the resistance and motion performance using numerical simulation methods, and the thrusters and related equipment were selected based on this. Keywords: Autonomous surface vehicle, Hull foam, Underwater exploration List of Figures and Tables Figure 1 U-shape hull foam of autonomous surface vehicle Figure 2 GZ curve at draft 0.37m Figure 3 Results motion analysis at 2 knots Figure 4 Results motion analysis at 4 knots Figure 5 Results of resistance performance from 2 knots to 5 knots Table 1 Results of static stability Table 2 Results of resistance simulation 1. INTRODUCTION In general, underwater surveys are conducted using ships, and in areas that are difficult to access by ship small boats such as rubber boats are used to conduct underwater surveys. However, there are many cases where surveys cannot be carried out in these areas due to the possibility of problems with the operation of the boat and the safety of the surveyors. In the field of marine survey, various equipment is being developed to conduct surveys in the nearshore and shallow water area where such surveys are difficult. In particular, in recent years, unmanned exploration equipment has been developed by applying rapidly developing ICT technologies such as the 4th Industrial Revolution and 5G technology. In the case of underwater artefacts, they are mainly excavated in shallow coastal environments rather than in deeper waters (> 110 m depth), so precision exploration at shallow water depths can increase the probability of discovering underwater artefacts. In addition, if an unmanned autonomous surface vehicle for underwater cultural property investigation is developed, it may be more efficient than the current manpower-dependent exploration method. Therefore, as a first in developing this new technology, this research program conducted a study related to optimal hull design and development of 3m-sized unmanned surface vehicle as a fundamental study for the development of small surface autonomous vehicles that can be used in coastal areas to increase the efficiency of exploration of underwater cultural heritage. 1 �2. HULL FOAM Typically, a small boat has a V-shape hull to improve resistance performance, however the autonomous surface vehicle developed in this study has a maximum speed of four knots, which is similar to the Froude number of a merchant ship. In addition, as we need a flat space at the bottom of the hull to attach sensors for exploration, we developed a U-shape hull foam as Figure 1. The conditions required for autonomous surface vehicles developed in this study can be summarised as follows. 1. Purpose: autonomous surface vehicle carries out unmanned exploration of underwater cultural heritage after being transported by a platform vessel to the exploration area. 2. Hull foam: Catamaran type for loading space 3. Size: It should be able to be loaded on a ship, and it should be able to be transported in a container. 4. Velocity: To ensure exploration quality, the maximum speed is 4 knots. 5. Operating time: Maximum 4 hours at 4 knots 6. Propulsion type: Azimuth type thruster for dynamic positioning 7. Power source: Gasoline generator (main) and battery (emergency) Figure 1 U-shape hull foam of autonomous surface vehicle 3. PERFORMANCE ESTIMATION Stability calculation and motion analysis were performed to confirm the static & dynamic stability of the developed hull. Also, resistance performance was analysed to determine the specifications of the propulsion system. 3.1 Static stability Static stability analysis was performed to confirm the stability using the software package Maxsurf stability. For static stability analysis, it is essential to estimate the weight and centre of gravity of the mounted equipment on the hull. We estimated the weight by categorising the equipment as exploration, propulsion, and navigation, resulting in an estimate of 206 kg for exploration, 110 kg for navigation, and 320 kg for propulsion. The hull weight was calculated assuming a thickness of 5 mm to give a weight (200 kg). The total weight is therefore not expected to exceed one ton. The vertical centre of gravity was assumed to be 0.5 metres above the bottom of the hull. 2 �The result of the static analysis is shown in Table 1. The Metacentric height (GM) values are all above 1 at a draft of about 0.3 to 0.4 metres. In addition, the righting arm (GZ) as shown in Figure 2, at a draft of 0.37m, satisfies the IMO stability criteria. As a result, this autonomous surface vehicle is considered safe. Draft (m) Displacement (ton) KG (m) GM (m) Table 1 Results of static stability 0.317 0.331 0.8 0.8463 0.5 0.5 1.864 1.795 0.344 0.8925 0.5 1.738 0.357 0.9388 0.5 1.706 0.37 0.9849 0.5 1.806 Figure 2 GZ curve at draft 0.37m 3.2 Dynamic stability Dynamic stability analysis was performed to confirm the stability using the software package Maxsurf motion. The motion analysis was performed in strips for ship speeds (2, 4 knots), and irregular wave conditions were considered using ITTC spectrum and the wave height and period of Sea-State 2. The results of the analysis are shown as Figures 3 and 4. As the speed increases, the heave is increasing in a head sea (180 degree) and decreasing in the following sea (0 degree). Overall, however, the motion is small, less than 10 cm. In the case of roll, the largest value of 1.4 deg. is found in the beam sea (90 degree), which is estimated to be stable, and the same as heave, the roll tends to decrease in the quartering sea (45 degree) as the speed increases. In the case of pitch, the motion tends to increase as the speed increases, and the largest motion is found in the following sea (0 degree) as 1.33deg. However, the difference between stern and stem draft is about 7cm, which is considered to be stable considering the hull length. 3 �Figure 3 Results motion analysis at 2 knots Figure 4 Results motion analysis at 4 knots 3.3 Resistance performance Resistance performance was performed to determine the specifications of propulsion system. In this study, the commercial software Star-CCM+ was used. The governing equations were the continuity equation and momentum equation for three-dimensional unsteady incompressible viscous flow. For detailed analysis conditions, refer to Seok and Park (2020a). The numerical simulation was performed under two conditions of draft at 360 mm and at 370 mm. For a draft of 370 mm, we also performed additional analysis under ship speed conditions of 2-5 knots to determine the resistance performance. The results of the analysis are shown in Table 2 and Figure 5. When the speed is 4 knots, it can be seen that the resistance acting on the ship increases as the draft increases by 10 mm, and the increase is approximately 4 percent. When the draft is 370 mm, the resistance acting on the ship increases according to the ship speed, and the resistance is estimated to be 530N at the target speed of 4 knots. Therefore, assuming that the efficiency of the propulsion system is 50%, 1060 N is required for the ship to reach a target speed. 4 �Figure 5 Results of resistance performance from 2 knots to 5 knots Type Autonomous surface vehicle Table 2 Results of resistance simulation draft Speed (mm) (knots) 360 4 2 3 370 4 5 Resistance (N) 510 32 116 530 1,230 4. RESULTS In this paper, research on the development of initial hull foam and performance estimation for the developed autonomous surface vehicle was conducted. For the development of the hull foam, the requirements of the autonomous surface vehicle were reviewed, and U-shape hull foam was finally developed. In addition, stability analysis and resistance performance estimation were performed on the developed hull foam using commercial software such as Maxsurf stability, Maxsurf motion, and Star ccm+. For static analysis, the weight and centre of gravity of each part were estimated, and static and dynamic analysis were performed using it. As a result, it was confirmed that the developed hull was safe. Additionally, the resistance performance estimates indicated that the autonomous surface vehicle would require approximately 1000 N of propulsion to achieve its target speed of 4 knots. Based on the results of this study, a propulsion system will be selected and the autonomous surface vehicle will be built, and its performance will be confirmed by sea trial after construction. 5 �ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is supported 0000 Cultural Heritage Smart Preservation & Utilization R&D Program by Cultural Heritage Administration, National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (Project Name: Development of ASV for underwater cultural heritage investigation using autonomous navigation technology and field demonstration, Project Number: 2022A01D10-002, Contribution Rate: 100%) BIBLIOGRAPHY Seok, jun and Park, Jong-chun. “Comparative Study of Air Resistance with and without a Superstructure on a Container Ship Using Numerical Simulation”, Journal of marine Science and Engineering, Vol.8, No.267 (2020a): 1-14 Seok, jun and Park, Jong-chun. “Numerical simulation of resistance performance according to surface roughness in container ships”, International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Vol. 12 (2020b): 11-19. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Development of Small Autonomous Surface Vehicle Design for Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource As part of research on unmanned exploration equipment, we conducted a study related to the development of a small autonomous surface vehicle for exploring underwater heritage in areas that are difficult to access by ship. In order to develop an autonomous surface vehicle, initial conceptual design was performed by examining the constraints of the vehicle, and the hull foam was developed based on the results of the conceptual design. In addition, the developed hull foam was used to estimate the resistance and motion performance using numerical simulation methods, and the thrusters and related equipment were selected based on this. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jun Seok Jae-Hyung Jo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Seok, Jun . 2023. “Development of Small Autonomous Surface Vehicle Design for Underwater Cultural Heritage.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2021 Asia-Pac Session 19 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Indonesian Influence on East African Culture Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource James Hornell Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1934 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author James Hornell Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1934 Pages 305-32 Publication Title Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Title A name given to the resource Indonesian Influence on East African Culture Volume 64 Southeast Asia Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. 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Title A name given to the resource Gold Rush Port: The Maritime Archaeology of San Francisco's Waterfront Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource James P. Delgado Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-03-04 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author James P. Delgado Item Type Book ISBN 0520255801 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-03-04 Library Catalog Amazon.com Place Berkeley Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Short Title Gold Rush Port Title A name given to the resource Gold Rush Port: The Maritime Archaeology of San Francisco's Waterfront China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Khubilai Khan's Lost Fleet: In Search of a Legendary Armada Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource James P. Delgado Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-04-13 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author James P. Delgado Item Type Book ISBN 0520259769 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-04-13 Edition 1 Library Catalog Amazon.com Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University of California Press Short Title Khubilai Khan's Lost Fleet Title A name given to the resource Khubilai Khan's Lost Fleet: In Search of a Legendary Armada Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3844e62340061a4304268a5a30b477dd.pdf 01602d4037eaf1613d07dacfc7188fe6 PDF Text Text Abandonment Issues: An Assessment of Military Vessel Discard Trends Derived from Australasia’s Torpedo Boat Defences, 1884-1924 James W. Hunter, III Abstract Between 1884 and 1924, a total of fourteen torpedo boats served in the naval defence of Australia and New Zealand. Australasia’s colonial governments purchased these vessels as a consequence of fears of seaborne invasion by Imperial Russia and other foreign powers during the 1870s and 1880s. All were eventually decommissioned, put up for sale, stripped of their most valuable components, and abandoned. Archaeological investigation of four of these discard sites has revealed abandonment attributes distinctly different from documented disposal trends associated with commercial watercraft of the period. This paper will highlight these unique discard trends, and explore tentative explanations for their presence through the filter of site formation process. Archaeology and Watercraft Discard Abandoned watercraft have been addressed extensively in archaeological literature; however, recent research conducted by Nathan Richards (1997, 1998, 2002, 2008, 2011) constitutes the first concerted effort to identify, evaluate and define cultural mechanisms associated with ship discard. These studies have demonstrated the utility of cultural site formation theory—as advocated by scholars such as Michael Schiffer (1972, 1983, 1995, 1996; see also LaMotta and Schiffer 2005; Skibo and Schiffer 2008) Keith Muckelroy (1975, 1976, 1978), and Martin Gibbs (2005, 2006)—within maritime contexts, and builds upon existing models by incorporating terms and definitions that apply exclusively to archaeological signatures of watercraft use and abandonment. Richards addresses some discard behaviours specific to military vessels, including the intentional destruction of warships for offensive or defensive tactical purposes (i.e. block ships and fire ships) but gives relatively little attention to their abandonment in non-combat contexts. This is countered somewhat by his acknowledgement that many potential research themes have emerged, "from the need to refine the abandoned vessel data set and more comprehensively establish, dismiss, and discuss any number of discard trend correlates", including the intentional peacetime disposal of decommissioned military vessels (Richards 2008:183). Richards (2008:145-147) identifies archaeological signatures of use and discard that operate as indicators of a vessel’s functional utilisation in a pre- and post-abandonment capacity. Although the bulk of his explanatory model is applied to commercial watercraft, many—if not all—of the behaviours he describes were also common in military contexts and can therefore be applied to the torpedo boats addressed in this paper. Relevant archaeological signatures of �use as they apply to watercraft include their conversion and modification to secondary functional roles, transition to specialised support vessels, and functional post-abandonment use. Similarly, abandoned watercraft may exhibit one or more specific signatures of discard including: structural minimisation, a variety of pre- and post-depositional salvage and scrapping behaviours, methods of preventing a vessel’s movement once abandoned, as well as the overall discard environment and abandoned vessel’s orientation within it. A particularly noteworthy and common archaeological signature associated with abandoned ships is their inclusion within officially designated discard areas such as ships’ graveyards. Discard Attributes of Australasia’s Torpedo Boats Of the fourteen torpedo vessels that participated in the naval defence of Australia and New Zealand, four have been the subject of archaeological investigation. Analysis of archaeological and archival data compiled during the aforementioned studies has highlighted abandonment processes unique to each vessel, as well as discard trends shared among the assemblage in its entirety. HMVS Lonsdale HMVS Lonsdale served in the colonial navy of Victoria from 1884 until 1901 at which point it transferred to Australia’s Commonwealth Naval Forces (CNF). It was put up for auction the following year but failed to find a buyer and was subsequently transferred to the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) in 1911 (Cahill 2009:133-135; Gillett 1982:115-119). In 1914 Lonsdale was put up for sale a second time but was once again overlooked and ultimately ended up abandoned on the beach at Queenscliff, Victoria sometime after 1915 (Figure 1). Archival photographs of Lonsdale reveal the degree to which its hull still appears much as it did when in operational service (Hunter in-prep; see Figure1). Outwardly, the shell of the torpedo boat is clearly intact to the gunwales and various hull components are all still in their original positions. The only obvious exception is the steel plating that comprised the weather deck and armoured casemate. These architectural elements appear to have been either removed or cut open in an effort to facilitate removal of the torpedo boat’s engine and internal machinery. The conning tower hatch cover and majority of external fittings are also absent, although at least one deck-mounted lifting lug is visible. Data recovered during archaeological investigations of Lonsdale’s abandonment site has proven useful in the development of general hypotheses regarding its discard (see Hewitt and Tucker 2009). When exposed and documented, the torpedo boat’s conning tower and the hull beneath it were still largely intact and appeared much as they did when photographed during the early twentieth century (see Figure 1). The same can be said of the hull aft of the �Figure 1. Top, HMVS Lonsdale’s hulked remnants at Queenscliff, Victoria ca. 1915; bottom, Lonsdale’s conning tower (centre) and disarticulated bow section (bottom right) as they appeared during the 2005-2006 investigation. Top photograph reproduced with kind permission of the Queenscliffe Maritime Museum. Bottom photograph by Geoffrey Hewitt, courtesy Terra Culture Heritage Consultants. conning tower, which appears to have retained its overall structural integrity (D. Cahill, as cited in Hewitt and Tucker 2009:32). By contrast, the foreship and bow are no longer articulated with the remainder of the vessel (Figure 1). Indeed, the vast majority of Lonsdale’s forward section disintegrated into largely incoherent structure as a consequence of "gross corrosion" and collapse of the hull subsequent to its complete burial (Hewitt and Tucker 2009: 30-32). �Discovery of Lonsdale’s disarticulated prow constitutes the only archaeological evidence of culturally manifested alteration of its discarded hull. However, as the prow was ultimately re-deposited on site, its removal almost certainly did not constitute salvage activity. To the contrary, its presence lends credence to local lore that states it was intentionally cut away and moved aside during boundary fence construction at Queenscliff’s former Buoy Depot (Ferrier 1989). Based on available information, Lonsdale does not appear to have been subject to any form of placement assurance. Strategies to neutralise the hull’s buoyancy were not evident among its documented remains, nor were tidal variation or orientation of the vessel carefully considered factors in its disposal process. Lonsdale appears to have been discarded almost exactly perpendicular to the shoreline in a manner more common to larger watercraft (see Richards 1997: 89). Further, its orientation suggests it was originally abandoned with its midships positioned roughly at the interface between sea and land (Hewitt and Tucker 2009:30). This would seem to contradict contemporary practice which advocated that vessels be beached at high tide in order to leave them as high and dry as possible when the water receded (Cockroft 1983: 200). HMVS Countess of Hopetoun Like Lonsdale, HMVS Countess of Hopetoun was an asset of the Victorian colonial navy, entering service in 1891. The torpedo boat was transferred to both CNF and RAN control before being decommissioned in 1920. Countess of Hopetoun spent the next four years in ordinary before being purchased and stripped it of its engines and machinery. Ultimately, it ended up abandoned on a beach at Swan Island in Port Phillip Bay (Cahill n.d.; Gillett 1982:126-132; Gillett 1991). Archival evidence of its discarded hull is represented by a single photograph taken sometime between 1922 and 1932 (Figure 2). Architectural elements visible above water included all hull plating between the gunwale and the water, the entire deck structure forward of the conning tower, and the conning tower itself. Although certain deck fittings were removed prior to the torpedo boat’s abandonment, the vast majority remained untouched and in their original positions. Save for isolated flash rusting of their steel fabric, the vessel’s �Figure 2. Top, HMVS Countess of Hopetoun hulked at Swan Island, Victoria ca. 1930; bottom, archaeological plan of the Countess of Hopetoun site as it appeared during the 1980s and 1990s. Photograph reproduced with kind permission of the Queenscliffe Historical Museum, Inc. Site plan produced by the author. surviving architectural elements do not exhibit significant signs of corrosion or damage and appear to have been structurally sound at the time it was abandoned. The photograph depicts a form of placement assurance in direct association with Countess of Hopetoun. A crude mooring line comprising a length of cable is shown extending shoreward from the torpedo boat’s bow. A number of trees are present in the image along the shoreline and it is possible the mooring line was attached to one or more of these in an attempt to prevent Countess of �Hopetoun’s movement after it was abandoned. Orientation does not appear to have played a role in the discard process, as the discarded hull was partially awash and oriented perpendicular to the shoreline when captured on film. Archaeological investigations have revealed Countess of Hopetoun’s hull is still largely intact and retains much of its articulated bow and stern structure (Figure 2). When documented between 1986 and 1996 the foredeck was complete for much of its original length (Anderson 1996; Heritage Victoria n.d.; Williams 1983; Williams 1986; Williams 1992). Most bow fittings were present and bore no indication of attempted salvage. The stern was also largely unaltered. Although Countess of Hopetoun’s engines and boilers were removed prior to its abandonment. The steel propeller and propeller shaft did not share the same fate. Curiously, neither exhibited outward signs of wear or damage that would have precluded their removal and reuse. Perhaps Countess of Hopetoun’s most unexpected in situ features were its rudder and tiller. Both appeared largely complete and undamaged, save for degradation resulting from the site’s surrounding marine environment. Richards (2008:149) observes that the rudder is the structural element most frequently missing from beached and abandoned watercraft, not only because of the ease with which it can be unshipped and transported but also its potentially lucrative resale value. He goes on to note that "it is even more common to find vessels without in situ…engines, prop shafts, or propellers" (Richards 2008:149). Countess of Hopetoun was stripped prior to its hull being put up for sale so it is surprising that these components were not salvaged for their reusability. Equally perplexing is that they were not later removed for their scrap value. A length of steel cable was also observed in association with Countess of Hopetoun’s stern structure (Williams 1992). Although tentatively identified as the remnants of a towline, its diameter appears to approximate that of the mooring cable visible in the archival photograph. The presence of the cable could account for the absence of other methods of anchoring the discarded hull in place. Alternate forms of placement assurance were not observed archaeologically and do not appear to have been utilised, even though their absence runs counter to Richards’ (2008:172-177) discussion of what constitutes a logical vessel abandonment scenario in a beach environment. The discard locations of both Victorian torpedo boats are situated a relatively short distance from the Barwon Heads Ships’ Graveyard, which became the final resting place of a number of former Australian warships (Ryan et al. 2009). It is especially curious that Countess of Hopetoun did not join the increasing number of watercraft abandoned there during the early twentieth century. By 1924 five vessels had "officially" been scuttled in its waters; three years later it would become the final resting place for seven more watercraft, including four decommissioned J-Class submarines (Beringer-Pooley, 2005; McCarthy, 2009; Ryan et al. 2009). New Zealand Torpedo Boat Defender Defender was one of four torpedo boats purchased for the naval defence of New Zealand during the Russian Scare. It arrived in the port city of Lyttelton in 1884 �and remained in service until 1900, when a local steam launch operator purchased the vessel, stripped it of its engines and machinery, and abandoned the hull at Purau Beach on the southern shore of Lyttelton Harbour (Cooke 2000:129-130; Moffat 1996:5, 11-13, 35). During the 1930s the local county council broke the hull into two sections during an attempt to move it further away from the water (Ogilvie 1970:75). Defender’s remnants were a distinct landmark at Purau Beach for several years until they were intentionally broken up and buried with heavy machinery in 1959. A circa-1930 painting entitled Purau Beach depicts Defender in a secondary discard context, after its broken hull was removed from Purau Bay’s foreshore (Figure 3). One particularly noteworthy aspect of the torpedo boat’s remnants is that they were still largely intact approximately 30 years after being abandoned. Aside from obvious hull separation and isolated flash rusting, both the bow and stern sections are largely complete. The same can be said for the vessel’s conning tower and adjacent casemate. Elements missing from Defender include the conning tower hatch cover and various deck fittings. By the 1940s and 1950s when the surviving hull was documented photographically some hull plating and casemate structure visible in the painting was noticeably absent, likely as a consequence of both natural and cultural processes. Examination of the torpedo boat’s existing architectural elements has confirmed a significant portion of the discarded hull survived up to its burial in 1959. This is particularly true of the bow and stern sections, which in their reconstructed form are approximately 65 to 75 percent intact (Figure 3). Most hull elements visible in historic renderings of Defender’s remnants have survived to the present day, as have internal components such as framing and bulkheads (Hunter 2009: 6-9; Hunter 2010:152; Thornycroft Torpedo Boat Museum 2003). Defender’s conning tower was not discovered among the site’s buried components and its current whereabouts remain an open question, although at least one source claims it was acquired by the Lyttelton Museum and later accidentally sold to a scrap merchant (Cooke 2000: 132). Forms of placement assurance neither appear in archival images of Defender’s hull nor were any observed during the excavation, suggesting they Figure 3. Left, reconstructed bow section of New Zealand torpedo boat Defender, as exhibited today at the Thornycroft Torpedo Boat Museum, Lyttelton; right, ca. 1930 painting Purau Beach, showing Defender’s broken and disarticulated hulk. Photographs by the author. �were not utilised during the initial abandonment episode. There is neither archaeological evidence of fill material within the hull nor is there damage consistent with intentional hull breaching methods. To the contrary, it appears little or no consideration was given to scuttling Defender, based on the discovery of a pair of wooden bungs in association with its screw aperture. These were hammered into both ends of the aperture in an attempt to keep the hull watertight and afloat during transport to its disposal site. As they were still in situ when found, it appears no effort was made to remove them and compromise the hull’s ability to float away before abandoning it to its fate (Hunter in-prep). Defender’s discard locale is situated a mere 1.1 kilometres southwest of Wreck Bay, a small cove within Purau Bay that functioned as a ships’ graveyard during the late nineteenth century. Although it is unclear whether the ships’ graveyard was inactive by the time Defender was discarded in 1900, it is surprising a known discard area would be overlooked for what appears to be a randomly chosen abandonment site in such relatively close proximity to it. HMQS Mosquito Queensland’s colonial navy acquired HMQS Mosquito in 1884. It remained on the active roster—subsequently serving the CNF and RAN—until 1913 when it was purchased, stripped of its engines and machinery, and abandoned in a tributary of the Brisbane River (Adlam 1981: 29; Foote 2001: 2; Gillett 1982: 3336). In 1966 Mosquito’s discarded hull was photographed and revealed to still be largely intact (Hunter 2011:379; Figure 4). The bow and stern sections, in particular, were articulated and in an upright position (see Figure 4). As with Lonsdale, steel plating that comprised the weather deck appears to have remained largely in situ, but only in areas where it did not restrict access to the vessel’s engines and internal machinery. By contrast, the sides of the hull, all but one bulkhead, and the remaining upperworks had collapsed either within or outside the hull and become partially or completely buried in mud by 1966. A single articulated bulkhead visible in the photographs seems to have played a significant role in holding the torpedo boat’s surviving stern structure together. The vessel’s conning tower, which by the 1960s was disarticulated from the rest of the hull and lying on its side, was still almost completely intact as an architectural element. Attached to the conning tower was a surviving—but heavily corroded—section of its hatch cover (Hunter 2011: 379-382). Archaeological investigation of Mosquito’s discard site has confirmed most of the exposed hull collapsed and subsequently settled into the mud and silt of the swamp floor (Hunter 2011:381-384). By contrast, Mosquito’s stern, already largely buried at the time of the 1966 photographs, appears to have retained its structural integrity. This is best evidenced by results of a probe survey, which detected contiguous metal contacts along the hull’s projected stern centreline. A �Figure 4. Top, starboard bow section of HMQS Mosquito’s discarded hulk, as photographed in 1966; bottom, archaeological plan of the Mosquito site as it appeared during the 2009 survey. Photograph by S. Prior, courtesy Queensland Maritime Museum collection. Site plan produced by the author. series of similar contacts were encountered during an athwartships probe transect in the same area (Valis 2010: 1). Based on available evidence, human alteration of Mosquito’s hulk prior to 1966 seems to have been restricted to the conning tower, which was removed and re-deposited at some point between the boat’s disposal at Boggy Creek and when it was captured on film (Hunter 2011:381). Individual artefacts, including the complete stern section of its casemate, were removed between 1966 and 1972. All were eventually donated to the Queensland Museum and later accessed and analysed by the author (Hunter 2011: 382). A notable feature of these objects is their relatively good state of preservation. For example, the casemate section is intact, ductile, largely free of corrosion and still retains paint over much of its exterior surface. If these attributes are indicative of the overall condition of Mosquito’s hull at the time it was discarded, it is surprising the majority of its metal constituents weren’t targeted for salvage. With the possible exception of the mud and silt substrate in which the hull was embedded, placement assurance strategies do not appear to have played a role in Mosquito’s abandonment. Inspection of the site’s visible components neither reveal evidence of treatments such as filling or induced perforation of the hull nor are indicators of these techniques apparent in the 1966 photographs. As �happened with Lonsdale and Countess of Hopetoun, Mosquito was beached roughly perpendicular to the existing shoreline, with its bow facing away from Boggy Creek. Mosquito’s discard site is located a short distance from Bishop Island Ships’ Graveyard. Bishop Island functioned as Brisbane’s "official" ship abandonment site from approximately 1912 until it was buried beneath land reclamation and the city’s modern port facilities. Included among the many vessels discarded along its foreshore was the colonial government steamer Miner, which tended submarine mine fields in Moreton Bay and frequently participated in naval exercises with Mosquito (Gillett 1982: 55; McLeod 1973: 2326). Conclusion Australasia’s torpedo boats exhibit reuse and discard attributes distinctly different from those of commercial watercraft. None of the examples discussed above underwent conversion or modification, nor were they adapted to roles in either a specialised secondary or functional post-abandonment capacity. Archival and archaeological evidence indicates that Lonsdale, Countess of Hopetoun, Defender and Mosquito were not subject to structure minimisation or hull reduction activities and that placement assurance strategies and environmental considerations played little, if any, role in their abandonment. Defender and Mosquito were both subject to limited salvage but this appears to have been more for the purposes of collecting historical keepsakes than intentional removal of hull components for reuse or resale. An explanation for these trends may lie in Richard Gould’s (1990:160-223; 2000:265-298) discussion of "trend innovation" and "tactical indecision". These tendencies were the result of an Industrial-era arms race among nineteenthcentury navies to acquire and use rapidly evolving military technology. The specialised construction and tactical application of torpedo boats meant they were uniquely unsuited for other military roles; this problem was further compounded by their general obsolescence at the time of discard. The small size and relatively light construction of these watercraft precluded their use in secondary military functions and likely reduced the value of their constituent parts to such an extent that they simply weren’t worth the time, money and effort to dismantle or dispose of properly. Further, it would appear that these military prejudices against torpedo boats may have carried over to contemporary civilian populations and explain—in whole or in part—why their stripped hulls were not reused in a functional non-military capacity and ultimately abandoned largely intact. Bibliography Adlam, H., 1981 Anderson, R., 1996 "Colonial Torpedo Boats", in The Navy: The Magazine of the Navy League of Australia, Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 25-31. "Inspection/File Note: RVN Torpedo Boat", in Countess of Hopetoun, 24 November 1996, document on file, Heritage �Beringer-Pooley, J., 2005 Cahill, D., n.d. Cahill, D., 2009 Cockroft, A., 1983 Cooke, P., 2000 Ferrier, F., 1989 Foote, W., 2001 Gibbs, M., 2005 Gibbs, M., 2006 Gillett, R., 1982 Gillet, R., 1991 Gould, R., 1990 Gould, R., 2000 Heritage Victoria n.d. Hewitt, G., and Tucker, C., 2009 Hunter, J. III, 2009 Victoria Maritime Heritage Unit, Melbourne. Comparative Corrosion Analysis of J-Class Submarines, unpublished Masters thesis, Flinders University, Australia. The Countess of Hopetoun, unpublished manuscript on file, Heritage Victoria Maritime Heritage Unit, Melbourne. "The Lonsdale: A Victorian Torpedo Boat", in (ed.) Mack McCarthy, Iron, Steel & Steamship Archaeology: Proceedings of the 2nd Australian Seminar, Held in Perth, Melbourne and Sydney, 2006, pp. 133-135. Nicholl’s Seamanship and Nautical Knowledge (25th Edition), Brown, Son and Ferguson, Glasgow. Defending New Zealand: Ramparts on the Sea, 1840s1950s (Part 1), Defence of New Zealand Study Group, Wellington. Letter to Queenscliff Maritime Centre dated November 1989, document on file, Queenscliffe Maritime Museum, Queenscliff. Queensland Marine Defence Force and Naval Brigade, unpublished manuscript on file, Queensland Maritime Museum, Brisbane. ‘Watery Graves: When Ships Become Places’, in (ed.) J. Lydon and T. Ireland, Object Lessons: Archaeology and Heritage in Australia, pp. 50-70, Australian Scholarly Publishing, Melbourne. ‘Cultural Site Formation Processes in Maritime Archaeology: Disaster Response, Salvage and Muckelroy 30 Years On’, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 4-19. Australia’s Colonial Navies, The Naval Historical Society of Australia, Garden Island. ‘Countess of Hopetoun: The Last Torpedo Boat’, in The Navy: The Magazine of the Navy League of Australia, Vol. 53, No. 3, pp. 7-11. Recovering the Past, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Archaeology and the Social History of Ships, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. "Site File No. 154", in Countess of Hopetoun Torpedo Boat, Swan Island. "HMVS Lonsdale", in Queenscliff Harbour Consolidated Excavation Report, unpublished report, Terra Culture Heritage Consultants, Northcote (Victoria). "The Archaeology of Military Mismanagement: An Example from New Zealand’s Colonial Torpedo Boat Defences, 1884-1900", in Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for �Hunter, J. III, 2010 Hunter, J. III, 2011 Hunter, J. III, In prep LaMotta, V., and Schiffer, M., 2008 McCarthy, M., 2009 McLeod, G.R., 1973 Moffat, I., 1996 Muckelroy, K., 1975 Muckelroy, K., 1976 Muckelroy, K., 1978 Ogilvie, E. 1970 Richards, N., 1997 Richards, N., 1998 Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 1-10. "Frontier Navies: An Archaeological Examination of Colonial New Zealand’s Torpedo Boat Squadrons’, in (eds.) Chis Horrell and Melaine Damour, Adivisory Council for Underwater Archaeology Underwater Archaeology Proceedings, pp. 146-154. "HMQS Mosquito: The Rediscovery and Identification of Queensland’s First Warship", in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 374-386. Throwaway Navies: Naval Transition, Abandonment Processes, and the Archaeology of Australasia’s Torpedo Boat Defences, 1884-1924, Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, Australia. "Archaeological Formation Processes", in (eds) Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, Archaeology: The Key Concepts, pp. 121-127, Routledge, London. ‘The J-Boat Study’ in (ed.) Mack McCarthy, Iron, Steel & Steamship Archaeology: Proceedings of the 2nd Australian Seminar, Held in Perth, Melbourne and Sydney, 2006, pp. 143-146. "History Along the Waterways: The Abandoned Hulks of the Brisbane River and Moreton Bay", paper presented to the Royal Historical Society of Queensland, 25 October 1973. Most Formidable Weapons: A History of New Zealand’s Thornycroft Spar Torpedo Boats, Wellington Maritime Museum, Wellington. "A Systematic Approach to the Investigation of Scattered Wreck Sites", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 173-190. "The Integration of Historical and Archaeological Data Concerning an Historic Wreck Site: The ‘Kennemerland’’, in World Archaeology, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 280-290. Maritime Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, London. Purau, The Caxton Press, Christchurch. The History and Archaeology of the Garden Island Ships’ Graveyard, North Arm of the Port Adelaide River, Port Adelaide, South Australia, unpublished Honours thesis, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, Australia. "Inferences from the Study of Iron and Steamship Abandonment: A Case Study from the Garden Island Ships’ Graveyard, South Australia", in Bulletin of the �Richards, N., 2002 Richards, N., 2008 Richards, N., 2011 Ryan, M., Taylor, P., and Whitmore, M., 2009 Schiffer, M., 1972 Schiffer, M., 1983 Schiffer, M., 1995 Schiffer, M., 1996 Skibo, J., and Schiffer, M., 2008 Thornycroft Torpedo Boat Museum 2003 Valis, S., 2010 Williams, D., 1983 Williams, D., 1986 Williams, D., 1992 Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 75-80. Deep Structures: An Examination of Deliberate Watercraft Abandonment in Australia, unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, Australia. Ships’ Graveyards: Abandoned Watercraft and the Archaeological Site Formation Process, University Press of Florida, Gainesville. "Ship Abandonment", in (eds) Alexis Catsambis, Ben Ford and Donny Hamilton, Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, pp. 856-878, Oxford University Press, London. Victoria’s Ships’ Graveyard, Scuttlebutt Press, Melbourne. "Archaeological Context and Systemic Context", in American Antiquity, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 156-165. "Toward the Identification of Formation Processes", in American Antiquity, Vol. 48, No. 4, pp. 675-706. Behavioral Archaeology: First Principles, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. People and Things: A Behavioral Approach to Material Culture, Springer Science, New York. Thornycroft Torpedo Boat Museum, Magazine Bay, Informational brochure produced by the Thornycroft Torpedo Boat Museum, Lyttelton. Conservation Fieldwork on the HMQS Mosquito Torpedo Boat Shipwreck, unpublished conservation assessment report, Museum of Tropical Queensland, Townsville. Letter to Commander B.N. Alexander dated 8 July 1983, document on file, HMAS Cerberus Museum, Victoria. Letter to N. Clark dated 1 September 1986, document on file, Heritage Victoria Maritime Heritage Unit, Melbourne. Letter (with attached photographs and site sketches) to Peter Harvey dated 1 December 1992, document on file, Heritage Victoria Maritime Heritage Unit, Melbourne. �� https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/284c3d8d9cfb378290e562ec1d971fa8.jpg b9d6456d0b8dd8d5ff5c6a8d8e4b94d3 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 277 Height 297 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2ce7dd6fe43f7ef85ca058d070cfa4f5.jpg 940694f78452900072d1a30589e1f5e6 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Abandonment Issues: An Assessment of Military Vessel Discard Trends Derived from Australasia's Torpedo Boat Defences, 1884-1924 Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource Between 1884 and 1924, a total of fourteen torpedo boats served in the naval defence of Australia and New Zealand. Australasia’s colonial governments purchased these vessels as a consequence of fears of seaborne invasion by Imperial Russia and other foreign powers during the 1870s and 1880s. All were eventually decommissioned, put up for sale, stripped of their most valuable components, and abandoned. Archaeological investigation of four of these discard sites has revealed abandonment attributes distinctly different from documented disposal trends associated with commercial watercraft of the period. This paper will highlight these unique discard trends, and explore tentative explanations for their presence through the filter of site formation process. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource James W. Hunter, III Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/db333a221a32866af0908e1f8529fbe5.pdf 2ce324676657651adfb93b7c0e6d837a PDF Text Text The construction of a simple sand dumping barge to aid reburial of a shipwreck site Jon Carpenter Western Australian Museum Department of Materials Conservation, Shipwreck Galleries, 45-47 Cliff St, Fremantle, WA, 6160, Australia E-mail: jon.carpenter@museum.wa.gov.au Jim Grehan and Jan Dols Marine Engineer volunteers c/o Department of Materials Conservation Shipwreck Galleries, 45-47 Cliff St Fremantle, WA, 6160, Australia Abstract A gradual and unremitting decrease in the level of the sand forming the seabed in which the wreck of the James Matthews (1841) lies buried (located in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia) became a cause for concern as progressive deterioration of the structures on the site was taking place. The situation led to the innovative use of linked medium density polyethylene Traffic Management Delineator barriers (Omni OB1800) to create a walled enclosure around the site into which sand could be reintroduced to bury exposed structures and prevent its subsequent dispersal, as would be the case if it were simply dumped over the wreck. The shallow, 2.5m depth of water over the wreck site restricted the possibility of delivering a substantial quantity of sand via a large vessel or barge. Commercial dredging and pumping of sand was also considered but financial constraints ultimately ruled out any of these options. The volume of sand required to fill the enclosed area was calculated to be 165 cubic metres. To improve the rate at which a reasonable amount of sand could be added to the enclosure a small budget ($2000 AUD) was provided by the Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project (AHSPP) for the Western Australian Museum’s team of retired, volunteer Marine Engineers to design and construct a 3m x 4m sand dumping barge. Costs incurred were mainly for the steel framework and floor components of the barge as they required materials of specific dimensions. A small boat winch and pulley were also specific purchases. Floatation was provided by fourteen steel drums (each 200 litre capacity), which were obtained gratis. Note no labour costs were incurred to construct the barge. 1 �Key words: barge, sand dumping, steel, construct, drums, reburial. Introduction The wreck of the James Matthews (1841) is located in shallow water close to Woodman Point in Cockburn Sound and not far from the Port of Fremantle in Western Australia (Henderson, 2009). At the time of discovery, in the early 1970’s, thesite was completely buried in sand except for one or two small concretions noticeable in the seagrass and a few pieces of scattered roofing slate that proved to be a part of the vessel’s cargo. Excavation of the wreck site, not long after it was found, was extensive and reburial with the dredged overburden undertaken but the level of sand coverage was not completely satisfactory. The loss of extensive areas of seagrass over the years, that in part, afforded some stability to the sands that buried the James Matthews, have prevented the natural build-up of sediment at the site. Over the last few years it has become apparent that structures on the wreck site are deteriorating as they have become progressively more exposed. The nearby activities (approximately 300 m away) of a dredging arm operating off the end of a reclaimer jetty, used to recover shell dredged further out to sea that is regularly dumped by barges, has created an extensive depression (12 m deep) in the seabed. This ‘hole’ and the associated barge channel leading to it have possibly contributed to a general decrease in the level of the nearby seabed, with its consequent impact on the wreck site, as sand in the vicinity gravitates towards these depressions. To rebury most of the exposed structure at the James Matthews site it was determined that a depth of at least 0.8 metres of sand was necessary. Sandtrapping mesh covers have been previously trialled with success on parts of the site but an assessment of the overall area to be covered and the elevation of the structures within it implied that mesh alone was unlikely to be appropriate for total 2 �reburial. The situation led to the innovative use of 36 linked Traffic Management Delineator barriers (Omni OB1800), made of medium density polyethylene, to create a walled enclosure around the site into which sand could be reintroduced to bury exposed structures and prevent its subsequent dispersal, as would be the case if it were simply dumped over the wreck. For more information about the James Matthews and the Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project readers are referred to the papers in these conference proceedings by Richards et al. (2014) and Shefi et al. (2014) Methodology The shallow 2.5 metre depth of water over the James Matthews wreck site restricted the possibility of delivering a substantial quantity of sand via a large vessel or barge. Commercial dredging and pumping of sand was also considered but financial constraints ultimately ruled out any of these options. The volume of sand required to fill the enclosed area to the recommended height of 0.8m was calculated to be 165 cubic metres. To improve the rate at which a reasonable amount of sand could be added to the enclosure a small budget ($2000 AUD) was provided Historic by the Australian Shipwreck Protection Project (AHSPP) for the Western Australian Museum’s team of retired, Engineers volunteer to Marine design and construct a 3 x 4 metre sand dumping barge (overall dimensions actually 3050mm x 3900mm). Costs incurred were mainly for the steel framework Fig. 1: The completed sand barge when first launched. (J. and floor components of the Carpenter). barge as they required materials of specific dimensions. A small boat winch and 3 �pulley were also specific purchases. Fourteen steel drums (each 200 litre capacity) were used in the construction, all of which were obtained gratis. Four drums were positioned vertically essentially halving the depth to which they would submerge and therefore halving their effective floatation capacity resulting in an overall buoyancy equivalent to twelve drums. Note no labour costs were incurred in the construction of the barge (Fig. 1). Construction and Operation. The sand barge proposal for the James Matthews reburial project started out with a basic sketch comprising a series of 200 litre drums, arranged in a rectangular formation, including a floor that incorporated two doors, a locking mechanism and a raised-frame structure from which to operate a pulley system for closing the doors after sand was discharged. It was initially envisaged that the ends of the drums would be simply welded together, as a cost saving measure, although this didn’t immediately address the issue of joining the drums at the barge corners. The museum’s team of volunteer Marine Engineers had the necessary skills and tools to construct the barge and would provide a free design process and labour. Construction was to be carried out using welded and bolted mild steel. Due to time constraints during its manufacture the non-galvanized metal parts of the barge were only painted with a corrosion inhibiting zinc undercoat. The engineers advised against direct end to end welding of the drums in favour of constructing a framework into which individual drums could be placed and replaced if no longer airtight. The dual doors were omitted in favour of a single central door. This was done to simplify its construction and operation but importantly to avoid the possibility of one door not operating in unison with the other and potentially resulting in the barge tipping over from the weight of the sand remaining on one side. 4 �The project began with the welded assembly of four individual outer frames made from angle iron (100mmx 100mm) designed to hold two horizontal drums on each of the fore and aft frames(1940 mm x 540 mm) and three horizontal drums and later two vertical drums on each side frame (3850 Fig. 2: The four outer frames with strapped drums installed. (J. mm x 540 mm). Flat steel Carpenter). retaining straps (50mmx3mm) were rolled to conform to the curvature of the drums and welded in place to fit across each frame. A detachable set of the curved straps, each with a screw threaded rod welded on the ends, were made to mate with corresponding holes to bolt the drums to the frame (Fig. 2). As the horizontal drums at the corners of the barge could not be joined easily it was decided to mount an extra drum vertically at each corner. This also presented a curved surface and therefore cleaner ‘entry’ to the sea when the barge would be under tow and added the equivalent of an extra two drums to the overall buoyancy. The vertical drums Fig. 3: The main frames and door in position in preparation to were mounted on extensions to install the floor sections either side (assembly is inverted). (J. Carpenter). the side frames, the base of the drum resting on a flat bar welded to form a triangle at each of the four corners. 5 �Each corner drum was secured by threaded rods (15mm diameter) bolted through the extended frame and through a steel cross-strap positioned on top of each drum. All other nuts/bolts used to assemble the barge were 10mm in diameter. At this stage the four main drum frames (sides and ends, with drums temporarily removed) were bolted to a welded rectangular-shaped central frame (1800mm x 2750mm), made from angle-iron(100mmx 100mm)that was to become the framework for the barge floor incorporating the door. The floor/door frame and frame of the actual door (800mm x 2750mm) were made from welded square section steel tube (75mm x 75mm). The open ends of the tube were fitted with cover plates and welded to be air-tight. To provide a strong floor and improve overall rigidity of the construction, steel ‘C’ section purlins (galvanized) were used (200mm x 75mm x 2mm). The purlins were cut into short lengths and the ends welded to each side of the frames and to each other. This further improved floor strength and the overall rigidity of the barge (Fig. 3). To prevent sand dropping through any small gaps between various spot welded areas of the floor and door they were filled with silicon gap filler. The larger gap in the floor along the hinged side of the door was covered with a strip of sheet rubber adhered with contact cement onto the fixed portion of the floor frame. The hinge for the door was made from a single length of steel rod (20mm diameter)mounted through drilled steel brackets welded alternately to the floor and door frames. This hinged shaft was prevented from sliding out of the brackets by securing it with locking pins incorporating washers to minimise rubbing and wear. The catches holding the door in the closed position operate by rotation of a second full length steel rod, mounted in similar drilled brackets, possessing three welded lugs that come to bear and hold against a flat overlapping steel lip welded along the closing side of the door. This lip laps over the adjacent floor frame and prevents the door from being raised above its fully-closed position. The lip also helps to prevent sand loaded into the barge from dropping through the clearance gap for the door. The door locking shaft is prevented from slipping out of its 6 �mounting brackets by the door locking lugs as each of the three lugs is rotated between two brackets welded to the floor frame. One end of the locking shaft has a right-angle lever welded to it that almost horizontally aligns with a welded ‘U’shaped bracket when the door is in the closed position. The ‘U’ bracket retains a steel ring of sufficient internal diameter for it to slide along the bracket and simultaneously over the door locking lever. This is achieved by applying downward hand-pressure on the lever to bring it into a parallel position with the bracket. Once released the lever locks the ring in place as it attempts to spring back to its former position. To open the door the ring is struck with a long-handled hammer until it drops off the lever (and is retained by the bracket) and the weight of sand on the barge floor forces the door to open. As the door drops down the actuating lever rapidly goes up in the opposite direction (Note this is a safety concern and the person releasing the lever must keep well clear of the lever and descending door). To raise the door and temporarily hold it closed, a small ratchet type boat winch with a stainless steel cable, attached by a shackle to the door, is mounted on a bracket attached to a tripod frame with a pulley wheel fitted to its apex. The ratchet system allows the winch to hold the door in the closed position in order for the lever locking ring to be re-engaged. The winch was inexpensive and its pulling capacity (500 kg) and gear ratio (3:1) more than sufficient to raise the door but it was not intended that it be used to hold the weight of a load of sand. Before the door is opened with a load of sand the winch ratchet must be disengaged to allow the winch to free-wheel and the cable to run out (Note this was a safety concern as the winch handle could not be detached and its rapid rotation seen as a potential risk to the operator who must keep well clear until the door is released and it has to be raised again). 7 �During the construction process the sheer weight of the main components of the sand barge (~700kg), particularly the central frame with its floor and door, presented handling issues both during its manufacture and its physical loading and unloading from the truck at the deployment area. Although it is possible to lift and carry parts of the barge separately albeit with 8 to 10personnel and then assemble it on-site, it is recommended that a truck with a HIAB crane be hired to load the barge in one piece onto the truck and then unload the barge directly into the water. This method of deployment was used when the sand barge was reassembled a second time to dump the remaining sand after the main fieldwork phase had concluded. Field Operation Fig. 4: Manoeuvring the loaded sand barge into position. (J. Carpenter). Initially, during the main fieldwork phase, the sand barge was physically handled as separate components as it was too wide to fit on the tray of the museum’s truck when fully assembled. The components were very heavy and required 8-10 personnel to manually lift and manoeuvre. The disassembled sand barge was delivered to a boat ramp where the barge was unloaded, the floor section placed on a four wheeled support frame, the remaining components bolted to it, the drums installed and the barge launched down the ramp restrained by a rope. The fourteen drums provided adequate buoyancy despite some initial concern that the weight of the overall framework and particularly the floor with its door was excessive. To minimise the possibility for metal fatigue and/or loosening of the retaining bolts, caused by any rocking motion of the corner drums when the barge was underway, 8 �a rope was secured around the drums to minimise any unwanted movement. A tow rope was attached to two shackles fixed near the corners of the bow and the barge towed to the sand loading area. Initially clean, washed proprietary sand was physically loaded into the barge via sand bags (maximum weight 20 kg) Fig. 5: The door opening to release a load of sand onto the directly from a nearby beach and James Matthews site inside the wall of barriers. (J. Carpenter). then subsequently from a larger boat moored adjacent to the wreck site. The loaded barge was not difficult to manoeuvre over the wreck site using a combination of small boats and ropes then, aided by snorkelers, it was easily moved into its final position for discharging the load of sand (1.0 - 1.5 ton) (Fig. 4). The hammering of the ring to release the door and its re-locking was performed by a snorkeler using the procedure described in the Construction and Operation section of this paper (Fig. 5). A second snorkeler disengaged the ratchet on the winch before the door was released and re-engaged the ratchet to close the door after all the sand was removed from the barge. As the single door is centrally Fig. 6: Snorkelers removing sand not directly released when Carpenter). 9 the door opened. (J. �located and it does not cover the entire floor a ledge of fixed floor (480 mm wide) on either side retained sand that snorkelers easily removed by hand (Fig. 6). At the end of the day the barge was left moored over the James Matthews site,, two solar cell charged lamps were attached as riding lights to warn fishers in small boats should they be travelling in the vicinity of the wreck at night. Conclusion In operation the sand barge performed very well. In the restrictive circumstances of budget constraints and the shallow water situation of the James Matthews wreck site the barge provided a means of delivering a reasonable quantity of sand with each load (1.0-1.5 ton). The overall amount of sand delivered to the site at this stage of the project is 20 m3 or 30 ton, which is the equivalent of about 5-10cm of sand coverage over the entire site. Obviously significantly more sand is required, however due to the sand barge’s robust construction an idea that was perhaps, initially, conceived as a basic and relatively cheap construction, to be used only once and then disposed of, is currently held in storage for future use. Acknowledgements The Marine Engineers team comprises of eight retired marine engineers and their manager, Richard Garcia. The two persons, Jim Grehan and Jan Doles, engaged full-time in the barge manufacture, are listed as main contributors to this paper. The additional contribution of the other team members, however small, is still considered significant and is hereby gratefully acknowledged. References Henderson, G., 2009. Redemption of a Slave Ship. The James Matthews. Western Australian Museum, Perth. Richards, V., MacLeod, I. and Veth, P., 2014. The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project – In-situ preservation and long-term monitoring of the Clarence (1850) and James Matthews (1841) shipwreck sites. In S. Tripati and V. 10 �Walker (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 12-16 May 2014, Honolulu, Hawaii, Hawaii. Shefi, D., Veth, P., Philippou, C., Rodrigues, J., Richards, V. and Harvey, P., 2014.The Australian Historic Shipwreck Preservation Project – interim progress report. In S. Tripati and V. Walker (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 12-16 May 2014, Honolulu, Hawaii, Hawaii. Biography Jon Carpenter is a conservator with 40 years of experience working principally with maritime archaeological materials at the Department of Materials Conservation, Western Australian Museum. The work performed is mainly with iron objects recovered from marine sites and he has conserved cannon from the earliest known shipwreck in Australia, the Trial (1622) and from HMS Sirius(1790), the Principle Escort of the First Fleet transporting colonists to Australia in 1788. As a diver and conservator operating in the field he conducts pre-disturbance assessments of shipwreck sites, including digital photography/video and on-site conservation of recovered artefact material. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 7: Preservation and Conservation of Wet Archaeological Materials and Site Management Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 7 chairs Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource This session will focus on in-situ preservation and conservation management issues, conservation analyses and treatments, and applied conservation research of archaeological materials from freshwater, marine and wet terrestrial sites. The main purposes of this session are to encourage the exchange of ideas and practices as well as the development of conservation networks throughout the region. Presentations, posters and workshops are invited that address any of the following areas: • In situ preservation of marine archaeological materials, including reburial practices • Conservation management of shipwreck sites, including on-site monitoring • Conservation treatment case studies • Research into the analysis and treatment of wet archaeological materials • Review of the status of wet archaeological conservation programs in the Asia Pacific region • Development of collaborative conservation research and treatment programs Suggestions for additional topics are welcomed by the session organizers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards and Jon Carpenter Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The construction of a simple sand dumping barge to aid reburial of a shipwreck site Description An account of the resource A gradual and unremitting decrease in the level of the sand forming the seabed in which the wreck of the James Matthews (1841) lies buried (located in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia) became a cause for concern as progressive deterioration of the structures on the site was taking place. The situation led to the innovative use of linked medium density polyethylene Traffic Management Delineator barriers (Omni OB1800) to create a walled enclosure around the site into which sand could be reintroduced to bury exposed structures and prevent its subsequent dispersal, as would be the case if it were simply dumped over the wreck. The shallow, 2.5m depth of water over the wreck site restricted the possibility of delivering a substantial quantity of sand via a large vessel or barge. Commercial dredging and pumping of sand was also considered but financial constraints ultimately ruled out any of these options. The volume of sand required to fill the enclosed area was calculated to be 165 cubic metres. To improve the rate at which a reasonable amount of sand could be added to the enclosure a small budget ($2000 AUD) was provided by the Australian Historic Shipwreck Protection Project (AHSPP) for the Western Australian Museum’s team of retired, volunteer Marine Engineers to design and construct a 3m x 4m sand dumping barge. Costs incurred were mainly for the steel framework and floor components of the barge as they required materials of specific dimensions. A small boat winch and pulley were also specific purchases. Floatation was provided by fourteen steel drums (each 200 litre capacity), which were obtained gratis. Note no labour costs were incurred to construct the barge. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jon Carpenter Jim Grehan Jan Dols, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 7 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ab01acc95eb52bf60026e04251d7cb24.pdf 3fd12bf368ac9aed560170ccf69c7b71 PDF Text Text Maritime Trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia: The Need for a Reappraisal Janardhana Bora (Indira Gandhi National Tribal University (IGNTU), Amarkantak-India, Assistant Professor) janardhanab@igntu.ac.in ABSTRACT This paper attempts to portray maritime trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia by examining cultural materials during the third millennium BC found in archaeological sites of Indus Valley culture. The early maritime history of the subcontinent commenced with and it confined mainly to trade links between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, and needed further nuanced by re-examining the role of Gujarat in the light of recent interpretations. In this article, the author reviews some evidence for Indus external trade of maritime archaeology. The possible consequences of such a prominent maritime role are explored. The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session X because observations and deliberations of this study have presented archaeological shreds of evidence pertaining to maritime trade such as pottery, semi precious stone beads, seals and sealing, cubical weights, and other numerous pieces of evidence. Key words: Gujarat and Mesopotamia, maritime trade, and material archaeology INTRODUCTION Maritime trade between Gujarat (India) and Mesopotamia (Iraq) has a long history and has many dimensions-cultural, religious, and commercial. The manifestations of cultural, religious, and commercial interaction between these two regions have been traced from the archaeological investigations in Gujarat as well as Mesopotamia, dated back to the 3rd millennium BCE (Mackay 1928, 29; Marshall 1931). This trade was driven by the substantiated archaeological evidence such as spices, textiles, and precious metals, and played an important role in shaping the economic, political, and cultural connections between the two regions. The exact nature and scale of this trade have been the subject of much debate among historians, with some suggesting that it was a major factor in the development of the economies and civilizations of both regions, while others have argued that its impact has been overstated (Rao 1974, 70, Dhavalikar 1996, 76, Hegde 1990,152, Sonawane 2003, 4, Bhan 2003, 51-80, Irani 2003, 91-97, Gaur 2003, 57-66, Ansari 1966, Pramanik 2004,133-140).  However, it is generally agreed that the maritime trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia was a crucial factor in connecting these two regions and allowing for the exchange of goods and ideas. The ships that carried out this trade would have sailed from the ports of Gujarat along the Arabian Sea and then navigated the Persian Gulf to reach the ports of Mesopotamia. Gujarat's coast is punctuated by several creeks and seasonal rivers that facilitate safe harbors all along the coast. The waters around the Gujarat coast are also rich in marine resources, such as shells used as food and export products. Conch shells have been a primary economic source for many fishermen in Gujarat (Pota and Patel 1991, 445-450). GUJARAT AND ITS HISTORIC CONTEXT Gujarat is a state located on the west coast of India and has a rich history that stretches back over several thousand years. The region has been inhabited since prehistoric times and has been the site of several important civilizations, including the Indus Valley Civilization. In the ancient period, Gujarat was an important centre of maritime trade and had links with the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Peninsula, and the west coast of India. It was also a hub of trade between India and Mesopotamia, with goods such as textiles, spices, and precious metals being exchanged between these regions. In the medieval period, Gujarat was ruled by several powerful dynasties, including the Solankis, the Vaghelas, and the 1 �Sultans of Delhi. During this time, the region was an important center of commerce and industry, with major cities such as Ahmedabad and Surat serving as important centers of trade and culture. In the early modern period, Gujarat was ruled by the Maratha Empire and was an important center of trade and commerce, with major ports such as Surat serving as important centers of maritime trade. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Gujarat was one of the centers of the Indian independence movement, with leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel playing key roles in the struggle for independence. Today, Gujarat is one of the most economically developed states in India, with a thriving industrial sector, a strong agricultural sector, and a rich cultural heritage. The state continues to play an important role in the economic development of India, and its rich history and cultural heritage continue to influence the development of the region and the wider world. MARITIME CONTRIBUTIONS OF GUJARAT Gujarat has made significant contributions to the development of maritime trade and commerce throughout history. Its location on the west coast of India and its access to the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf made it an ideal center for maritime trade, connecting India with other regions of the ancient world. Archaeological evidence shows that the Harappans had an extensive network of ports along the Arabian Sea coast of Gujarat, including Lothal, Dholavira, and Gola Dhoro, which were important centers of maritime trade and commerce. These ports played a crucial role in facilitating trade with other regions and were known for their impressive harbor infrastructure, water management systems, and production of valuable goods such as agate beads. Overall, the ports along the Gujarat coast played a significant role in creating a thriving economy and cultural exchange with other regions of the ancient world. One of the most prominent Indus Valley sites in Gujarat is Lothal, located in the modern-day Bhal region. Lothal was a thriving port city and a center of maritime activity. It had a dockyard, which was a marvel of engineering, with a system of locks and channels that allowed ships to enter and leave the harbor even during low tide. The dockyard also had a warehouse for storing goods and a factory for manufacturing beads and other items made of semi-precious stones. The people of Lothal were skilled sailors and traders, and they had contacts with several other civilizations in the region, such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Bahrain. Archaeological excavations at Lothal have unearthed evidence of seafaring activities, such as anchors, ship models, and navigational tools. Another significant Indus Valley site in Gujarat is Dholavira, located in the Kutch region. Dholavira was a well-planned city, with a sophisticated water management system, and it had access to the sea through the Rann of Kutch. The people of Dholavira were also involved in maritime activities, and they traded with other civilizations in the region, such as Sumeria and Oman. Archaeological excavations at Dholavira have unearthed evidence of a dockyard, warehouses, and a marketplace. Rangpur and Surkotada are two other Indus Valley sites in Gujarat that have provided insights into the maritime activities of the Harappan people. Rangpur was a center of bead-making, and it is believed that the beads were exported to other parts of the world. Surkotada was a fortified settlement, and it had a water tank that was connected to the sea. These ports were strategically located to facilitate trade with other regions, including Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf. The Harappans were known for their maritime skills, and their seafaring activities played a significant role in their economic and cultural development. 2 �Textiles Gujarat was known for its production of textiles in the Indus Valley Civilization, and archaeological evidence suggests that the production of textiles was an important economic activity in the region. Some of the major Harappan textile centers were located in present-day Gujarat. The excavations at sites like Lothal, Dholavira, and Rangpur have revealed evidence of cotton cultivation and the production of cotton textiles. The Harappans used spindle whorls, weaving frames, and other tools to spin and weave cotton fibers into fabrics. One of the most notable finds related to Harappan textiles in Gujarat is the discovery of a large number of spindle whorls at the site of Dholavira. These spindle whorls were made of terracotta, steatite, and faience, and they indicate that the Harappans were skilled spinners. The Harappans also produced other types of textiles, such as woolen fabrics made from the wool of sheep and goats, as well as silk fabrics made from the cocoons of silk moths. However, the production of cotton textiles was the most prominent and widespread in the region. The Harappans used a range of techniques to decorate their textiles, including dyeing, printing, and embroidery. The use of indigo for dyeing cotton fabrics was particularly widespread, and the Harappans were known for their skill in creating intricate patterns on textiles. The textile industry played an important role in the economy and culture of the Harappan civilization, and their textiles were highly valued in the ancient world. Shipbuilding Shipbuilding was a significant activity during the Harappan civilization in Gujarat, as evidenced by the discovery of several ship-related artifacts and structures at various Harappan sites in the region. The Harappans were skilled maritime traders who established trade links with other regions, and shipbuilding played a vital role in facilitating their seafaring activities. The ships built by the Harappans were primarily used for the transportation of goods, including textiles, metals, and agricultural produce. One of the most significant discoveries related to Harappan shipbuilding was made at the site of Lothal in Gujarat. The excavations at Lothal revealed a well-planned dockyard, which was equipped with a number of features such as a basin, a wharf, and a tidal lock. The dockyard was connected to a channel that led to the Arabian Sea, and it is believed that ships were built and repaired at this site. In addition to the dockyard, several ship-related artifacts were also discovered at Lothal, including anchors, cargo seals, and fragments of boats. These artifacts suggest that the Harappans were skilled in designing and building ships. Other Harappan sites in Gujarat, such as Dholavira and Balakot, have also yielded evidence of shipbuilding activities. At Dholavira, a large tank was discovered, which is believed to have been used for testing ships. At Balakot, the excavations revealed a well-planned harbor, which was used for loading and unloading ships. Cultural Exchange The Harappans were known for their advanced urban planning, trade, and maritime activities, and they established cultural contacts with other regions through their trade networks. Gujarat was an important center of cultural exchange during the Harappan civilization, as it was strategically located on the Arabian Sea coast and served as a hub for maritime trade. The Harappans had trade links with other regions, including Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf, and they exchanged ideas, technologies, and cultural practices with these regions (Gensheimer 1984, 65-73, Kenoyer 2008a, 19-28). One of the most significant examples of cultural exchange during the Harappan civilization was the spread of the Indus script, a writing system used by the Harappans. The Indus script was found on seals, tablets, and other objects, and it was used for record-keeping and administrative purposes. The script has not yet been fully deciphered, but it is believed to represent a Dravidian language spoken by the Harappans. Another example of cultural exchange during the Harappan civilization was the spread of technology and crafts. The Harappans were skilled in metallurgy, pottery, and textile production, and they exchanged these technologies and crafts with other regions through their trade networks (Possehl 3 �1990, 261-282; Ratnagar 1981). For example, Harappan pottery has been found in Mesopotamia, indicating that the Harappans traded their pottery with this region. The Harappans also exchanged cultural practices with other regions, including religious beliefs and practices. For example, the discovery of figurines of Mother Goddesses in the Harappan sites suggests the presence of a fertility cult. Similar figures have been found in other regions, including Mesopotamia, indicating the exchange of religious beliefs and practices. IMPLICATION OF GUJARAT’S ROLE Gujarat played a crucial role in the Harappan civilization, both as a center of cultural exchange and as a hub of maritime trade. The Harappans developed sophisticated techniques for shipbuilding and navigation, which allowed them to establish trade links with other regions, including Mesopotamia, Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf. Gujarat's location on the Arabian Sea coast made it a vital center for this trade network, as ships could dock at its ports and exchange goods and ideas. The implications of Gujarat's role in the Harappan civilization are significant. The maritime trade routes established by the Harappans facilitated the exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices between different regions, which contributed to the development of a vibrant and cosmopolitan culture in South Asia. The Harappan civilization was one of the earliest urbanized cultures in the world, and its achievements in urban planning, metallurgy, and other areas had a lasting impact on the region's development. Today, the legacy of the Harappan civilization can still be seen in the cultural traditions and economic practices of Gujarat and other regions of South Asia. Gujarat continues to be an important center of trade and commerce, and its ports are still a vital link in the region's maritime trade networks. The region's rich history and cultural heritage also make it an important destination for tourism, as visitors can explore the remnants of the Harappan civilization and other historical sites. INDUS VALLEY LINKS WITH OTHER MARITIME TRADE MESOPOTAMIA The Indus Valley Civilization had extensive maritime trade links with other regions beyond Mesopotamia as well. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Harappans established trade links with regions such as Oman, Bahrain, and the Persian Gulf. The Harappans traded a variety of goods, including textiles, precious stones, metals, and agricultural products. One of the most important commodities traded by the Harappans was cotton, which was grown extensively in the region. The Harappans were known for their skill in producing high-quality cotton textiles, which were in great demand in the ancient world. These textiles were exported to other regions via maritime trade routes, and have been found in archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and other regions. The Indus Valley Civilization also had significant trade links with the Persian Gulf region. Archaeological excavations at the site of Dilmun, located in present-day Bahrain, have revealed the presence of Harappan artefacts such as pottery, beads, and seals. These artefacts indicate that the Harappans had a significant presence in the region, and were involved in a thriving trade network that spanned the Persian Gulf. The exchange of ideas and technologies was also an important aspect of the Indus Valley Civilization's maritime trade links. The Harappans were skilled in metallurgy and produced high-quality copper and bronze items, which were exported to other regions. The exchange of 4 �knowledge and technologies in metallurgy, as well as in other areas such as agriculture and urban planning, facilitated the growth of a vibrant and cosmopolitan culture in the ancient world. Overall, the maritime trade links established by the Indus Valley Civilization had a significant impact on the development of trade, culture, and technology in the ancient world. The exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies facilitated the growth of a vibrant and cosmopolitan culture in the ancient world, and laid the foundations for the development of modern-day South Asia and the Middle East. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the Indus Valley Civilization's maritime trade links between Gujarat and Mesopotamia have been the subject of much scholarly debate and speculation. While there is no doubt that the Harappans engaged in extensive maritime trade with Mesopotamia and other regions, the exact nature and extent of these trade links remain a matter of interpretation and conjecture. Recent archaeological discoveries and advances in scientific techniques have shed new light on the Indus-Mesopotamia trade links, and there is a growing consensus among scholars that these links were more extensive and complex than previously thought. It is clear that the Harappans were not isolated from the rest of the ancient world, and that they were actively engaged in a vibrant trade network that spanned continents and cultures. A reappraisal of the Indus-Mesopotamia trade links is needed in order to fully understand the significance of these links for the development of trade, culture, and technology in the ancient world. Such a reappraisal should take into account the latest archaeological discoveries and scientific advances, as well as the insights of scholars from a range of disciplines, including archaeology, history, anthropology, and linguistics. Ultimately, a deeper understanding of the Indus-Mesopotamia trade links will not only enhance our knowledge of the ancient world, but also provide valuable insights into the workings of global trade and commerce in the present day. As such, it is a subject that deserves further research and investigation. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Ansari Z.D. and Mate M.S. Excavations at Dwarka, Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Pune, 1966. Bhan K.K. and Gowda D. 2003. "Shell working at Nagwada (North Gujarat) with special reference to Shell Industries of the Harappan Tradition in Gujarat." Man and Environment, XXVIII, no. 2. (2003): 51-80. Dales G.F. & J.M. Kenoyer "Shell Working at Ancient Balakot, Pakistan." Expedition no.19/2 (1977): 13-19. Dhavalikar M.K., Raval M.R., Chitalwala Y.M., Kuntasi: A Harappan emporium on West Coast, Deccan College Post-Graduate Research Institute, Pune, 1996. Gaur A.S. and Sundaresh. 2003. "Onshore excavation at Bet Dwarka Island, in the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat." Man and Environment, XXVIII, no.1 (2003): 57- 66. Gensheimer T.R. "The Role of Shell in Mesopotamia: Evidence for Trade Exchange with Oman and the Indus Valley." Paléorient no.10 (1984): 65-73. Hegde K.T.M., Bhan, K.K., Sonawane V.H., Krishnana, K., Shah, D.R. Excavation at Nageswar Gujarat: A Harappan Shell working site on the Gulf of Kutch, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Baroda, 1990. Irani A.B. "Mandovi: an Early Historic Sea Port near the Gulf of Kachchh, Western India", Man and Environment XXVII, no.1 (2002): 69-72. Kenoyer J.M. "Seafaring Merchants of Meluhha." South Asian Archaeology 1995, edited by B. Allchin & F.R. Allchin, 87-100. New Delhi,1997. Kenoyer, J.M. "Trade and technology of the Indus Valley: new insights from Harappa, Pakistan." World Archaeology no. 29 (1997):262-280. Mackay E.J.H. "Excavations at Mohenjodaro." Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, (1928-29): 67-75. Marshall J.H. "Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-daro Carried Out by the Government of India between the Years 1922 and 1927. " A. Probsthain, London, 1931. Possehl G.L. "Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanism." Annual Review of Anthropology no. 19 (1990): 261-282. Pota K.A. and Patel M.I. "Exploitation of Chanks from the Gulf of Kutch." Bulletin of Centre of Marine Fisheries Research Institute, no. 42, (1991):445-450. Pramanik S. "Hathab: An Early Historic Port on the Gulf of Khambhat", Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology, no. 1, (2004):133-140. Rao Lothal and the Indus Civilization, Asian Publishing House, New York, 1974. Ratnagar S. Encounters. The Westerly Trade of the Harappa Civilization. Delhi, 1981. Sonawane V.H., Ajithprasad, P., Bhann, K.K., Krishnan, K., Prathapachandran, S., Majumdar, A., Patel, A.K., and Menon, J. "Excavations at Bagasra-1996-2003: A Preliminary Report", Man and Environment, XXVIII, no. 2, (2003):21-50. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia: The Need for a Reappraisal Description An account of the resource This paper attempts to portray maritime trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia by examining cultural materials during the third millennium BC found in archaeological sites of Indus Valley culture. The early maritime history of the subcontinent commenced with and it confined mainly to trade links between the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia, and needed further nuanced by re-examining the role of Gujarat in the light of recent interpretations. In this article, the author reviews some evidence for Indus external trade of maritime archaeology. The possible consequences of such a prominent maritime role are explored. The topic of this abstract fits best within this Session X because observations and deliberations of this study have presented archaeological shreds of evidence pertaining to maritime trade such as pottery, semi precious stone beads, seals and sealing, cubical weights, and other numerous pieces of evidence. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Janardhana Bora Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Bora, Janardhana. 2023. “Maritime Trade between Gujarat and Mesopotamia: The Need for a Reappraisal.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2031 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ee00d417f8cd191959bae3b9f3bc2453.pdf 3bf6912c8b6445fe261e6899db601f92 PDF Text Text Filling the Gap: A 19th Century Shipwreck in Tanapag Lagoon, Saipan Sarah Nahabedian1, Jason T. Raupp2 and John D. San Nicolas3 Abstract Over the past 4000 years several cultural groups have utilized the island of Saipan in the archipelago now known as the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) for a variety of purposes including settlement, trade, provisioning and as a strategic position for wartime activities. Maritime heritage sites ranging from ancient coastal settlements to those of wrecked ships, planes and other World War II era sites have been identified on the island and in the surrounding waters. Over the past five years the CNMI Historic Preservation Office has endeavored to better understand and protect the submerged heritage of the island through remote sensing surveys, site inventories and site inspections. Recently the remains of a previously undocumented site were located along the island’s fringing reef in Tanapag Lagoon. A multi-agency investigation of this site determined it to be the partial remains of a mid- to late-nineteenth century sailing vessel. This investigation represents the first archaeological study of an early colonial shipwreck in the CNMI and helps to fill a gap in the archaeological record of pre-World War II period maritime sites. This paper examines the historic maritime activities in the CNMI during the midnineteenth to early-twentieth century and discusses the significance of this site to them. Though data pertaining to Saipan during this period is sparse, historical documents suggest that five wooden sailing vessels are known to have wrecked there during that time. The historical and archaeological analysis of these remains contributes to a broader understanding of colonial interaction and trade in the CNMI and the Pacific region in the nineteenth century. Introduction Since the time of first colonization around 3500 years ago (Rainbird 2004:81), several cultural groups have utilized the island of Saipan in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) for settlement, trade, provisioning and as a strategic position for wartime activities. While archaeological investigations on the island have revealed many sites of ancient coastal settlements and World War II (WWII) era ship and airplane wrecks, until recently a nearly four hundred year gap in the submerged heritage record of its colonial period has existed. The discovery of an artefact scatter associated with the wreck of a 19th or 20th century sailing vessel presented an opportunity to begin filling that gap. Historical and archaeological investigations of this site have produced a list of possible candidates for the identity of this wreck and provided the groundwork for a colonial shipwreck survey for the CNMI. 1 Please send all correspondence to: Sarah Nahabedian, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, GPO 2100, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, AUSTRALIA, naha0004@flinders.edu.au, 0449 711 208 2 Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, ADELAIDE, SA 5042 3 Coastal Resources Management Office, SAIPAN, COMMONWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS �Saipan Maritime Historical Context Since the late 15th century the Pacific Ocean has served as a trading highway for European nations by aiding in the movement of people and the colonization of new areas. Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Mariana Islands in 1521 and named them “Islas de Ladrones”, or Thieves’ Islands, after a misunderstanding in trade practices with the Chamorro people (Marche 1889:3). Regardless, their geographic location offered a perfect refuge for vessels caught in storms and a reprovisioning point during the lengthy Pacific crossing (Olive y García 2006:7). For the next three centuries, continual exchange existed between Spain’s colonies in the New World and those in the Far East and the Marianas operated as an entrepôt for the galleon trade (see Junco this volume; see McKinnon and Raupp this volume). By the late 17th century Spanish efforts to Christianize the Indigenous population resulted in their subjugation. To colonize the entire archipelago, the native Chamorro were forcibly removed from all of the northern islands and resettled into church-centred villages on Guam (Hezel 1983; Carrell 1991). Until the end of the 19th century, the islands to the north of Guam served mainly as ranches or infirmaries; as a result only sparse records of the activities that occurred there exist. In the early 1800s, Spanish authorities granted a request from a group of voyagers from the central Caroline Islands to establish a settlement on Saipan (Russell 1984:2). By the middle of the 19th century, whale ships and trading vessels commonly visited the island to obtain supplies. Subsequent to Spain’s loss in the Spanish-American War in 1898 all Spanish Micronesian possessions except Guam were sold to Germany, thus beginning what is known as the German Colonial Period (Spennemann 2007:7). The settlement of Garapan on the west coast of Saipan served as the administrative seat of the Marianas District. Between 1898 and 1907 German colonists constructed an administration building that was visible to approaching ships, a landing pier and shelters along the waterfront, and roads linking villages on the island (Fritz 1901:34-46). An important aspect contributing to the growth of Garapan was its proximity to Tanapag Harbor, considered by most shipmasters as the second best anchorage in the Marianas (Russell 1984:46). Though Germany held claim to the Northern Mariana Islands throughout this period, the Japanese controlled trade and economic life, primarily through large-scale sugar cane production (Peattie 1988:22). Shortly after Japan declared war on Germany in World War I, German officials in Saipan abandoned their post and Japan quickly seized several Pacific islands including the Northern Marianas (for an example of warship activity here see Arnold this volume; see Ishimura this volume). From that time through the 1930s, the Japanese government increased maritime works, including the building of a lighthouse and channel markers to guide ships coming into and out of Saipan. Also during this period, Japanese military infrastructure construction was clandestinely increased in preparation for war. Upon the entry of the United States (US) into WWII, the islands of the Pacific basin were subjected to events beyond their control and eventually Saipan would play a pivotal role in the war. “Operation Forager” was the �codename for the Allied plan to seize control of the Northern Mariana Islands from Japan. The 1944 invasion and capture of the islands by US forces caused devastation on both sides and left military vehicles and debris scattered on land and in the water surrounding the island. From 1945 to 1947 the islands continued under US military occupation (Carrell 2009:348). In 1947 the Northern Mariana Islands came under US Trust Territory status and in 1978 the constitutional government of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands took office. Previous Investigations of Saipan’s Submerged Sites The submerged cultural resources of the island of Saipan have been the subject of both public and private archaeological surveys, as well as commercial salvage over the past thirty years. Beginning in 1979, the first literature search and diver visual surveys were conducted, which resulted in the location of objects from the Japanese, WWII and American periods (Thomas and Price 1980). In the 1980s the US National Park Service (NPS) and private archaeological consulting firms assessed the submerged WWII remains in Saipan (Miculka and Manibusan 1983; Miculka, et al. 1984; Pacific Basin Environmental Consultants 1985). In 1986 and 1987, a treasure hunting company, Pacific Sea Resources, commercially salvaged the 1638 wreck of Nuestra Señora de la Concepción off the south coast of Saipan (Mathers, et al. 1990; see Junco this volume). Upon completion of the salvage project the artefacts were divided between the treasure hunting company and the CNMI government. In 1990 the NPS again documented the WWII sites in the lagoons on Saipan (Miculka, et al. 1990), and in 1991 published a comprehensive submerged cultural resources summary for all of Micronesia which included details of more than 50 shipwrecks and abandoned vessels in Saipan (Carrell 1991). Little research or fieldwork was conducted on Saipan until 2001, when the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) initiated an abandoned vessel inventory for the CNMI (Lord and Plank 2003). This survey identified 28 historic resources, most of which were WWII-era pontoons/barges and freighters (Lord and Plank 2003). Beginning in 2008, interest in Saipan’s underwater cultural heritage was reignited. That year Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc. conducted extensive remote sensing and diver identification surveys of Saipan’s western lagoons, which identified over 1500 magnetic targets; of these only 142 were identified through diver investigation, side scan sonar or were previously known (Burns 2008a; Burns 2008b). Using this survey data, a research project to document the submerged remains of the WWII Battle of Saipan was initiated in 2009 by researchers from Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc. and Flinders University. This project has resulted in the creation of an underwater heritage trial based on these sites (McKinnon, et al. 2011). �Archaeological Investigation of the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck” In February 2010, a marine biologist from Saipan’s Coastal Resources Management Office (CRM) notified maritime archaeologists from Flinders University of a possible wooden shipwreck site in Tanapag Lagoon. Initial investigations found several shards of green bottle glass, iron and copper-alloy fasteners and a piece of burnt wood buried in the sand and encrusted in the coral reef. The site was assessed as the remains of a wooden shipwreck or anchorage debris field. As there is little archaeological documentation of pre-WWII historic maritime-related artefacts within Saipan, the uniqueness of the site justified further investigations. In April 2011 a team of archaeologists joined staff from the CNMI Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) and CRM Offices to record the extent of the artefact scatter. The site is located approximately one kilometre (km) from shore, along the edge of the lagoon’s shipping channel and was archaeologically investigated over a two-day period. The site is scattered over approximately 90 metres (m) in sandy pockets of the fringing reef adjacent to the shipping channel. It was recorded using baseline offsets, trilateration and triangulation to collect data on site dimensions, major site features and artefact locations. This data was then used to produce detailed scale drawings and a two-dimensional site plan. Photographic surveys of the artefact scatter were completed before and during the investigation in order to document the site and to aid in the completion of the site plan. Most features and artefacts were documented in situ; however, a limited number of portable artefacts were recovered for more detailed drawing, photography, and measurement onboard the diving vessel, then returned to their original locations (Gould and Conlin 1999:208). Artefacts A total of 114 artefacts were recorded on this site and overall the assemblage indicates an association with a wooden sailing vessel. Artefacts noted during this investigation included ship construction and rigging materials, as well as shipboard items and some likely intrusive objects. Artefacts associated with the vessel’s hull consisted mainly of ballast stones, sheathing and fasteners of various sizes, forms, and material. Small, oval-shaped, granite ballast stones were found scattered around the site and a dense concentration was identified directly adjacent to the shipping channel. Fastener types included heavily concreted iron drift pins or bolts, copper bolts and copper nails and tacks. Four copper sheathing pieces were identified around the site; these would have been placed on the outer hull planking of a vessel protecting the vessel from marine borers (Bathe 1978:3.10; Burns 2003:61-62; McCarthy 2005:101-102). One peculiar piece of identified ship’s hardware was a lead object in the shape of an Arabic number “4”. Research has concluded that this is a draft mark, which would have been attached to the stem and sternpost to indicate the depth at which each end of the hull is immersed (Steffy 1994:270). Many elements of standing rigging were found on the site. The most dominate and diagnostic of these were portions of broken wire rigging. By the �early 1850s most large British ships had wire standing rigging and by the 1860s wire rigging was in use by US shipbuilders (Macgregor 1984:151; Stone 1993:69). Several of the noted sections were end pieces, as indicated by the tear shape created by back splicing them to situate a thimble. Other components of standing rigging included a chainplate and deadeye contained within an iron strop. Chain plates were solidly bolted to the ship’s side to which the shrouds are secured by a system of deadeyes and screws and were used to steady the masts (Bathe 1978:4.08; Stone 1993:72). A heavily concreted metal oarlock was found on the site. Also known as a crutch or rowlock, these were u-shaped metal swivels that mounted on a boat’s gunwales for an oar (Bathe 1978:9.02). The oarlock has a ribbed horn-style opening and is most likely off a gig or lifeboat (Bathe 1978:9.01). A number of artefacts related to shipboard life were also located. Whole glass bottles, bottle fragments and ceramic sherds scattered across the site represent a wide date range. Many of these are thought to be associated with the wreck, and others are likely intrusive artefacts deposited by cultural or natural means. The most diagnostic of these artefacts are the bottles; types include dark green, three-piece mould or “Ricketts mould” bottles which date between the 1820s and 1920s and a two-piece mould or “turn-mould” bottle which was most common from the 1870s through around 1920 (Toulouse 1969:532). Several artefacts of questionable provenance were found scattered around the site. These included glass bottles embossed with characters that indicated Japanese origin and dated from the 1870s through around 1920 (Toulouse 1969:532); two fragments of an unidentifiable ceramic vessel; a stoneware body and rim shard of indeterminate date; and a shard of blue on white porcelain. Though the manufacture dates for these could be contemporary with this wreck, it is likely that they are intrusive artefacts deposited through cultural or natural means after the time of loss. Wood Samples An unidentified conglomeration of wood, iron and copper-alloy metal was the only piece of wood found on the site. Though no part of the object was identifiable, a timber sample was obtained from the object for possible specie identification. Timber analysis showed the sample as birch (Betula sp.) and the structure of the wood is most likely yellow birch after comparison with other samples (J. Illic, email, May 2011). Site interpretation Through archaeological recording and historical research it has been determined that this site is the remains of a ship dating to the mid-19th or early- 20th century. The presence of ballast stones, copper sheathing and tacks, as well as iron drift pins and bolts, indicate that it was a wooden vessel, and the hemp core wire rope, wooden deadeye and chain plate specify that it was a sailing vessel. The small collection of glass and ceramic fragments further signify a mid-19th to early20th century use and illustrate an aspect of shipboard life at this time. The oarlock �found on the site is most likely from the vessel’s gig or could be an extra oarlock to be used in case one was lost. Timber analysis indicates yellow birch, a species found in North-eastern North America and commonly used in shipbuilding. The close proximity of the ballast area to the channel suggests that the vessel hit the reef and wrecked while entering or exiting the lagoon through the channel. The shallow nature of the site, the length of the scatter and fact that no major features of the ship were found is a good indication of post depositional salvage. The discovery of burnt wood during the February 2010 fieldwork and the overall lack of timber on the site could be evidence of salvage. Often wrecked wooden vessels were burned to their waterline so that below deck cargo could be salvaged or metal fasteners could be removed for recycling. However it is important to note that the abundance of marine wood-boring organisms in the tropical water would have aided in the degradation of any wood left on the site whether the vessel was salvaged or not. Possible Candidates Forty-one documented ship losses have occurred in and around Saipan between 1552 and 1941 (Carrell 1991: 280). Though data pertaining to the island during this period is sparse, historical documents suggest that seven wooden sailing vessels are known to have wrecked in Saipan’s water between the mid 19th and turn of the 20th century. Though little historical information pertaining to any of these was located, comparison between them and the archaeological evidence recovered indicates four of them as possible candidates for the identity of the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck.” The barque William T. Sayward was built in Rockland, Maine in 1853 (Fairburn 1946(5):3421). Accounts state that the barque was sailing from San Francisco to Shanghai with a cargo of flour and $164,000 in specie4, when it sprang a leak off the “Ladrone Islands” and was abandoned on December 21, 1854 (Daily National Intelligencer 1855, Plain Dealer 1855, Salem Register 1855). Unfortunately details about the exact location where William T. Sayward came to rest are vague and therefore its association with the wreck in Tanapag Lagoon is unknown. The next sailing vessel reported to have wrecked around Saipan is the US ship Lizzie Jarvis. Historical sources present some discrepancies about the fate and identity of this vessel. One source reports that the whaler Lizzie Jarvis was lost in the “Ladrone Islands” while travelling from Hong Kong to San Francisco in 1855. The ship was previously known as Lady Pierce and was owned by Mr. Silas E. Burrows, who at one time intended to present the vessel to the Emperor of Japan (Ward 1967(4):187). A later report states that the ship was actually John N. Gossler, another vessel of the same owner which traded between the US and China and which wrecked in 1855, 150 miles Northeast of Saipan (Lévesque 2002(20):73; Ward 1967(4):187-188). Though the loss location of 4 The ship was carrying $164K in coin, or specie. �John N. Gossler would exclude it, the confusion surrounding the loss of Lizzie Jarvis make it a possible candidate for the identity of the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck.” An unknown barque was lost in 1876 in Saipan (Carrell 1991:280). Current historical research was unable to ascertain further information about this wreck. Until further information pertaining to this vessel and its loss are obtained, it is impossible to determine an association between it and the wreck in Tanapag Lagoon. The 103-ton American schooner Iolanthe was wrecked at Saipan in 1896. All hands survived and were transported to Guam on the Japanese schooner Chomey-Maru (Lévesque 2002 (20):512). Little information was found about this vessel aside from the fact that it was built in Essex, Massachusetts in 1883 (Record of American and Foreign Shipping 1896). Again the limited data relating to this vessel or the circumstances and location preclude any direct association with the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck.” Discussion Though the identity of the shipwreck recently located in Tanapag Lagoon was not absolutely determined, this investigation is considered significant for its contribution to increasing knowledge of a little explored period in Saipan’s history. As stated previously, until the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck” was identified, a nearly 400-year gap existed in the archaeological record pertaining to shipwrecks that had occurred around the island. The study of this 19th or early 20th century sailing vessel has produced archaeological data that will be added to the growing database of sites in the waters surrounding Saipan, as well as providing the impetus for building a comprehensive understanding of archival information relating to colonial ship losses in the CNMI. Thus the compilation and analysis of this data has begun to fill the gaps, and in doing so provides insight into colonial interaction and trade in the Pacific region around the turn of the century. The investigation of the “Japanese Channel Light Wreck” also represents the first multi-agency archaeological investigation of a submerged non-military shipwreck in Saipan. This approach allowed multiple local government agencies to collaborate with archaeologists from Australia and the US to assess and record this important piece of CNMI heritage. Due to the site’s location along the fringing reef, it also allowed agencies concerned with reef health and environmental quality an opportunity to monitor and protect the reef that has grown around this site. Ultimately this kind of collaboration offered all groups involved the opportunity to better understand and appreciate each other's work and can be seen as best practice for the protection and management of Saipan’s marine resources. Bibliography Bathe, B. W., The visual encyclopaedia of nautical terms under sail, Crown �1978 Burns, J.M., 2003 Publishers Inc., New York. The life and times of a merchant sailor: the archaeology and history of the Norwegian ship Catharine, Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers, New York. Burns, J.M., Archaeological survey of lagoons on the West Coast of 2008a Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Unpublished report prepared for Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Historic Preservation Office by Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., Pensacola, FL. Burns, J.M., Archaeological survey of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, 2008b Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Unpublished report prepared for Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Historic Preservation Office by Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., Pensacola, FL. Micronesia submerged cultural resources assessment. Carrell, T. (ed.), 1991 Southwest Cultural Resource Centre Professional Papers No. 16. Submerged Cultural Resources Unit, National Park Service, Santa Fe, NM. Maritime history and archaeology of the Commonwealth of Carrell, T., the Northern Mariana Islands. Submitted to the CNMI 2009 Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation by Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc. 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History of Micronesia, bibliography of Micronesia, ships Lévesque, R., through Micronesia cumulative index, Vol. XX, Lévesque 2002 Publications, Quebec. Surveys of abandoned vessels: Guam and the Lord, C., and Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Unpublished Plank, C., 2003 report prepared for National Oceanic and Atmospheric �Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration by Research Planning, Inc. Columbia, SC. Macgregor, D.R., Merchant sailing ships 1815-1850: Supremacy of sail, 1984 Conway Maritime Press Ltd., London. The Mariana Islands. Translated from French by S.R. Cheng, Marche, A.A., 1889 1982. In R.D. Craig (ed) MARC Publication Series No. 8., University of Guam, Guam. Archaeological Report: The recovery of the Manila Galleon Mathers, W.M., Parker, H.S., and Nuestra Señora de la Concepción. Pacific Seas Resources, Copus, K.A., Sutton, Vermont. 1990 Ships’ fastenings: From sewn boats to steamship. Texas McCarthy, M., 2005 A&M University Press, College Station, TX. Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail. McKinnon, J. F. and Carrell, T. L., Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Corpus Christi, 2011 Texas. Submerged cultural resources assessment American Miculka, J.E., memorial park. Report prepared for War in the Pacific and Manibusan, R.S., National Historic Park, Guam. 1983 Submerged cultural resources assessment Saipan lagoon Miculka J.E., Carter, K.J., and 03-05 December 1984. Report prepared for War in the Pacific Ichihara H., National Historical Park, Guam. 1984 The Mariana Islands Random Notes Concerning Them, Olive y García, Second Edition. Translated from Spanish by M.G. Driver. F., 2006 University of Guam: Guam. Underwater survey of Tanapag Lagoon for historic properties. Pacific Basin Environmental Report prepared for CNMI Department of Community and Consultants, Cultural Affairs, Historic Preservation Office by Pacific Basin 1985 Environmental Consultants, Guam. Nanyo: The rise and fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885Peattie, M. R., 1945. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 1988 Plain Dealer, No headline, 17 March, viewed 14 July 2011, 1855 <http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/?sort=_ra nk_%3AD&lname=&fname=&minit=&kwinc=Wm++Sayward& kwexc=&formDate=March+1855&processingtime=>. The archaeology of Micronesia. Cambridge University Press, Rainbird, P., 2004 Cambridge. Record of Viewed 3 June 2011, American and <http://library.mysticseaport.org/initiative/SPSearch.cfm?ID=5 Foreign 56672>. Shipping, 1896 From Arabwal to ashes: A brief history of Garapan village Russell, S., 1818 to 1945. Micronesian Archaeological Survey Report 1984 �Salem Register, 1855 Spennemann, D.R., 2007 Steffy, R.J., 1994 Stone, D.L., 1993 Thomas, M. and Price, S., 1980 Toulouse, J. H., 1969 Ward, R.G. (ed.), 1966 Series Vol. XIX, Saipan. ‘Loss of Specie at Sea’, 19 March, viewed 14 July 2011, <http://www.genealogybank.com/gbnk/newspapers/?sort=_ra nk_%3AD&lname=&fname=&minit=&kwinc=Ladrone+Island& kwexc=&formDate=March+1855&processingtime=>. Edge of Empire. The German Colonial Period in the Northern Mariana Islands 1899-1914. Retrospect, Albury, NSW. Wooden ship building and the interpretation of shipwrecks.Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX. The wreck diver’s guide to sailing ship artifacts of the 19th Century. Underwater Archaeological Society of British Columbia, Vancouver. Cultural resources reconnaissance report for the Saipan small boat harbor study area. Report prepared for US Army Corps of Engineers Pacific Ocean Division by Pacific Studies Institute. “A primer on mold seams”. The Western Collector, Vol. VII, No. 11, pp. 526-535. American activities in the central Pacific, 1790-1870: A history, geography and ethnography pertaining to American involvement and Americans in the Pacific taken from contemporary newspapers etc., Vol. IV, pp. 186-189, The Greg Press, Ridgewood, New Jersey. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Filling the Gap: A 19th Century Shipwreck in Tanapag Lagoon, Saipan Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource Over the past 4000 years several cultural groups have utilized the island of Saipan in the archipelago now known as the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) for a variety of purposes including settlement, trade, provisioning and as a strategic position for wartime activities. Maritime heritage sites ranging from ancient coastal settlements to those of wrecked ships, planes and other World War II era sites have been identified on the island and in the surrounding waters. Over the past five years the CNMI Historic Preservation Office has endeavored to better understand and protect the submerged heritage of the island through remote sensing surveys, site inventories and site inspections. Recently the remains of a previously undocumented site were located along the island’s fringing reef in Tanapag Lagoon. A multi-agency investigation of this site determined it to be the partial remains of a mid- to late-nineteenth century sailing vessel. This investigation represents the first archaeological study of an early colonial shipwreck in the CNMI and helps to fill a gap in the archaeological record of pre-World War II period maritime sites. This paper examines the historic maritime activities in the CNMI during the mid-nineteenth to early-twentieth century and discusses the significance of this site to them. Though data pertaining to Saipan during this period is sparse, historical documents suggest that five wooden sailing vessels are known to have wrecked there during that time. The historical and archaeological analysis of these remains contributes to a broader understanding of colonial interaction and trade in the CNMI and the Pacific region in the nineteenth century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sarah Nahabedian Jason T. Raupp John D. San Nicolas Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8