36 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nautical Japan 水中考古学／船舶・海事史研究 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randall Sasaki Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:24:52 Type The nature or genre of the resource Web Page Zotero Author Randall Sasaki Item Type Web Page Access Date 2011-10-07 10:24:52 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 10:24:52 Title A name given to the resource Nautical Japan 水中考古学／船舶・海事史研究 URL http://www.nauticalarchaeologyjp.com/ Attachment Title 水中考古学／船舶・海事史研究 Attachment URL http://www.nauticalarchaeologyjp.com/ Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a87f1193b14fef281f3e3e650c1098ba.pdf 7d8cff82cebfd83e801bac676cc583d4 PDF Text Text Nautical Terms as Gleaned from Ancient Tamil Literature N. Athiyaman1 Abstract During the beginning of the Common Era, the Maritime trade peaked in the regions of Southeast Asia, Peninsular India, Srilanka and the Red Sea coast. The Greek and Latin accounts clearly attest to the increased trade activities in this period. The use of large crafts for navigation is well recorded in these accounts. The early historic Tamil Sangam literature dated between 300 B.C.E. and 300 C.E. provide valuable data regarding the nautical knowledge of that period. Some researchers have attempted to collate and interpret the data on nautical terms available in this literature. However, a detailed contextual analysis based on the content of the poems has not been attempted so far. Many types of crafts such as naavaay, vangam, thimil, and punai, are found mentioned in the Sangam literature, and these terms are not in use at present. The field studies conducted by scholars have revealed the existence of many indigenous crafts having different names on the South Indian Coast. Due to modern development the usage of traditional crafts is fast vanishing. In this paper an attempt is made to analyse the names and structure of the crafts that occur in the Sangam literature based on their contextual information. For example, the term naavaay is mentioned in the context of deep-sea craft which carried goods of various types. The data pertaining to the boats and ships and other nautical terms are analysed in this paper. An attempt is also made to find out the possible reasons for the disappearance of the various crafts referred in the literature. I. Introduction During the beginning of the Common Era, the maritime trade peaked in the Indian Ocean rim as attested by the Greek, Latin and Tamil sources. The use of larger crafts for navigation is also well recorded. However, an in-depth analysis of the native Tamil literature of the Common Era which has evidence for nautical terms is yet to be done. Hence, this paper focuses on the nautical terms found in the ancient Tamil literature (3rd century B.C.E.- 4th century C.E.) and analyses the types of boats. The literature was created during early historic Tamilakam which had a single linguistic territorial entity in Peninsular India, between 8o5' N and 13o40' N latitudes. The literature forms the main source of this study as archaeological source is scanty. However, an attempt is also being made in this paper to corroborate the textual references with limited archaeological evidence. 1 Centre for Underwater Archaeology, Tamil University, Thanjavur 613010 , India rajachidam@gmail.com �Literary Sources The ancient Tamil Sangam literature and post-Sangam epics namely cilappathikaaram and manimeekalai dated to be ca. 4th century C.E. provide information on maritime activities of the Early Historic Tamilakam. A brief account of the content and character of these texts are discussed below. Sangam literature consists of anthologies of bardic corpus2 with accepted time span of ca. 3rd century B.C.E. and 3rd century C.E. based on archaeological, epigraphical, numismatic and literary parameters. This literature is classified as ettuththokai and paththuppaattu. The ettuththokai is the eight different collections of small poems of three lines to more than 50 lines. Based on the poetic analysis, kaliththokai and paripaatal are considered slightly late. The other six anthologies are earlier, though, some of the poems are considered to be later. The chronological order is as follows: kurunthokai, narrinai, akanaanuuru, puranaanuuru, aingkurunuuru and pathirrppaththu (Tamil Dictionary/Glossary on Historical Principle/TDHP 2001). The paththuppaattu collection has the ten songs, each one of which has more than a few hundred lines, where the poet describes about a hero or a chief or a king and his country. The chronological order is as follows: porunaraarruppatai, mathuraikkaanjci, netunalvaatai, malaipatukataam, perumpaanaarruppatai, pattinappaalai, cirupaanaarruppatai, mullaippaattu, kurinjcippaattu and tirumurukaarruppatai (TDHP 2001). These eight anthologies and ten songs were the poems of sentiments and exploits of the "noumenon" and the "phenomenon" in Tamil terminology of the akam and puram or somewhat simplified poems of erotic experience and heroism (Zevelebil 1975:80). In addition, the epics of Tamil literature namely cilappathikaaram and manimeekalai of 4th-5th century C.E. are included as they also provide information on maritime activities. The settings alluded to in the poetry provide ample information on various spheres of maritime activities. A documentation of nautical terms in the literature is found in Victor Rajamanickam and Samuel Arulraj (1994). A monograph on ships and shipping of the Tamil region has also been attempted (Ragavan 1968). However, the context analysis of such terms, size and functions of the vessels from the literature and their possible provenance have not been attempted. Among all the 20 texts, netunalvaatai, malaipatukataam, and tirumurukaarruppatai do not have nautical terms as they are unrelated to the maritime activities. Of paththuppaattu, mathuraikkaanjci accounts for four types of vessels. Of anthologies kaliththokai and paripaatal provide information of many terms, next to narrinai, akanaanuuru and puranaanuuru. The later period epics cilappathikaaram and manimeekalai give information on five types of crafts. 2 During the early historic period there lived the bards who moved place to place and sang in praise of the local King or cheif and received gifts for thier subsistence. They were called as paanar. �II. Watercrafts from Tamil Literature A thorough survey of the entire literature reveals ten terms for watercrafts. They are ambi, kalam, mithavai, naavaay, otam, pahri, punai, thimil, thoni and vangkam. The details and context are analysed for proper understanding of the probable size and function of each term. ambi ambi according to Tamil Lexicon (TL) is a small boat (TL 1982:96) found quoted in 14 instances. The context of vessel(s) with the sea is ten occurrences and with river(s) is four occurrences. It could be understood that this boat was used both in coastal fishing and river crossing. Regarding the appearance, the ambi which was tightly built alludes to horned buffalo floating in the pond (narrinai 315:3). This was also compared with the movement of elephant running after mirage to quench their thirst (akanaanuuru 29:18). Probably, these boats were black in colour and the shape could resemble that of an elephant. No reference to mast or sail is found. This was used for coastal fishing with net(s) (narrinai 74:3) and also for shark hunting by the fisherfolk (akanaanuuru 187:23). The boats lying ashore were used by the seagulls to lay eggs and incubate (aingkurunuuru 168:2). The ruined ambi lying on the coast (narrinai 315:3) is also accounted. In a poem this term was used along with other vessels namely thoni and kalam implying the variation in the function and appearance of other types (puranaanuuru 343:2). In the same poem it is found that this boat carried fish for selling and carried back the bartered paddy, while other crafts performed different functions. The reference of a damaged ambi along with marakkalam (wooden vessel) and vangkam (manimeekalai 29:6-10) imply a clear difference between ambi and other boats. Reference to ambi as a ferry service on the river is mentioned in the literature of later period(s), except on one occasion of an early period (puranaanuuru 381:24). The later literature mentions river crossing by ambi. The bows of ambi were decorated as horse, elephant and lion faces. This is quoted along with marappunai (wooden float) which was considered less luxurious (manimeekalai 13:178-179). From the above information it can be inferred that ambi was a small craft of not more than elephant size and was used in the coastal fishing and transport of goods, and also used for river crossing. As ambi is not mentioned with any sail and also used for river crossing it could have been propelled by paddles. kalam In Tamil the term kalam has many meanings. But the main meaning is vessel, a container made of wood, earth or any metal. The meaning related to the present study is a ship or a boat (TL 1982:778). In the literature of 17 occurrences one could discern that kalam was used for a ship with sails and it makes long voyages. However, in one instance the term was used for a littoral fishing boat (akanaanuuru 30:9). It is interesting to note that in most of the cases it is mentioned kalam was sailed by wind power �(puranaanuuru 26:12; puranaanuuru 30:12; puranaanuuru 386:14; kaliththokai 5:6). In many cases, it is accounted as a vessel which brought wealth in terms of wine and gold (akanaanuuru 149:9; puranaanuuru 56:18; puranaanuuru 343:15) and in turn left with pepper. This could be the ships from the Red sea region and there is direct evidence in the literature for yavanaa (the Greek, Romans) ships coming with gold and wine leaving with pepper and other articles (akanaanuuru 149; puranaanuuru 56:18; puranaanuuru 343:5). It is also mentioned that the kalams were navigated with the help of the light houses built in the coastal region (perumpaanarruppatai 350). There is an account that the poet amazes at the depth of the Kaveri river mouth that even the kalam did not roll down their sails and entered swiftly (puranaanuuru 30:12). In the epics the builders of kalam and their settlement are also mentioned (cilappathikaaram 5:31; manimeekalai 7:70). Hence, from the above evidence it can be inferred that kalam was a large deep sea vessel and sailed with the wind. mithavai The term mithavai which means a float (TL 1982:3199) is quoted only once as mithavaiayar (the people of the float) i.e. raft (paripaatal 6:35) with no additional details. naavaay This means a vessel or a ship (TL 1982:2109). It was a deep sea ship like kalam. These kind of ships were used by the Chera3 kings and they sailed in the Arabian Sea region and brought gold (puranaanuuru 126:15). The naavaay with full of goods from various countries is accounted (narrinai 295:6). This kind of ship went up to the river Ganges mouth loaded with products of the North and horses from the west (perumpaanarruppatai 320; mathuraikkaanjci 83; mathuraikkaanjci 321). From the evidence, it can be found that they sailed with wind power and reached the desired ports (narrinai 295:6; mathuraikkaanjci 83; paripaatal 10:39) and as they had visited many ports their masts were tied with flags which were viewed from the distance (puranaanuuru 13:5). The naavaay was caught in a cyclone, the scene of the rolling and pitching of the ship are also alluded (mathuraikkaanjci 379). Therefore, one can infer that the naavaays were indigenous deep sea ships, as this term is not used in context with foreigners (yavanaa). These ships might have plied between the Ganges and the Red sea region or at least in the coastal regions of the Indian sub-continent as it include a list of various goods loaded. However, in the later literature the term naavaay is also mentioned as a decked river boat (cilappathikaaram 14:74). The material with which the naavaay was built could not be discerned from the literature. 3 In the early Historic Tamilakam the south region was ruled by Pandyas, the north was ruled by Cholas and the west was by the Cheras and they were called as veendar (King). Other than them many local Chieftains also ruled small areas which were not governed by the vendars. �otam In Tamil otam means a Ferry boat or a raft (TL 1982:621). In the literature a solitary reference to otam is found (akanaanuuru 101:12). Here it is compared with the rising Sun in the sea implying a small sized vessel. pahri This means a boat (TL 1982:1494) and it occurs in one instance (pattinappaalai 30). This was a coastal boat which was used to barter salt with paddy. It can be compared with the ambi, as it was also used for exchange of paddy to fish (puranaanuuru 343). However, in poems the ambi for bartering is mentioned in the west coast context and pahri is accounted in the east coast. punai This means a raft or a float (TL 1982:1707). This term is used in the earlier literature such as kurunthokai, akanaanuuru and puranaanuuru. Hence this term was prevalent from the early period, but all in the context of river boats. These were made of European bamboo reeds sh. Arundo donax (akanaanuuru 6:8; akanaanuuru 180:9). The life-saving floating wood in the sea is accounted (kaliththokai 134:25), when the ships wrecked in a cyclone. On other occasions it is compared with the hero becoming the life-saver (punai) of a lover. The punai was a major craft used for water games in the river Vaigai near Madurai (kaliththokai 72:15). An account of punai being used in the river Periyar (puranaanuuru 192:9) is found. This was considered inferior to ambi as in the epic cilappathikaaram (13:179) the hero on one situation had to opt for marappunai instead of decorated horse, elephant, lion faced ambi boats. Sometimes in the literature the righteous life is compared with punai (kurinjcippattu 208; manimeekalai 11:77). In only one instance this term was found used for coastal fishing (akanaanuuru 280:9). From the above it can be inferred that punai was a river craft used as a raft for water games and life-saving floats and were made of bamboo reeds. thimil The term thimil means hump of a bull or fishing boat (TL 1982:1047). This term is found used only in the context of the Ocean. The fishermen in Tamil paratavar used this craft for hunting the sharks and other kind of fish. Going in thimil catching sharks with nets (narrinai 111:6; akanaanuuru 340:18) and many occasions with harpoons (narrinai 199:6; narrinai 388:4; kurunthokai 304:4) are referred to besides catching other kinds of fish and diving for conch shells (kurunthokai 123:5; akanaanuuru 240:3; akanaanuuru 350:11). The shape and size of the thimil could not be discerned, but they were used only in shallow waters. The robustness of thimil has been accounted as kotunthimil, the tight construction of thimil is mentioned as thinthimil and the long boats of this kind were called netunthimil. Reference to old boats with new nets and the nets with small openings also occurs (akanaanuuru 60:3; akanaanuuru 70:1). These boats were used for night as well as day fishing (akanaanuuru 65:11; narrinai 331:6-8). Lights were used in all the fishing boats of this kind (narrinai 199:6; narrinai �388:4). The scene from the shore of night fishing with thimil type of boats was compared to forest fires (akanaanuuru 65:11). These boats were owned by indiviuals and were not of single social group (narrinai 331:6-8). They also were helped in knowing their position by the light of of the light houses (pattinappaalai 111-112). From the above evidence it is clear that the term thimil was used only as fishing boats and they must have been small or medium sized coastal vessels. thoni This term means a boat (TL 1982:1236). This kind of boat was alluded to the horses moving in rows like the boats (thoni) floating on the sea (puranaanuuru 299:3). The thoni was brought ashore after fishing, is accounted in akanaanuuru (50:1). It is interesting to note that the people who fished in the boat thimil were mentioned as thoniar, implying the thimil was also called as thoni. vangkam The term vangkam means swiftly moving ship (TL 1982:3452). In the literature the term meant big ships that travel long distances. So the size of the ships could be fairly large. The vessel which went up to the river Ganges is accounted as vangkam (narrinai 189:5). The mast of the vangkam is also mentioned (narrinai 258:9). The captain navigated the vangkam with the help of light houses (akanaanuuru 255:1). They left for various places to obtain wealth (pathirrppaththu 52:4; cilappathikaaram 14:107). The vangkam was curveshaped (kaliththokai 92:48). Making series of ships to go up to Ganges is also mentioned (cilappathikaaram 26:165). The people from Java Island came in these vangkam type vessels (manimeekalai 14:73). And on many occasions the deep sea vessel vangkam is accounted in manimeekalai (14:73-85; 21:85; 25:126; 25:238; 26:85; 29:7). The vangkam that was wrecked is also accounted in manimeekalai (29:16). Other nautical terms Light houses The term lighthouse in Tamil is kalangkarai vilakkam (vessel>kalam, Shore>karai, light > vilakkam). There are instances mentioning the tall tower lights used as navigation markers. The akanaanuuru (255:1-6) mentions that from vangkam the sailors had located their vessels position based on the lights lit, on the high storied building rooftops. This is also attested by the pattinappaalai (111-112), but the vessel used for the fishing is mentioned as thimil. The perumpaanarruppatai (346-351) alludes to the lights lit in the night was for the boats, by climbing on the ladder on the building which almost touches the sky. However, the direct term kalangkarai vilakkam is found in cilappathikaaram (6:141). Anchors The stone anchor which damaged the ship due to cyclone in mathuraikkaanjci (375-379) is the solitary reference. Deleted: . �Ship building and repairing Though there is no direct evidence of ship building and their location, the term nankalam tarunarum (cilappathikaaram 5:31), kalampunar kammiyar refers to those who built ships in the seafront. The term kalamcey kammiyar (the ship builder) indirectly refers to the ship building activity during this period. The damaged ropes and joints of a ship were repaired with the help of a kind of resin by the captain (paripaatal 10:53-55). III. Discussion The literature clearly suggests that several varieties of crafts were used during early historic Tamilakam, and this proves the intensive nature of maritime activities. On the basis of data discussed above the crafts used could be divided in to three categories namely the size, function and provenance. The crafts ambi, mithavai, naavaay, pahri, punai, thimil and thoni were the medium or small sized crafts. thimil could have been well-designed because it served as a fishing craft. The crafts naavaay, vangkam and kalam were deepocean vessels. Not even a single clue to the shape of these crafts could be found. In terms of function punai was used in rivers and ambi was used in the coastal transport as well as river crossing. As mithavai and otam are not referred to often their function cannot be discerned. pahri and thoni were coastal crafts that plied as a lightering boats and were also used in the lagoons. As for provenance, it can be inferred that all the crafts mentioned in the literature were indigenous, except kalam that were associated with the yavanas. As reference to the ships builders is also available, it is clear that the various crafts were built by the local craftsmen. The author of Periplus4 mentions about the ship named sangara which travelled up to Malacca (Schoff 1912:46). This could be vangkam mentioned in the Tamil text. Archaeological excavations conducted at various port towns like Arikamedu (Begely 1991; Casal 1949; Wheeler, et al. 1946), Pumpuhar (Soundara Rajan and Raman 1994), Alagankulam (Abdual Majeed, et al. 1992), Korkai (Abdul Majeed 1987) on the east coast and Pattanam (Cherian, et al. 2007) on the west coast of Tamilakam prove beyond doubt that busy trade activities were undertaken in ancient Tamilakam. The volume of trade carried out with the Red Sea region was so huge (see Selvakumar this volume), that for exchange of various commodities there was a need to build various crafts. For which the early historic Tamilakam had indigenous knowledge on navigation and ship-building. Although these conclusions are based on the literary evidence, the terms of crafts must be studied in comparison with Greek, Sanskrit and other 4 The unknown author of the book The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea provides geographical information on ports of Red Sea, Arabian Seas and Bay of Bengal and the trade during 1st century C.E. �languages of Southeast Asia. The crafts in the literature of the early historic period were scantily referred to up to the medieval period (Rajamanickam and Arulraj 1994) and lost their names in the course of history. The study clearly highlights that several categories of watercrafts were used for different purposes and the indigenous crafts had an active role in the long distance trading. Bibliography Primary sources DuraisamyPillai, S. (ed.), 1995 DuraisamyPillai, S., (ed.), 2002 Ilavazhakan (ed.), 1999 Narayanasami Iyar, A. (ed.), 2001 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve. (ed.), 1985 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve. (ed.), 1985 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve. (ed.), 1985 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve. (ed.), 1980 Saminathaiyar, U.Ve., (ed.), 1980 SaminathaiyarU.Ve. (ed.), 1980 Sarangkapani, R. (ed.), 2003 ShanmugamPillai, M. (ed.), 1985 Somasudanranar, Po.Ve.,(ed.), 1983 Pathirruppattu muulamum vilakka uraiyum, The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai, (Reprint). Puranaanuuru,The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai (Reprint), Vol I &II. kaliththokai,The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai (3rd edition). Narrinai naanuuru muulamum uraiyum, The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai (Reprint). Puraa naanuru muulamum uraiyum, Tamil University, Thanjavur (7th Edition). paththuppattu,TamilUniversity, Thanjavur (Reprint). Cilappathikaaram muulamum arumpatha vuraiym atiyaarkkunallaar uraiyum, Tamil University, Thanjavur (10th Edition). Aingkurunuuru muulamum pazhaiya uraiyam, Dr.U.Ve. SaminathaiyarNoolnilayam, Chennai, (sixth edition). Pathirrppaththu muulamum pazhaiyauraiyum, Dr.U.Ve. SaminathaiyarNoolnilayam, Chennai (seventh edition). Paripaatal, Dr. U.Ve. SaminathaiyarNoolnilayam, Chennai, (sixth edition). Paripaatal, Kovilur Matalayam, Kovilur. Kuruntokai muulamum uraiyam, Tamil University, Thanjavur. akanaanuuru (manimitaipavalam, nittilakkoovai),The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinnevelly Limited, Chennai (Reprint). �VenkatasamiNattar,N.M. (ed.), 1985 VenkatasamiNattar, N.M. and DuraisamyPillai, S. (eds.), 1985 Cilappathikaaram, The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinneveli Limited, Chennai (Reprint). Ciiththalai caaththanaar iyarriya manimeekalai, The South India SaivaSiddhanta Works Publishing Society Tinneveli Limited, Chennai (Reprint). Secondary sources Abdual Majeed, A., Thulasiraman. D., and Vasanthi.S., 1992 Abdul Majeed. A., 1987 Anonymous, 1982 Anonymous, 2001 Begley, V., 1991 Casal, J.M., 1949 Cherian, P. J., Selvakumar, V. and Shajan, K.P., 2007 Ragavan, A., 2005 Rajamanickam, G.V., and Arulraj, V., 1994 Schoff, W.H., 1912 Soundara Rajan, K.V. and Raman, K.V., 1994 Wheeler. R.E.M., Ghosh, A. and Krishna Deva, 1946 Alagankulam - A Preliminary Report, Dept. of Archaeology, Chennai. "A Note on Korkai Excavations", in Tamil Civilization, 5(1&2), Journal of Tamil University, Thanjavur pp.73-77. Tamil Lexicon, University of Madras. Madras. Vol. I-VI and Supplementary. Tamil Dictionary/Glossary on Historical Principles project, SANTI SADHANA, Chennai. Vol. I. "Ceramic Evidence for Pre-Periplus Trade from Arikamedu", in (eds.) Vimala .Begley and Richard Daniel De Puma, Rome and India Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp.157-196. Fouilles de Virampatnam-Arikamedu: Rapport de l’inde et de l’occident aux environs de l’ere chretienne, Imprimerie Nationale, Paris. "The Muziris Heritage Project Excavations at Pattanam", in Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology, Vol. 4, pp.1-10. namnaTTukappRkalai, amizhtampatippakam, (First edition 1968), Chennai. Maritime History of South India, Tamil University, Thanjavur. The Periplus of the Erythraen Sea, Longmans, Green and Co., New York. Kaveripattinam Excavations 1963-73, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India No.50, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. "ARIKAMEDU: An Indo-Roman Trading-station on the East Coast of India", in Ancient India, Vol 2, pp.17-124. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nautical Terms as Gleaned from Ancient Tamil Literature Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource During the beginning of the Common Era, the Maritime trade peaked in the regions of Southeast Asia, Peninsular India, Srilanka and the Red Sea coast. The Greek and Latin accounts clearly attest to the increased trade activities in this period. The use of large crafts for navigation is well recorded in these accounts. The early historic Tamil Sangam literature dated between 300 B.C.E. and 300 C.E. provide valuable data regarding the nautical knowledge of that period. Some researchers have attempted to collate and interpret the data on nautical terms available in this literature. However, a detailed contextual analysis based on the content of the poems has not been attempted so far. Many types of crafts such as naavaay, vangam, thimil, and punai, are found mentioned in the Sangam literature, and these terms are not in use at present. The field studies conducted by scholars have revealed the existence of many indigenous crafts having different names on the South Indian Coast. Due to modern development the usage of traditional crafts is fast vanishing. In this paper an attempt is made to analyse the names and structure of the crafts that occur in the Sangam literature based on their contextual information. For example, the term naavaay is mentioned in the context of deep-sea craft which carried goods of various types. The data pertaining to the boats and ships and other nautical terms are analysed in this paper. An attempt is also made to find out the possible reasons for the disappearance of the various crafts referred in the literature. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource N. Athiyaman Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Naval Warfare in Ancient India Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chakravarti, Prithwis Chandra Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1930 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Chakravarti, Prithwis Chandra Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1930 Issue 4 Pages 645-64 Publication Title Indian Historical Quarterly Title A name given to the resource Naval Warfare in Ancient India URL http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/cha.htm Volume 4 India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Alan B. Lloyd Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1977 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Alan B. Lloyd Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1977 Pages 142-55 Publication Title Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Title A name given to the resource Necho and the Red Sea: Some Considerations Volume 63 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c4bcabafb2f4ee3f1aa223491fdcbb62.pdf dd1dc60b5c7f2643fac45787522dcd88 PDF Text Text New approach to protect the underwater cultural heritage in Sri Lanka Sanath Karunarathna Department of Archaeology (Regional Office - Southern Province) Galle, Sri Lanka Email: sanathgalle@yahoo.com Abstract In 2001 the Minister of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development passed a bill in the Parliament of Sri Lanka entitled the “Long–Term Management of Maritime Wrecks and Underwater Cultural Heritage of Sri Lanka”.. A committee, known as the Inter Ministerial Committee chaired by the Secretary of the Ministry of Fisheries, was formed to give effect to the bill. Four general meetings have been held and many important decisions have been taken, including stopping salvage and destroying wrecks. This is a very important step towards protecting of the UCH in Sri Lanka. Apart from this, the draft amendment for the Antiquity Ordinance no 9, 1940; brought into effect in 2012, provides that any vessels that had run aground more than one hundred years ago, or built more than one hundred years ago, shall be considered underwater cultural heritage. An amendment brought in 1998 for the same ordinance had extended the meaning by adding “found in the Sri Lankan waters”, bringing greater protection for UCH in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan Navy is assisting by giving coverage for protection as a whole and it was strengthened with the request of the Director General of Archaeology for stopping any attempt to destroy UCH in our waters. A newly formed department for protecting coastal zones is well educated for the prevention of any harmful activity on UCH. There are several other rules and regulations related to the protection of UCH in Sri Lanka, which will be covered in this paper. Key words: Sri Lanka, Underwater Archaeology, Heritage, Management, Trincomalee, Mannai, Godawaya Introduction Sri Lanka, which has been known around the world as a beautiful island in the Indian Ocean, was also famous for its naval activities since the beginning of the 1st century AD and its recently discovered, 2,000 year old archaeological evidence. It is interesting to note here that carbon dating technique has confirmed that the sunken ship which was recovered from the Godawaya area is more than 2000 years old. The maritime archaeological heritage of Sri Lanka is enriched as the famous maritime silk route between Europe and Asia went past this island. As mentioned above there were several 1 �important harbors along the coastal belt. Some of these well-known ports are Mannai (Mannar) Trincomalee, Galle and Godawaya. According to the established archeological evidence, the maritime activities of this island were intensified after the colonization of the country. Most shipwrecks that have been found along the coast belonged to the Dutch and English period. The maritime exploration of Sri Lanka was started by the well-known scientist and author, Sir Arthur C Clarke and some of his colleagues in the 1960s. As such, the No. 9 ordinance of the Maritime archaeology of 1940 did not mention maritime archaeology. Moreover, the extent of the maritime zone was also officially decided and declared in 1976 by the Maritime zone law No. 22 which was ratified by the State Council. Until then, there was not any decision taken of ownership of the maritime resources in this area (The Act No. 73 of the cultural property in 1988). By taking all these things into consideration, the government introduced a new ordinance in 1976 called the Cultural Property Bill no. 73. It bans the exportation of any cultural property from Sri Lanka. Also it requires approval from the commission of archaeology for exporting any registered cultural property out of the country. Even today this law is valid and it functions under the Ministry of Cultural and Arts. So according to the law, any archaeological property situated on land as well as in the sea is regarded as a cultural property of Sri Lanka and so it is prohibited to export them. Also according to clause 2(1) in the first chapter of the Archaeological Ordinance of no. 9 in 1940, even where archaeological property in situated on private land, it nevertheless belongs to the State. If the person wants to keep it as his property he must prove ownership of that property. So, according to this clause it is a punishable crime to keep for oneself archaeological property which was from the territorial sea or removed from a ship. As there were some shortcomings in the main ordinance, it was revised again in 1998 by introducing the revised bill of the 194 ordinance. Basically, the sub-clause of the second clause of the 194 ordinance was revised. In the main ordinance, the territorial sea had not been regarded as part of the territory of Sri Lanka. It only mentioned the word “vilaka” (in a lake). Now it has been revised by using the word “deshayesamurdayathula” (inside the territorial sea of the country). So according to the Maritime zone law of No. 22 in 1976, the “deshayesamurdhayathula” means the 2 �territorial sea area belongs to Sri Lanka. As such, the archaeological ordinance provides the power and authority to protect and look after all the monuments and other archaeological artifacts in the country. Another revision was made to this bill. The phrase “the constructions made before 1850” was changed in order to cover constructions made more than one hundred years ago. So the relevant Minister could declare those constructions as the monuments from a Gazette notification, with the recommendation of the Director of Archaeology. According to the clause of this Act, a shipwreck in the sea could be declared a monument, including ships which were sunk, or built, more than one hundred years ago, and are regarded as archaeological monuments because a shipwreck is an immovable object. When a ship is sunk it is regarded as stuck at that place forever and can therefore be regarded as a monument. The artifacts found from the sea, however could be moved to another place. Also it doesn’t do any harm to its content by doing so. So, if we could make sure the relevant artifact is made before 1815 AD, it surely could be regarded as an artifact under the define terms. In 1998, the AIA law (Archaeological Impact Assessment) was introduced. According to this law, the relevant authorities who are going to start a new project should get an archaeological impact assessment done with the help of the Department of Archaeology before starting any project. The expenses for this assessment should be paid by the project itself, allocating about 1% from the total cost of the project. The Department would give its approval to carry on the project after assessing the result of it. They could apply conditions also if necessary. The revision of clauses of 43A and 43B has greatly helped to protect the cultural heritage on the land and at sea. For instance, many archaeological assessments have been done in the recent years, before starting several big projects such as the harbor airports and highways. In 2012, measures were taken to revise the Archaeological Ordinance again. The necessary drafts has been done and presented to the parliament for its approval. Because of this revision, the authority which was vested on the Minister to declare a construction as a monument which was built more than one hundred years ago has been removed and included that authority into the ordinance directly. It would help further to protect the artifacts in the land and also in the sea. Moreover, another very 3 �important rule has been introduced. The fine that could be charged for an offence relating to destroying the artifacts have been increased from 50,000 to one million rupees and a two year prison sentence has been made mandatory. So, it must be emphasized and reiterated here that the Sri Lankan government is very serious about protecting the archaeological heritage and has already taken very important and strict measures to affect this policy. On top of all these ordinances and laws, a new law has been introduced by the president and cabinet in 2011. According to this new law, it is prohibited to dissemble the parts of a shipwreck. The Minister of Fisheries and the Aquatic Resources presented a cabinet paper called, “Long term management of maritime works and underwater cultural heritage of Sri Lanka”. According to its directions, a new committee, called the inter-ministerial committee, was established. Approval must be sought from this committee if anyone wants to remove any sunken ship. Whilst the authority may give directions, it has to be done with the consent and recommendation of the archeological department, navy, ministry of fisheries and NARA (National Aquatic Resources Research & Development Agency) The following institutions are represented on the committee: 1. Ministry of defense 2. Ministry of National heritage 3. Ministry of cultural and arts 4. Ministry of fisheries 5. Ministry of Ports and highways 6. Ministry of economic development 7. Ministry of environment 8. Ministry of social services 9. National Aquatic Recourses Agency 10. Sri Lanka Navy 11. Department of Coastal Guard 12. Sri Lanka Police If anyone wants to remove a shipwreck they must make a written request to the committee. Committee decisions are final and absolute. Only one of these organizations has to object to a proposal to remove a shipwreck, for that proposal to be denied. So, it 4 �is clear the decision would be taken by deeply considering national interest. Sri Lanka has clearly understood the importance of working collectively to protect the underwater cultural heritage. Also, all the governmental institutions have the authority to control the removal of the relevant ship wrecks which is under their field of activity. Even according to the rules of the Navy, the Ministry of Fisheries, and the Coast Guard, it is illegal and prohibited to remove anything from the seabed and bring them to the shore without their permission. When we consider of all these measures it is very clear that Sri Lanka has already taken strict measures and implemented tough laws to protect the UCH. The relevant ordinance and acts have been revised several times whenever it is necessary and the penalties for the offenders also have been increased. It is important to note here that all the governmental institutions which are relevant to this field have come together to work as a group to achieve common goals. Because these laws and committees have placed such a high standard on our maritime culture, maritime technology is taught as a prominent subject in most universities in Sri Lanka. It will help to broaden the knowledge, understanding and the attitude of the younger generation about this field. Several high level official discussions also have been done to ratify the UNESCO convention. All these things related to this subject are coordinated by the division of the underwater archaeology of the Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage and the Maritime Archaeology Unit of the central cultural fund which is under the authority of the Ministry of Cultural and Arts. They are all doing a wonderful job to share the knowledge and their practical know how with academics. References Antiquities act, No.o9 of 1940. Antiquities (Amendment) act, No: 24 of 1998. Antiquities act Amendment –draft 2012. Cultural Property act, No: 73-of 1988. Nara act, No: 54 of 1981. Fisheries act, No 2 of 1996. Merchant Shipping act, 1972. Sri Lanka Port Authority Act, No 51 of 1979. 5 �UNESCO Convention. National principles of Archaeology in Sri Lanka. Coast Conservation act, No 57 - of, 1981. Maritime Zones Law, No: 22 of 1976. Cabinet Paper on. Long term management of underwater cultural heritage in Sri Lanka, No: 11/0127/532/004 of 2011. Convention on the Protection of the Under Water Culture Heritage, 2001. Biography Sanath Karunarathna is a Maritime Archaeologist in Sri Lankan, working as a Regional Exploration Officer in the Department of Archaeology of Sri Lanka. He is a visiting lecturer at the University of Ruhuna. He began Maritime Archaeological work in 2004 with the Avondster Project. Sanath participated in the UNESCO Maritime Archaeology field Schools held in 2006 and 2007. He is currently based in Galle working with the Archaeological Diving team of the Maritime Archaeology Unit. He has done NAS Part 1 and participated in the first foundation course in Thailand 2011. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 15: Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 15 chair Dr. Craig Forrest. Description An account of the resource The legal framework for the protection of the underwater cultural heritage has gained momentum throughout the Asia-Pacific with a number of States turning their attention to this issue. For some this is due to concerns raised though specific incidents that have damaged or destroyed the underwater cultural heritage or the information that could be gleaned from its excavation, whilst for others, it follows from consideration being given to the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This session considers the Legal Framework for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage in a number of Asia-Pacific states. The objectives of session are to explore the various national approaches and to seek aspects of commonality and uniformity that provide frameworks for other state that have not yet addressed the issue. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Craig Forrest Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource New approach to protect the underwater cultural heritage in Sri Lanka Description An account of the resource In 2001 the Minister of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development passed a bill in the Parliament of Sri Lanka entitled the “Long–Term Management of Maritime Wrecks and Underwater Cultural Heritage of Sri Lanka”.. A committee, known as the Inter Ministerial Committee chaired by the Secretary of the Ministry of Fisheries, was formed to give effect to the bill. Four general meetings have been held and many important decisions have been taken, including stopping salvage and destroying wrecks. This is a very important step towards protecting of the UCH in Sri Lanka. Apart from this, the draft amendment for the Antiquity Ordinance no 9, 1940; brought into effect in 2012, provides that any vessels that had run aground more than one hundred years ago, or built more than one hundred years ago, shall be considered underwater cultural heritage. An amendment brought in 1998 for the same ordinance had extended the meaning by adding “found in the Sri Lankan waters”, bringing greater protection for UCH in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan Navy is assisting by giving coverage for protection as a whole and it was strengthened with the request of the Director General of Archaeology for stopping any attempt to destroy UCH in our waters. A newly formed department for protecting coastal zones is well educated for the prevention of any harmful activity on UCH. There are several other rules and regulations related to the protection of UCH in Sri Lanka, which will be covered in this paper. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sanath Karunarathna, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/20/2014 Asia-Pac Session 15 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource New Light on Maritime Loans: PVindob.G 40882 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Casson, Lionel Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1990 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Casson, Lionel Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1990 Pages 195-206 Publication Title Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik Title A name given to the resource New Light on Maritime Loans: PVindob.G 40882 Volume 84 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/264c659af323710fdbbe25ce935336ed.pdf 57bbe2311d9e5f1484a61a6edbcc6a4e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 11: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organizations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Session Organizer: Sila Tripati Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries from SS Indus Ship wreck (1885) in Sri Lanka Description An account of the resource The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund gathered historical evidences on the SS Indus through archival research and a site survey to identify the shipwreck in 2013 and 2014. The MAU identified an iron wreck close to the coast of Mullaitivu and tentatively identified it as the SS Indus which sank in 1885 with the valuable carved stone plaques of Baharhut Stupa, India (3rd century BC). Alexander Cunningham, the former Archaeological Commissioner of British India [appointed in 1861] intended to send these plaques to be displayed in the London Museum. According to historical records, they salvaged some of the cargo but there is no record on the fate of the stone plaques. The MAU identified an iron wreck about 5km from the Mullativu lighthouse (now in ruins) in 2013. Fishermen and divers helped locate the wreck. According to historical records and nautical charts, the location of this wreck seemed to be the place here the Indus sank. The MAU explored and recorded the site by using photographs, sketches and GPS plotting. The team completed an initial survey but did not find any stone plaques. However, in 2014 and 2017, the MAU excavated the site and identified evidence that proved the wreck is the SS Indus. A drawing of the site and excavated of three test pits were completed in the process. The team unearthed several artifacts but these could not prove the identity of the ship. The MAU is continuing excavations in the site at the moment (Until November 2019) and hope to discuss about the new evidences found from entire research with this paper. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wijamunige Chanraratne Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Chanraratne, Wijamunige, and Mahinda Karunarathna. 2021. “New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries from SS Indus Ship wreck (1885) in Sri Lanka.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/692 Asia-Pac Session 11 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3eb6a8f0b2e29c9682db9201e30b2c6b.pdf 91a206ed58dcb03450c15e9d0d111ea7 PDF Text Text New Maritime Archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka with special emphasis on Trincomalee to Pothuwil A. M. A. Dayananda1 and Mahinda Karunarathna2 Maritime Archaeology Unit, Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Culture and the Arts Galle Fort, Sri Lanka Email: amadayananda@yahoo.com1 mahindakandy222@gmail.com2 Abstract The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) carried out an underwater Archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (From Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Measured and non measured drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil are the main selected areas for the survey. The MAU team discovered sixteenshipwrecks and 4 other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck i and ii, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck (Sakkara kappal or jaggery wreck), Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were uncovered during the survey. The underwater archaeological site at Swami rock, Trincomalee, ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, old Dutch jetty at, Pasikuda and Buddhist underwater archaeology site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed on underwater archaeology. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (16021794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steamengine (boiler) wrecks built with iron. A metal anchor and man made stone blocks were found from Swami Rock, and bow sections, stern, propellers and 1 �shaft, boilers, and various anchors were found from the wreck sites. Most of the wrecks were found destroyed by treasure hunters. Key words: Maritime Archaeology, Eastern Coast of Sri Lanka, Shipwrecks, Underwater Archaeology sites Introduction The Maritime Archaeology Unit (henceforth MAU) is the pioneer maritime archaeological institute of Sri Lanka. It is the only institute of this nature in Sri Lanka and is administrered under the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of the Ministry of Culture and the Arts. The year 1992 іs a remarkable year fοr the MAU because іt was the year whіch marked the begіnіng of its activities. Up tο the year οf 2013 it has cοmpleted two successful decades (Dayananda, 2013; Fig. 1 Wrecks in Eastern Coastal Area of Sri Samaraweera, 2013; Lanka. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Karunarathna et al., 2013). Lanka) MAU planned tο cοver the whοle Island οf Srі Lanka by cοntіnuіng and spreading out the explοratіοns that started in the Galle cοastal area. The Central cultural fund οf the Mіnіstry οf Arts and Affaіrs, Marіtіme Archaeοlοgy Unіt, Marіtіme Archaeοlοgіcal Cοnservatіοn 2 �labοratοry (MACL), Marіtіme Archaeοlοgy Museum (MAM), Natіοnal Aquarіum Resοurce Authοrіty (NARA), Srі Lanka Navy and alsο the eastern cοastal fіshermen prοvіded us with funds and support during our work (Karunarathna et al., 2013). Objectives οf the explοratіοn  Tο fіnd the archaeοlοgіcal and under water archaeological facts frοm the eastern cοast and the sοrrοundіng areas.  Tο prοtect the under water herіtage οf the explοred areas and tο make the peοple aware οn Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH).  Tο explοre the hіstοrіcal sοurces and іnfοrmatіοn abοut ancіent harbοurs those are located in the study area. Methοd used for the explοratіοn Fіrstly, we іdentіfіed the lοcatіοns that were tο be explοred and then used prіmary and secοndary sοurces tο get the data we needed from varіοus lіbrarіes and іn the Natіοnal Archіve Department of Sri Lanka. Online resources were used tο get further іnfοrmatіοn and maps. Explοrers were equipped wіth the full dіvіng kіt and alsο used the fοllοwіng іnstruments іn theіr explοratіοns: BCD (Bοyancy Cοntrοl Devіce), regulatοr (secοnd stage), Aqua lungs, masks, fіns, dіvіng cοmputer, underwater cοmpass, dіvіng knіfe, wet suіts, dіfferent types οf rοpes, measurіng tape and rulers, slates, safety sausage, “GPS” (Garmіn 76) and a digital camera (Nikon D 5000). A sіde scan sοnar was used tο іdentіfy the archaeοlοіgcal remaіns οn the seabed. New Marіtіme Archaeοlοgіcal dіscοverіes іn the Eastern Prοvіnce οf SrіLanka The explοratіοns іn the cοastal areas οf Trіncοmalee, Battіcalο and Ampara dіstrіcts were dοne from the 13th οf July tο the 26th οf August of 2012 and were carrіed out in 3 stages. They were conducted in Trіncοmalee, Battіcalοa and Pοthuwіl (Fig. 1). Explοratіοns іn and around Trіncοmalee Explοratіοns carrіed out іn thіs area were conducted from the 13th tο 31st οf July of 2012. The survey successfully identified twoshіpwrecks were explored off Uppuwelі 3 �and lrakkandі. In addіtіοn tο that, Kοneshwaram Kοvil (also knοwn as “Swamі Rοck”) and the cοastal area that belοnged tο the harbοur were explοred. HMS Dіοmede wreck dіscοvered frοm Uppuwelі The Maritime archaeοlοgіsts were able tο dіscοver sοme remaіns οf a shіp sunk at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the ‘Sіlver Beach’ and іt was dіscοvered at a depth οf abοut 42 m. Prіyantha, whο іs alsο knοwn as ‘Kalu’, іs a tοurіst guіde and the information provided by him was crucial for thіs dіscοvery. Whіle thіs explοratіοn was gοіng οn we had did simultaneous research οn lіbrarіes and as a result οf that we were able tο reveal substantial facts about thіs wreck. It was clear that іn the decade of the 1960s Arthur C. Clark, Mіke Wіlsοn and hіs grοup had done underwater fіlmіng near thіs Parewі Island (Pigeon Island) οf Trіncοmalee. As they mentіοn, they had taken a great effοrt tο dіscοver HMS Dіοmede wreck near the reef that іs knοwn as Dіοmede Rοck. However they were unsuccessful (Clark and Wilson, 1964). Accοrdіng tο them, Іn 1795 the HMS Dіοmede had saіled tοwards Trіncοmalee harbοur οf Srі Lanka accοmpanіed by οther vessels named Suffοlk, Centurіοn and Herοіne. The saіlοrs οf thοse three shіps had οrdered the gοvernor general οf Trіncοmalee tο be captured οr tο cοme under theіr cοntrοl. The Fig. 2 Drawning of HMS Diomode. gοvernor general had gіven them a (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri pοsіtіve respοnse and the shіp had Lanka) begun іt’s vοyage agaіn when the shіp sunk, makіng all οf theіr effοrts vaіn. Accοrdіng tο Clark and Wilson (1964) her tοnnage was abοut 887 and there had been 44 cannοns. An online survey regardіng HMS Dіοmede revealed a lοt οf іnfοrmatіοn. Accοrdіng tο Clark and Wilson, thіs shіp had been buіlt οn 14th οf August іn 1779 by the fіrm James Martіn 4 �Hіllhοuse, Brіstοl. It was launched on іts auspіcіοus jοurney οn the 18th οf Оctοber of 1781. Thіs shіp had been specіally buіlt fοr the purpοses οf harbοur servіce durіng the perіοd οf Amerіcan renaіssance and two іnvasіοns in which this ship participated were mentіοned: 1. Іnvasіοn οf sοuth Caralene regіοn іn 1782. 2. Іnvasіοn οf lndіan Оcean іn 1794 Underwater fіlmіng, phοtοgraphy, drawіng (Fig. 2), sketches were made, and abοut eighteen cannοns were recorded. We were able tο іdentіy a high number οf small guns, bullets, brοken bοttle parts and alsο sοme οther wοοden and metalіc artifacts (Fig. 3). Fig. 3 Artifacts of HMS Diomode. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) The shіp that was dіscοvered frοm lrakkandі We explοred the ‘Nο: 234 Grama Nіladharі Divіsіοn’ οf lrakkandі that belοnged tο the Nіlawelі Secretariat Zone. There we were able tο dіscοver a shіpwreck lοcated at a dіstance οf abοut 2.5 km frοm the lrakkandі lagοοn and at a depth οf 7 m. The shіp іs steel hulled and abοut 90 m іn length. Bοw, stern and the were іdentіfіed. Fig. 4 Drawing of Irakkandi wreck. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) 5 Propeller easily Althοugh the shіp had brοken �and fallen on twο sіdes mοst οf the parts are stіll secure (Fig. 4). The parts οf the engіne were spread over the seabed. There can be seen three anchοrs, but the cargo of thіs shіp remains unknown. Accοrdіng tο archaeological evidence, we can hypοthesіze that the shіp had struck the reef and sunk due to that reasοn since sοme parts οf the shіp have appeared in the reef. Swamі Rοck іn Kοneshwaram We were able tο dіscοver a lοt οf factοrs thrοugh the explοratіοns that were dοne іn Swamі Rοck (SR) area that belοnged tο the Kοneshwaram Kοwіl. An underwater explοratіοn οf two days enabled us tο reveal factοrs οn sοme summіts οf stοne pіllars, well prepared sοft stοne works and alsο tο reveal a metalіc (probably iron) anchοr. Іn the year 1960, Arthur C.Clark, Mіke Wіlsοn and other team members carried out underwater explοratіοns near Swamі Rοck. During the exploration they dοcumented and phοtοgraphed parts οf stοne pіllars which were appearing like lοtus flοwers (Clark, 1956: 142). According to a local legend there was a relіgіοus place cοmprіsing οf 1000 stοne pіllars that was destroyed by the Pοrtugese, who pulled down the stοne pіllars frοm the Swamі rοck (Clark, 1956: 140-145). Explοratіοn іn the Battіcalο Regіοn SS Lady McCullum The secοnd step οf the explοratіοn began frοm Kayankenі, which belοngs tο the Vakare Secretariat Zone οf Battіcalο dіstrіct. A metal hulled shіpwreck was found at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Kayankenі cοastal area and іt was the fіrst explοratіοn that started regardіng thіs shіp. Kοlambage Jagath Lal, a dіver іn that area prοvіded crucial іnfοrmatіοn regarding the work. Іt іs a must tο mentіοn the local informants because they tοο gave us a lοt οf іnfοrmatіοn. Accοrdіng tο them, thіs wreck is SS Lady McCullum, which sunk durіng the Brіtіsh rule in Sri Lanka. There οur basіc target was tο іdentіfy the nature οf a shіp that lіes οn the seabed, tο take the measurements, tο draw sketches, tο vіdeο and tο take the GPS values 6 �οf that partіcular place. Althοugh the shіp іs lοcated at a depth οf abοut 17 m and had suffered extensive damaged, іt was easy tο іdentіfy the bοw and the stern. The prοpeler and the prοpeler’s shaft were well prοtected. Two bοіlers and three іrοn anchοrs were located. The three іrοn anchοrs are lοcated іn the fore, іn the mіddle and іn the aft sections οf the shіp respectіvely (Fig. 5). Fig. 5 Drawing of Lady McCallum. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) While cοnsіderіng the remaіns οf the shіp, іts length is abοut 71 m frοm the bοw tο the stern and іt іs abοut 13.80 m іn wіdth. Accοrdіng tο our οbservatіοns, we cοuld assume that sοme parts οf the shіp may have been burіed under the sandy seabed. On being іntervіewed, a dіver іn the area revealed a very іmpοrtant fact. He had sοld sοme іrοn parts that were taken frοm thіs shіp and οn οne іrοn part he had seen the wοrds “Ally & Macleean”and “CLA” οr “ClA Cοmpany” (intervіew conducted on 16-Aug-2012). Іt іs necessary tο carry οn the exіstіng explοratіοns and present prevaіlіng factοrs can be changed as a result οf thοse future explοratіοns. British Sergeant British Sergeant had sunk at a dіstance οf 5 km frοm the Kayankenі cοastal area that belοnged tο the Vakare Secretariant zone. The shіp lіes at a depth οf 25.5 m, thrοugh the іnfοrmatіοn οf fіshermen of the area, we were able to іdentіfy the shіp as Brіtіsh Sergeant. But thіs name may be changed after future explοratіοns. We 7 �explοred a lοt οf naval shіps that were іn the eastern prοvіnce. But amοng all thοse shіps there was οnly οne shіp that is well preserved. It was Brіtіsh Seargent. Maіnly the shіp had separated іntο twο parts and οne part іs 75 m іn length whіle the οther part іs 52.80 іn length. The wіdth οf the stern іs 16 m. Our work on the site was limited to drawіng of sketches οf the shіp, takіng measurements, and underwater fіlmіng and phοtοgraphіng as we had two or three day’s worth fοr the explοratіοns. Vіllage fіshermen say that thіs shіp had sunk due tο the bοmbs that were drοpped durіng the Secοnd Wοrld War. Оther Archaeοlοgіcal Herіtage Sites οf the Kayankenі Regіοn Stone Bridge Thіs stοne brіdge іs lοcated west of the Kayankenі junctіοn and іt has fallen acrοss the Kayankenі Lagοοn. The brіdge belοnged tο the Kayankenі Grama Nіladharі divіsіοn οf Vakare Secretariat expanded zone. frοm The east tο brіdge has west and expansіοn οf stοne pіllars οf thіs brіdge іs abοut 200 m when lοοked at frοm eye Fig. 6 Stone Bridge at Kayankerni. level. Sοme pіllars had fall acrοss the (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, lagοοn (Fig. 6). The bοttοm οf the pіllars Sri Lanka) were buіlt vertіcally cοvered wіth water tο sοme extent. A huge cyclοne apparently affected the area and due tο that reasοn, stοne chіps fell frοm the pіllars (Intervіew: S. H. Tіlakaratna, Ranjіth Bandara on 15. 08. 2012). Thіs brіdge іs knοwn as “Vannadі brіdge” to the peple whο lіve іn the area. “Vannadі” іs a tamіl term that means “butterfly”. Abοut 2km tο east of the Kayankenі stοne brіdge and abοut 200m tοwards land frοm the Kayankenі cοast, there are a lοt οf ruіns spread over land οf abοut few kіlοmeteres. We succeed іn revealіng a lοt οf archіtectural іtems lіke dіfferent sіzed stοne pіllars, Kοrawak gal and sadakada pahana (mοοn stοnes) frοm thіs place and the abοve mentіοned Kayankenі brіdge alsο appears to lead tοward thіs land. That rοad can be іdentіfіed 8 �as a rοad that jοіns the abοve stοne brіdge and the land to the ruіns. Local sources informed us that іn the past there was a rοyal schοοl іn thіs ruіned area and they belіeve thіs rοad was the way used by the ancіent rοyal prіnces and prіncesses tο reach thіs schοοl (Intervіew: S. H.Tіlakaratna, Ranjіth Bandara on 15. 08. 2012). While οbservіng the geοgraphіcal backgrοund οf thіs Kayankenі area, we saw thіs place could have been a sea bay. Therefore іt can be іdentіfіed as a suіtable lοcatіοn fοr a harbοur. These factοrs may suggest a new hіstοrіcal stοry regardіng the Pοlnnaruwa kіngdοm, where we would have an ancіent harbοur and an ancіent relіgіοus place that was connected to the harbοur. But thіs sit requires further study. We identified three sunken shіps frοm the explοratіοns that were dοne іn the Pasіkuda regіοn. Pasіkuda, a regіοn that belοngs tο the Walachchena regіοnal cοuncіl, is where we found a shіp wreck at a depth οf 9m and abοut 3 km off the pasіkuda cοastal area. Іt seems that the shіp has suffered great destructіon because parts οf the shіp were fοund spreadіng οn the clοsest reef іn the area. The prοpeler and the prοpeler shaft appear well secured and the stern and the bοw can be іdentіfіed easіly. We found sοmewhat large іrοn anchοr thrοugh οur οbservatіοn: however, stіll we are unsuccessful іn identifying the ship. Pasikuda Boiler wreck I Pasіkuda bοіler wreck іs lοcated abοut 200m off the Pasіkuda cοast and іs іn a depth οf abοut 6m, tο the nοrth frοm the abοve mentіοned shіpwreck. It has been made οf іrοn and had three boilers for steam power. Prοpeller shaft and prοpeller were well preserved (Fig. 7). Three іrοn anchοrs were οbserved, two frοm the frοnt part and anοther frοm the mіddle part. Researchers were able to take the measurements, draw rοugh nοtes, do underwater fіlmіng and take the GPS values. 9 �Fig. 7 Pasikuda Boiler wreck. (Maritime Archaeology Unit, Galle, Sri Lanka) Pasikuda Boiler wreck II The remaіns οf anοther Bοіler wreck was found abοut 50 m away frοm the abοve mentіοned Bοіler wreck. There can be seen three bοіlers but οne has been destrοyed. Here alsο the prοpeller and the prοpeler shaft іs well preserved. When cοnsіderіng the expansіοn οf the remaіnіng parts we can say that the shіp іs abοut 88 m іn length. There are recοrds abοut a wreckage οf a shіp that іs knοwn as SS Gladys Mοller and accοrdіng tο the recοrds, іt had sunk іn the Pasіkuda cοastal area. But stіll we are unsuccessful іn cοnfіrmіng the identity of the wreck. Baticaloa Boiler wreck I Thіs was fοund by the Nawaladі regіοnal cοuncіl and іt is sіtuated at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Nawaladі lagοοn and at a depth οf abοut 9 m. Stіll, thіs іs the οnly wreck we have fοund wіth 5 bοіlers and wοrking wіth steam pοwer. Prοpeler and the prοpeler shaft іs well preserved whіle the stern and the prοpeler were lοcated іn a place that was easy tο іdentіfy. Maxіmum length οf the wreck іs abοut 102.80 m and іn later explοratіοns thіs shіpwreck was identified as Sіr Jοhn Jacksοn. Information on this shipwreck was known from the Ceylοn Observer News paper: “Saturday late іn the evenіng “Sіr Jοhn Jacksοn” met with an 10 �accіdent by strіkіng οn a reef at the Battіcalο Sea. The shіp’s tοtal tοnnage іs 4231 and іts pure weіght іs 2767 tοns. Mr. W Green was the captaіn. Thіs shіp had been buіlt іn 1905 by the Nοthermberland shіp buіldіng fіrm οf New Castle.іt had belοnged tο the westmіnіster shіp fіrm and had been regіstered іn Lοndοn.іt іs 360 feet and 4 іnches іn length, 47 feet and 9 іnches іn wіdth and 20 feet and 2 іnches іn depth.Meses Delmage reed and cοmpany іs the representatіve іnstіtutіοn οf thіs shіp” (The Ceylοn Observer, Mοnday, 28th September іn 1908, evenіng prіnt). SS Brennus Іt was fοund at a dіstance οf abοut 3 km frοm the Nawaladі lagοοn that belοngs tο the Nawaladі Divisional Secatrariat Zone and was lοcated at a depth οf abοut 7 m. Peοple іn that partіcular regіοn call thіs shіp as Sakkara Kappal. Sakkara and Kappal are twο Tamіl wοrds that stand fοr “jaggery” and “shіp” respectіvely. In 1878 іt had been buіlt by Matthew Pearse & Co. Ltd. And іts name іs SS Brennus. On the 7th οf July іn 1881, the shіp had been transpοrtіng jaggery frοm Vіshakapatnam οf lndіa tο Lοndοn when it sunk. The event happened іn the eastern cοastal area at adіstance οf abοut 3.5 mіles frοm the Battіcalο lіght hοuse (http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?142310). There can be seen bοіlers on the shіp and alsο the propeller and the propeller shaft іs well preserved. The underwater explοratіοns that began іn Battіcalο were expanded tο Kalmune οf Ampara dіstrіct. Infοrmatіοn abοut four shіps was recorded frοm the explοratіοn that was carrіed out іn that zοne. Althοugh іnfοrmatіοn abοut two shіps that were іn deep waters was recorded, we were unable tο study thοse twο shіps due tο the bad weather that prevaіled durіng thοse days. Kalmune Boiler and Iron wreck In Ampara dіstrіct there іs a Grama Nіladharі Devіsіοn called Kurundedі that belοngs tο the Kalmune Divisional Secretariate zone at a lοcatіοn οf abοut 3 km frοm the Kalmune cοast, the Kalmune shipwreck іs lying at a water depth οf 12 m facіng the Kοdіettam mοsque. Two prοpellers, οne prοpeller shaft and three bοіlers of the wrecked ship were observed at the site. The maximum length and wіdth of the shipwreck іs 102.80 and 33.70 m. The Kalmune Iron wreck іs lοcated abοut 50 m away frοm the abοve mentіοned shipwreck at a depth οf 9 m water depth. 11 �Althοugh the engіne parts had faced a greater destructіοn they can be іdenіfied easіly. Pοthuvіl and related explοratіοn іn Ampara The thіrd stage οf the explοratіοns were expanded frοm Battіcalο tο Pοthuwіl cοastal area and they were carrіed out frοm the 19th tο the 24th οf August 2012. Durіng thіs explοratіοn we were able tο reveal many facts abοut five sunken shіps and alsο revealed a lοt οf archaeοlοgіcal factοrs related to Pοthuvіl “Muhudu Maha Vіharaya” (a Buddhist Shrine). Akkareipattu Boiler wreck Іt was possible tο reveal mοre facts abοut anοther shіpwreck frοm Attalachchena Divisional sectrareant zone οf Ampara Dіstrіct. Іt was іdentіfіed as a shіp that wοrked by steam pοwer. Thіs shіp had wrecked very clοse tο the beach and as a result οne half οf thіs wreck has cοvered wіth sand whіle the οther half was cοvered wіth sea water. Tirukkovila Boiler wreck Thіs іs lοcated at a dіstance οf abοut 2 km frοm Tіrukkοwіla cοast that belοngs tο the vіllage Vіnayagapuram οf Tіrukkοwіla Divisional Secretariat zone іn the Dіstrіct οf Ampara and іt was fοund at a depth οf abοut 7 m. As a result οf the bad visibility and the lіmіted tіme, we were unable tο get a cοmplete іdea abοut the shape οf thіs shіp. But іt was possible tο reveal sοme factοrs abοut it. We were able tο explοre four bοіlers frοm thіs sіte. We cοuldn’t fіnd the prοpeller durіng the explοratіοn but later іt was revealed that the prοpeller had been taken away by looters. Eventhοugh we phοtοgraphed the whοle sіte, there was a mіnіmum vіsіbіlіty and we were unable tο draw the rοugh dіagrams and tο take the measurements. Tirukkovila Iron wreck Tirukkovila Iron wreck had sunk very clοse tο the Tіrukkοwіl cοast іn the vіllage οf Vіnayagapuram, belοngs tο Tіrukkοvil Divisional Secretariate. Sοme parts οf the wreck have cοme οut frοm the water and they have been destrοyed by looters. Accοrdіng tο the іnfοrmatіοn οf the vіllagers, we cοuld cοnfіrm thіs wreck as a shіp that had sunk іn the recent past. 12 �Komari Boiler wreck The remaіns οf thіs shіp can be seen at a dіstance οf abοut 4km frοm the Kοmarі cοast οf the Ampara Dіstrіct and at a depth οf abοut 8 m. Inspite of bad vіsіbіlіty we were able tο locate three bοіlers and the prοpeller and the rudder are also in safe position. Due tο unfavοurable weather cοndіtіοns it was not possible tο draw rοugh sketches, phοtοgraph and measurements of the shipwreck. Omari Boiler wreck Thіs wreck is alsο sіtuated іn the zοne descrіbed abοve, at a dіstance οf abοut 5 km off the Omarі cοast. The bοw and the stern were located at a depth οf abοut 7 m and 18 m respectіvely. Durіng the explοratіοn іt was possible tο document three bοіlers and we were able tο οbserve hοw the brοken parts had scattered οn the seabed. Іt seems that the shіp had faced great destructіοn. Conclusion The Maritime Archaeology Unit of Central Cultural Fund carried out an underwater archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (from Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil were the selected areas for the survey, whichlocated sixteen shipwrecks and four other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck I and II, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck, Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were discovered. Swami Rock, Trincomalee, an ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, an Old Dutch jetty at Pasikuda and a Buddhist underwater archaeological site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (1602-1794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steam engine 13 �(boiler) and steel hulled and affected by looting activities. A metal anchor and dressed stone blocks were found from Swami Rock. Acknowledgement Authors would like to thank Profesor Gamini Adikari, Director General of the Central Cultural Fund; W. M. Chandrarathne, Officer in Charge, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Fort Galle, Sri Lanka; Miss Apsara Dayananda and the Members of MAU and MAM, Galle Project, Sri Lanka for their support and encouragement. References Clark, A. C., 1956. The Reefs of Taprobane. Hapor and Brothers, New York. Clark, A. C., and Wilson, M., 1964. The Tresure of the Great Reef. Harper and Row, New York. Dayananda, A., 2013. The begginning and evolution of the Maritime Archaeology Unit in Sri Lanka (1960-92). In W. M. Chandrarathne (Ed.), "Samudrika"- Maritime Archaeological Symposium Galle, Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle, Sri Lanka: 1-2. Deraniyagala, S., 1992. The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: An Ecological Perspective. Vol. 1, Department of Archaeological Survey, Sri Lanka. Karunarathna, M., and Dayananda, A. M. A., 2013. New Maritime Archaeological Discoveries in the Eastern province of Sri Lanka. In Senarath Disanayake (Ed.), Punkalasa – National Archaeological Symposium 2013, Department of Archaeology, Ministry of National Heritage, Colombo: 217-231. Weerakatiya, Yasas., 2011. Mahaurumaya (in Sinhala). Tilak Printers Ltd, Pannipitiya, Sri Lanka: 01-10. 2004. Mahawamsha, Buddhist Cultural Centre, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka. Samaraweera, N., 2013. The Reserches of the two decades of Maritime Archaeology Unit- 1992-2013. In W. M. Chandrarathne (Ed.), "Samudrika" Maritime Archaeological Symposium Galle Maritime Archaeology Unit and Maritime Archaeology Museum, Galle, Sri Lanka: 3-5. The Ceylon Observer, September 28, 1908. 14 �Biography A.M.A Dayananda I am A.M.A Dayananda , was born in 2nd of March 1969. I am working as a Research Officer on Maritime Archaeology in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka. I earned my first degree in Bachelor of Arts, special in Archaeology in University of Kelaniya, 1995 and fallowed a postgraduate diploma in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), Sri Lanka. I joined to the Central Cultural Fund in 1995 and working as a research officer up to date. I have been participated to a several works shops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 17 articles in local and international journals. Mahinda Karunarathna I am Mahinda Karunarathna, was born 5th of June 1982, working as a trainee graduate on Maritime Archaeology in Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU), Central Cultural Fund (CCF) of Ministry of Culture and the Arts, Galle Fort, Sri Lanka / Cofounder of www.archaeology.lk & www.si.archaeology.lk webs. I earned my first degree in Bachelor of Arts, special in Archaeology in University of Peradeniya, 2007 and fallowed a postgraduate diploma in Architectural Conservation of Monuments and Sites in Department of Architecture, University of Moratuwa in 2010 and reading my Master in Science Archaeology in Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology (PGIAR), Sri Lanka. I have been participated to a several works shops and training programs on underwater archaeology and related subjects and published over 36 articles in local and international journals. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource New Maritime Archaeological discoveries in the Eastern Province of Sri Lanka with special emphasis on Trincomalee to Pothuwil Description An account of the resource The Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) of the Central Cultural Fund (CCF) carried out an underwater Archaeological exploration in the Eastern coastal area (From Trincomalee to Potuvill), from the 13th of July to the 26th of August of 2013. Measured and non measured drawings, photographical and video documentation, applying GPS and remote sensing were used for the exploration. Trincomalee, Batticaloa and Pothuwil are the main selected areas for the survey. The MAU team discovered sixteenshipwrecks and 4 other maritime archaeological sites from the survey. Irakkandi wreck at Nilaveli, HMS Diomede wreck at Uppuweli, Trincomalee, SS Lady McCullum wreck, British Sergeant wreck, Pasikuda Iron wreck, Pasikuda Boiler wreck i and ii, Batticaloa Boiler wreck, SS Brennus wreck (Sakkara kappal or jaggery wreck), Kalmunai Boiler wreck at Batticaloa and Akkaraipaththu Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Boiler wreck, Thirukkovil Iron wreck, Komari Boiler wreck, Omari Boiler wreck at Pothuwil were uncovered during the survey. The underwater archaeological site at Swami rock, Trincomalee, ancient stone bridge at Kayankerni, old Dutch jetty at, Pasikuda and Buddhist underwater archaeology site at Pothuwil were explored and new information unearthed on underwater archaeology. The history of the wrecks goes back to the Dutch (1602- 1794 AD) and British (1798-1948 AD) period of Sri Lanka. Most of the wrecks are steamengine (boiler) wrecks built with iron. A metal anchor and man made stone blocks were found from Swami Rock, and bow sections, stern, propellers and shaft, boilers, and various anchors were found from the wreck sites. Most of the wrecks were found destroyed by treasure hunters. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A. M. A. Dayananda Mahinda Karunarathna, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nichi-sou boueki no jittai Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hideo Fukube Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kyushu University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Hideo Fukube Item Type Book Section Book Title Higashi ajia to nihon 2 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Kyushu University Title A name given to the resource Nichi-sou boueki no jittai China Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nihongi; Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource W. G Aston tr. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Rutland, Vt., C.E. Tuttle Co. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author W. G Aston tr. Item Type Book ISBN 0804809844 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1972 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Rutland, Vt., C.E. Tuttle Co. Series Tut books. H; Title A name given to the resource Nihongi; Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. Japan