33 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Resurvey of Roman Contacts with the East Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Himanshu Prabha Ray Marie-Françoise Boussac Jean-Francois Salles Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Manohar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Himanshu Prabha Ray Editor Marie-Françoise Boussac Jean-Francois Salles Item Type Book Section Book Title Athens, Aden, Arikamedu: Essays on the Interrelations between India, Arabia, and the Eastern Mediterranean Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1995 Pages 97-114 Place New Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Manohar Title A name given to the resource A Resurvey of Roman Contacts with the East India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/498c5d5afc374db8fb745e2b096f9606.pdf e8037153f11bdf6c5d380d58461e1952 PDF Text Text Delivering scientific diver training for underwater archaeology: international best practice in education and a micro-credential case study Jonathan Benjamin, Hiro Yoshida, John McCarthy, Mark Polzer, Wendy van Duivenvoorde Maritime Archaeology Program, Flinders University ABSTRACT Delivering education in underwater archaeology is challenging for a variety of reasons, including the requirements to prepare archaeology students to become professional scientific divers. In practice, the discipline blends traditional academic and commercial archaeology with maritime sectors and diving industries. This paper discusses the principles of conducting safe underwater archaeology by trained divers and presents a case study of applied specialist training for diving maritime archaeology students at Flinders University, South Australia. We have developed an accredited micro-credential qualification in Professional Scientific Diving that meets the standards for both Australian Standards and the American Academy for Underwater Sciences (AAUS), enabling graduates to be classified as diving-workers under legal regimes where qualifications and professionalization are required. Delivery of this educational component within a maritime archaeology program is now critically important for career progression in underwater archaeology. We discuss the challenges of teaching diving for archaeology in a modern university with complex health and safety requirements and regulatory frameworks. We consider the barriers facing educators, students and professionals and how to create a safe and inclusive culture of scientific diving, critical to modern maritime archaeology and marine science in the coming decades. KEYWORDS: Scientific Diving, Professional Practice, Underwater Archaeology, Diver Education INTRODUCTION In 2016, at the annual general meeting of the UNESCO UNITWIN Network for Underwater Archaeology, network members undertook a workshop on Reducing Barriers to International Partnership Working. The workshop identified a number of potential barriers to diving for archaeology, including Compliance Cultures (and working across different bureaucracies), Safety Cultures (a relative term that carries cultural implications), Diving Insurance (i.e., financial risk management for individual divers and their institutions) and Defining the ‘Professional Archaeological Diver’ (competencies, qualifications, experience). These challenges collectively create a substantial administrative burden for university training of archaeological divers. To mitigate this, a project was initiated to create a model code of practice for the UNITWIN Network to reduce the challenges for staff and students to undertake partnership research and educational programmes that involve diving for archaeology. Early examples of UNESCO work in this space include the first Code of Practice for Scientific Diving: Principles for the Safe Practice of Scientific Diving in Different Environments (Flemming and Max 1988) and a short section on diving safety and compliance considerations in the UNESCO Manual for Activities Directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage (Maarleveld et al. 2013). Since the UNITWIN Model Code of Practice was first discussed in 2016, Flinders University has hosted two single-day symposium events in Adelaide, South Australia—in 2017 and 2022. After three years of discussions between Network Members, the Model Code of Practice for Safe Diving Operations (Benjamin et al. 2019) was published online in June 2019. Importantly, it received the endorsement of the UNITWIN Network and ICOMOS ICUCH, whose members were invited to respond to early drafts. The document provides a non-prescriptive model, with consistent practice and common language related to scientific archaeological diving, to serve as a starting point for network members to be able to dive safely, particularly members and aspiring members who do not already have a diving procedure 1 �or code of practice in place (Benjamin et al. 2019, 4). The model code of practice, now published online in English and Japanese (www.underwaterarchaeology.net), is 20 pages in length and covers, among other things, background, tools, roles, training and testing, medical fitness, dive planning and record keeping. CASE STUDY FROM FLINDERS UNIVERSITY MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY PROGRAM In 2022, the Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Program (FUMAP) celebrated its 20th anniversary of providing postgraduate degrees. Throughout that time, archaeological diving in Australia has been complicated by several factors, including regulatory requirements that vary from state to state and a national standard for scientific diving (AS/NZS 2299.2) that has not been updated since 2002, despite changing regulations. For many organisations with a role in underwater heritage, including universities, government agencies and heritage professionals, the questions of who is allowed to dive for archaeology and which qualifications are fit-for-purpose have been confusing and inconsistently resolved. This has only served to deter archaeological training and project work, which has stunted the development of the discipline, particularly in training underwater excavation methods (see also Benjamin and Mackintosh 2016). A sustainable maritime archaeological community requires a culture focused on safe diving and an understanding of the responsibilities that come from diving while classified as a worker. The late Professor George Bass, who authored the benchmark Archaeology Under Water in 1966, is often credited for having said it is easier to teach an archaeologist to dive than it is to teach a diver to become an archaeologist, an observation also made by Professor John Goggin in 1959 (Goggin 1960, 350). The discipline of maritime archaeology today requires professionalism in both diving and archaeological training and must consider qualifications, competencies, compliance and work health and safety regulations that Bass would not have encountered at the beginning of his career as a diving archaeologist. It is now clear that recreational diving qualifications may be suitable for entry-level, restricted student divers, but that more serious consideration of responsibilities as part of the workforce requires further training and experience. In Australia, the most common vocational training pathway for ‘occupational divers’ (which meets the Australian Standard series 2815 referenced in most state regulations) has typically been undertaken by private commercial diving schools that have been accredited through a private ‘Registered Training Organization (RTO)’, which in turn is accredited under the Australian Qualification Framework and the Australian Skills Quality Authority (ASQA). Commercial diving training, however, does not necessarily prepare one for a career in underwater archaeology or marine science. Skills, risks and pressures are different, and the culture of the sectors and overall approach to diving are often contrasting. For the most part, scientific divers and underwater archaeologists work on SCUBA, using small hand tools and light powered water dredges or airlifts. Certainly, there are risks associated with these kinds of activities, and these must be managed in line with regulations and cultural expectations, but it is refreshing to see some movement in this space, with more interest in a revitalized scientific diving sector than in past decades and a promise of new scientific diving standards over the horizon. There is also a newly recognised way for universities to include accredited qualifications under the Australian Qualification Framework, Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA). The TEQSA pathway enables universities to create an accredited program for qualifications, and this can include scientific diving. The most recent occupational diving standards in Australia have now included this in the training standard; a pathway to recognised professionalism that had been omitted previously. Since Flinders University is a TEQSA Registered University, FUMAP staff were able to undertake a multi-year project to develop a curriculum that best serves the program’s graduates, meets the Australian 2815-series Standard and has embedded within it the American Academy of Underwater Sciences training program. 2 �This not only ensures international best practice, but also provides a widely accepted international scientific diver training qualification for our graduates working outside of Australasia. Scientific Diver Training Structure and Delivery Guidelines The Professional Scientific Diver micro-credential (MICR-PSDC) certification ensures the competency requirements of the graduate, as defined in Australian Standard 2815.6, and is internationally aligned with and meets AAUS Standards (2019), ANZSDA guidelines and the UNESCO UNITWIN Network for Underwater Archaeology Model Code of Practice for Safe Diving Operations (Benjamin et al. 2019). Flinders University has a long history of teaching underwater skills. In recognition of this existing activity, MICR-PSDC remains student-focused, formally acknowledging the skills and competencies of our graduates. Flinders has never taught non-divers how to dive, and we have maintained this stance. Within the new micro-credential, we only teach existing, competent SCUBA divers to become professionals, capable and qualified to undertake scientific diving for professional research and educational purposes under Australian Standard 2299.2 Scientific Diving Operations (Figure 1). Figure 1. MICR-PSDC delivery and implementation The primary educational aim of this micro-credential is to provide students with theoretical and practical knowledge and confirm that they have the competencies necessary to conduct research and educational activities under water as a professional scientific diver. MICR-PSDC also aims to introduce students to the basics of techniques for underwater archaeology and marine science, present students with opportunities to apply their practical and interpretive skills during problem-solving exercises and provide students with a certification that aligns to recognised standards for industry recognition. 3 �Upon completion of this micro-credential, students are able to apply compliance and safety requirements to undertake scientific diving per Australian Standard AS2299.2 and AS2815.6; minimise their impact on the underwater cultural heritage and environment through improved diving skills and proper control of buoyancy, stability and trim; explain how to conduct underwater archaeology and marine science as a Scientific Diver; apply the practical and theoretical skills for scientific diving to future research and educational projects; and distinguish Scientific Diver training from Recreational and Commercial training pathways. Roles and Responsibilities of Personnel MICR-PSDC is delivered by a team in the College of Humanities Arts and Social Sciences (CHASS), which is the home college of FUMAP (Figure 2). Nevertheless, following the initial rounds of internal implementation and curriculum development in 2021, staff and students from other colleges at Flinders University with an interest in scientific diving have also been invited to participate. Figure 2. Involvement of roles in MICR-PSDC delivery The Academic Coordinator of MICR-PSDC has overall responsibility for administering and delivering the course content and for student assessment and completions. The Academic Coordinator must be a suitably experienced Scientific Diver with training and experience in all aspects of training to be delivered (i.e., must hold qualifications that meet all competencies outlined in AS 2815.6), have competencies of a professional diving instructor (i.e., be at least an Assistant SCUBA Instructor per ISO 24802-1), be registered as a Flinders University Diver and be authorised as a Dive Coordinator. The Lead SCUBA Instructor (LSI) is the delegated technical SCUBA Diving instructor and must hold qualifications that meet all competencies outlined in AS 2815.6 and be able to certify Autonomous SCUBA Divers (i.e., be a SCUBA Instructor per ISO 24802-2). An Approved Instructor / Assistant Instructor (AI) is a supportive Academic or Professional Staff who is qualified and experienced to oversee and instruct elements delivered in MICR-PSDC. An AI must hold 4 �qualifications that meet all competencies outlined in AS 2815.6. The individual must also hold qualifications that meet all competencies outlined in ISO 24802-1 OR they must meet all competencies outlined in ISO24801-3 (e.g., Divemaster) plus have formal qualification in training and assessment from higher education or vocational education pathways (e.g., Flinders Foundations of Teaching or Certificate IV in Training and Assessment). An AI must also be listed as a Registered Diver and Dive Coordinator in the Flinders Diver Register. The Maritime Safety Dive Officer (MSDO) in Flinders University’s organisational system is the specialist diving and boating officer employed by the University’s Work Health and Safety Office. The MSDO is charged with assisting all dive management tasks and providing advice to staff and students on university policy and procedures as they relate to safe diving. The MSDO undertakes audits of diving practices to ensure compliance with relevant standards, adequate assessment of all divers’ competencies and proper record keeping. The MSDO is responsible for ensuring that staff and students undertaking diving activities are appropriately trained and competent for the diving to be undertaken, and for approving Dive Plans prior to any diving activity commencing. The MSDO approves all new divers, all assigned diver categories and the status of all dive coordinators for Flinders University diving operations. Student Registration and Certification Process Onboarding of the students takes place through the College administration, with formal approval from the Academic Coordinator. Once prerequisites are confirmed and students are registered, they are given access to the MICR-PSDC site on the Flinders Learning Online (FLO) platform and provided with their Professional Scientific Diver Training Record Book, or ‘Workbook’. Minimum prerequisites to enrol in the micro-credential are Rescue Diver certification from a recognized recreational diver training agency (e.g., PADI, SSI, TDI); 40 hours of logged dives; a valid medical certificate of diver fitness (per Australian Standard AS 2299.1 supplement); and valid First Aid, CPR and Emergency Oxygen Provider certifications. Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) is the process for assessing an individual’s relevant prior learning, including formal, informal and non-formal learning. It is a legal requirement and an important part of MICRPSDC. Generally, we will permit RPL for individual competencies when provided evidence for three times what is required in the standard (AS2815.6). Thus, if a student is requesting to receive RPL for diving experience, they must show verifiable evidence for three times the minimum number of dives and minutes at depths specified by the standard. Verification may entail written, logged or trusted communication, or may require physical verification. A student may be required to sign a statutory declaration to confirm, in legal terms, that they have completed the activities for which they apply. In practical terms, all skills and competencies are verified in person by a qualified instructor. Theory is delivered online and in class, and all materials are available via FLO. International best practice in Scientific Diving is ensured through third-party audits by the Australia/New Zealand Scientific Diving Association (ANZSDA), which undertook an independent review of the curriculum and confirmed that it meets all Safework and Australian Standard AS 2815.6 requirements. A series of theoretical learning modules and short examinations are provided to the students as resources, with students required to achieve 100 per cent on the dive planning exam and 70 per cent or higher on all other exams to pass the theoretical modules. Practical training activities (experience-based learning) are documented in the Workbook. This is the main record of competencies achieved through a combination of training and verified RPL, which comprise all competencies required for compliance with AS2815.6. All individual activities must be completed and signed off by the Academic Coordinator, the Lead SCUBA Instructor or Approved Instructors for the workbook to be completed. A Workbook is only complete when the student has achieved all listed 5 �competencies AND made at least 50 logged dives in total. It can then be uploaded for review for certification. The AAUS modules must also be completed through the online AAUS training platform. Certification is possible once a student successfully completes all theoretical and practical training and their Workbook is reviewed and approved by the Lead SCUBA Instructor and Academic Coordinator. Records are sent to the MSDO for compliance, auditing and record-keeping purposes. Academic marks are required and, in this case, are issued as Pass/Fail. They are sent to College Student Administration Services for processing and academic record-keeping. A certification card is generated by the Academic Coordinator on behalf of the College. It includes the date of issue, the diver’s depth limit, any other restrictions or supplemental endorsements and the following statements: 1. this certification meets the requirements of AS2815.6 and AAUS Standards; 2. this certification card is valid only with a valid diving medical issued within 12 months; and 3. it is the responsibility of the named diver, and any institutional dive officer deploying the diver, to ensure the card holder does not operate beyond their training. Supplemental endorsements are undertaken and administered in a similar manner as the core theoretical and practical competencies (Figure 3). Supplemental endorsement competencies are not required to achieve MICR-PSDC certification, but they are required to be granted the relevant endorsements listed on the certification card. Figure 3. The use of a water dredge during field school represents one possible ‘supplemental endorsement’ for the certified Professional Scientific Diver. (Jonathan Benjamin) 6 �Record-keeping is carefully maintained, with records kept by the College and centrally by the MSDO for at least seven years. Records may be shared externally for purposes of reciprocity and verification. Students are instructed to keep their Workbook and records of all activities in perpetuity. The MSDO undertakes regular reviews and audits to confirm that the course continues to be compliant with relevant standards. IMPACTS AND CONCLUSION The Professional Scientific Diver micro-credential is now in its third year at Flinders University. Although not quantifiable, staff and students have already noticed a marked improvement in the quality of our student divers. This is important, especially for our maritime archaeology field schools. Since MICR-PSDC student divers are already trained in and devoted to diving and safety through their existing training and practice, they can better focus on the archaeological tasks, underwater field methods and learning outcomes rather than on diving-specific components at the cost of their archaeological practice. Students who have taken the micro-credential are noticeably more competent and confident, in and out of the water. Diving routine is almost second nature, so they tend not to waste time during equipment preparation, safety checks, briefings and acclimation to the submerged environment. MICR-PSDC students also teach, both directly and indirectly and to the benefit of both, the less experienced restricted student divers, and in this way both the culture during field schools and standards of diving are noticeably improved. Diving is not a prerequisite for postgraduate studies in maritime archaeology at Flinders; however, there is a new generation of graduates who are divers and who will leave our maritime archaeology postgraduate program with an accredited qualification as a Professional Scientific Diver embedded in their degree (Figure 4). Aligning the diving qualification to both Australian Standards and the internationally recognised AAUS (American) Standard means that the program facilitates the best opportunities for our graduates to work safely and professionally around the world where, increasingly, they will be asked to produce evidence that they are suitably trained, competent and qualified as professionals in both archaeology and scientific diving. Figure 4. Our first graduating class of Professional Scientific Divers in 2021. (Hiro Yoshida) 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS). Standards for Scientific Diving Manual. Mobile, Alabama: AAUS, 2019. Bass, George F. Archaeology Under Water. Ancient Peoples and Places 48. London: Thames & Hudson, 1966. Benjamin, Jonathan, and Mackintosh, Robert. “Regulating scientific diving and underwater archaeology: legal and historical considerations.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 45, no. 1 (2016): 153-169. Benjamin, Jonathan, Underwood, Chris, and Sturt, Fraser, (eds.). Model Code of Practice for Safe Diving Operations. Adelaide, South Australia: UNESCO UNITWIN Network for Underwater Archaeology, 2019. Flemming, Nicholas C., and Max, Michael D., (eds.). Code of Practice for Scientific Diving: Principles for the Safe Practice of Scientific Diving in Different Environments. Compiled and edited by the Scientific Committee of the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS). UNESCO Technical Papers in Marine Science 53. Paris: UNESCO, 1988. Goggin, John M. “Underwater archaeology: its nature and limitations.” American Antiquity 25, no. 3 (1960): 348-354. Maarleveld, Thijs J., Guérin, Ulrike, and Egger, Barbara, (eds.). Manual for Activities Directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage: Guidelines to the Annex of the UNESCO 2001 Convention. Paris: UNESCO, 2013. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 20: Effective Ways to Deliver Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 20 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 20 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Delivering scientific diver training for underwater archaeology: international best practice in education and a micro-credential case study Description An account of the resource Delivering education in underwater archaeology is challenging for a variety of reasons, including the requirements to prepare archaeology students to become professional scientific divers. In practice, the discipline blends traditional academic and commercial archaeology with maritime sectors and diving industries. This paper discusses the principles of conducting safe underwater archaeology by trained divers and presents a case study of applied specialist training for diving maritime archaeology students at Flinders University, South Australia. We have developed an accredited micro-credential qualification in Professional Scientific Diving that meets the standards for both Australian Standards and the American Academy for Underwater Sciences (AAUS), enabling graduates to be classified as diving-workers under legal regimes where qualifications and professionalization are required. Delivery of this educational component within a maritime archaeology program is now critically important for career progression in underwater archaeology. We discuss the challenges of teaching diving for archaeology in a modern university with complex health and safety requirements and regulatory frameworks. We consider the barriers facing educators, students and professionals and how to create a safe and inclusive culture of scientific diving, critical to modern maritime archaeology and marine science in the coming decades. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jonathan Benjamin Hiro Yoshida John McCarthy Mark Polzer Wendy van Duivenvoorde Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Benjamin, Jonathan, et al. 2023. “Delivering scientific diver training for underwater archaeology: international best practice and a micro-credential case study.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Bill Jeffery. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1965 Asia-Pac Session 20 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Funaosa Nikki: A Captain's Diary: Jukichi's Four-year Odyssey Across the Pacific, Through California, Alaska, Kamchatka, and Back to Japan, 1813-1817 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hirochika Ikeda Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Chunichi Publishing Company Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Hirochika Ikeda Item Type Book ISBN 4885192595 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 131 Place Nagoya-shi, Japan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Chunichi Publishing Company Short Title Funaosa Nikki Title A name given to the resource Funaosa Nikki: A Captain's Diary: Jukichi's Four-year Odyssey Across the Pacific, Through California, Alaska, Kamchatka, and Back to Japan, 1813-1817 Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3a56ec375721c034b2f9ad7c1004906e.pdf 8600b4d8264937914de2fe128bdea2ce PDF Text Text Examining Coastal Shipping Processes around Shodo Island during the Tokugawa Period Kotaro Mogi Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, 610-0394 Email: moooosha@gmail.com Hiroomi Tsumura Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan, 610-0394 Email: Tsumura_Mobile@htsumura.msoutlookonline.net Abstract Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. The processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians have studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical document exits. In order to throw light upon seaborne stone transportation from Shodo Island to Osaka, therefore, underwater surveys around this island were carried out on seabed As a result, many submerged wall stones, as well as a submerged stone called “Kamome Ishi”, on which an old stone post was stood, succeeded in being found on the bottom of the sea; this mooring post is said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle, and these waters could serve the most important mooring port of Shodo Island for wall stone transportation. To prove this historic event, a tide simulation on the basis of survey data was analyzed and a reconstructed model for mooring and loading wall stones around the mooring post was hypothesized, which was verified by current fieldworks. Although millions of mariners have been working in the Seto inland sea since the ancient times, a new maritime and navigational technique seems to be emerged from Shodo Island and its surroundings early in the 17th century. Key words: Shodo Island, Tokugawa Period, Kamome Ishi, Seto inland sea, Yaana Introduction This paper will examine the shipping processes of stone used to build Osaka Castle's wall in the Tokugawa period. Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. This entrepôt has been recognized coastal areas of the Seto inland including Settu Ashiya or Mikage other than Shodo Island. It is discussed from historical and archaeological viewpoints through analysis of castle history about the actual conditions of "job site" as processing stone and the "daimyos" who managed it. It 1 �may be said that the east Seto Inland sea where Shodo Island is located is a "field of action", having various cultural landscapes since ancient times. Above all, in this field, cultural behavior mainly on "the stone" has been carried out. For instance, the fabrication methods of chipped stone tools called "Setouchi blade" in antiquity, was the stone used for Osaka castle's wall in the medieval period, and contemporary stones used for modern building. It goes without saying that "the stone" used as tools to support local life continue supporting our culture now. "The stone" is the remarkable keyword if we intend to establish a cultural landscape in the eastern Seto inland sea. Based on the above, in this study, "the stone" that is constructing Osaka castle's wall as the target, we want to reevaluate the technical examination. Thus far, the processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians has studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical documents exit. Therefore, the focus of this study is evaluating and examining the shipping process by carrying out an underwater investigation which has not been done in a conventional study. The research area is the Tenguiwaiso job site located at Iwagatani, on east coast in Shodo Island. We attempt a construction of the data from the basis of an environmental view point by cyclopedically analyzing the whole area between the shore and the sea. There are few similar examples of the practice of using of the underwater archaeology in such a manner. Particularly, the direction through such practices can bring up new questions, and it becomes a methodological approach to propose the clarifying facts between the relations of human and technology on maritime culture. The important point in this study is how to take the sea into account. In a conventional stone wall study, it relies mostly on the political description about each daimyos who managed job site and a technical description about how to break stones or to construct the castle, however, it is necessary to interpret this as "how they shipped the stones" to assume that the people who carried and engaged it. Technical invention can overcome this special environment like a sea is a major premise used to know this environment. We estimate the technique ("the knowledge") from investigation of environment and archaeological structure. 2 �Research in Tenguiwaiso Job Site There are Minamidani, Tenguiwa, Tenguiwaiso, Tofu, Kamesaki, and Hachininishi Job sites in Iwagatani on the east coast of Shodo Island, and scattered wall stones on each sites. These sites were designated as national historical sites in 1972. The study was of a number of stones, classified with processing marks called "Yaana" in Japanese, and arranged with the carved seal of the daimyos was researched as that time. The Tenguiwaiso job site is a curved site Fig. 1 Research area division comprising of a whole shoreline of white sand (the seaside). of the project. (K. Mogi). The area is lined with ship setting stones faced with the “Yanna” seal on this beach. The Tenguiwa job site is located in the western mountains from the Tenguiwaiso job site; hence it appears that it is the geographical location where a quarry was established. Stone from the area was removed and taken to the Tenguiwaiso job site. A torrential downpour by typhoon No. 8 in 1974 caused a landslide which flowed down onto the shore. Reports that some stones fell down with this landslide has been documented. Therefore, we must take the geographical change of the site into account both before and after the disaster. Grasping the present state of it is the first priority, and the construction of such a site will be an important model to be analyzed later. Investigation Method The basic purpose of this investigation is to obtain data that is topographical and understanding the stone distribution in the whole range of the shore area (both above and below water). The number of stones and the drawings has been recorded by the administrative report, yet the information of which stones are left and in which position and environment was not documented. In this investigation, we acquired data that considered the position of stones, their location on the site and in which kind of environment they were found. In addition to all the stone distribution, it is necessary to obtain the topographical and environmental information. Acquisition Data of Topographical and Distribution of Stones on the Shore To grasp more objectively the shape and distribution of the stones, we conducted 3 �photography from a high elevation of where the stones appeared by using a 5 m, expandable surveying staff with a camera clamp attached to the upper part of the staff. We contrived a system of linking positional information (coordinates) and the photograph, to determine the scale and a direction of the photograph. Photos were taken mainly of wall stones, big stones, and granite blocks. Given the large area and multitude of objects on the site, the methodology that was used would have a more quantitative sample. By using such a scientific example, the site would be easy to reproduce. In getting a topographical data, a total station (TS) is used at every surveying site today. It calculated the distance and the height to collimation point (prism) from the machine point (TS), by collimating at a change point of topography and other points in a random order. Each position and elevation was then derived from calculated coordinate data, which made a basic contour map from the data. In addition, we acquired data which was used for the position, scale, and directional information for the photographical surveying mentioned above. To understand the geographical feature, it could help verify the distribution of stones under each kind of environment, and allowed us to determine where the natural and artificial topographies lied on the site. Acquisition data of topographical and distribution of stones underwater Based on the results of the investigation in 2012, we determined the rough distribution of stones in all underwater areas by viewing via snorkeling. By this confirmation, we divided the area where stones were distributed conspicuously, Fig. 2 "Kamome Ishi". (K. Mogi) and subsequently investigated these areas (Fig. 1). Between each area was a sandy area where stones had not been observed. There is a submerged rock of approximately 3 m in height named "Kamome Ishi" (Fig. 2), on which an old stone post stood at research area II in the open circle of Fig. 1. In local transition, it may be a mooring post that was said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle. "Kamome Ishi" was examined mainly in 2012. It was hypothesized as a mooring post and modeled as such, however, it was not conclusive, 4 �thus a reevaluation of the area was deemed necessary. Each section was then divided up via measuring tape into 50×50 m blocks. We then checked the distribution of the stones by scanning the bottom of the sea using animation photography (HERO3 of GoPro). A mark was made at every 1m interval, and at each interval, a photo was taken (Fig. 3). A gap in the image when it was composed was the blurring of the camera position, and the bob weight on the camera was taken in the angle of view. It blurred at the time of photography by setting up an angle to deserve gaps of image, and we compensated for this (Fig. 4). The process provided direction, scale and position of the image by yielding a coordinate on the initial point, middle point, and terminal point on each 1 m measurement line. Based on such a procedure, we acquired consistent underwater data sets to collate with the topographical data gathered from the shoreline. The acquisition method of the underwater topographical data was used as well as the surveying method at the shore area stated earlier. We measured the topography at random to the spot about 300 m ahead from the shore. Collimation (prism) attached top of the measurement staff, Fig. 3 Underwater Photographing Method. (K. Mogi) calculated distance and height of the collimation point from the machine point (TS). We stabilized the collimation and the staff by two scuba divers and one snorkeler manning each at bottom of the sea position, middle position, and surface of the water position. The diver at the sea bed selected a change point of the topography at approximately 5-10 m and at random, and the diver at the surface determined the direction of movement. In addition, a research member on the ship acted as contact to the operator on the shore. Each position and elevation of collimation are derived from calculated coordinate data, it matched data of the shore area, and made a basic contour model. The measurements between the ship using sonar or multi-beam is common for an ocean study and the method of making a counter 5 �map at the bottom of the sea, is necessary completion with the land since this area is the full coastal zone in this study. For that reason, we think that bringing a land method into practice underwater brings yields valuable information, since we are able to obtain data with a more detailed approach using such a method. Reduction and Analysis of Acquisition Data Topographical Data in the Shore and the Underwater To coordinate topographical data at the shore and the underwater area using the practice mentioned above and extract latitude and longitude, we made a topographical map (contour) of the whole research area by Kriging method used in Fig. 4 Method of Control and Revision of the geology (Fig. 5). Reproduction of the Camera Position. (K. Mogi) shore and the seafloor topography was compiled to match and supplement both data sets of these environments. In consideration of Fig. 5, the shore topography makes curves like a bow and in perspective we know that it formed a gentle topography to measure points at the off side at approximately 300 m. In addition, the shore area represents a beach with a sandwiched concavity in both the north and the south of the site. The port and the breakwater have shore protection at present. From a narrower perspective, it is confirmed that the large shallow area in the north coastal zone, and the irregular sequences on the contour line which in the center of coastal zone are consistent with the location of "Kamome Ishi". Please note that the two dales in the northeast side (the shore side) from its area. This has been confirmed on site; the erosion traces by the wave could be seen on the lower part it. These two dales formed a geographical placement that suggests relation with the Tenguiwa job site as a quarry located in the mountains place of the northeast side. Additionally, the dale topography is around a 10 m deep on the southeast side. This 6 �may be a part of the site influenced by the disaster in 1974; it could show which area was affected my observing mudflow sediment. Depending upon the size of the disaster, the landslide sediments left traces we can observe. Yet the sediment is not present. It is possible that the landslide sediment disappeared via the erosion of water from the disaster. Undoubtedly, an area along the shore that is predominantly affected by waves, tidal flow, and topography, it is obvious that the natural and physical phenomenon such as the erosion forms chaotic natural molding for the beach topography and the landscape. However, it does not lead to the generalization of the natural phenomenon in the shore area when compared with a study of hydrology or engineering science in the region these days, so it is suggested that a "Critical transition" occurred (Marten Scheffer, 2009) which represents dramatic chaos on the site which change some parameters. To consider such a background, while taking a wave and a flow of the sea into account, it must push forward by discussing this as an interpretation of the shipping process based on the analysis of the data. Distribution of Stones in the Shore and Underwater Area To coordinate the distribution of stones from both on the shore and underwater, we digitized the shape of Fig. 5 Topographical Map in Shore and under Water. each stone via enforced geometry (K. Mogi) correction, stored in a GIS (Geographic Information System). It distinguished the stones from the sand, and other objects (e.g. noise) by checking color tone and image, and subsequently made a distribution map of the stones (Fig. 6). We are analyzing it now, making a distribution map of stones in the whole investigation area. Stones left on the job site without being carried to Osaka castle were labelled as "Unfortunate Stones". Nevertheless, it is strange that many of the stones were recorded underwater. It has our assumption that the stones underwater were stones which fell into the sea, and were left without being recovered. This practice could have propelled the myth of "the fall of the castle" used in local folklore. To understand it better, see Fig. 7 �5, where stones are concentrated, appearing that they have a consistent arrangement. As mentioned before, the sandy area is devoid of stones. The distribution of stones would be scattered everywhere in a more random pattern if they were not picked up because it would mean "the fall of the castle". Therefore, in this study, we doubt the claim of these stones being called" Unfortunate Stones", and put forward the theory that the distribution of stones underwater as "intentional". Suggestion of the Shipping Process First, as the examination of "Kamome Ishi" (Fig. 2) mentioned above, authors have tried modeling the shipping process completely dependent on high and low tides. In particular, because it made a hole in the top surface of "Kamome Ishi" and a stone pillar was embedded in it, it was assumed as a mooring post. The "Moyai" in the Sea of Japan is a similar example, and it could be said that the “Kamome Ishi” has a similar structure to the mooring post. However, including an example of the Sea of Japan, the mooring post for ships docking at old ports was typically made in most of the sea cliffs or the wave cut bench which have an enclosed cape or a cliff facing the sea. In contrast, the "Kamome Ishi" is located in the sea at approximately 2 m depth on the average. It is unique that the post is placed directly ahead of the shore. Authors have measured and investigated the "Kamome Ishi" from 2012, and examined and evaluated its function. Assuming the "Kamome Ishi" serves the function of mooring a ship, it becomes necessary that the post is always higher than the height of the water surface. Tidal analysis was conducted on the region between the years 1619 CE (the year the Osaka castle began construction) to 1630 CE (the year the Osaka castle was completed). The data allowed us to deduce that waves never surpassed more than upper parts on "Kamome Ishi" of approximately 320 cm height. Therefore the stone pillar was always higher than water surface. From this, it could be said to some degree of certainty that the "Kamome Ishi" did indeed function as a mooring post. One interpretation in this is, viz. A ship, such as a flatboat arrived between the land and the "Kamome Ishi" at high tide. It then it moored the ship using its anchor and the stone pillar of "Kamome Ishi". The ship ran aground at low tide and used a board as a gangplank between the land and the ship. After loading the stones it waited until high tide (when the ship refloated), and started sailing. This process is an assumed hypothesis. Since historical documents and records are poor 8 �pertaining to shipping or transporting this material, we can only hypothesize a scenario such as this one. Secondary, the authors paid close attention to the near shore current system in the area. The shore topography forms the curves like a large bow over the area. Generally, the near shore current system forms a circulatory system where the shore is nearer than the sea area as has the relatively same flow as the shore ward currents flowing onto shore, Long shore currents flow along the shore, while Rip currents flow seaward from the shoreline. Rip currents have a particularly strong flow in the near shore current system and forms a regular circulating flow style. Depending on this system, the cusp topography which formed the arch-formed shoreline was affected rhythmically occur and has been confirmed in the Tenguiwaiso job site where the team investigated. It was often chosen as a place ("current") to begin rowing unconsciously, so that a big wave is hard to flow at the place that Rip currents are being produced. Therefore, we can consider that a ship laden with the Osaka castle wall stones starting to sail through the mechanism of the Rip currents. . The conditions that Rip current occur and concentrates are a sandy coast, a shoreline bended into an arc form, a surface wave flow on top of sandy coast, and a near structure such as breakwaters which stuck out from shore. Based on the above information and the checked topography in Tenguiwaiso (Fig. 5), these are very present in this environment. There are two dales on the northeast side of the shore area. These two dales play a big role in the Rip currents' formation. Looking at the topography data, the sandy coast topography formed a fold, not a straight line. On the other hand, while the wave characteristically diffracts to Fig. 6 Distribution Map of Stones. (K. Mogi) the shallow direction, it is concentrated on a pointed part topographically. Hence, we can understand this two dales have topographical characteristics to form Rip current. Where the "Kamome Ishi" is located, it 9 �forms a line at right angles to the shore. An Irregular sequence is observed near this rock and "Kamome Ishi" by topographical data (Fig. 5). In particular, Rip currents are particularly faster near the structure, so it is our opinion that a ship moored at the "Kamome Ishi" can benefit from these extra rapid Rip currents. In light of these Rip currents and topography data, it was suggested that the ships landing here exploit this process when sailing from I and II in Fig. 1 in particular. Conclusion This paper examined coastal shipping process of wall stones by evaluating environment around the area and investigating underwater structure and stones. And we gave a new suggestion against it was inarticulate manner. Although it may not wish that is over a level of "the interpretation", it is necessary more procedural analysis that mainly investigation or field work and method to the interpretation in case of treating such several ways and estimations are accomplished. There are still a lot of challenges for the future; however we think that can give a new suggestion for the wall stones study mainly political and technical. It is necessary to let method of investigation and environmental evaluation more deepen hereafter. Acknowledgements My heartfelt appreciation goes to Prof. Tsumura whose comments and suggestions were of inestimable value for my study. I am also indebt to Prof. Iwabuchi, Prof. Nakada and anonymous reviewers whose comments made contribution to my thesis. References Board of Education in Utsumi town., 1979. Conservation Management of A Historical Site Osaka Castle's Wall Stones Job Site, Kagawa: 4-7, 17-19, (in Japanese). Hiroomi, T., 2013. "Cultural Landscape" of Maritime People Understanding from Investigated Underwater Archaeological Feature in Tenguiwaiso. Symposium of Stones Attraction Creating in Shodo Island, in Ministry of Strategy and Finance Shodo island Kagawa: 61-67, (in Japanese). Kotaro, M., and Yuichi, T., 2013. Tide Simulation and Inquiring of Shipping Process in Coastal Zone, Shodoshima. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Abstracts, in Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Hirosaki: 118-119, (in Japanese). 10 �Kyoji, Y., 2002. About Mooring port remaining Moroyose Fishing port. Board of Education in Hamasaka town Press, Hyogo: 5-11, (in Japanese). Marten, S., 2009. Critical Transition in Nature and Society. Princeton University Press, New Jersey: 11-15. Yuichi, T., Tappei, M., Keisuke, F., and Kotaro, M. 2013. Application of Scanning Surveying Technique for Archaeological Features Using Phtogrammetry. The 30th Annual Meeting of the Japan Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Abstracts, in Society for Science Studies on Cultural Property Hirosaki: 146-147, (in Japanese). Biography Kotaro Mogi is perusing his Masters in the Graduate School of Culture and Information Science at Doshisha University in Japan. He is interested in Spatiotemporal Informatics, Cultural Anthropology, Maritime Archaeology, and Information Science. Especially, study is that interaction water environment including sea and human in principal objective, and human behavior in the space. It is intended to evaluate the human behavior from the information to be provided the investigation in underwater cultural heritage and analysis environment around it. Main research areas are the Seto inland Sea, Egypt, Motosu Lake, and Maldives. Hioomi Tsumura is the Associate Professor in Faculty of Culture and Information Science, and Director of the Research Center for Knowledge Science in cultural heritage, Doshisha University in Japan. He is specialized in are Spatiotemporal Informatics and Human ecology. His past work includes: The E-way into the four Dimensions of Cultural Heritage (Archeopress, 2004), Site-Catchment Analysis of Prehistoric Settlements by Reconstructing Paleoenvironments with GIS; "GIS-Based Studies in the Humanities and Social Science" (Taylor and Francis, 2005), and "Geography Information Science Dictionary" (Asakura Press, 2004). 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Examining Coastal Shipping Processes around Shodo Island during the Tokugawa Period Description An account of the resource Shodo Island in the Seto inland sea used to be the major entrepôt of wall stones, which were taken to the Osaka castle, gathered from some islets around this island. The processes of constructing Japanese castle walls are composed of three processes, viz. quarrying stones, shipping or transporting them, and heaping them up. While many historians have studied upon quarrying and piling them, no comprehensive research has been done as for shipping or transporting them, mainly because no historical document exits. In order to throw light upon seaborne stone transportation from Shodo Island to Osaka, therefore, underwater surveys around this island were carried out on seabed As a result, many submerged wall stones, as well as a submerged stone called “Kamome Ishi”, on which an old stone post was stood, succeeded in being found on the bottom of the sea; this mooring post is said to be built by ship owners who carried wall stones to the Osaka castle, and these waters could serve the most important mooring port of Shodo Island for wall stone transportation. To prove this historic event, a tide simulation on the basis of survey data was analyzed and a reconstructed model for mooring and loading wall stones around the mooring post was hypothesized, which was verified by current fieldworks. Although millions of mariners have been working in the Seto inland sea since the ancient times, a new maritime and navigational technique seems to be emerged from Shodo Island and its surroundings early in the 17th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kotaro Mogi Hiroomi Tsumura, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/cb1c161bbaa7a450fc48bc6ab05269e8.pdf 8a93e7c3d3312637a6e064514b83e3e6 PDF Text Text ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY OF WORLD WAR II JAPANESE AIRCRAFT IN AUSTRALIA: THE CASE STUDY OF HAJIME TOYOSHIMA’S ZERO Hiroshi Ishii (Flinders University, MA Student) ABSTRACT During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and Army (IJA) carried out a series of air raids on northern Australia. The Bombing of Darwin by the IJN on 19 February 1942 was the most significant foreign attack in mainland Australia since the colonisation of Australia by the British Empire. One of the IJN Zero fighters flown by a petty officer, Hajime Toyoshima, was force-landed on Melville Island, north of Darwin. The pilot was subsequently captured by an Indigenous man, Matthias Ulungura, and became the first Japanese prisoner of war on Australian soil. This study examines historical records and remains of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials currently displayed in three museums around Darwin to answer the research questions of why and how the utilisation of the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials have changed over time. Close examination with 3D photogrammetry recording of the wreckage shows characteristics of the early model of Mitsubishi M6A2b Type 0 Model 21 carrier fighter and evidence of use of this aircraft wreckage. Examination of related materials also indicate debatable authenticities. Despite the questionable legitimacies of these related materials, exhibitions of museums utilize them in their attempted recreations of the past event. Furthermore, those materials reflect the social value shifts that those items went through. This study focuses on interactions between Australians, which includes the Indigenous people, and the IJN aircraft. KEYWORDS: World War II, Aviation, Japan, Australia LIST OF IMAGES Figure 1. Toyoshima’s Zero, force-landed on 27 February 1942 (Photograph: Australian War Memorial). Figure 2. 3D-rendered orthographic view of the Zero (Created by the author, November 2022). Figure 3. A close-up of the Type 14 pistol, which is exhibited at the Darwin Military Museum as Toyoshima’s pistol (Photograph: Author, 4 December 2021). Figure 4. A bronze statue of Matthias Ullungura (left) and a three-blade propeller (right) outside the Patakijiyali Museum (Photograph: Wendy Van Duivenvoorde, 27 May 2021). INTRODUCTION World War II (WWII) significantly impacted Australia, as it was the first time in postcolonial Australian history that foreign forces attacked the country. From 1942 to 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and Army (IJA) conducted a series of air raids in northern Australia (Lewis and Claringbould 2020), combined with naval attacks by the Japanese and German navies in Australian waters (Lewis 2010; McCarthy 2009a, 2009b, 2011; Smith 2008), which greatly influenced the country’s establishment of a national identity independent from the British Empire. The Bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942 was the first and largest Japanese air raid in Australia. During the raid, a Mitsubishi A6M2b Model 21 Zero (Zeke) fighter flown by Petty Officer Hajime Toyoshima and launched from IJN aircraft carrier Hiryu, was forced to land on Melville Island. Toyoshima became the first prisoner of war (POW) in Australia (Alford 2011, 38–39). The remains of the aircraft and related materials, including the propeller, Toyoshima’s pistol and a statue of the Indigenous man, Matthias Ulungura, who captured the pilot, are displayed in three museums in Darwin and Bathurst Island, serving as significant mementoes of the war for Australian, Indigenous, and Japanese history. This study focuses on how Australians and Indigenous people have utilised the wreckage of the Japanese aircraft and related materials. 1 �RESEARCH QUESTION As a research question, this study will focus on why and how utilisations of the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials have transformed over time. This research pursues the following four avenues to address the question. Firstly, historical documents and records of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials will be examined. Secondly, the current condition of the Zero in the Darwin Aviation Museum will be recorded and analysed to observe any trace of utilisations. Thirdly, related materials and displays in three museums (the Darwin Aviation Museum, the Patakijiyali Museum, and the Darwin Military Museum) will be observed. Lastly, the gathered data will be interpreted to understand human behaviours towards materials related to the war. THE BOMBING OF DARWIN The Bombing of Darwin occurred on 19 February 1942, several days after the fall of Singapore, and was a combination of two raids. The first raid was carried out by IJN and led by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo and his First Mobile Striking Force (‘Mobile Fleet’). Even though the Mobile Fleet is often called the ‘Nagumo Force’, later historians evaluate Nagumo as a ‘largely passive and not terribly innovative’ commander (Parshall and Tully 2005, 17). Nagumo was, however, fortunate to have talented young officers such as Commander Minoru Genda, who designed this raid as well as the Pearl Harbor attack (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 50–51). The first raid involved 188 IJN aircraft, including 36 Mitsubishi A6M2 ‘Zero (Zeke)’ fighters, 71 Aichi D3A1 ‘Val’ dive bombers, and 81 Nakajima ‘Kate’ bombers. Launched from four carriers – Hiryu, Soryu, Kaga and Akagi – the aircraft attacked Darwin in the morning (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 286). The Kates and Vals dropped a total of 82,800 kg of bombs (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 88). Their primary targets were merchant and navy ships in the harbour and port facilities, such as Stokes Hill Wharf and oil tanks. Some bombs hit the city area and destroyed a post office, possibly because of overshoots (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 82–83). Twenty-one ships in the harbour were heavily damaged or sunk during the raid. The exact number is uncertain, but at least 252 people were killed, and 350 were injured during the first raid (Alford 2011, 34). IJA carried out the second raid, which involved 54 land-based bombers, a combination of 27 Mitsubishi G4M1 ‘Betty’ bombers from Kendari in Sulawesi and 27 Mitsubishi G3M1 ‘Nell’ bombers from Ambon on the Maluku Islands in the Netherlands East Indies, attacking Darwin over an hour after the first raid, at noon. The Nells and Bettys dropped a total of 32,050 kg of bombs and primarily targeted the airport (Lewis and Ingram 2013, 233). DESK ASSESSMENT AND FIELD SURVEY Desk-based research was conducted before a field survey in Darwin to gather historical records, photographs, and films to understand the interactions between people and the Zero. Primary sources, such as historical photographs, films, and archived official documents and reports, were collected to achieve historical accuracy, along with secondary sources like published books, websites, and newspapers. The Heritage Branch, Northern Territory Government, and a local historian, Bob Alford, kindly provided unpublished reports. The collected data was utilised to aid the field survey in three museums: the Darwin Aviation Museum, the Darwin Military Museum, and the Patakijiyali Museum on Bathurst Island. The Darwin Aviation Museum exhibits the majority of the portion of Toyoshima’s Zero and is run by the Aviation Historical Society of the Northern Territory (AHSNT) (Darwin Aviation Museum 2017). The Darwin Military Museum is run by the Northern Territory branch of the Royal Australian Artillery Association (RAAA) and has Hajime Toyoshima’s pistol in their theatre-like exhibition (Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission [ACNC] 2022). The Patakijiyali Museum is run by the Tiwi people and has a propeller from Toyoshima’s Zero and a bronze statue of Matthias Ulungura 2 �(O’Toole and La Cana 2017). As the examined materials were displayed in publicly accessible areas, no permission was needed except for recording the Zero at the Darwin Aviation Museum. EXAMINATION AND 3D RECORDING OF THE ZERO The photographic examination and 3D recording of Toyoshima’s Zero, which are exhibited in the Darwin Aviation Museum, were planned to analyse the identification, current condition and traces of past utilisation of the aircraft. Permission to survey the remains of the Zero was granted by the committee of AHSNT in May 2021. 3D recordings and modelling of cultural heritages and archaeological sites are technologies that have recently been rapidly and widely adopted among researchers, especially maritime archaeologists (McCarthy et al. 2019, 1–2). These technologies are applied to recordings of aircraft wrecks and restored aircraft (Lickliter-Mundon 2018, 36). For this research, photogrammetry was chosen as a 3D recording technique for three reasons. The first reason is that photogrammetry requires neither any contact nor the destruction of recording objects since it only requires photo shooting. The second reason is that photogrammetry can produce the desired accuracy and data resolution for this research. Finally, photogrammetry only requires low-cost equipment and one operator to record a feature. HAJIME TOYOSHIMA ON MELVILLE ISLAND Several Tiwi people’s testimonies mention their encounters with Hajime Toyoshima on Melville Island. One Indigenous woman who first encountered Toyoshima on the island, Missus Aloysius, described her encounter with Toyoshima in her letter to a friend. She described that Toyoshima tried to communicate with them and even offered his watch to a boy they were taking care of (Lockwood 2013, 95). Although Toyoshima’s approach to the Indigenous people was peaceful, Matthias Ulungra (Ngapiatilawai)’s disarming of Toyoshima as the first Japanese POW on Australian soil symbolises their encounter with Toyoshima (Riseman 2018, 138). Matthias described the event details when he approached Toyoshima from behind and told him, ‘Hands up!’ He took his revolver and a map (Lockwood 2013, 96). Without any resistance, Toyoshima was captured, and his flying suit, his Belgian .32 inch (8.1 mm) automatic pistol and his map were taken by Matthias. Later he was taken to the Australian Army on Bathurst Island and handed to Australian Army Sergeant Les Powell (Piper 1995, 58). Toyoshima said he was an air gunner from Ambon, and his name was Tadao Minami. He died during the infamous Cowra prison breakout in New South Wales on 5 August 1944 (Powell 2007, 91). THE ROYAL AUSTRALIAN AIR FORCE’S INVESTIGATIONS OF THE ZERO IN 1942 Despite Toyoshima’s temptation to hide his identity and the existence of his wrecked Zero, Tiwi people traced his movements and found the wreck site. In early March 1942, a team of Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) led by Indigenous men visited the site (see Figure 1). This was the first time in WWII that the Allies captured a fully intact Zero (Piper 1995, 60). Squadron Leader Sergeant Allan Beatty, one of the No. 13 Squadron (RAAF) from Darwin, led the investigation team and wrote his report on 7 March 1942 (NAA 1942). Since it was impossible to carry the whole Zero with their manpower, the RAAF intelligence team partially dismantled the Zero, including all armaments, the engine, the rear fuselage and instruments. Those parts of the Zero were later manhandled to the coast and then shipped to Darwin for further inspections (Piper 1995, 60). Around 1983, the team leader – Sergeant Allan Beatty – described his ‘finding the empty oil tank of the fighter with a single hole and some metal about the size of a .303 bullet inside’, which might be the cause of the Zero’s malfunction and wrecking (NAA 1942). Beatty kept ‘the small drogue from the pilot’s parachute’ from the site as a souvenir until 1993, the year in which he donated it to the Darwin Aviation Museum (Piper 1995, 63). 3 �Figure 1. Toyoshima’s Zero, force-landed on 27 February 1942 (Photograph: Australian War Memorial). REDISCOVERY OF THE ZERO In September 1960, during the development of a road on Melville Island, the Zero was rediscovered. The director of the Welfare Branch, Northern Territory Administration, Harry Christian Giese, recognised the Zero as the first Japanese aircraft shot down on Australian soil and advised that it be secured for future usage in a museum or similar facility. Eventually, the Zero was stored in a secure area at Snake Bay, Melville Island (NAA 1971). From 1962 to 1969, the Returned Sailor’s, Soldier’s and Airmen’s Imperial League of Australia (RSSAILA) Darwin Sub Branch and the RAAA Northern Territory branch showed their interest in obtaining Toyoshima’s Zero to the Administrator of the Northern Territory. The Tiwi people, however, refused to provide the wreckage (NAA 1971). In late October 1977, after lengthy negotiations, the Milikapiti (Tiwi) Council agreed to lend the Zero to AHSNT under a formal agreement. The remaining aircraft parts were shipped to Darwin and secured in an AHSNT facility (Piper 1983). THE CURRENT CONDITION OF THE ZERO During the field survey for this research on 3 December 2021, 1,401 images of Toyoshima’s Zero were taken with a Nikon D5600 digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR) at Darwin Aviation Museum. All images were successfully aligned with Agisoft Metashape, and a high-quality 3D scanned model of the remains of Toyoshima’s Zero was created. Further, the 3D model of the Zero 4 �with one-metre scale bars was rendered with the 3D software Blender for analysis and display purposes (see Figure 2). The round-shaped oil tank in front of the fuselage is a characteristic of an early model of Zero, such as Model 11 or 21 (Hara 2001, 169). Furthermore, the wingtip from the port wing displayed in the Darwin Aviation Museum shows folding and locking mechanisms. Assuming the wingtip belongs to the front fuselage of the same Zero, it indicates either a Model 21 or 22 (Hara 2001, 277). Therefore, the Zero in the museum is likely identified as a Model 21 Zero. The remaining parts of the engine mount on the Zero are physical evidence of the salvage operation by the RAAF salvage team at the end of February 1942. Other missing characteristics of this wreckage, such as the engine, the rear fuselage and instruments, match with information from the RAAF salvage team’s report. Thus, this Zero can be identified as Toyoshima’s Zero. Figure 2. 3D-rendered orthographic view of the Zero (Created by the author, November 2022). TOYOSHIMA’S PISTOL Although Matthias Ulungura described Toyoshima’s pistol as a ‘revolver’, Piper (1995, 58) and Alford (1991, 20–21) describe Toyoshima’s pistol as a .32 Belgian automatic pistol with seven rounds fully loaded in its magazine. This description of the .32 Belgian automatic pistol probably comes from Australian Army Sergeant Lew Powell’s testimony. Since Powell was military personnel, it is unlikely that he misidentified the calibre and characteristics of the pistol, while he would not have gained any benefits from a false description. It is easy to identify the model of Toyoshima’s pistol as the FN Model 1910 based on Powell’s specific description (Gorenstein 2022, Chapter 10). A Japanese Type 14 pistol, however, is displayed as Toyoshima’s at the Darwin Military Museum. This pistol is not likely to come from Toyoshima. The manufacturing year and month for a Type 14 pistol were engraved near its grip. In the case of the pistol in the Darwin Military Museum, the manufacturing year and month can be read as ‘昭18.4’, which means ‘April 1943’ (Shōwa 18) (see Figure 3), and it is more than a year after the capture of Toyoshima. There is a record that a Mitsubishi Ki-46 Type 100 Command Reconnaissance Aircraft – the Allied codename Dinah – flown by IJA Lieutenants Saburo Shinohara and Hideo Ura crashed north of the Bathurst Island Mission on 17 August 1943. Their bodies were buried near the crash site (Lewis and Claringbould 2020, 112). The pistol currently exhibited as Toyoshima’s at the Darwin Military Museum likely belongs to either Shinohara or Ura. 5 �Toyoshima’s pistol often appears in many stories and museums, such as the statue of Matthia, because it is the direct physical evidence of his surrender. Since Toyoshima is the first Japanese POW captured on Australian soil, the identity of who disarmed him later became a historical matter, and his pistol symbolised the event. Since the social value of the event increased over time, Powel attempted to reclaim the credit for the disarming of Toyoshima much after the war (Bellamy 1995, 63). Figure 3. A close-up of the Type 14 pistol, which is exhibited at the Darwin Military Museum as Toyoshima’s pistol (Photograph: Author, 4 December 2021). STATUE OF MATTHIAS ULLUNGURA AND PROPELLER ON BATHURST ISLAND As a plaque on the statue of Matthias Ullungura in Patakijiyali Museum indicates, the Northern Territory Government built this statue in 2016 to commemorate the contributions of Matthias and the Tiwi people during WWII (Figure 4). Despite Matthias mentioning Toyoshima’s pistol as a ‘revolver’, his statue holds an FN Model 1910 pistol which Lew Powell’s description influenced. It is questionable whether the Tiwi people requested or benefited from this statue, given the oral history and dance they have developed to represent this part of their history (Davidson 2015). It is more likely that the statue is the government’s way of indicating interest in the Tiwi people and the shared past. Though more research is required, a brief inspection of the picture of the propeller near the Patakijiyali Museum attributed to Toyoshima’s Zero by Ken Lai, a curator of the Darwin Aviation Museum, suggests the association is unlikely for two reasons. First, the propeller reduction gear and the propeller shaft, which appear in the propeller on Bathurst Island, are still visibly intact on the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero in the historical picture (see Figure 1). The propeller reduction gear of Toyoshima’s Zero is still covered with a metal housing and surrounded by the cowling in the picture. Second, the propeller should be bent backwards, since Toyoshima’s Zero force-landed. The propeller on Bathurst Island (Figure 4), however, is bent forwards, indicating the propeller hit ground or water from the side or back but not from the front. It is challenging to identify whether the propeller on Bathurst Island originated from either a Japanese or an Allied plane because Sumitomo Metal 6 �Industries was licenced by American company Hamilton Standard in 1934, and the company started to manufacture hydromatic propellers in 1938 for Zeros (Yoshida 2019, 76–78). Figure 4. A bronze statue of Matthias Ullungura (left) and a three-blade propeller (right) outside the Patakijiyali Museum (Photograph: Wendy Van Duivenvoorde, 27 May 2021). SOCIAL VALUE CHANGES From this research, historical narratives of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials can be observed. The Darwin Aviation Museum uses Toyoshima’s Zero as a medium to recreate the 1942 Bombing of Darwin. The Darwin Military Museum pistol and the Patakijiyali Museum propeller are used to lend legitimacy and authenticity to the host institutions. Meanwhile, status of Matthias Ulungura serves as a tourist attraction. These narratives suggest that the social values of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials have also changed over time. Parallels can be observed elsewhere, as in the case of USS Arizona in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. During the war, the wreckage of the USS Arizona was utilised for war efforts. After the war, the wreckage was heavily salvaged for relic collecting until the time came in the 1960s when the wreck became a war memorial (Delgado 1992). RE-CREATING THE PAST WITH MEDIUMS All museums surveyed during this research attempt to re-create the event by utilising Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials to some degree. In other words, those materials work as mediums to connect visitors and the past event – the Bombing of Darwin. In the case of the Darwin Aviation Museum, Toyoshima’s Zero is a medium to re-create past events. The pistol in the Darwin Military Museum and the propeller at Patakijiyali Museum also serve as a medium through which to provide legitimacy and authenticity to the respective museums, despite the questionable credibility of those artefacts. Further, the creation of related materials, which are fabricated mediums, occurred in the 7 �cases of the Patakijiyali Museum (i.e., the statue of Matthias Ulungura). These cases illustrate how mediums are significant in experiencing a past event and are also used for tourist attractions. CONCLUSION This study attempted to answer the main research question: Why and how have utilisations of the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials changed over time? Four research aims were addressed to answer this research question. The first aim was to examine historical documents and records of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials. Through analysis of historical documents, value shifts towards Toyoshima’s Zero over time were observed. The aircraft had value as an enemy aircraft during the war. After the war, it was forgotten until its rediscovery. After its rediscovery, several stakeholders were interested in obtaining the aircraft as a war relic and tourist attraction. The second aim was to record and analyse the current condition of the Zero in the Darwin Aviation Museum to observe any trace of utilisations. With the recording and analysis of the Zero in the Darwin Aviation Museum, this study successfully identified the model of the Zero as an early Model 21 flown by Toyoshima; this study also examined traces of salvage attempts. The third aim was to observe related materials and displays in three museums. With the observation of museum displays, this research found the credibility of artefacts claimed to be Toyoshima’s pistol and the propeller from his Zero questionable. Overall, the survey concluded that all three museums attempted to re-create the event by utilising artefacts to some degree and I noted social value changes over time. The final aim was to interpret collected data to understand human behaviour towards materials related to the war. As explained above, the social value of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials has changed over time. Historical records and the current condition of the Zero reflect these shifts. Moreover, museums utilise Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials as mediums to connect visitors with the re-created past event. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the Aviation Historical Society of the Northern Territory (AHSNT), Bob Alford and Ken Lai, for the permission to examine Toyoshima’s Zero. I would also like to thank David Steinberg from the Heritage Branch, Northern Territory Government, for his support of this project. This paper is based on the author’s thesis research. Thanks to my thesis supervisor, Wendy Van Duivenvoorde. 8 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Alford, Bob. Darwin’s Air War 1942–1945: An Illustrated History. Darwin: Colemans Printing, 1991. Alford, Bob. Darwin’s Air War, 1942–1945: An Illustrated History Commemorating the Darwin Air Raids, 2nd edn. Darwin: Aviation Historical Society of the Northern Territory, 2011. Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission “Royal Australian Artillery Association (Northern Territory) Incorporated.” Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission. 2022. Accessed October 31, 2022. https://www.acnc.gov.au/charity/charities/c7f8d255-3aaf-e811-a95e-000d3ad24c60/profile Bellamy, C. “The question of Hajime.” honours dissertation, University of New South Wales, 1995. Darwin Aviation Museum “About the Darwin Aviation Museum.” Darwin Aviation Museum. 2017. Accessed October 31, 2022. https://www.darwinaviationmuseum.com.au/about/ Davidson, Helen. “ N.T. prepares to honour Indigenous people’s efforts in second world war.” The Guardian. October 14, 2015. Accessed December 1, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/oct/14/nt-prepares-to-honourindigenous-peoples-efforts-in-darwin-bombing Delgado, James P. “Recovering the past of USS Arizona: Symbolism, myth, and reality.” Historical Archaeology 26, no. 4 (1992): 69–80. Gorenstein, Nathan. The Guns of John Moses Browning: The Remarkable Story of the Inventor Whose Firearms Changed the World. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2022. Hara, Katsuhiro. Zerosen hiroku = The Zero fighter. Tokyo: KK Besuto Serāzu, 2001. Lewis, Tom. Darwin’s Submarine I-124. Kent Town: Avonmore Books, 2010. Lewis, Tom, and Michael Claringbould. The Empire Strikes South: Japan’s Air War against Northern Australia 1942–45. Kent Town: Avonmore Books, 2020. Lewis, Tom, and Peter Ingman. Carrier Attack Darwin 1942: The Complete Guide to Australia’s Own Pearl Harbor. Kent Town: Avonmore Books, 2013. Lickliter-Mundon, M.E. “Aviation archaeology: History, theory, practice and direction.” PhD dissertation, Texas A&M University, 2018. Lockwood, Douglas. Australia under Attack: The Bombing of Darwin 1942. London: New Holland Publishers, 2013. McCarthy, John., Jonathan. Benjamin, Trevor. Winton and Wendy van Duivenvoorde “The rise of 3D in maritime archaeology.” In 3D Recording and Interpretation for Maritime Archaeology, edited by John. McCarthy, Jonathan. Benjamin, Trevor. Winton and Wendy van Duivenvoorde, 1–10. Cham: Springer, 2019. McCarthy, Michael. “Towards an understanding of the importance of the HMAS Sydney II and HSK ‘Kormoran’ sites. Part 1: The genesis and evolution of the controversies.” The Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 33, no. 1 (2009a): 72–78. McCarthy, Michael. “Towards an understanding of the importance of the HMAS Sydney and HSK ‘Kormoran’ sites. Part 2: The inordinate delay in commencing a search.” The Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 33, no. 1 (2009b): 79–85. McCarthy, Michael. “Archaeology and the HMAS Sydney.” The Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 35, no. 1 (2011): 18–27. National Archives of Australia [NAA]. Report of Japanese aircraft crashed on Melville Island, A9695, 468, Remains of Japanese Zero on Melville Island, 7 March 1942. National Archives of Australia, 1942. Accessed December 1, 2022. https://recordsearch.naa.gov.au/SearchNRetrieve/Interface/SearchScreens/BasicSearch.aspx 9 �National Archives of Australia [NAA]. Remains of Japanese Zero on Melville Island, F1, 1971/7282, Remains of Japanese Zero on Melville Island. National Archives of Australia, 1971. Accessed December 1, 2022. https://recordsearch.naa.gov.au/SearchNRetrieve/Interface/SearchScreens/BasicSearch.aspx O’Toole, Kate. and Xavier. La Cana. “Sister Anne Gardiner hands over keys of Patakijiyali Museum to Tiwi Islanders to run.” The ABC News. March 18, 2017. Accessed October 31, 2022. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-18/sister-annegardiner-hands-over-keys-of-patakijiyali-museum/8366298 Parshall, Jonathan. and Anthony P. Tully. Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. Dulles: Potomac Books, 2005. Piper, Robert. "Epitaph for a Darwin Raider". The Canberra Times. February 12, 1983, 13. Piper, Robert. The Hidden Chapters: Untold Stories of Australians at War in the Pacific. Carlton: Pagemasters, 1995. Powell, Alan. The Shadow’s Edge: Australia’s Northern War. Darwin: Charles Darwin University Press, 2007. Riseman, Noah. 2018 “Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander military service in the Second World War”. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 19, no.2 (2018): 137–156. Smith, Tim. “Managing an Australian midget: The Imperial Japanese Navy type a submarine ‘M24’ at Sydney”. The Journal of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 32, no. 1 (2008): 79–89. Yoshida, Hideo. “History of the aluminum technology from duralumin to extra super duralumin (part 5). Extra super duralumin and Zero Fighter (2). Application of extra super duralumin to Zero Fighter”. UACJ Technical Reports 6, no. 1(2019): 67–80. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Archaeology and Anthropology of World War II Japanese Aircraft in Australia: the Case Study of Hajime Toyoshima's Zero Description An account of the resource During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and Army (IJA) carried out a series of air raids on northern Australia. The Bombing of Darwin by the IJN on 19 February 1942 was the most significant foreign attack in mainland Australia since the colonisation of Australia by the British Empire. One of the IJN Zero fighters flown by a petty officer, Hajime Toyoshima, was force-landed on Melville Island, north of Darwin. The pilot was subsequently captured by an Indigenous man, Matthias Ulungura, and became the first Japanese prisoner of war on Australian soil. This study examines historical records and remains of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials currently displayed in three museums around Darwin to answer the research questions of why and how the utilisation of the wreckage of Toyoshima’s Zero and related materials have changed over time. Close examination with 3D photogrammetry recording of the wreckage shows characteristics of the early model of Mitsubishi M6A2b Type 0 Model 21 carrier fighter and evidence of use of this aircraft wreckage. Examination of related materials also indicate debatable authenticities. Despite the questionable legitimacies of these related materials, exhibitions of museums utilize them in their attempted recreations of the past event. Furthermore, those materials reflect the social value shifts that those items went through. This study focuses on interactions between Australians, which includes the Indigenous people, and the IJN aircraft. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hiroshi Ishii Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ishii, Hiroshi. 2023. “Archaeology and Anthropology of World War II Japanese Aircraft in Australia: The Case Study of Hajime Toyoshima’s Zero.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1898 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b132e608ddeb4621ef677cee49bc72a3.pdf a38313bd835f0d572e9e4bcccec4e521 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 6: The Maritime Archaeology of Trade and Exchange in East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 6 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource "Gang(綱)" of letters on ceramics written in ink found in maritime archaeological excavations Description An account of the resource Ceramics are one of the major artefact types that are found in maritime archaeological excavations. Some of these ceramics have letters written in ink on them. Tthese letters are categorized as “Gang (綱)”. “Gang” is an important historical material to "Gangshou (綱首)", which is the name of a group of leading trade merchants operating during the Song dynasty in the literature records. Gang written on ceramics have several types, such as “gang”, “family name + gang”, “gangsi (綱司)”, and “family name + gangsi”. These “Gang” ceramics have been found in ruins on Hakata (博多) and in northern Kyushu in Japan, Mado (馬島) underwater ruins in Korea, and Penghu Island (澎湖島) ruins in Taiwan. It was also collected from under the sea near Hong Kong. In mainland China, these are also excavated from the Nanhai I Shipwreck (南海), Shipwreck of Quanzhou(泉州) Bay, Strata of Song Dynasty in the Nanyue (南越) Palace ruin, and in Guangzhou(広州). This study examines merchant excavation locations of "Gang" identified ceramics within the maritime archeological context. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hisako Ishiguro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Ishiguro, Hisako. 2021. “"Gang(綱)" of letters on ceramics written in ink found in maritime archaeological excavations.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/681 Asia-Pac Session 6 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c3ef358232376f6bacefe915e670a91d.pdf 64b4f9c08837516700ea70c958d00d92 PDF Text Text Searching for the evidence of disaster from the sunken village of Lake Hibara, Japan Randy Sasaki (Associate Professor, Teikyo University Research Institute of Cultural Properties) Wataru Tanikawa (Senior Researcher, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology) Jun Kimura (Associate Professor, Tokai University) Hisashi Nakagawa (Curator, Toyohashi City Museum of Art and History) Shintaro Yamasaki (Associate Professor, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University) Yuhji Yamamoto (Professor, Kochi University) ABSTRACT In 1888, the eruption of Mount Bandai in the Fukushima prefecture of northern Japan created a dammed lake, resulting in the submergence of the entire village of Hibara. A multi-disciplinary research team has been organized to extract both archaeological and historical information as well as environmental information. The focus of the research is not only on the material culture, but also on topics such as the process of submergence and how people's lives were affected. The study of the submerged village of Hibara is a unique opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of natural disasters on human settlements. To locate the periphery of the site, the team is using remote sensing technology including Side Scan Sonar, Sub-bottom Profiler, and underwater drones. Additionally, soil coring is being used to study the event sequence and the environment, and archaeological techniques are being used to record the material culture. This is one of the first studies of its kind conducted in Japan, and the team aims to develop methodologies for investigating submerged sites. Ultimately, this research will contribute to the study of local history and enhance our understanding of cultural heritage. List of Abbreviations SSS Side Scan Sonar JpGU Japan Geoscience Union Keywords: Japan, Fukushima, Submerged Landscape, Natural Disaster INTRODUCTION This article discusses the scientific potential of studying disaster sites located on an inland lake. So-called disaster archaeology at submerged archaeological sites is not a well-known topic of research in Japan. In 2022, to promote the study of underwater disaster archaeology at inland lakes, researchers from various fields came together to conduct an archaeological expedition. This paper focuses on a research project led by Senior Researcher Wataru Tanikawa, being conducted at the submerged site of Hibara Village in Fukushima Prefecture. The village was submerged by the formation of a dammed lake following the 1888 eruption of Mt. Bandai (Central Disaster Management Council 2005, 1). The site records the tangible heritage of village life, the mechanisms of a disaster, and how people reacted to the disaster. The project is a joint effort by archaeologists and natural scientists to extract records of disasters by investigating historical records, archaeological remains, as well as acquired data from remote sensing technologies and soil science technologies. The importance of understanding past disaster sites is apparent because such studies not only provide an understanding of our past but also contribute to today’s policy-making in better disaster prevention. Disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, change the landscape drastically and the lives of people. The study of submerged landscapes and the material culture left behind underwater due to a disaster can provide insight into our past interaction with the environment. Research in this sub-field has been challenging because of the small number of investigated sites, the lack of uniting themes, and how to glean information through available scientific methodologies. The team hopes to create momentum for further research on disaster archaeology at submerged sites by providing possible themes and research methods to be followed. This paper discusses the history of Hibara Village, how the research came about, results from the 2022 season, and as a conclusion, a plan for future research. The preliminary results of the 2023 fieldwork will be discussed in the presentation. 1 �HISTORY OF HIBARA VILLAGE Hibara village is strategically located along an East-West path in a mountainous region of northern Japan. The major development came during the Edo period (1603-1867 CE) when the village was designated as a post town or Shukuba-Machi, on the Aizu-Yonezawa Highway. The village has little farmland, but it flourished as an “inn” for merchants and travelers. However, in the Meiji era (1868-1912 CE), when the highway system was abolished, the town declined in its importance. Despite losing its function as a station, the village was a well-known spot along the highway for rest (Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education 2018, 1-2). On 15 July 1888, the sudden eruption of Mt. Bandai changed the course of the village forever. This was the first major disaster that received international attention in the Meiji period. A part of the mountain collapsed and the avalanche buried several villages, killing close to 500 people (Sato 2021, 49-50). Hibara village first appeared to have been saved from the devastation, as the debris from the collapsed mountain did not reach the village. However, the debris from the mountain dammed the existing streams creating lakes. The water level began to rise slowly, and after several months, the government ordered the villagers to evacuate and the village was relocated to a higher ground. The newly formed Hibara Lake eventually swallowed the entire village (Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education 2022, 36). The location of the village was not forgotten. The focal point for the villagers then and now is the shrine, located at the ridge of a hill, above the current water-level. The passageway, or the approach to the shrine, is marked by rows of trees. After the submergence, these trees were cut down, leaving the tree stumps behind partially submerged. These stumps can be seen today along the two Torii gates, leading up toward the shrine. One Torii gate is standing close to the current shoreline and another Torii is in the lake. The water level of the lake is controlled, and seasonal fluctuation is high due to the heavy snowfall in the area. Usually, the water-level is kept low during winter. During summer seasons, one of the Torii is completely below water, but when the water level is low, one can walk beyond this Torii on dry land. The submerged section of the village has been designated as a known site by the local municipality (Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education 2022, 35). In 2000, Hosei University carried out a preliminary diving survey around the village and found several ceramic fragments. Hosei University organized further research in 2002, and they recorded some features, including rock foundations and raised ground. The work was done by the university's Explorer Club and not by trained archaeologists (Tanikawa 2021). The video and the drawings they made, however, provided clues about what to look for during research. In addition to these underwater expeditions, the Kita-shiobara village conducted an in-depth walking survey during a historic low tide in 2016; they found gravestones and other stone-built structures, as well as some artifacts including ceramics and iron objects (Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education, 2022). HOW THE RESEARCH CAME ABOUT For years, Tanikawa had a vague idea of studying past disasters and their impacts on human society by combining natural and social sciences. Between 2015-2019, Tanikawa investigated "Kuroda-gori," a village in Kochi Prefecture that is believed to have been submerged by the Hakuho Earthquake of 684 (Tanikawa et al. 2016, 17-18). Based on historical documents and sedimentation history, several areas in Kochi Prefecture were surveyed, finding underwater remains, such as blocks of stones and stone pillars (Tanikawa et al. 2019). However, it was not possible to identify direct links between the features, sedimentology data, and written records. Tanikawa realized the need for collaborative research, especially from the archaeological community. Randall Sasaki, hearing the story of Tanikawa’s research, offered help. To discuss the possible collaboration of research, a session titled `Natural hazard and human activity recorded in underwater geoarchaeological structure` was organized at the Japan Geoscience Union and American Geophysical Union joint meeting held at 2 �Makuhari, Japan (JpGU Session H-QR05, 2020). At this session, the need to investigate a known submerged site as joint research was proposed, and Hibara village was selected as a case study. The research team, mainly from three different fields, was formed. Besides the archaeological team, one team focuses on remote sensing surveys to gather an overall image of the site, and another team conducts scientific analysis including the soil profile. The Lake Hibara underwater site is a suitable location for research for several reasons. Written records of the disaster are available and the reason for the submergence is known. The location of the site is certain and the local municipality is eager to support the project. Figure 1. A Historic Map (Azaippitsukagirichizuchou, Hibara-Mura) of Hibara Village, displayed at the Local Museum (Photographed by the research team) In 2021, the team gathered at Hibara Lake for a preliminary investigation; a sonar survey, snorkel survey, and underwater monitoring by a drone were conducted. The sonar survey revealed rows of tree stumps along the approach and showed some strong reflections. The snorkel survey identified rows of trees and some building blocks. The underwater drone survey revealed stone structures, and possible locations of a temple by the presence of gravestones. The main source for identifying the general plan of the village is the land allocation map (Azaippitsukagirichizuchou, Hibara-Mura) from the early Meiji period (Aizu -Yonezawa Kaido Main Road, Hibara Historical Museum). It depicts streets, canals, housing blocks, and important buildings including a shrine, a temple, and administrative buildings (Figure 1). The results from the 2021 season appeared to correspond well with the allocation map. A meeting with the local municipal office was held, sharing the results and discussing the research plan. Based on the results, the team was able to draw a research plan. The team applied for a research grant and was approved, starting a four-year project in 2022 (Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (A) Clarification of underwater ruins of Lake Hibara and the volcanic disaster that caused the submergence of the lake). THE 2022 SEASON This was the first main season of the research and was focused on gleaning information from various methods to see the overall picture of the site and fine-tune the research plan for the coming seasons. The team conducted various remote sensing surveys and diving investigations. Soil samples and wood samples were also collected for analysis. 3 �Remote Sensing Survey The success of underwater archaeology is all about knowing where to look, and this study is to know the general distribution or the plan of the village. The above-mentioned allocation map is an important source; the map contains information on the length/size of the village blocks. Remote sensing was planned to orient and adjust the map to be used for archaeological surveys (Figure 2). Figure 2 A Photo of the Lake, the Torii Gate, and the Team Conducting a Survey (Photographed by the research team). Sonar surveys were conducted on several occasions using Side Scan Sonar (SSS) (Imagenex Model 872 YellowFin: 800 kHz). The images showed reflections from the submerged Torii, rows of trees, stone walls and foundations, intersecting roads, and some other unknown features. Approximately an area of 0.2㎢ was surveyed, and a mosaic image was generated. The SSS image appears to correspond well with the land allocation map, showing some of the building blocks with sharp corners. A general land formation and small streams can be vaguely seen but require a visual inspection to identify (Figure 3). A Sub-bottom Profiler survey (SyQwest Bathy 2010-PC: 3.5 kHz) was conducted to investigate the features buried below the lake sediment. The survey focused on the proposed village area; transact lines were made from both north-south and east-west directions. The result showed that the site was covered by about 20-30 cm thick soft lacustrine sediment. The land slopes downwards towards west-northwest directions and appears to show a greater change in elevation at the edge of the village, which is also seen in the SSS data. All water sources run from west to east, following the natural land formation. The irrigation channel made at the village followed this natural drainage direction. 4 �Figure 3 A Side Scan Sonar Mosaic Image overlayed; Showing the Outlines of the Village in Reflections (image provided by the research team) A magnetometer survey (OH Marine Magnetics SeaSpy2) was also conducted. Around the supposed village, 12 magnetic anomalies were found, mainly concentrated in the northern part of the survey area. These anomalies could potentially be associated with iron artifacts discarded by villagers when leaving. Archaeological Investigation The underwater investigation was conducted to see if the SSS data corresponded with the map and the accuracy of the map. If the team can “learn” how underwater features appear, it may be able to reconstruct the village by looking at the SSS data, and also be able to pinpoint the location to dive. Silt accumulation is the main problem for an archaeological diving survey. The visibility becomes close to zero, if divers are not careful to disturb the bottom surface. The datum was set at the submerged Torii, and a 100 m line was established extending out from the approach. Since this survey was a preliminary expedition, this is a temporary datum and a fixed datum point will be established in the following season. The submerged Torii is about 71 m offshore. The resident informed the team that these Torii gates were constructed about 40 or 50 years ago, close to the original locations. Stacked Stone Wall The diving survey revealed the remains of a two-story stacked stone structure with an L-shaped plan, located 120 meters offshore (about 50 m from the datum). This is thought to be the junction of the approach and the main highway. The structure was composed of rectangular stones measuring roughly 70 cm x 30 cm. The feature is partially buried, especially showing heavy accumulation towards the west. The wall was at least two stones high, 18 stones lined north-south (along the approach), and at least five stones east-west (along the main highway). This wall can be seen clearly on the SSS image. Rock Accumulation A wide area of gravel accumulation was discovered approximately 15 meters from the datum. The exact extension is unknown, and the size and the shapes are irregular. Several stones were cut to make into shapes, and a circular hole was drilled in at least one of the stones, which is broken in half. It is 5 �considered to be the foundation of the Torii. The feature appears as cloudy reflections in the SSS image. Earthen Embankment An elongated earthen embankment was discovered parallel to the east of the approach road, extending approximately 25 m in length. The embankment was made primarily of sand mixed with gravel. The embankment measures four meters wide and has a low rise of two meters. To the north of this feature is an area with scattered rocks and the remains of building foundations. Based on the land allocation map, a temple was located at the northern end of the embankment. The embankment may be an access road to the temple. The feature is shown as a mix of spotted strong and weak reflections in the SSS image. Landform The SSS image shows an abrupt change in color at several locations, and these correspond well with the elevation change. A slanted S-shaped change in landform seen in the image can also be seen in the land allocation map. The abrupt change in the elevation was confirmed during the diving survey as well. The houses, or village blocks were built along this ridge. The main highway runs along the lower edge of this ridge. Some houses, a shrine, and a temple were built on the upper ridge and the rest of the town below. Core Samples Wood Species analysis The core samples were taken at four locations, two samples each (Samples A and B), counting eight cores in total. Samples A were subjected to destructive analysis while Samples B were only used for non-destructive analysis. The baseline for collecting samples was set along the approach to the shrine, establishing the zero point at the submerged Torii. The core sample was collected at 30m (Core I), 52m (Core II), 70m (Core III), and 100 m (Core IV) from the zero point. Core samples were collected by divers pounding polycarbonate pipes directly into the lake bottom. Samples up to 35 cm in length/depth were collected. Nondestructive observations of internal structure in lake sediments were made using X-ray computed tomography. Density and magnetic susceptibility measurements were made using a nondestructive multi-sensor core logger, density and porosity measurements were made using the nitrogen gas displacement method, grain size analysis using laser diffraction, and mineral identification using powder X-ray diffraction. All cores had fine-grain sediments in the shallow/top layer (Layer I) and mixed sediment with some angular gravel in deeper layers (Layer II). Layer I had a lower bulk density, magnetic susceptibility, percentage of grains larger than 1 mm in diameter, and dispersion of grain size distribution. In terms of bulk density, a clear physical property gap was observed between the layers. Layer I showed a larger proportion of diatoms and volcanic glass and a smaller proportion of quartz than Layer II. In addition, no illite or chlorite, both of which are andesitic origin, was found in Layer II. The results indicate that Layer I is a soil layer deposited after the formation of Hibara Lake. To our surprise, pottery fragments were found in Core IV. These pottery sherds had engraved stripes on the interior, suggesting that it is a fragment of mortar for grinding, which is a typical artifact found in a site dating to the Early Modern period or later. Core IV showed higher porosity, indicating heavy land use. Perhaps, this area was used as farmland or trash pits existed nearby. Core III, which is located near the intersection of the approach and the main highway, showed compacted soil. Rows of trees along the approach create the key scenes of the site. To identify the species and to date the tree, core samples were drilled into several trees. The species were identified as cedar. The trees date to around the mid-19th century from the radiocarbon dating. The date confirms that the growth of trees stopped soon after submerging. 6 �CONCLUSIONS AND 2023 SEASON PLAN Interdisciplinary investigation of the Lake Hibara underwater site is a challenging and complex endeavor, but the first season shows promising results. The research team hopes to obtain a comprehensive understanding of natural disaster mechanisms as well as the people’s interaction with the event. With the data and knowledge gathered in the first season, the research team is well-positioned to find out more about the complex dynamics of the underwater site, and the wider implications of natural disasters. During the 2023 season, small-scale excavations both on land and underwater are being planned. This may provide an insight to the changes in material culture before and after the village was relocated. The detailed season plan has not been finalized at this point of writing, but the season's preliminary results will be introduced at the conference.    Acknowledgements We acknowledge the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research for funding our project. We are deeply grateful for numerous individuals and groups whose contributions were essential to their success. Particularly, appreciation should be given to the residents and municipal officers for their hospitality and invaluable support, which greatly facilitated our research. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aizu -Yonezawa Kaido Main Road, Hibara Historical Museum “Azaippitsukagirichizuchou, Hibara-Mura” A photo-copy of Historical Map 字一筆限地図帳　第四大区七小区　岩代國耶麻郡 檜原村, Author not recorded, Date Unknown, (Photographed by the research team) Central Disaster Management Council. 1888 Mt.Bandai Eruption Report, Tokyo:Central Disaster Management Council, 2005. Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education. Kita-Shiobara Village Excavation Report, No. 5, Fukushima: Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education, 2022. Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education. Historic Road, Aizu-Yonezawa Highway - Hibara History Trail, Fukushima: Kita-Shiobara Village Board of Education, 2018. Sato, Hiroshi. “Eruption of Mount Bandai in 1888 and Recovery from Disaster.” Water Science 65, no. 3 (2021): 45-69. Tanikawa, Wataru. Collaborative Research and Meeting of Natural Hazard Science and Archaeology for Submerged Ruins. Disaster Prevention Research Institute Kyoto University, Kyoto: Kyoto University, 2021. Tanikawa, Wataru., Go-ichiro Uramoto, Yohei Hamada, Masafumi Murayama, Yuhji Yamamoto, Takehiro Hirose, Osamu Tadai, Kouki Tanaka, Hiromasa Ozaki, Minoru Yoneda, and Hidekazu Tokuyama. “Provenance of submerged stone pillars in an earthquake and typhoon hazard zone, coastal Tosashimizu, southwest Japan: A multidisciplinary geological approach.” Marine Geology 415 (2019) 105962. Tanikawa, Wataru., Go-Ichiro Uramoto, Hidekazu Tokuyama, Masafumi Murayama, and Yuhji Yamamoto. “A Review on Estimation of Subsidence Records of Nankai Earthquakes from the Tradition of the Submerged Village Kuroda-gori.” Rekishi Jishin 31 (2016):17-26. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 15: The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters Subject The topic of the resource Session 15 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 15 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Searching for the evidence of disaster from the sunken village of Lake Hibara, Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Randy Sasaki Wataru Tanikawa Jun Kimura Hisashi Nakagawa Shintaro Yamasaki Yuhji Yamamoto Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Sasaki, Randy, Wataru Tanikawa, Jun Kimura, Hisashi Nakagawa, Shintaro Yamasaki, Yuhji Yamamoto. 2023. “Searching for the evidence of disaster from the sunken village of Lake Hibara, Japan.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Jennifer McKinnon. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1994 Asia-Pac Session 15 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6a275ffeef37f06e94530ed5134b2791.pdf c2dbaf85d61bbd705bbb1f792d2e8a97 PDF Text Text The Historical Transition of Lakefront Environment and Use in Lake Biwa, Japan Hisashi Nakagawa Toyohashi City Museum Art and History nakagawa_134@yahoo.co.jp Abstract Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan. It has approximately 4,000,000 years of history, and many people have lived on this lake. More than 90 underwater archaeological sites exist here, and we are able to understand the subtleties of history. As an example, the Awazu-bottom site,is dated to the middle of the Jomon period approximately 5,000 years ago, and is the largest freshwater shell mound in Japan. It was formed near the lakefront at first, but now submerged on the bottom of lake. The Shiozu-port site is a late Heian period dated to 800 years ago, and is one of the oldest harbor sites in Japan. It was constructed to reclaim the lake, and prospered as water transport area. Many important remains, not only port facilities but also shrines and more, have been excavated, but it disappeared in the 12th century. The causes of this sites’ submergence is closely related an environmental transition of the lakefront. The water balance is particularly important problem. Approximately 460 rivers flow into this lake, but the discharge is only through the Seta-River. Therefore, the water level is greatly fluctuated by the sedimentation situation of the riverbed. According to the old historical documents, many floods have occurred. Therefore, sometimes dredging is carried out by the government to this day. Not only are water levels problematic, but ground sedimentation is as well. The lakefront is convenient for fishery and water transportation, but on the other hand, the land is soft. In a certain study, the ground water level is slightly 20cm higher than water level of lake. As a result of this, serious damage to the settlements have occurred by earthquakes. The extreme effect of this has settlements bring submerged to the bottom of lake by lateral Flow; landslide by the soil liquefaction. In this paper, I would like to study a historical transition of the lakefront environment and its use. Key words: landscape, Lake, Japan, riverine �Introduction Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan and many people have lived on this lake. There are more than 90 underwater or lakeside archaeological sites that exist here. As it has approximately 4,000,000 years of history, its form has been changed due to a variety of factors such as crustal deformations or sediment depositions. In recent years, the relation between these geographical or geological changes and lives of the local people has gradually been revealed by a lot of archaeological materials acquired through some investigations of the submerged sites (Nakagawa, 2016). In this paper, the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen in Nagahama city is discussed in order to describe the natural and historical environmental changes at Lake Biwa from the ancient times to the middle age. General Description of the Site The underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen site is located at the bottom of Lake Biwa in front of the town of Gion in Nagahama city, which is in northeastern part of Shiga Prefecture. Local oral tradition tells us that ‘the village called Nishihama formerly existed here, but it was submerged into the bottom of lake by a big earthquake during the Kansho year of the Muromachi period (1460-1466)’. Before examining historical facts, first of all, some current aspects of the bottom topography found from survey maps and sedimentation situations have to be shown. The investigation area is shallow off shore; around 100m. It is less than 1.5m deep and more than 82.8 m of altitude. There 3 topographical elevated points are characteristically observed (Fig. 1). These points have been named A, B, and D as each survey ward (Fig. 2). In addition, the survey ward of C has no elevation, and a medieval �graveyard does not have any elevated peaks, either. In more than 80m of offing, the more clay-like topography regarded as former ground is still spread. Its average bottom attitude is less than 82.8m (about more than 1.5m deep). In this very peculiar area, old withered trees have been excavated. Because some botanical analyses prove that its soil contains large amounts of plant opals from bamboo grasses, this area was certainly dry land in earlier times. Fig. 1: Topographical lakebed map around the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. �Fig. 2. Research areas of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. In the survey ward of A, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.7m (about 0.6m deep). This relatively elevated ward is situated on the western part of the investigation area, measuring about 40m from east to west and 60m from south to north. Around the survey ward of A, the gentle collapse-like topography which was caused by the power waves from the offing direction could be seen (survey ward of A’). In the survey ward of B, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.75m (about 0.55m deep). This relatively elevated ward is situated on the east part of the investigation area, measuring about 40m from east to west and 50m from south to north. Around the survey ward of B, as A, the gentle collapse-like topography could be seen (survey ward of B’). In the survey ward of C, the average bottom elevation is approximately 83.3m (about 1m deep). It is on the western part of the investigation area along the lakeshore, measuring about 80m from east to west and 15m from south to north. In the survey ward of D, its highest bottom elevation is approximately 83.4m (about 0.9m deep). This relatively small and oval elevated ward is situated at the centre of the investigation area, measuring about 35m from �east to west and 15m from south to north. Around the survey ward of D as well, as A and B, the gentle collapse-like topography could be seen (survey ward of D’). The survey ward of a medieval graveyard is situated about from 50m to 70m off the lakeside, and its average bottom altitude is 83.1m (about 1.2m deep). There many stone materials, most of which used to be grave stones, are found; each medieval grave consisted of many stones, which were nearly a size larger than a fist of a grown-up man or smaller than human skull, forming a rectangular section or a cairn. The bottom material at the flat part (less than 83.2 m of altitude) at the investigation area consists of small grains of sands. They seem to have been brought there later by wave action or longshore currents. The survey ward of a medieval graveyard is buried under these sands by half. Contra to this, the bottom material of elevated wards of A, B, and D consists of round-shaped small river stones, each of which is from approximately 5cm to 10cm in diameter. Although one of the survey ward of C consists mainly of such river stones, many bigger stones, each of which is from 20cm to 30cm in diameter, are also observed sporadically on this ward. As for the reason why there are some topographical elevated points there, as this area used to be a river delta. Because of this fact, small river stones are found in the elevated wards of A, B, and D. Each ward still looks like the shape of a river delta. Judging from the survey map, around four tributary branches might have flowed into Lake Biwa, but the direction of water flows may have been altered in later years. So presumably the river was about 250m wide at the mouth. �Historic Environmental Transition Judging from Old Topographies and Relics Development Process of the Sites Figure 3 shows the graphic chart of the number of excavated relics from this site for each century. Obviously its peaks were the 8th and the 12th centuries while only one relic from the 14th century was found. Since the 15th century, this site seems to have restarted as a new site. The tendencies at the 12th and the 13th centuries look similar, but almost all relics from the 12th century consist mainly of unglazed pottery named ‘yama cha wan’, which disappeared before the first quarter of the 13th century. In the survey ward C, the remains of a well was found which seems to be abandoned deliberately during the 13th century. The cultural discontinuation of this underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen could be observed around the 13th century; this place itself was deserted with awareness. Fig. 3: Numbers of excavated relics. Only one relic from the 14th century at the survey ward of C is either air ring of a five-ring stone pagoda. It was originally made in the 14th century, �but later after the 15th century it was reutilized as a tomb stone. In the same elevated zone as the pagoda was found, an elected stone Buddha statue from the 16th century was also found. The end time of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen might be the latter half of the 16th century, because only one relic, i.e. a cup made from celadon porcelain, from the 17th century was found there. The transition period of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen could be divided into three or four phases, viz. Phase I around the 8th century, Phase II in the 12th century which was the most flourishing time of this site, Phase of Rupture from the middle of the 13th century to 14th century, and Phase III from the 15th to 16th centuries when the site had been revived. Distribution Situation of Relics Every Investigation Area Then, is such situation universal at the whole survey wards of the site? Figure 4 shows the graphic chart of the number of excavated relics for each survey ward for each century. Before Phase I, all wards had relics although its number was relatively small. This trend seems to have continued until the 10th century. Because this investigation area used to be a river delta, these small relics were flowed there together with sediment along the river branches. At first, it was the secondary centre to accumulate broken relics. Some relics, in particular, from the 10th century, are not broken at all and not obliterated; the original places of �those relics would not have been so far away. Perhaps, they might be used directly above this site. Fig. 4: Numbers of excavated relics at each research area. �Phase II is completely different from Phase I. Almost all relics from this phase were found only around the survey ward of B, although only one relic was found around the survey ward of A. Relics from the 11th century, as well as ones from the 13th century, have been excavated only at the survey ward of B. This distribution of relics does not seem to be originated from the natural sedimentation but from real human activities. After Phase of Rupture, this site might have been developed as a new zone at Phase III after the 15th century. Relics belonging to this period were mainly distributed over the survey ward of a medieval graveyard and the offshore places of each survey ward. As no relic is found in the survey wards of A and B and the survey ward of a medieval graveyard is situated between the survey wards of A and B, the site of Nishihamasengen had been changed into land or from drying at Phase III. Constitution of Relics and Land Use in Phase II At Phase II around the peak period of the 12th century, what kind of human activities were observed on the site? When did its rivers run dry? The compositions of relics from the survey wards of B are shown in Figure 5. Most of the relics are things for offering only, while ones for boiling or for storing do not exist. Therefore, the survey ward of B at Phase II was not a waste site of general daily necessaries near commoners’ hamlets, but maybe it would have had several mounds of Buddhist scriptures. Because some sutra cases or substitute inkstones are excavated, literate people, which differed from common villagers, might be living there at Phase II. �Fig. 5 (left): Relics at the research area of B from the 12th to 13th Century. In former days, men of weight who wished for peaceful death built mounds of Buddhist scriptures in order to bury the scriptures under the mounds. The height of prosperity of this custom was the 12th century in Japan (Sugiyama, 2007); this historical fact may correspond to the case of the site of Nishihamasengen. As for substitute inkstones, they started to be used in the latter half of the 11th century in Japan. Literate people intentionally built mounds of Buddhist scriptures at the survey ward of B, because at the time of Phase II, which extended over 150 years from the latter half of the 11th century to the first quarter of the 13th century, the survey ward of B was dryland, not half-submerged land. This fact is also proved by the restricted size of ward, measuring about 40m from east to west and 50m from south to north; throwing sutra cases and substitute inkstones away from the lakeshore is the out of question. The concentration of the relics and its conglomeration at the survey ward B suggest that this zone began to become dry before the middle of the 11th century. A study of historical geography (Mizuno, 2011) says that �during the Hoen period (1135-1141) the shrine territory of the Gion Shrine was established around this investigation area and its territorial landsubdivision would have been spread far into under the current Lake Biwa (Fig. 6). It could also be imagined that sutra cases and substitute inkstones from the survey ward B would have been used by some men of weight who managed this shrine territory and conducted its religious activities. Fig. 6: Land division of the Medieval Period. (S. Mizuno) New Development after Phase III It is after 15th century that human beings restarted to live around the site of Nishihamasengen. No relic has been excavated at all at the survey wards of A and B, while at the survey wards of a medieval graveyard, C along the lakeshore, and offshore sinking parts of each ward small amount of relics have been found. These consist of not only stone material cultures but also old china plates, earth pottery plates, pots, grinding bowls, many variations of receptacles. On the grinding bowls some usewear is observed, which proves the existence of real human living there at this time. �The medieval graveyard must not have built on the submerged land but on the riverbed of some flow channels when the survey wards A, B, and C were formed as a river delta at the beginning, which was not suitable for plotting rice fields. This ward seemed to have been looked like the actual banks of hell at the middle age. According to some botanical analyses and natural scientific dissections of lakebed soil, much larger offshore areas of the current underwater site of Nishihamasengen were used for dryland agriculture at Phase III after the 15th century. Some oral traditions and historical materials tell us that there used to have been a village named ‘Nisihama-mura’. The relics discovered in the underwater site of Nishihamasengen prove that the village of Nisihamamura was founded after the 15th century. The oldest and first historical material titled Eikyo Shichinen Kanjin Sarugaku Hogacho which mentioned this village was written in 1435. Since the number of relics near the lakeshore is relatively small, the village centre at that time might have been on more offshore place among agricultural fields. Cause of Its Submergence and Time What was the actual cause of the submergence of the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen and when? From the 15th to the 16th centuries, undoubtedly, the water level of Lake Biwa varied from 84.2 m 84.7m approximately above sea level (Nakagawa, 2017). Judging from many aspects of the excavated relics from the site of Nishihamasengen, Phase III was terminated at the latter half of the 16th century. Although some stone materials were sometimes reutilized, no relics from the Edo period was found and the newest one is from the first half of the 17th century. During Phase III, the highest peak attitude of the ward of a medieval graveyard is 83.2m (about 1.2m deep). If its ground �attitude nowadays were the same as one in the middle age, villagers had built their graveyard on the bottom of Lake Biwa. Indeed, the water level fluctuation of Lake Biwa is about 1m throughout the year all through the ages, but its fluctuation could not explain why a medieval graveyard is now under Lake Biwa. Some botanical analyses also tell us that around the graveyard the ground was dry at that time. Therefore, the ground subsidence must have happened between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century. The most probable movement of the earth's crust was the big earthquake occurred on 18th January 1586. According to Luís Fróis, a Jesuit missionary, because of this earthquake many ground cracks ate thousands of houses and villagers, and the remaining ones were destroyed by fires. He also described its ground liquefactions, saying that from ground cracks black and liquid soil was coming out (Ida, 1987). The legendary village of Nisihhama-mura or the contemporary underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen was submerged under Lake Biwa in 1586. Conclusion Lakeshore and seashore has changed due to water fluctuation, soil sedimentation, crustal movement, and so on. Underwater archaeology could investigate some causes of those changes, studying submerged sites. In Japan, however, most think that underwater archaeology is the study of shipwrecks and not many archaeologists are interested in the historical transitions of waterfront environment or underwater settlement sites. In the Japan archipelago, on the other hand, there are still to be many unknown underwater sites, which are similar to the underwater archaeological site of Nishihamasengen. Researching upon them will be able to cast a new light on the history of Japan or human beings generally. �References Ida, K., 1987. History of Tensho Big Earthquake. Nagoya University Press, Nagoya. Mizuno, S., 2011. Historical environment of Lake Biwa and human beings. In S. Mizuno (Ed.), Environmental History of Lake Biwa and Human Beings, Iwata, Tokyo: 5-26. Nakagawa, H., 2017. Archaeological study of water level fluctuation at Lake Biwa: some phases from the end of the ancient times to the middle age. Busshitsu Bunka, Vol. 97:113-154. Nakagawa, H., (Ed.), 2016. The Site of NIshihamasengen: Surveys and Studies of Submerged Sites at Lake Biwa, Sunrise, Shiga. Sugiyama, H., 2007. Kyo-zutsu. In M. Ono et al. (Eds.), Great Encyclopaedia of Historical Archaeology, Yoshikawakobunkan, Tokyo: 339-340. Biography Hisashi Nakagawa was born in Aichi Prefecture in 1988. During the undergraduate level, he learned underwater archaeology and supervised by Prof. Hiromichi Hayashi at the University of Shiga Prefecture (20072011). Prof. Hayashi did study underwater archaeology from Prof. Yoshio Oe, who is respected as "Father of Underwater Archeology in Japan". In 2013 he completed the master program (Human Culture) at the University of Shiga Prefecture, and then, he had been a PhD candidate in the same university, and a Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (2013-2016). He works now at the Toyohashi City Museum Art and History. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Historical Transition of Lakefront Environment and Use in Lake Biwa, Japan Description An account of the resource Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan. It has approximately 4,000,000 years of history, and many people have lived on this lake. More than 90 underwater archaeological sites exist here, and we are able to understand the subtleties of history. As an example, the Awazu-bottom site,is dated to the middle of the Jomon period approximately 5,000 years ago, and is the largest freshwater shell mound in Japan. It was formed near the lakefront at first, but now submerged on the bottom of lake. The Shiozu-port site is a late Heian period dated to 800 years ago, and is one of the oldest harbor sites in Japan. It was constructed to reclaim the lake, and prospered as water transport area. Many important remains, not only port facilities but also shrines and more, have been excavated, but it disappeared in the 12th century. The causes of this sites’ submergence is closely related an environmental transition of the lakefront. The water balance is particularly important problem. Approximately 460 rivers flow into this lake, but the discharge is only through the Seta-River. Therefore, the water level is greatly fluctuated by the sedimentation situation of the riverbed. According to the old historical documents, many floods have occurred. Therefore, sometimes dredging is carried out by the government to this day. Not only are water levels problematic, but ground sedimentation is as well. The lakefront is convenient for fishery and water transportation, but on the other hand, the land is soft. In a certain study, the ground water level is slightly 20cm higher than water level of lake. As a result of this, serious damage to the settlements have occurred by earthquakes. The extreme effect of this has settlements bring submerged to the bottom of lake by lateral Flow; landslide by the soil liquefaction. In this paper, I would like to study a historical transition of the lakefront environment and its use. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hisashi Nakagawa Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Hisashi Nakagawa Asia-Pac Session 6 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/30be8c594a6dcf9b9795653867c8c44c.pdf f1201a47b83389a459e6091035bf016d PDF Text Text Submerged Archaeological Sites in the Lake Biwa, Japan Hisashi Nakagawa University of Shiga Prefecture Hikone Japan, 522-8533 Email: nakagawa134@gmail.com Abstract Lake Biwa, the largest in Japan, is in the heart of Shiga Prefecture, occupying an area of 670 square kilometers. Because the lake has about 4,000,000 years of history, it has been closely related to local people's everyday lives which have largely depended upon its freshwater and fishery resources. In addition, it has served as a strategic zone for waterborne transportation for many years in Japanese chronicles. According to an old proverb, those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world. Geologically, on the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakeside has frequently caused large-scaled landslides by earthquakes, as well as the high fluctuation of the water level and strandline due to climate change; many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. At present, as many as 90 underwater archaeological sites have already been identified in the Lake Biwa by the researchers. Those sites vary in type; from shell mounds during the prehistoric era to material remains of dwellings or bridge piers of the modern period. As a leading research body, the Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage and academic organizations such as the University of Shiga Prefecture have long investigated and researched these areas. Here we present the newest research results with some future plans for preserving the archaeological sites around Lake Biwa in order to inform the world academic circle of them. Keywords: Japan, Underwater archaeology, Lake Biwa, Shiga, Earthquake Introduction Lake Biwa is the largest and oldest lake in Japan. It occurred in the Ueno basin approximately 60 km away from where it lies today, moved by sedimentation and diastrophism over 4 million years ago. About 400,000 to 300,000 years ago, it arrived at its current position. The Lake had never been connected to the sea in history, and a rich and unique ecosystem exists. There are more than one thousands of animals and plants that inhabit the ecosystem and the many endemic species exist here now. Many people gathered these resources for a long time. More than 90 underwater archaeological sites are known (Fig. 1), and it becomes approximately 120 sites if 1 �incorporated with lakefront ones. About half of those sites is from the Jomon period (Prehistoric era in Japan). Huge shell mounds are found here therefore people at the time strongly depended upon the Lake. In the historical age, Lake Biwa comes to play a socially important role due to its geographical characteristics. Mainly, it links the capital city (Kyoto) to the eastern and northern country. One must travel through the Shiga Prefecture to go between the two areas and cross the “Kara-bridge”. In many cases, the bridge was often reconstructed over the years, and it is Fig. 1 Distribution Map of the Sites. discovered through excavation and old historical (H. Nakagawa) documents. However, water transport was the most important means for carrying supplies and materials, therefore, many ports flourished and a lot of people and information came through here from all over the country. From such a social importance, it was said that those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world and persons of power always put this lake under their control. For example, the ancient government constructed large barrows (an ancient burial mound, square at the front and rounded in the rear) near the lake, and made it local symbols (Youda, 2007). Nobunaga Oda (1535-1582) who was the most famous person living in the Age of Civil Wars constructed the Azuchi-Castle in the shore mountain as a base of the national unification. Similarly, he made vassals construct castles (Sakamoto-Castle, Nagahama-Castle, and Oomizo-Castle), and ruled the water transport (Nakai, 1997). Of course, many ordinary people gathered and established villages and engaged in fishery and transport and others. On the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakesides has frequently caused large-scale landslides by earthquakes and many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. In addition, approximately 460 rivers flow into this lake, but its only discharge is the Seta-River; therefore, the water level is greatly fluctuated by the sedimentation situation of riverbed. 2 �The History of the Underwater Archeology around Lake Biwa In Japan, underwater archaeology lags behind compared with other maritime nations. However, the Shiga Prefecture is known as an area where the concern is exceptionally high. The history of the Shiga Prefecture’s underwater archaeology can be divided into 3 terms. Term Ⅰ: Pioneering Studies (From Early Modern times to 1960s) In Japan, concern about underwater cultural heritage goes back to the Edo period. The Edo period is the early modern times of Japanese history (1603-1868). Mr. Sekitei Kiuchi was a collector of unusual stones and came from Shiga Prefecture. While recording the collected stones in his writings a stone spear was given to him. The spear was raised by fisherman, and this record is the first concern about the underwater cultural heritage of Japan. The first academic concern is in 1928. Prof. Sadahiko Shimada had been set out to examine the origin of underwater archaeological sites; for example, the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site is well-known (Shimada, 1928). After that, Ph.D. Yoshio Oe rendered distinguished service. He was from Shiga Prefecture and made an effort for prevention of the scattering of relics raised from the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site. Moreover, he introduced underwater archeology to Japan for the first time, and typified underwater archaeological sites (Oe, 1950). As a result of these achievements, he is known as the "Father of Underwater Archaeology of Japan". As previously stated, the Tsuduraosaki-bottom site attracted attention most in those days. This site is unique; it is at a depth between 10 and 80 m, but almost all of other sites are between 1 and 10 m. Incidentally, the water level is converted into the standard water level (T. P: 84.371 m) because it keeps changing every day in Lake Biwa. In 1924, at the end of the Taisho period, Jomon wares (straw-rope pattern pottery) were raised by fisherman, which interested archaeologists. In addition, Yayoi period potteries and ancient potteries, dating between approximately 2,800 to 900 years ago, were raised. Approximately 140 potteries were recovered presently, and many complete shapes are included. Various hypotheses about origin of this site are suggested. For example, (a) The hypothesis that land sites were washed out by a rise in water level, (b) The hypothesis of pottery being thrown away that was used in facilities on the lakefront, (c) The hypothesis to be burial at sea, (d) The hypothesis that the ground sank by an earthquake, however, the 3 �issue is not yet settled (Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum, 2009). TermⅡ: Progress of the Investigation and Study with Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program (Since 1972 to 1997) The Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program was carried out for the purpose of exploring water resources and the maintaining the social infrastructure. They constructed a breakwater and dredged for a lake-line. However, it was evident that many underwater archaeological sites will be destroyed by these developments; therefore, many investigations were carried out by Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage. Many techniques were accumulated in these investigations, for example, excavation via airlift, and underwater photography greatly contributed to the development of underwater archaeology in Japan. The investigation method was to make the underwater sites dry up using steel boards and a drainage pump, labelled as the "Lake Biwa method" produced especially good results (Fig. 2). Finally, more than 200 investigations were carried out over a total excavation l area of 240,000 square kilometers. Fig. 2 Excavating by "Lake Biwa Method" in The Awazu-bottom site is one of the most Harie-Shore Site. (Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum) famous sites that were excavated at this time by the "Lake Biwa method". This site is the largest fresh water shell mound in Japan, and located in depth of water of approximately 2 to 3 m. Three shell mounds are known, but only the No. 3 shell mound was excavated. All shells, earth and sand were sorted by floatation; therefore, small remains were collected in this manner. The site is mainly attributed to the early phase of the middle of Jomon period (ca. 4,500 BC). As well as shellfish and animal bones, many foodstuffs were excavated. For example, there are nuts such as chestnut and buckeye, plants such as gourd and perilla which form a layer, therefore a lifestyle of hunting and gathering was restored. In addition, organic materials such as net baskets, lacquering products and earthenware vessels of various parts of Japan were recovered. As a result, the Awazu-bottom site became an historical source of the highest value in the Jomon period (Shiga Prefectural Association for 4 �Cultural Heritage, 1997). The Kara-bridge site located on the bottom of Seta-River is the only river flowing out of the lake. Excavation and research was carried out by the "Lake Biwa method". The bridge piers were discovered during this excavation research, and as a result of studying, it was found that the remains of that stage are from the Zinshin-Civil-War (672 AD); it was the biggest war in Japanese ancient history. After that, other remains were confirmed off the coast and a full-scale excavation by the diving team was carried out from a view of flood prevention and the ship navigation. As a result of this, the bridge piers, including the Nara period (710-794 AD), the Kamakura period (1185-1333 AD), the Muromachi period (1336-1573 AD), and the Edo period were excavated. This bridge was a strategic point which connects the eastern and northern country to the capital city (Kyoto) since ancient times, and old historical documents inform us that the bridge was a battle setting many times over; these descriptions were supported by excavation and research (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1992). The Harie-shore site, located 200 to 400 m off of the lakefront, was considered mainly an early Yayoi period site. The Yayoi period (ca. 300 BC-250 AD) is one of the prehistoric eras in Japan next to the Jomon period. In the investigation, a full picture of village was excavated and the discovery of the earthquake traces attracted attention. The earthquake was estimated at a magnitude of approximately 7.5, with sand boiling and liquefaction phenomena destroying the remains; this is regarded as reason for the village extinction (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1990). The Akanoi-bay sites locate from lakefront to bottom of the lake. Approximately 80 pieces of tiles, old coins, and other items were excavated from the lakefront, and these remains date to the Asuka period (592-710 AD). It is thought that this site resembles a loss of cargo or a sinking of the ship were made this situation since almost all tiles were unused and heaped up. There are few sunken ships in this Lake except for the prehistoric times; therefore, this site is important for looking into ancient water transport (Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage, 1998). 5 �TermⅢ：After the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program (Since 1992 ～) A variety of investigative organizations did work here after the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Program. In particular, the investigation conducted by the University of Shiga Prefecture is important. Lake Biwa has legends; villages and settlements that once existed here yet now submerged on the bottom of the lake. PhD Hiromichi Hayashi had legends since 1992. investigated the For example, the Naoesengen site was portrayed in old drawing in 1291 (Kamakura period), and it was traced to the Edo period (Fig. 3). Currently, a part of the land disappeared, therefore it is said that it sank down by an Fig. 3 Old Drawing of Naoesengen Site and its earthquake. In his research, for example, Environs. (T. Hayashi and others) pottery and tiles of the 12th century were recovered. In addition, a barrow from the 7th 8th centuries and the wreckage of the stone wall in the 18th century was discovered from a depth between of 1.4 m to 4.1 m. The existence of barrows were portrayed in the old drawing, therefore the discovery was the important evidence for proving the legend. At the same time, PhD Toshitaka Kamai (Disaster Prevention Research Institute Kyoto University) and Assoc. PhD Tsuyoshi Hraguchi (Graduate School of Science / Faculty of Science Osaka City University) carried out the joint investigations, and as a result of this, traces of the earthquake were confirmed from on the land and bottom of the lake. The same traces were confirmed from other sites, for example Shimosakahamasengen site and Mitsuyasengen site. It made clear that many underwater archaeological sites on the bottom of Lake Biwa were formed by local landslides (Lateral Flow – Ground flow due to liquefaction) that occur due to earthquakes. In addition, these investigations were important activities for educational institutions. Currently, there are few institutions where students can learn underwater archaeology in Japan. Nevertheless, students have participated as staff in these investigations, and the 6 �author received a degree in the discipline since a university admission. As a result of such steady instructional activity, a research group with which author acts as a representative continues this investigation. As other example, Okinoshiraisi, a remote and lonely rock island, was investigated by ARIUA (Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology) and Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology. The island is located at the center of Lake Biwa, therefore, sailors had regarded it as traffic sign since ancient times. Currently, the clear archaeological remains have not been found, yet future study on the island is expected. In addition, a joint-investigation by PhD Kenichi Yano (Archaeology) and PhD Sadao Kawamura (Engineering) of Ritsumeikan University was carried out in the Tsuduraosakibottom site. It attracted a significant amount of attention since the investigation is connected with advanced robot development and technology. Fig. 4 The Exhumation Situation of Glazed Pottery of the Early 10th Century. (H. Nakagawa) Fig. 5 The Exhumation Situation of a Part of FiveRing Pagoda. (H. Nakagawa) A Short Study of the Legends of Submerged Villages The East Japan Earthquake Disaster, which occurred on March 3, 2011 made scholars research the remains of the disaster and investigate old historical documents about the natural disaster. Because of this, the legends of submerged villages attract attention. I would like to show materials based on the latest investigation, and perform a short study. The Society for Underwater Archaeological Sites in Lake Biwa, was inaugurated in 2011 by graduate and university students, and has been dedicated to the investigation of the Nishihamasengen site. The site has a legend; a village called Nishihama existed here 7 �once, but it was submerged in the bottom of Lake Biwa by a severe earthquake between 1460 to 1466 CE. We performed the site survey by scuba diving and skin diving, and finally, investigated offshore 250 m, a range of lakefront line approximately 800 m, at a depth of approximately 1 to 2 m. At present, more than 200 pieces of pottery (Fig. 4), the wreckages of pillars, and a graveyard of the medieval period have been found. The pillars are considered to be what once was fences and sheds (Nakagawa, 2012) (Nakagawa, 2013). The fences were made not only with timbers but with bamboo, and the buildings were made with only timber. Additionally, all of timbers were thin; less than 10 cm in diameter, which is a notable peculiarity. As the reason for this, it is believed that the buildings were not houses, but were sheds. We will carry out an additional investigation in the near future, to examine it in greater detail. The extent of graveyard area is 38 m in the east-west direction and 26 m in the north-south direction, and there are approximately 16 simple graves and that were constructed by rocks and stones. The stone statue, Amitabha Tathagata and a part of Five-ring pagoda (Fig. 5) was found, made by granite and a small plate of unglazed earthenware was offered on the graves. In addition, household goods, big earthenware pots and earthenware mortars and other material were excavated. The materials indicating the last period of this site are earthenware goods and stone statues; the last settlement patterns date the site to is the latter half of 15th century to early 16th century. From these result, I would like to examine the origin of this site. The water level in the 15th century to 16th century is considered to be 84 m to first half of 85 m (Hayashi, H., Kamai, T., and Haraguchi, T., 2012). The graveyard and pillars are located at 83.1 m above sea level or less, in addition, the remains of the houses built on piles in lakes are not prevalent in this region. Therefore, same as the legend, it is regarded that this village, which was on the land, was submerged via ground change caused by an earthquake. However, the year that an earthquake occurred seems to be different from the legend. According to the legend, the Nishihamasengen site submerged into bottom of the lake in the middle of the 15th century, yet, relics of the 16th century were recovered. Because of this, when we corroborate the old historical documents, a severe earthquake which is estimated to be magnitude 7.8 in 1586 was written down; swas called the Tensho-Severe-Earthquake, and occurred on January 18, 1586 (Iida, 8 �1987). According to the documents, there were 1000 houses in this region. Half of the houses were destroyed by fire, and the other half were destroyed by collapse, therefore it is assumed that the Nishihamasengen site was caused by this earthquake. Many sites which were damaged by this earthquake were investigated. For example, the Shimosakahamasengen site, located to southeast 2.2 km of the Nishihamasengen site, was caused by the earthquake and in past investigations and old photographs, remains of submerged wells, and withered Japanese cedar via submergence were observed. Additionally, a part of the Nagahama-Castle, located between Nishihamasengen site and Shimosakahamasengen site, was submerged by this earthquake, and was recorded in old historical documents. As a result of these, the possibility that a largescale landslide occurred over more than 2.2 km of the lakefront line and more than 500 m offshore is arguable. However, such a historical disaster record is not reflected by former disaster prevention plans. This is an important problem about the disaster prevention for not only Shiga Prefecture but also all of Japan due to our large shoreline. Problems and Prospects As mention above, many sites have been investigated for many years in Lake Biwa, and Shiga Prefecture is admired as an advanced area of underwater archaeology in Japan. However, the area still has many problems. Some examples will be highlighted below, as well as addressing some of the future plans for the area. At first, the problems about the research organization exist. There is no public research organization and technically no research worker who works on the underwater archaeology in Shiga prefecture now. In other words the current investigations are carried out by a few university teachers and graduate students. In connection with this, educational problems exist. There are few universities which teach underwater archaeology in Japan, and there is even no course offered in Shiga Prefecture. The investigation by the University of Shiga Prefecture is outside the regular academic Fig. 6 Current Condition of Nagasone-Port Site. curriculum, and it is carried out by the author 9 (H. Nakagawa) �and volunteer students; therefore the longevity of the program is in danger. The legal recognition of sites is a concern as well. For example, the initial sites survey is a basic excavation for material and research when sites are threatened by development. Sites that are not registered as such, excavation cannot be conducted. In Shiga Prefecture, many underwater archaeological sites are registered more than other local self–governing bodies; nevertheless, there is an imbalance between registered and unregistered sites. For example, most of the port sites which can be dated to a period by old historical documents are not registered. One example among many is the Nagasone-port site located in Hikone City. There is at least one breakwater remnant and five pier remnants 1 kilometer away from Hikone Castle. We can confirm their appearances easily when we look around Lake Biwa from the lakefront (Fig. 6). It is considered that a part of these were constructed in the early Edo period from the old historical documents, but it is not recorded on the site register. Needless to say, Japan has not ratified the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage; therefore there are many positions between each local self–governing bodies where they recorded on modern period sites. Registering sites dated to after the early modern times are entrusted to local self–governing bodies. Nevertheless, Hikone City aims at making Hikone Castle a World Heritage, and it was asserted that they are a castle town as well as a castle (Hikone City HP). However, it is problem that even the Nagasone-port site, which is clearly part of castle town, was not recorded as a site. It is clear from this example that underwater archaeological sites are held to a lower regard than land sites. Yet all is not lost, things look like they are moving forward positively. For example, associated old historical documents about Lake Biwa are being compiled, and research is being conducted. Many sites exist in the shallows at a depth between 1 and 5 meters. Because of this, we are able to investigate these sites easily by skin diving or beach diving. The shallower the water, the more we can ensure safety, meanwhile, the basic techniques do not change with the depth. Accordingly, I think Lake Biwa a great area to learn the technical aspects of underwater archaeology. The establishment of a longterm study system by the public institution is necessary in the future, and a cooperation system with an organization inside and outside of the prefecture will be necessary, as 10 �well. Conclusion Until recently, underwater archaeology had not been recognized sufficiently as a field of archaeology, in Japan. However recently, it is attracting attention because of the discovery of sunken Mongolian Invasion Ships in the Takashima-Kouzaki site. Taking advantage of this, it is expected that Japanese underwater archaeology will develop greatly. Lake Biwa is the field which has been known since the old days in Japan but it is almost obscure worldwide. However, many sites exist in the area, therefore it an indispensable field for developing the Japanese underwater archaeological program. It is an unexpected delight if I can tell the attraction of Lake Biwa to world researchers through this paper. Acknowledgment I wish to express my appreciation for Prof. Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi, Prof. Tatsuya Nakada, and the Publications Committee of APCONF 2014, as they gave me the opportunity of writing this article and of presenting it in Hawaii. References Hayashi, H., Kamai, T., and Haraguchi, T., 2012. The Sunken Villages on the Bottom of Lake by Earthquakes. Sunrise-shuppan, Shiga (in Japanese). Iida, K., 1987. The Archives of Tensho-Severe-Earthquake. Nagoya-daigaku- shuppankai, Nagoya (in Japanese). Nakagawa, H., 2012. Summary Report of Nishihamasengen Site. In Kamei, W., Takeda, S., Yamane, S., Hirose, J., and Oohashi, M (Eds.), Human Cultures, Vol. 31. The University of Shiga Prefecture School of Human Cultures, Shiga (in Japanese): 60-69. Nakagawa, H., 2013. Natural Science Analysis of Nishihamasengen Site. In Kamei, W., Miyao, M., Hirose, J., Oguri, Y., and Oohashi. M., (Eds.), Human Cultures, Vol.33. The University of Shiga Prefecture School of Human Cultures, Shiga (in Japanese):73-82 Nakai, H., 1997. The Castles in Omi. Sunrise-shuppan, Shiga (in Japanese). Oe, Y., 1950. Introduction into Prehistoric Potteries on the Bottom of Lake Biwa. Gakuzidou-shuppan, Kyoto (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1990. Excavation Research in 1989, Shiga (in Japanese). 11 Summary Report of �Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1992. Kara-Bridge Site. Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1997. Awazu-Bottom Site No.3 shell mounds, Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage., 1998. Akanoi-Bay Site. Shiga (in Japanese). Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum., 2009. The World of Underwater Archaeolog,. Shiga (in Japanese). Shimada, S., 1928. The Prehistoric Omi. Meicho-shuppan, Tokyo, (in Japanese). Youda, M., 2007. The Barrows and the Many Groups of Barrows Surround with Lake Biwa. Sunrise-shuppan (in Japanese). Hikone City (2013). Hikone City Homepage. Retrieval December 15, 2013. From http://www.city.hikone.shiga.jp/hikonejo/heritage/houkoku.html. Biography Hisashi Nakagawa was born in Aichi Prefecture in 1988. During the undergraduate level, he learned underwater archaeology and was supervised by Prof. Hiromichi Hayashi at the University of Shiga Prefecture (2007-2011). Prof. Hayashi did study underwater archaeology from Prof. Yoshio Oe, who is respected as the "Father of Underwater Archeology in Japan". With the retirement of Prof. Hayashi, he has succeeded to the research around Lake Biwa since 2011. In 2013 he completed the master program (Human Culture) at the University of Shiga Prefecture, and then since 2013 he has been a PhD candidate in the same university, and a Research Fellow of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Submerged Archaeological Sites in the Lake Biwa, Japan Description An account of the resource Lake Biwa, the largest in Japan, is in the heart of Shiga Prefecture, occupying an area of 670 square kilometers. Because the lake has about 4,000,000 years of history, it has been closely related to local people's everyday lives which have largely depended upon its freshwater and fishery resources. In addition, it has served as a strategic zone for waterborne transportation for many years in Japanese chronicles. According to an old proverb, those who succeed in controlling Shiga Prefecture could reign the world. Geologically, on the other hand, the poor subsoil of the lakeside has frequently caused large-scaled landslides by earthquakes, as well as the high fluctuation of the water level and strandline due to climate change; many villages and settlements are said to have been submerged beneath the lake. At present, as many as 90 underwater archaeological sites have already been identified in the Lake Biwa by the researchers. Those sites vary in type; from shell mounds during the prehistoric era to material remains of dwellings or bridge piers of the modern period. As a leading research body, the Shiga Prefectural Association for Cultural Heritage and academic organizations such as the University of Shiga Prefecture have long investigated and researched these areas. Here we present the newest research results with some future plans for preserving the archaeological sites around Lake Biwa in order to inform the world academic circle of them. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hisashi Nakagawa, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/e6a2d2b5dcd0ac8de14cf0b77112ed08.pdf 0121e5d1e1cf626790d41f89f140ddc9 PDF Text Text Trading Ceramics: The Findings from the Shipwrecks along the Coast of Vietnam Hoang Anh Tuan (History Museum in Ho Chi Minh City, hoanganhtuan.btls@gmail.com) ABSTRACT The overland ‘Silk Road’ has served as the main conduit for the exchange of goods and culture between China, Southeast Asia, and the West since the Han Dynasty. Its primary role has been diminished due to the establishment of sea routes by the Tang Dynasty, thus Guangzhou (China) became one of the main gateways for maritime trade with Southeast Asia and the West. Southeast Asia is strategically situated at the passage of the maritime trade route, connecting the East and the West. It has thus been known to be an area rich in precious metals, and luxury products such as pearls, rhino horn, tortoiseshells and spices since ancient times. In addition, it is also used as an entrepôt complex on the maritime route between the East and the West. With a particularly favourable geographical situation, Vietnam's waters play a particularly important role in the ‘Maritime Silk Road’. Over the past three decades, dozens of ancient shipwrecks have been discovered related to the ‘Maritime Silk Road’ in Vietnam's territorial waters. Those shipwrecks are evidence of the ceramics trade, which may have taken place for centuries along the coasts of Vietnam. This paper deals with the ceramic collections discovered on one of the shipwrecks in Vietnam's territorial waters, being housed at the History Museum in Ho Chi Minh City. It is dated from the ninth to nineteenth centuries. It may demonstrate the process of economic and cultural exchange from the East to the West at that time. Keywords: shipwreck, ancient ceramics, maritime silk road, Vietnam's territorial waters. List of Figures Figure 1 Chinese ceramics dated in Kangxi reign around the seventeenth century from Hòn Cau Island shipwreck preserved in the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Figure 2 Sawankhalok ceramics dated in the sixteenth century from the Hòn Dầm Island shipwreck preserved in the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Figure 3 Chu Dau ceramics dated in the fifteenth century from the Cham Island shipwreck preserved in the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Figure 4 Chinese ceramics dated in Yongzheng reign around the eighteenth century from Cà Mau shipwreck preserved in the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Figure 5 Chinese ceramics dated in the Late Ming Dynasty around the seventeenth century from Bình Thuận shipwreck preserved in Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Figure 6 Chinese ceramics dated in the Tang Dynasty around the ninth century from waters of Southern Vietnam preserved in Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. 1 �INTRODUCTION Chinese ceramics during the Kangxi reign of Qing Dynasty dated in 1690, from Hòn Cau Island shipwreck, Vũng Tàu-Côn Đảo province In 1990, a wreck measured 32.71 metre length with 9 metre width was discovered at a depth of 40 metres below the sea surface, buried in sand 1 metres deep, located in the Cau Island area (Hòn Cau in Vietnamese), Côn Đảo district; coordinates at N8°38’15” latitude, E108°48’50” longitude. The excavation was conducted under the cooperation of Vietnam Salvage Joint Stock Company (henceforth Visal), with the multi-nations of underwater archaeologists and divers from Canada, the US and the UK. More than 60,000 artefacts have been recovered, most of which are Chinese ceramics, possibly destined for the European market, produced from Chinese kilns such as Jingdezhen (Jiangxi province), Shantou and Dehua (Fujian province). Along with the copper coins, two Chinese inksticks “墨” (Mò) marked with the characters “庚午” (GengWu) were found, suggesting that the ship was built in the Kangxi reign of the Qing dynasty around 1690. Besides the Chinese style items, European style objects were also found on the wreck, possibly porcelain ordered from Chinese kilns. Their shape is a testament to their technical and artistic flair making them admired all over the world. The Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History has received from the Ministry of Culture and Sports 229 artefacts including the vases, jars, pen tubes, cups, plates, and the small statues. Figure 1 Chinese ceramics dated in Kangxi reign around the seventeenth century from Hòn Cau Island shipwreck preserved in the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Left - Vase BTLS 10045, blue and white, MD: 12.6 cm, H: 21.5cm. Right - Dish BTLS 10.136, blue and white, MD: 12.9cm, H: 3.0cm. Thai ceramics dated to the sixteenth century, from Hòn Dầm Island shipwreck, Kiên Giang province The wreck was found at a depth of 10 metres below the sea surface, 5 kilometres far from the shore of Dầm Island (Hòn Dầm in Vietnamese), Phú Quốc district, Kiên Giang province; coordinates at N9°59’00” latitude and E104°02’00” longitude. The size of the shipwreck is nearly 30 metre length and 7 metre width, divided into several bulkheads with a width of 1.8 metres each. More than 16,000 ceramics have been found, mostly the celadon or green glazed, brown glazed, and underglaze black wares produced from Sawankhalok (or Si Satchanalai) and Sukhothai (Sukhothai province, Thailand) kilns dated to the sixteenth century. Thai style celadon or green glaze ceramics, also called “Đông Thanh” glaze in Vietnamese; and other colours such as light grey, blackish brown or yellow, white and grey, included unglazed earthenware utensils. The shape is mainly small jars, with or without handles, small bowls, plates, and other household 2 �items. Some reflections of the Vietnamese ceramic forms and decorative elements on blue-and-white wares can be seen in the Thai underglaze black ceramics, specifically the boxes, kendi (known as a container of Indian derivation using contain liquid with the mouth on the top for filling, neck for handle, and the spout for pouring), and the covered jars painted black flowers on white slip background. Some other Thai large celadon bowls also suggest that they had influenced from the Southern Song ceramic (南宋 1127–1279) in the South China. Glazed ceramic figurines are prominent among the other types of ceraics found on this shipwreck. They include the figurines of a mother holding a baby, an elephant with a mahout and warriors protecting the elephant feet, and other forms of animal, such as a hare with their own details being very vividly embossed. The Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History owns 218 artefacts, of which nine have been transferred. Types of artefacts kept by the museum include bowls, plates, covered boxes, jars, pots, elephant figurines, kendi. Figure 2 Sawankhalok ceramic dated in the sixteenth century from the Hòn Dầm Island shipwreck preserved in the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Elephant BTLS 30.394, Celadon, MD: 18.5 x 10.7 cm, H: 19.4cm. Chu Đậu ceramics from a Cham Island shipwreck, Hội An, Quảng Nam province, fifteenth century The shipwreck was found at a depth of 70 metres below the sea surface, close to the Cham Island area on coordinates at N16°16’08” latitude and E108° 27' 00” longitude. The excavation was conducted under the cooperation of the archaeologists from the Vietnam History Museum in Hanoi, Visal, and Saga Horizon Company (Malaysia) The project was carried out in three years, from 1997-2000 with joint-operations between the archaeologists from the UK, Malaysia, and Slovakia. 240,000 ceramic items were recovered from a wreck measuring 29.4 metre length with 7.2 metre width, divided into 19 bulkheads. The ceramic origins are likely Dai Viet, Champa, Thailand, and Chinese. Ceramics made from kilns in Chu Đậu (Hải Dương province) and Thăng Long (Hanoi) are outstanding in quantity, style, and type. These kilns are located in the north of Vietnam active in ceramic production since the late fifteenth century onwards. Ceramics found in the Cham Island shipwreck are mainly the housewares, containers, and utensils for eating and drinking. Some designs are served as religious utensils such as incense burner, kendi. These ceramics represent the development of export ceramics with varieties of decorative techniques creating a distinct tradition of Vietnamese ceramics. 3 �The Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History currently keeps 4,675 artefacts. 4,366 objects were requested by the Ministry of Culture and Information and the rest were transferred to the Police Department. Figure 3 Chu Dau ceramics dated in the fifteenth century from the Cham Island shipwreck preserved in the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Kendi BTLS 16.956, cobalt blue pattern, DM: 18.6 cm, H: 15.1 cm. Covered boxes Collection of History Museum. Chinese ceramics during the Yongzheng reign of Qing dynasty dated to eighteenth century from the Cà Mau shipwreck, Cà Mau province An ancient shipwreck was found in the waters of Cà Mau province, coordinates at N7°41’12” latitude and E105° 29' 18” longitude. The excavation on this shipwreck was cooperated between the National History Museum in Hanoi, the Cà Mau Provincial Museum and the Visal. The excavation was conducted for two phases, carried out from August 1998 to January 1999 and from April to October 1999. Although the wreck is not intact at a depth of 35 metres below the sea surface, the remains suggest the wreck was 24 metre length and eight metre width. Nearly 50,000 recovered items are the ceramics including blue-and-white and overglaze enamel by multicoloured painting possibly from Chinese kilns such as the Jingdezhen (Jiangxi) and some kilns in Guangzhou (Guangdong). Notably, there are some European-style porcelains such as milk bottles, wine jugs with handles, plates decorated with flowers and a Dutch landscape. Inscriptions on some objects suggest that they were probably made under the Yongzheng reign (雍正 1723–35) of Qing Dynasty. These ceramics are thus assumed to be destined for the European market. Excavations also found items belonging to merchants or sailors such as lamps, pots, boxes, seals, amulets. Notably, Chinese metal coins of the Qing dynasty are the diagnostic finds to confirm the dating of this shipwreck. A total of 1,392 artefacts were transferred to the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History: blue-and-white and overglaze enamel wares in the forms of the chalk boxes, bowls, large plates, equestrian statues, baby figurines, burnt lamps. 4 �Figure 4 Chinese ceramics dated in Yongzheng reign around the eighteenth century from Cà Mau shipwreck preserved in the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Left - Jarlet BTLS. 22.390, blue and white, DM: 8.3 cm, H: 7.4 cm. Center - Jar with cover BTLS 22.008, blue and white, DM: 12.5 cm, H: 3.8cm. Right BTLS 22.010- Dish, blue and white, DM: 17 x 10.5cm, H: 3.0cm. Chinese ceramics dated to the seventeenth century from the Bình Thuận shipwreck, Bình Thuận province. In 2001, a shipwreck was discovered at a depth of 40 metres below the sea surface about 65 kilometres from the coast of Bình Thuận province, at coordinates N10°33’30” latitude, E108°35’55” longitude. The remains suggest the wreck was a length of 23.4 metres and a width of 7.2 metres. The excavation was conducted under the cooperation between Visal and the Vietnam History Museum in Hanoi during 2001-2002. The recovered ceramics were mainly household items such as cups, plates, pots and jars decorated by blueand-white and overglaze enamelling from Chinese kilns such as Shantou (Guangdong province) and Zhangzhou (Fujian province) dated to the early seventeenth century. The “Zhangzhou ware” or also called as “Swatow ware” is heavy in weight, poor technical and poor artistic quality compared to the blue-andwhite and overglaze enamelling wares of Jingdezhen kilns in Jiangxi province those probably satisfied the international markets, such as Southeast Asian and Japanese markets. The Zhangzhou wares are characterised by the sand stuck on the bottom, which was the placing technique to prevent the glaze from becoming stuck in a chamber during the firing process in the kiln. The hypothesis is that the wreck was once property of the Chinese merchant I-Sin-Ho, who went missing at sea on his way back from Southeast Asia. It is based on a report of the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie:VOC) on 21 July 1608 referred to by Dr. Michael Flecker, an underwater archaeologist who participated in the excavation. The total numbers of ceramics kept at the History Museum include 117 ceramics, 15 ceramics were purchased and donated, the rest are transferred by the Police Department, especially the bowls, jars, plates, and the chalk boxes. 5 �Figure 5 Chinese ceramics dated in the Late Ming Dynasty around the seventeenth century from Bình Thuận shipwreck preserved in Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Left - Covered box BTLS 28.033, blue and white, DM: 10.4cm, H: 6.4cm. Centre Dish BTLS 28.099, blue and White, DM: 26.8 cm, H: 5.2 cm. Right - Dish with overglazed enamels BTLS 23 911, DM: 25.8cm, H: 5.0 cm. Other unknown provenances In 2019 many fishermen have discovered and recovered a lot of white glazed, copper green glazed and splashed household ceramics from the Chinese kilns of Ding (Hebei province) and Changsha (Hunan province) even some kiln in Zhejiang province during the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). These Tang ceramics were found in the waters of Southern Vietnam between the coast of Vung Tau and Con Dao Island. Similar ceramics found in these underwater sites were previously found on the Belitung Island shipwreck in the Java Sea. In 1998, more than 60,000 ceramics and other luxury objects of gold and silver were recovered. This evidence found from the shipwreck and underwater sites provides the early evidence of trade linked between China, Southeast Asia and the Middle East. The Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History currently houses more than 30 ceramics, especially vases, bowls, plates, cups, and cups with white glazed, copper green and splashed decorations. Figure 6 Chinese ceramics dated in the Tang Dynasty around the nineteenth century from waters of Southern Vietnam preserved in Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. Left - Dish BTLS 35.450, green glazed, DM: 16.1 x 9.9cm, H: 2.1 cm. Centre - Dish BTLS 35.448, white glazed, DM: 14.0, H: 3.2 cm. Right - Bowl BTLS 35.453, DM: 11.8 cm, H: 4.2 cm. Problems raised in the study of ceramics found on shipwrecks in the East Sea of Vietnam The discoveries of Chinese, Vietnamese, and Thai ceramics on shipwrecks in the East Sea of Vietnam among the collection of the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History represent the important roles along the maritime trade or called “Maritime Silk Road” originated from China and passed through the maritime route in the East Sea of Vietnam. The Chinese ceramics of Tang Dynasty found from waters of Southern Vietnam near the coasts of Vung Tau and Con Dao Island are a most recent discovery suggesting the early period of international maritime trade between the East and the West. 6 �The ceramic collection also reflects the problems in the study of politics, economy, culture, society and trade between the East and the West for a long period of history. Economic and cultural exchange through the art and technologies of ceramic productions, art and trades suggested they were diverse between China, Vietnam, Thailand, and other Western countries in different periods of time. They also show the important role of maritime routes and ports in Vietnam along “Maritime Silk Road.” Based on the discovery and excavation of ceramics from shipwrecks in the East Sea of Vietnam, the awareness about underwater cultural heritage may actively conduct within a legal perspective and international cooperation to ensure the protection, conservation and promotion of underwater cultural heritage is sustainable and bringing the long-termed benefits to the community in Vietnam. CONCLUSION This article is an introduction on the collection of ceramics found from the shipwreck context in the East Sea of Vietnam currently kept at the Ho Chi Minh City Museum of History. The maritime trade of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai ceramics demonstrated economic and cultural exchange activities between the East and the West along the “Maritime Silk Road” especially in the Vietnamese waters from the 8th to the 18th centuries. Bibliography Chien, Nguyen Dinh. Ca Mau Shipwreck 1723-1735. Hanoi: Vietnam History Museum Export, 2002. Chien, Nguyen Dinh and Quan, Pham Quoc. Ceramics in Five Ancient Ships in Vietnamese Waters. Hanoi: Vietnam History Museum Publishing House, 2008. Chong, Alan and Murphy, Stephen A. (eds.). The Tang Shipwreck: art and exchange in the 9th century. Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum, 2017. Stevenson, John, Guy, John and Cort, Louise Allison. Vietnamese Ceramics: a separate tradition. Chicago: Art Media Resources Ltd, 1997. Tuan, Hoang Anh. Ceramics on a Shipwreck Discovered in the Waters of Ba Ria-Vung Tau: new discoveries of archaeology in 2020. Hanoi: ???, 2019. (In Vietnamese) Tuan, Hoang Anh. Ceramic Specimens of the Tang Dynasty Discovered under the Shipwreck in the Waters of Ba Ria-Vung Tau: new discoveries of archaeology in 2020. Hanoi: ???,2020. (In Vietnamese) Tri, Bui Minh and Long, Kerry Nguyen. Vietnamese Blue and White Ceramics. Hanoi: Social Sciences Publishing House, 2001. Brown, Roxanna M. “History of shipwrecks in Southeast Asia.” In The Belitung Wreck: sunken treasures from Tang China, edited by Jayne Ward and Zoi Kotitsa, 40–55. New Zealand: Seabed Explorations New Zealand Ltd, 2004. Koh, N. K. “Shipwrecks with ceramics cargo found in Southeast Asia.” Last modified 12 January 2016. http://www.kohantique.com/shipwreck/shipwreck2.html. 7 �UNESCO. “The Belitung shipwreck,” accessed 22 June 2023. https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-road-themes/underwaterheritage/belitung-shipwreck. Burchmore, Alexander. “Salvaging Southeast Asian history: shipwrecks and Chinese blue-and-white.” New Mandala, 22 October 2021. https://www.newmandala.org/salvaging-southeast-asian-history-shipwrecks-and-chinese-blue-and-white/. Asia Society. “Secrets of the sea: a Tang shipwreck and early trade in Asia,” accessed 22 June 2023. https://asiasociety.org/newyork/exhibitions/secrets-sea-tang-shipwreck-and-early-trade-asia. Boissoneault, Lorraine. “An 800-year-old shipwreck helps archaeologists piece together Asia’s maritime trade.” Smithsonian Magazine, 17 May 2018. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/800-year-old-shipwreck-helps-archaeologistspiece-together-fragments-asias-maritime-trade-180969110/. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 5: New Research Findings of Archaeological Ceramics from the Maritime Cultural Heritage of the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 5 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 5 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Trading Ceramics: The Findings from the Shipwrecks along the Coast of Vietnam Description An account of the resource The overland ‘Silk Road’ has served as the main conduit for the exchange of goods and culture between China, Southeast Asia, and the West since the Han Dynasty. Its primary role has been diminished due to the establishment of sea routes by the Tang Dynasty, thus Guangzhou (China) became one of the main gateways for maritime trade with Southeast Asia and the West. Southeast Asia is strategically situated at the passage of the maritime trade route, connecting the East and the West. It has thus been known to be an area rich in precious metals, and luxury products such as pearls, rhino horn, tortoiseshells and spices since ancient times. In addition, it is also used as an entrepôt complex on the maritime route between the East and the West. With a particularly favourable geographical situation, Vietnam's waters play a particularly important role in the ‘Maritime Silk Road’. Over the past three decades, dozens of ancient shipwrecks have been discovered related to the ‘Maritime Silk Road’ in Vietnam's territorial waters. Those shipwrecks are evidence of the ceramics trade, which may have taken place for centuries along the coasts of Vietnam. This paper deals with the ceramic collections discovered on one of the shipwrecks in Vietnam's territorial waters, being housed at the History Museum in Ho Chi Minh City. It is dated from the ninth to nineteenth centuries. It may demonstrate the process of economic and cultural exchange from the East to the West at that time. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hoang Anh Tuan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Anh Tuan, Hoang. 2023. “Trading Ceramics: The Findings from the Shipwrecks along the Coast of Vietnam.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Atthasit Sukkham. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1936 Asia-Pac Session 5 2023