31 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Manimekhala, a Divinity of the Sea Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sylvain Levi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1930 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Sylvain Levi Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1930 Issue 4 Pages 597-614 Publication Title Indian Historical Quarterly Title A name given to the resource Manimekhala, a Divinity of the Sea Volume 6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Manimekhalaï (The Dancer with the Magic Bowl) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Merchant-Prince Shattan Alain Danielou Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available New Directions Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Merchant-Prince Shattan Translator Alain Danielou Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1989 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available New Directions Title A name given to the resource Manimekhalaï (The Dancer with the Magic Bowl) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Manyoshu: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokusi Translation of One Thousand Poems Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Donald Keene Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Columbia University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Donald Keene Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1965 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Columbia University Press Title A name given to the resource Manyoshu: The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokusi Translation of One Thousand Poems Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ef7955cb803dfa73bcb8f85e2aff694a.pdf 8048bc7ffe7a48f78d1130b7e3700af3 PDF Text Text Marine Archaeological Investigations on Tamil Nadu Coast, India: An Overview Sundaresh and A.S. Gaur1 Abstract Ancient ports such as Kaveripattinam, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Periyapattinam, all on Tamil Nadu coast have played a dominant role in the transoceanic trade and commerce with many countries since the beginning of the Christian Era (CE, starting from year one on the Georgian Calendar). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea probably due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activity and other causes. Poompuhar, a flourishing port town, played a major role in maritime activities in the beginning of the Christian Era. The Sangam literature vividly describes its location, habitation and town planning. The marine archaeological explorations around Poompuhar brought to light the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick structures, and storage jars in the inter-tidal zone. The brick structures, stone structures, and pottery from offshore explorations support the existence of the ancient settlement. Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian Era. Geophysical survey and underwater exploration revealed structural remains including a fallen wall running about 10 metres (m) in length, scattered dressed stone blocks, a few steps leading to a platform and many other structural remains at various locations between 4 and 8 m water depth. The available data confirms that a large area comprising of a building complex have been submerged. These remains could be part of submerged structures and caused by severe coastal erosion in this area. The data collected at the above sites support the literary evidence to prove their existence as ports. The major cause for the submergence of these port towns was due to shoreline changes caused by coastal erosion. INTRODUCTION Ancient ports are the source of information to understand the strategic locations of ports, maritime trade, routes, material exchange and the socio-economic conditions of the contemporary period. Important ports such as Kaveripattinam, Mahabalipuram, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Arikamedu and Periyapattinam all on the Tamil Nadu coast have played an important role in the transoceanic trade from the beginning of the Christian era. The Periplus2 has mentioned the ports on Tamil Nadu coast such as Camara, (Kaveripattinam) and Sopatma, (Mamallapuram), had maritime contacts with Roman countries during early centuries of Christian era (Ramaswami 1989:17). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea, maybe due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activities. Ancient literary sources exist that provide possible explanations for the loss of these littoral settlements: like the Sangam literature which refers to the submergence of Poompuhar; or the popular beliefs regarding the submergence of the temples of Mahabalipuram; and the “Kumari Kandam” traditions of Tamil Nadu. It may well be impossible to search for their roots or find proof that such beliefs are based on facts. Nevertheless, many archaeological explorations have been taken up in an attempt to verify the historicity of these traditions. 1 National Institute of Oceanography, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, (CSIR), Dona Paula, Goa 403 004. 2 Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a sailor’s manual written by a Greek of Alexandria dating to 1st Century AD and deals with the trade, commerce & ports from Red sea to Bay of Bengal. 1 �Sangam3 literature gives ample historical accounts on maritime trade and mentions the flourishing port town of Poompuhar, the capital of the early Cholas4 culture (Pillai 1989:13). The Manimekhalai5 mentions that Poompuhar was swallowed up by the sea due to the wrath of goddess Manimekhalai, for not celebrating the festival of Indra (Na Mu, et al. 2007:353,365-6). Though the reference is only to a supernatural incident, it may be taken as an echo of some actual sea erosion due to some high tidal wave surge(s) that engulfed the city. Mahabalipuram was well known to earlier mariners as ‘Seven Pagodas’. It is generally believed that out of seven temples originally constructed, all but “Shore temple” were submerged by the sea over a period of time. European travellers in the 18th and 19th century have recorded this folk tradition (Ramaswami 1989:48). Captain M.W. Carr (1984:11) refers to the account given by William Chambers (1869:11,1-29) after his second visit to Mahabalipuram in 1776 about the traditions on the submergence of pagodas. Marine archaeological explorations have been carried out at Poompuhar and Mahabalipuram (Figure 1) by scholars at the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, to find out the extent of the submerged evidence on the famous port towns. The underwater investigations have revealed information on submerged structures and also data on shoreline changes. The details of the findings are described below. 3 Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature, is a collection of more than 2381 poems composed by Tamil poets during 3rd Century BC and 3rd Century AD, from various professions and classes of society about the marriages, dress, ornamentation, culinary fare, war and religious life of the early Tamils. 4 Cholas were one of the most dominant political forces in the Tamil country. The early Cholas of the Sangam era ruled from their capital Urayur and Kaveripattinam. Medieval and later Cholas (848 AD1279 AD) ruled from their capitals Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram . Their empire consists of Tamil country, part of modern Karnataka and part of Sri Lanka. 5 Manimekhalai is considered to be one of the great epics of Tamil literature, the sequel to the Shilapaddikaram, tells the story of the conversion to Buddhism of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, which has been dated by various scholars between the 2-6th centuries AD. It is a poem in 30 cantos, describing about Puhar. Manimekalai which states as ; madavaral nallaai ninthan maanagar, kadal vayiru pukkadu kaaranam keelai (25:176-77) .............. aninagar thannai alaikadal kolkena, ittanal saabam pattathu ithuvaal (25:200-01) Meaning, the city Kaveripumpattinam was engulfed by the sea (200:176-77) since the festival for Indra was not performed the Godess Manimeekala cursed "may the city is eaten by the sea" (25:200201). 2 �Figure 1. Location map of the sites explored on Tamil Nadu coast (Map: prepared by R. Uchil, NIO, Goa). POOMPUHAR Poompuhar also known as Kaveripattinam, is situated on the northern bank of the river Kaveri on the Tamil Nadu coast. Sangam texts, specifically the Silappatikaram (Pillai 1989:13), Pattinapalai, Manimekhalai and Ahananaru vividly describe Poompuhar as the port capital of the early Cholas (Ramachandran 1974:8; Chandra 1977:107). Land excavations at Kilaiyur brought to light two brick structures that have been described as wharves (Rajan 1994:25; Rao 1991a:6,5-20; Athiyaman 1999), possibly located on an ancient channel of the river Kaveri, an inlet channel to a reservoir at Vanagiri and Buddha Vihara at Pallavaneswaram (Rajan 1994:23,2632). 3 �Coastal archaeological explorations Coastal archaeological explorations have been carried out between Poompuhar and Tranquebar in the inter-tidal zone to find out the remains of archaeological evidences. Poompuhar During the course of explorations in the inter-tidal zone at Poompuhar the following were exposed: a brick structure of eleven layers running parallel to the coast with dimensions 1.2 m width, 1.2 m height and 4 m length; and a terracotta ring well with dimensions 25 centimetres (cm) high, 4 cm thick at the rim, and a diameter of 75 cm with three courses (Figure 2). Further, four brick structures of 25 m length, 3.4 m width aligned in a straight line, were noticed at a water depth of 1 m, opposite to present Cauvery temple at Poompuhar. The size of the bricks is 22x13x6 cm. Figure 2. Terracotta ring well exposed in the intertidal zone at Poompuhar (photo: Mr. SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) Vanagiri Vanagiri is located on the coast about 1 km south of Poompuhar. The 11th century Yellaiyamman temple was found. It had collapsed and the remains are scattered in the inter-tidal zone. Three terracotta ring wells (75 cm diameter, 15 cm high and 6 cm thick at the rim) were exposed about 300 m south of the Yellaiyamman temple. A neatly paved structure made of bricks (probably the floor of a house) was exposed in the inter-tidal excavation. Chinnavanagiri Chinnavanagiri is located on the coast about 3 km south of Poompuhar. A terracotta ring well with rings of 25 cm height, 5 cm rim thickness and 115 cm diameter, was found surrounded with burnt bricks, associated with megalithic black and red ware and beads of terracotta and semi-precious stones. The other important finds are a potsherd with an inscribed Brahmi letter ‘Ma’, an early Chola square coin (completely eroded), and later Chola coins. 4 �Findings of brick structures, terracotta ring wells, storage jars and brick-paved platforms prove the existence of a settlement in the inter-tidal zone. The pottery from Chinnavanagiri suggests that the ring well could be dated to the 2nd century Before Christ (BC) – Anno Domini (AD)6. The other ring wells found at Vanagiri and Poompuhar are of the same period. Similar kinds of ring wells found at Arikamedu and Vasavasamudram are dated to the 2nd century BC to the 3rd century AD (Rao, et al. 1995-96:15,7-22). The size of the bricks is 36x18x6 cm and closely corresponds to the bricks used in the Buddha Vihar at Kaveripattinam. Tranquebar Tranquebar, a principal port during Danish rule (1620 AD-1845 AD), is situated about 15 km south of Poompuhar. The 13th century Masilamani temple is partly collapsed and the remains are found scattered in the inter-tidal zone (Figure 3). Two brick wells were found exposed in the inter-tidal zone. There is also evidence on the destruction of modern houses due to the encroachment of the sea (Sundaresh, et al. 1997:595, 593-98). Figure 3. Partly collapsed Masilamani temple at Tranquebar (photo: SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) A careful study of the ‘Historic map of Danish colony Tranquebar and Fort Dansborg, 1700 AD’, which is displayed at Dansborg museum at Tranquebar, suggests that Tranquebar was well protected by a fort wall with a distance of 50 m from the 6 BC and AD are designations of the Georgian Calendar. BC refers to the years before the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth from year -1 and continues backwards, whereas AD refers to the years after his birth from year 1 with years added as time progresses. 5 �shoreline. The Masilamani temple was located sufficiently landward about 250 m from the fort wall. This observation unequivocally suggests that the shoreline has transgressed about 300 m in the last 300 years, therefore infringing at an average rate of one metre per year. Offshore explorations Offshore survey was conducted between Tranquebar and Poompuhar with small grids of 250 m. The survey revealed several isolated objects such as rock boulders at a depth of 7-8 m and 11-13 m opposite to the Masilamani temple (Rao 1992:17, 17-22; Rao 1991b:22,21-31; Rao and Rao 1991:128,127-129). Off Poompuhar, three major sites of interest were observed at water depths of 5.5 to 10.5m and 23m. A few dressed stone blocks measuring 90x40x15 cm, a semi circular stone with an Lshape cut on its surface and many other irregular blocks of sandstone were noticed in 5 to 8 m water depth off the river Cauvery's mouth. The other findings observed during airlifting operations were rolled bricks and early historic pottery of black and red ware, Red ware, Buff ware and Grey ware, found 1 m below the seabed (NIO Technical Report 1993:30). Explorations on the north of Poompuhar revealed a few dressed stone blocks in three general dimensions (30x20x5 cm, 65x40x10 cm and 60x35x10 cm), and brought to light potsherds of grey ware and storage jars. The echograms of the subbottom profiler revealed a submerged palaeo-channel of the river Cauvery on the north of Poompuhar at 10 to 15 m water depth, with a width of 300 m to 500 m, buried 20 m below the sea bottom (NIO technical report 1997:15). Three structures identified with the help of side scan sonar surveys between 22 and 24 m water depth off Poompuhar were later confirmed by diving (Vora 1987:161,159-161). The first structure (in an oval shape) was located about 3.5 km offshore at 23 m water depth. The total periphery of the object is 140 m. About 40 m north of the abovementioned object, two smaller objects are found lying in east-west orientation within a distance of 10 m. The circumference of each object is not more than 15 m and their height is about 2 m (NIO Technical report 1995:22; NIO Technical report 1997:18). The archaeological evidence recovered in the inter-tidal zone as well as offshore, are of the Sangam period (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD). Evidence in the inter-tidal zone, hydrographic charts, and the 17th century map at Tranquebar all confirm the shoreline recession is at an average rate of one meter per year. If the same rate continued for the last 2000 years, then ancient Poompuhar must have definitely been extended much further towards the sea from the present coastline. MAHABALIPURAM Mahabalipuram is famous for its architectural marvels such as the Shore Temple, the Chariots, Arjuna’s Penance, bas relief and several cave temples built by the Pallava7 king Narasimha Varman during the 8th century. It is situated about 55 km south of Chennai and presently a World Heritage Monument. 7 The Pallava dynasty was a Tamil dynasty of South India which ruled the northern Tamil Nadu region and the southern Andhra Pradesh region with their capital at Kanchipuram, the largest capital of the sovereign nation Tondai Nadu of Tamilakkam. The early Pallavas had established themselves as a rd th notable rising power in the region during beginning of 3 – 4 Century AD. The later Pallavas came in th to prominence during early 5 Century AD and continued to rule till late 9th Century AD. 6 �Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian era. The Periplus has mentioned the Roman trade from Damirica to Sopatma (Mahabalipuram) by very large vessels, made of single logs bound together, called Sangara (Ramaswami 1989:17). A few Roman coins of Theodosius (4th century AD) support this trade contact with the Roman world (Dayalan 1992:52). An 8th century Tamil text written by Tirumangai Alwar described this place as Kadal Mallai where ships rode at anchor (Ramaswami 1980:11). The epigraphical sources mention that the Pallava kings had an active contact with Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia. The Pallava king Sihmavarman lead two expeditions by embarking ships from Mamallapuram. The Pallava embassy and Vajradanthi, a Buddhist monk sailed, to China from the port of Mamallapuram (Ramaswami 1980:12). The huge buried remains of structures and ceramic varieties of the early historic and early medieval period found at Punjeri, about 1.5 km west of Mahabalipuram, on the western bank of the Bunkingham canal prove its flourishing existence in the past (Dayalan 1992:54). Underwater Findings The underwater explorations were carried out by geophysical surveys followed by diving. The seabed off Mahabalipuram, in depths ranging from 6 to 15 m, is highly undulating with variations in height from 1 to 6 m. Granitic rocks with patches of coarse-grained sand, carpet the floor. Several rectangular and square shaped structures appeared on most of the sonographs, particularly in the northern part, showing groups and clusters of blocks arranged in a systematic pattern. Strong reflections of the images suggest that they are massive hard bodies that are well shaped. It appears from the sonographs of the entire study area that some significant parallel discontinuous rocky structures exist on the seafloor at some places in addition to the dominant occurrence of natural rock outcrops. Based on the sonographs the following five major sites of interest were observed between the water depth of 5 and 13 m. Site A A structure was found about 700 m on the eastern side of the Shore Temple at 6 m water depth which comprised of several small structures on a raised platform. The upper portion of the structure is above the sea surface during low tide. The structure covers an area of approximately 75x35 m. The structure is broader on the northern side where a heap of stone blocks are also observed, while on the southern side scattered small stone structures of various sizes were observed. The structure has several north-south oriented wall sections. 7 �Figure 4. Stone block with a joinery projection found off Mahabalipuram (Photo: SN Bandodker, NIO, Goa) Dressed granite blocks were used for the construction of this structure. A wall about 250x65 cm with two to four courses is noticed. Huge rectangular blocks measuring approximately 2x1x1.5 m were also noticed on the central upper portion of the structure. Another wall measuring about 5.4 m in length was seen on the northern side along with two parallel walls on the southern side of the main structure, with a stair-like structure leading upwards. Further on the northern side, the remains of a wall extend up to 15 m in length. The length of some of these six walls varies from 7 to 32.5 m; the other walls being shorter in length. A floor measuring 2x2.5 m was also noticed towards the north-western side of the structure. The entire structure has thick marine growth of sponges, shells, barnacles and mussels; a few blocks were cleaned and chisel marks were observed. One of the blocks shows that it has joinery projections for interconnecting the blocks (Figure 4; Sundaresh, et al. 2004:1233). Site B Another interesting site was located about 200 m on the north-north-eastern side of Structure A at a depth between 5 - 8 m. The site has the remains of a wall, 2 m wide and 5 m in length running from east to west and many fallen dressed stone blocks found scattered around it. Another wall was found running more than 10 m with a width of 2.5 m. Some of the stone blocks appear to have figurines carved on them; however, identification was not possible due to thick marine growth. Apart from the above there were many more structural remains such as fallen walls, L-shaped connecting walls (Sundaresh, et al. 2004:1234), dressed square and 8 �rectangular stone blocks and a square platform reached by a flight of steps were found at different locations (NIO Technical Report 2003:22). The plan of the structures indicates that this construction could be part of a big complex, as the huge stone blocks and several fallen walls were noticed in situ. It appears that construction had been carried out on a raised platform with several walls and a floor made of granite blocks. An opening from the southern side between two walls with steps has been noticed which may be the entrance to the complex. The natural rock boulders noticed on the southwest side are similar in shape and size to those found on land on the hill at Mahabalipuram. Similarly, the construction style observed underwater is identical to that observed on adjacent land. It was not possible, however, to verify the binding material of the underwater structure due to thick marine growth and their damaged condition. There were many wall sections observed at different locations including the “quarry area” on a huge rock. The dressed stone blocks required for the construction were probably extracted from the quarry found nearby. In fact, most of the religious or ceremonial constructions, including the present shore temple at Mahabalipuram, have been built with granite. The sand stone and granite was extensively used for the construction of temples during Pallava rule (Srinivasan 1983: 28-67). Dating of Underwater Structures The archaeology of Mahabalipuram commenced from the early centuries of the Christian era. A few Roman, Chinese and Pallava coins have been reported from Mahabalipuram (Ramaswami 1980:4). One of the inscriptions of Narasimha I mentions that he (Narasimha I) is the first person to introduce the construction of cave temples made of granite. N.S. Ramaswami (1980:27) refers to several accounts of Europeans who recorded the submergence of the city and the tradition that, "a large city and six magnificent pagodas have been swallowed up at this place by the sea". William Chambers (1869:11,1-29), Graham Hancock (2002:121), P.M. Mohan and Victor Rajamanickam (2002:78,77-79) believe that out of seven temples carved out of granite during the 8th century AD only one has survived and the rest are submerged. Based on the facts that the rock art sculpture was encouraged by the Pallavas at this place and most of them were constructed during that period, it is inferred that these temples may not be less than 1200 years old. Possible Causes of Submergence M.S. Krishnan (1968:523), S.P. Mahapatra and M. Hariprasad (2002:134,132-136) have pointed out that the major and important factor affecting the Mahabalipuram coast is erosion, as severe erosion at Kalpakkam (south of Mahabalipuram) was observed due to long-shore sediment drift (Krishnakumar, et al. 1994:45,41-45). A recent study suggests the rate of coastal erosion in and around Mahabalipuram is 55 cm/year (Ramaiyan, et al. 1997:1179,1177-1181). If the same rate has prevailed since the last 1200 years then the shoreline at that time might have been around 800 m eastward and all the structures noticed underwater would have been on the land. The excavations at Saluvankuppam about 1.5 km north of Mahabalipuram, about 150 m from the sea coast, revealed three phases of construction belonging to 8-9th century AD, 6-8th century AD and 4th century AD at a depth of 3.2 m below the present ground level. Evident from the stratigraphy these structures were destroyed by the coastal flooding during 950 AD and between 320-560 AD (Rajendran, et al. 2006:1246,1242-1247). Therefore it may be mentioned here that the coastal erosion might have played a major role in the submergence of these structures. 9 �The underwater structures, especially the long walls having 2 to 3 courses, the scattered dressed stone blocks of various sizes, and the stones with projections are considered to be man-made. They may well be the remains of huge complexes or the temples of the so-called “Seven pagodas”. As the Pallavas encouraged temple architecture at Mahabalipuram during the 8th century, these structures may be assigned to the same period. Mahabalipuram served as a port during the Pallava period. Part of the earlier Mahabalipuram town may have been submerged in the sea. CONCLUSIONS The marine archaeological explorations on Tamil Nadu coast have brought to light the submerged structural evidence at Poompuhar and Mahabalipuram. The traditions mentioning the submergence of these port towns have been partially confirmed with the evidence from underwater. These structures may have been submerged due to coastal erosion followed by shoreline changes. As evident from Mahabalipuram excavations, these sites might have been submerged due to large coastal flooding. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Director, NIO for his support and encouragement. Thanks are also due to Shri. KH Vora for critical review of the manuscript and constant support, our colleagues Sila Tripati, SN Bandodker, SB Chitari for their help in fieldwork, Dr Mohan Rao and Shri Prem Kumar for their bathymetric study and finally Shri R. Uchil for line drawings. This is the NIO contribution no. 5068. BIBLIOGRAPHY Athiyaman, N., 1999 "Two Wharves at Poompuhar: A Technical Study", paper presented at Second International Conference on Marine Archaeology, held at Thane, 8-10 January. Carr, M. W., (ed.), The Seven Pagodas on the Coromandel Coast, Asian 1984 Educational Services, New Delhi, (first published in 1869 by same publisher). Chambers, W., "Some account of the sculptures and ruins at Mavelipuram, a 1869 place a few miles north of Sadras, and known to seamen by name of the Seven Pagodas", in (ed.) Captain M. W. Carr, Descriptive and Historical papers relating to The Seven Pagodas, on the Coromandel coast Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, pp. 1–29. 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Satyamurthy, T., Aravazhi, P., and Jaiswal, M., 2006 Ramachandran, Ahananuru in its Historical Setting, University of Madras C.E, Publications, Madras, pp.149. 1974 Ramaiyan, M., "Shoreline oscillation of Tamil Nadu coast", in the Krishna Prasad, E., Proceedings of Second Indian National Conference of and Suresh, P. K., Harbour and Ocean Engineering, (INCHOE - 97), held at 1997 Thiruvanathapuram ,7-10 December, pp. 1177-1181. Ramaswami, N. S., Mamallapuram, An Annotated Bibliography, New Era 1980 Publications, Madras, pp. 120. 11 �Ramaswami, N. S., 2000 years of Mamallapuram, Navrang, New Delhi, pp. 372. 1989 Rao, S.R., “Marine archaeological explorations of Tranquebar1991a Poompuhar region on Tamil Nadu coast”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, 2, pp.520. Rao, T.C.S., “Marine archaeological surveys off Kaveripattinam for 1991b archaeological investigation”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, 2, pp.21-31. Rao, T.C.S., and "Marine Archaeological surveys off Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu – Mohan Rao K., Preliminary Results", in Recent Advances in marine 1991 archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, pp. 127129. Rao, T. C. S., “Marine Geophysical surveys off Kaveripattinam for 1992 Archaeological Investigations”, in (ed.) Natana Kashinathan, Seminar on Marine Archaeology, State Department of Archaeology, Madras, pp. 17-22. Rao, S. R., Rao, T. “Underwater explorations off Poompuhar”, in Journal of C. S., Gaur, A. S., Marine Archaeology, Society for marine archaeology, Goa, 5Tripati S., 6, pp. 7-22. Sundaresh and Gudigar, P., 1995-96 Srinivasan, K. R., “Pallavas of Kanci: Phase I”, in (ed.) Michael W. Meister, 1983 Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, South India, Lower Dravidadesa, 200 BC-1324 AD, American Institute of Indian Studies, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, pp. 23-79. Sundaresh, Gaur, "Our Threatened Archaeological Heritage: A Case Study from A.S., Nair, R.R., Tamil Nadu Coast", in Current Science, 73, 7, pp.593-98. 1997 Sundaresh, Gaur, "Underwater Investigations off Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, A.S., Tripati, S., India", in Current Science, 86, 9, pp. 1231-1237. and Vora K.H., 2004 Vora, K. H., “A note on the geophysical explorations for marine 1987 archaeology of Tamil Nadu coast, India”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, London, 16, 1, pp.159-164. 12 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Marine Archaeological Investigations on Tamil Nadu Coast, India: An Overview Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource Ancient ports such as Kaveripattinam, Nagapattinam, Korkai, Alagankulam, Periyapattinam, all on Tamil Nadu coast have played a dominant role in the transoceanic trade and commerce with many countries since the beginning of the Christian Era (CE, starting from year one on the Georgian Calendar). Many such port towns that existed on the coastal region vanished or were submerged in the sea probably due to coastal erosion, sea level changes and neo-tectonic activity and other causes. Poompuhar, a flourishing port town, played a major role in maritime activities in the beginning of the Christian Era. The Sangam literature vividly describes its location, habitation and town planning. The marine archaeological explorations around Poompuhar brought to light the remains of terracotta ring wells, brick structures, and storage jars in the inter-tidal zone. The brick structures, stone structures, and pottery from offshore explorations support the existence of the ancient settlement. Mahabalipuram is said to have been a seaport right from the beginning of the Christian Era. Geophysical survey and underwater exploration revealed structural remains including a fallen wall running about 10 metres (m) in length, scattered dressed stone blocks, a few steps leading to a platform and many other structural remains at various locations between 4 and 8 m water depth. The available data confirms that a large area comprising of a building complex have been submerged. These remains could be part of submerged structures and caused by severe coastal erosion in this area. The data collected at the above sites support the literary evidence to prove their existence as ports. The major cause for the submergence of these port towns was due to shoreline changes caused by coastal erosion. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Sundaresh A.S. Gaur Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5331163ab82870b891ed770de6bfa474.pdf 6ee4d7466115f2d00aac8853e5edd12d PDF Text Text Maritime Activities in Ancient Bali I Wayan Ardika Udayana University, Bali ardika52@yahoo.co.id Abstract Archaeological discoveries at Sembiran and Pacung in Northeastern Bali indicate that contacts between Bali and India, China, as well as Mainland Southeast Asia have already occurred at the late second century BC. At the same time, maritime activities and exchanges of goods might have also existed between these areas. Inscriptional data from the late 9th up to the 12th century describe the regulations concerning the stranded ship. The use of woods of the stranded ship, the treatment of foreign traders who died in the port sites in Bali, as well as the utilization of their inheritances are also mentioned in these inscriptions. In addition, the Balinese inscriptions dated from the 12th century also describe the types of watercraft such as ships (Chinese jong) and boats (bahitra) which encored at Manasa in the northern coast of Bali. The situation of port sites and social disturbances due to pirates are also described in the Balinese inscriptions. Bali seems to be located in the inter-regional trade routes connecting India, Mainland Southeast Asia, and China in ancient times, therefore maritime activities must be very busy in the northern coast of Bali. Key words: Bali, ships, inscriptions Introduction Archaeological discoveries in northern coast of Bali indicate that the island has been involved in maritime activities for nearly 2150 years. The sites of Sembiran and Pacung which was part of ancient port of Julah produced archaeological artefacts mainly potteries of India, mainland of Southeast Asia, and China. In addition, glass, stone beads as well as Han’s bronze mirrors were also discovered at Pangkung Paruk in the northwestern coast of Bali. Two fragments of molds for casting bronze drum and �socketed bronze axe were discovered repectively at Sembiran (Ardika, 1991; Ardika and Bellwood, 1991; Calo et.al, 2015). The discovery of fragments of molds indicate that Sembiran was also an important centre of local craftsmanship. The appearance of those artefacts suggests that long distance or international exchange or trade might have already occurred at the beginning of our century. Inscriptional data from Julah and Sembiran suggest that maritime activities and trade might have continuously occurred in the northeastern coast of Bali at least from the late second century BC until the 12th century AD. The inscription of Sembiran AI dated AD 922 mentions a market (pasar) and a market officer (ser pasar) at Julah. A regulation concerning stranded ships and their cargos (taban karang) was also stated in the inscription (Goris, 1954; Ardika, 1991). It records that people who lived at a fortified settlement (kuta) at Julah were attacked by their enemies (tarahan) and some of them fled to othe villages. On the basis of the inscriptional data, this paper will describe several pieces of information related to maritime activities in ancient Bali from the early 10th up to 12th century AD. Relevance data from later period are also utilised in this paper. Regulation Concerning Stranded ship (Taban/Tawan Karang) Balinese inscriptions from the early 10th century AD stated the regulations (taban karang) concerning stranded ships or watercrafts in northern Bali. The inscription of Sembiran AI states that if there were stranded ships, boats, or canoes within Julah territory, which are known to the villagers, the cargos had to be donated to the temple for welfare. The captives must be reported to Sang Ratu or King Ugrasena who reigned Bali at that time. �In order to maintain and enforce this regulation, worship was to be offered to Bhatara Punta Hyang (Agastya?)(Ardika, 1991: 227). As far as Taban or Tawan Karang is concerned, this regulation was still utilised until the colonial period in the 19th and the 20th century. The Dutch government and the Balinese kings ratified the regulation, however, they did not implement it properly. The case of Tawan karang at Sangsit port in north Bali was the trigger of Buleleng and Jagaraga wars in the 1846 and 1849, between the Buleleng’s king and the Ducth government. The Jagaraga war can be said as the end of the Buleleng souvereignty, and the beginning of colonialization of the Ducth government in north Bali (Wirawan, 2017). Similar phenomena also occurred at Karangasem and Klungkung kingdoms in east and south Bali. Conflict on Tawan karang regulation caused the Dutch government to send a military expedition to Karangasem and Kusamba, Klungkung. The Karangasem palace was occupied by the Dutch on 20 May 1849. Gusti Gede Ngurah Karangasem, the king, and his family members fought against it, causing them to be killed. Klungkung and Kusamba could be occupied by the Dutch troop at 3 pm on 24 May 1849 (Agung, 1989: 327). General Michiels and his troop rested at Kusamba Palace used as the headquarters of the General Commander Michels. At midnight on 24 May or at dawn on 25 May 1849, Dewa Agung Istri Kanya, A.A. Ketut Agung and A.A. Made Sangging planned to attack the Dutch troop. At 3 am on 25 May 1849 the Klungkung soldiers reached the target. When the light bullet was fired, all the camps, which had been dark, became bright. General Michiels could be clearly seen standing in front of the palace. �A gun was fired by the Klungkung troops and the general’s right leg got shot, causing him to be upended. The bone of his right leg turned out to be completely wrecked (Agung, 1949: 328). The health officer suggested that it should be amputated; however, he disagreed. He demanded that he be carried to the command ship where he could be treated. His physical condition was getting worse and finally he died at 11 pm on 25 May 1849. On 26 May 1849 the corpse was carried by the warship “Etna” to Batavia (Agung, 1989, 328). The conflict between the King of Badung and the Dutch East Indies government was triggered by the incident in which the Dutch-flagged ship “Sri Kumala” stranded at Sanur beach controlled by the Badung Kingdom on 27 May 1904. The Dutch East Indies government demanded that the compensation amounting to 7,500 guldens to be charged to the Badung King. The local people did not pay for the compensation as they swore that they had not robbed what the ship had carried including uang kepeng (coin with square hole in center). The Badung King’s refusal caused the Badung waters to be blockaded on 6 January 1905 (Agung, 1989: 5). On 20 September 1906 the final war or Puputan Badung occurred and the kingdom of Badung was conquered by the Dutch. The practice of the tawan karang traditional law was getting weaker when the Bali and Lombok kings were getting familiar with the foreign governments especially the Dutch government (Wirawan, 2017: 2). Different perceptions of the tawan karang tradition led to the blood conflicts and wars involving the Dutch colonial government in Bali and Lombok from the middle of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century. �Since the 19th century, the tawan karang tradition has also been referred to as a legal institution of the traditional countries which could not only be found in Bali and Lombok. According to van Vollenhoven, the tawan karang institution could also be found in the Tanimbar archipelago and Central Kalimantan (Utrecht, 1962: 122). The practice of tawan karang showed the royal waters (kliprecht). Tawan karang was the right of a king and his people who controlled a coastal area. They had the right to detain and own any foreign ship. They also had the right to employ its passengers as the slaves that could be traded or killed. It used to be considered the law of god of the seas (Lord Baruna) who was believed to control the coastal area and sea (Utrecht, 1962: 122). However, it was then flexibly defined and applied. The Regulation for Foreign Trader The inscription of Bebetin dated 896 AD describes the regulations concerning the properties of banyaga (seafaring merchants who died at Banwa Bharu (Goris, 1954: 54). The properties had to be divided into two parts, although it is not mentioned what the two divisions were used for. It is also mentioned that timber from the wrecked ships of the banyaga were used for fences or palisades around the fortified settlement (kuta) at Banwa Bharu. It thus seems that the fortified settlements at Julah and Banwa Bharu were both surrounded by wood or bamboo fences (Ardika, 1991: 141). This was also the characteristic of city in Southeast Asia between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries AD (Reid 1980: 242). It should be noted that the terms kuta and ser pasar (market officer) are also mentioned in the inscription of Bebetin AI dated AD 896 (Goris, 1954: 54). Banwa Bharu could have been another port site in north Bali, possibly �located near the modern village of Sangsit, about 15 km west of Julah, where the small port still exists. Based on the inscriptions of Bebetin AI dated AD 896 and Sembiran AI dated AD 922, it is impossible to find wrecked ship in the northern coast of Bali. It is due to the regulation that the timbers of the wrecked ship was used for fences or palisade of fortified settlement at Julah and Banwa Bharu. The Type of Watercrafts The Balinese inscriptions mentioned several types of watercrafts including perahu, bahitra, jong, lancang, etc. For instance, the inscription of Sembiran AI dated AD 922 mentions: IIIb.3 ... yanada taban karang ditu, parahu, lancang jukung, talaka ... (Ardika, 1991: 227; Goris, 1954). It means if there were ship, boat, canoe and canoe (?) captured based on taban karang regulation at Julah. Based on Sembiran AI inscription at least there were four types of watercrafts at that time. The inscription also indicates the Balinese can make canoe or ship. There are several terms of watercrafts mentioned in Old Balinese inscriptions. These terms are in Table 1 below. Table 1. Several terms of watercrafts mentioned in Old Balinese inscriptions No Balinese inscriptions Terms of watercrafts 1 Bebetin AI dated AD 896 Lancang, parahu 2 Sembiran AI dated AD 922 Parahu, lancang, jukung, talaka 3 Sembiran AIV dated AD 1065 Jong, bahitra, parahu 4 Sembiran C dated AD 1181 Parawu, jong, banawa �The term of parahu or parawu has been mentioned in the four inscriptions namely Bebetin AI (AD 896), Sembiran AI (AD 922), Sembiran AIV (AD 1065), and Sembiran C (AD 1181). The term parahu or parawu literary means boat (Zoetmulder, 1982: 1280). Parahu seems to be the oldest watercraft mentioned in Balinese inscriptions. Lancang was mentioned in the inscriptions of Bebetin AI (AD 896) and Sembiran AI (AD 922). Lancang literary means small boat (Zoetmulder, 1982). The term of Jukung was mentioned in the inscription of Sembiran AI (AD 922). Jukung means small vesel or dug out canoe (Zoetmulder, 1982: 752). Even today, jukung is still made and used in modern Balinese. Similar to Jukung, the term talaka was only used mentioned in the inscription of Sembiran AI (AD 922). Talaka literary means canoe. The term Jong was mentioned in the inscriptions of Sembiran AIV (AD 1065) and Sembiran C (AD 1181). Jong is sea going ship.( Zoetmulder, 1982: 748). It is also associated with the Chinese ship. The term bahitra was only mentioned in the inscription of Sembiran AIV (dated AD 1065). This term literary means boat or vessel (Zoetmulder, 1982:188). The term banawa was mentioned the inscription Sembiran C (AD 1181) which literary means boat or any kind of ship (Ardika, 1991: 262). On the basis of these inscriptions, Julah seems to be one of the most important ports or harbours in the northern coast of Bali. Chinese jong and big ship might have anchored at Julah in the 11th and 12th century AD. During the Song dynasty, China also took part in trade out of China. Piracy in Ancient Bali The kuta or fortified settlement and pasar or market at Julah were attacked by enemy or pirate many times. The attacks caused social disturbance in Julah and the adjacent area. This situation was first mentioned in the �inscription of Sembiran AI dated to AD 922. The inscription states: Ib. 3. ...lagi tawan bunin...they are continously captured by enemies... (Ardika, 1991: 221). The villagers of fortified settlement at Julah were captured by enemies, and some of them might have fled to other villages. Therefore the king Ugrasena asked them who fled to other villages to return to Julah. The inscription of Sembiran AII dated to AD 975 mentions that king Sri Janasadhu Warmadewa gave a grant of copper plates inscription to the market officer at Julah namely Ida Kumpi Dyah Damai, who gathered together the villagers of Julah and those who lived around the fort, being many of those who returned during the reign of Sang Ratu (king) who was buried at Bwah Rangga (Ardika, 1991:228-233). The inscription mentions the regulation concerning the rights and reponsibilities of the villagers of Julah, and those who lived around the fort. It is worth to noticing that the inscription of Sembiran AIII dated to AD 1016 indicates that the village officers of Julah pay respect to Sang Ratu (Queen) Sri Sang Ẫjṅadewi. The villagers told the Queen that the number of families who lived at Julah formerly was 300, but now only 50 remained. Therefore, the villagers asked taxes to be reduced (Ardika, 1991: 334). On the basis of those inscriptions it seems that the fortified settlement and a market at Julah was attacked and the villagers were killed or captured by enemies or pirates? This attack caused the villagers of Julah to flee to other villages. The Queen or central authorities called them to return to Julah. The Queen renewed the regulation and also reduced taxes for those who lived at Julah. The inscription of Sembiran AIV dated to AD 1065 indicates that the village officers of Julah they consulted and paid respects to Paduka haji �or King Anak Wungsu. The village officers of Julah asked for a grant in order to write down their inscription on copper plates, which was a grant of the previous king. Because they did not think that what was described in the palm leaves would be preserved for the future. It should be noticed that the villagers were allowed to destroy coconut trees which blocked and caused it to be seen by a plundering ship which came to Julah at night (Ardika, 1991: 247). This statement suggests that central authority or King Anak Wungsu protected the villagers of Julah from the attack of plunderers or pirates. As far as plunderers or piracy is concerned, it is clear that their activities caused social disturbances as well as economic instabilities. The inscriptions of Sembiran AI, Sembiran AII, Sembiran AIII, and Sembiran AIV suggest that the villagers of Julah were killed and captured by plunderes, and some of them also fled to other villages. This social disturbance at Julah was handled by Queen or King of Bali, Regulations concerning those people who lived at Julah were described at royal edits. From an economic point of view, plunderers or pirates at Julah might search for goods and valuable things. As already noted, there was a market place at the fortified settlement at Julah. The plunderers or pirates at Julah not only killed and captured people, but also robbed goods and materials at the market. Similar stories were mentioned in the inscription of Sawan AI or Bila I dated to AD 1023. The villagers of Bila were reduced from 50 to 10 families who could not pay the full tribute, so they had to ask the king (raja) for a reduction (Goris, 1954: 101-103). Why the villagers of Bila decreased in number was not mentioned in the inscription. Piracy might have already existed in ancient Bali around the 9th up to 11th century AD. The pirate might attack the anchored ships and market at of �Julah. They killed and captured the villagers and possibly robbed the cargos as well as the goods at the ports site of Julah. The coastal villages in the northeastern coast of Bali might have been plundered by pirates. This attack caused the villagers to flee to other villages, and this authomatically brought about the decreasung number of the people in the village. Conclusion Bali has been involved in maritime activities since prehistoric times. The Balinese inscriptions from the late Ninth and early Tenth century indicate the regulations concerning stranded ship (taban/tawan karang) and an inheritance of foreign traders (banyaga) who died at kuta or fortified settlement in the northern cost of Bali. These regulations suggest that the central authority or king/queen has managed to control the coastal areas of Bali at least in the late Ninth and early Tenth century AD. The regulation of taban/tawan karang was still utilized until the 20th century and throughout the colonial period. In other words, the regulation of taban/tawan karang has been used for more than 1000 years. The taban/tawan karang regulation also triggered conflict and war between the Balinese kings and the Dutch Government in the 19th and 20th century Several types of watercraft were mentioned in the Balinese inscriptions such as: parahu, lancang, jukung, talaka, jong, bahitra, and banawa. These terms might have been related to the sizes and measurements of watercrafts. Piracy might have already existed in Bali or in Indonesia in general in the early 10th century AD. The fortified settlement or kuta and pasar or market at Julah were attacked by plunderers or pirates. The villagers were killed �and captured by plunderers, and some of them fled to other villages. The villagers who lived at Julah could not to pay the full taxes and they asked for reductions to the king/queen. Therefore, the king/queen asked them to return to Julah. References Agung, Ide Anak Agung Gde, 1989. Bali Pada Abad XIX. Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University Press. Ardika, I Wayan. 1991. Archaeological Research in Northeastern Bali, Indonesia. Disertation. Canberra: Australian National University. Ardika, I Wayan and Peter Bellwood, 1991. Sembiran: the beginnings of Indian contact with Bali. Antiquity, 1991. 65: 221-32. Ardika, I Wayan et.al. 2016. Archaeological Research at the Blanjong Site, Sanur, Bali. Singapore: Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre. Archaeology Report Series. Calo, Ambra, Bagyo Prasetyo, Peter Bellwood, James W. Lankton, Bernard Gratuze, Thomas Oliver Pryce, Andreas Reinecke, Verena Leusch, Heidrun Schenk, Rachel Wood, Rochtri A. Bawono, I Dewa Kompiang Gede, Ni L.K. Citha Yuliati, Jack Fenner, Christian Reepmeyer, Cristina Castillo & Alison K. Carter. 2015. Sembiran and Pacung on the norht coast of Bali a strategic croassoads for early trans Asiatic exchange. Antiquity. 89, 344: 378-396. Goris, R. 1954. Prasasti Bali I & II. Bandung: Masa Baru. Reid, Anthony. 1980. ‘The Structure of Cities in Southeast Asia, Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries’. JSEAS, 11,2: 235-250. Utrecht, E. 1962. Sedjarah Hukum Internasional di Bali dan Lombok. (Pertjobaan sebuah studi hukum internasional regional di Indonesia). Bandung: Sumur Bandung. �Wirawan, A.A.B. 2017. Tawan Karang Tradition Law and Conflict of Power in Bali and Lombok in the Middle of the 19th Century and beginning of the 20th Century. Denpasar: Faculty of Arts, Udayana University. Zoetmulder, P.J. 1982. Old Javanese English Dictionary. S’ Gravenhage � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 9: Maritime/Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Southeast Asia (SEA) has been rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) over a long period, from ancient pre-history, through the age of commerce, into the World War II era. Recently, UCH research, survey, and mapping activities; preservation and management efforts; as well as human capacity building programs show the promising progress in SEA countries. However, various threats to UCH preservation and some shortcomings still can be found in many SEA countries, for instance, lack of funds, inadequate technology, limited human resources, and also lack of public and government attention to UCH legal protection and its long-term preservation. This session will highlight some topics, including current status of UCH preservation; current research or investigation on maritime heritage or UCH in SEA countries; maritime history in SEA; current legislations; recent human and natural threats to UCH in SEA countries; raising awareness and public education programs; in-situ preservation of UCH; sustainable shipwreck tourism development and balancing preservation efforts with economic benefit; community and general public engagement in UCH management plan; regional capacity building in Southeast Asia; as well as collaboration opportunities among stakeholders and SEA countries in researching, protecting, preserving, and managing UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig, Mc Gill University Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Activities in Ancient Bali Description An account of the resource Archaeological discoveries at Sembiran and Pacung in Northeastern Bali indicate that contacts between Bali and India, China, as well as Mainland Southeast Asia have already occurred at the late second century BC. At the same time, maritime activities and exchanges of goods might have also existed between these areas. Inscriptional data from the late 9th up to the 12th century describe the regulations concerning the stranded ship. The use of woods of the stranded ship, the treatment of foreign traders who died in the port sites in Bali, as well as the utilization of their inheritances are also mentioned in these inscriptions. In addition, the Balinese inscriptions dated from the 12th century also describe the types of watercraft such as ships (Chinese jong) and boats (bahitra) which encored at Manasa in the northern coast of Bali. The situation of port sites and social disturbances due to pirates are also described in the Balinese inscriptions. Bali seems to be located in the inter-regional trade routes connecting India, Mainland Southeast Asia, and China in ancient times, therefore maritime activities must be very busy in the northern coast of Bali. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource I Wayan Ardika Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource I Wayan Ardika Language A language of the resource English Asia-Pac Session 9 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/aed71ad26404c2541bafe9b60397b4f4.pdf 1bb61ec4517eaf6690d5507ff955d202 PDF Text Text Maritime and underwater archaeological explorations in Kenya: Recent discoveries Caesar Bita National Museums of Kenya, Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa, P.O. Box 82412, 80100, Kenya Email: mcbita@yahoo.com Abstract Kenya is the first sub-Sahara African country to initiate an underwater archaeological expedition thus legally recognizing the value of underwater cultural heritage. This was after successful survey and excavation of the 17th Century Portuguese shipwreck, Santa Antonio De Tanna, in Mombasa. Kenya coast is part of the Western Indian Ocean; commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’. This coast was a domain of foreigners from the early centuries of the first millennium AD. It was visited by the Greeks; controlled by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Europeans. In addition, it played a major role in ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard linking the Swahili Coast with the Arab world, India sub-continent, Far East and China, America and Europe. Owing to crude navigation and sea faring technologies of the time, there are on the seabed of Kenya traces of these interactions in the form of archaeological remains. Recent studies have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of shipwrecks and has immense potential in underwater cultural heritage. Drawing from ancient literature, previous and current maritime and underwater archaeological studies, and this paper presents the recent discoveries from underwater archaeological surveys in Kenya. The paper illustrates that there is immense potential for underwater archaeology in Kenya that requires new attention both in research and conservation. Key words: Swahili Coast, Lamu archipelago, Malindi, Maritime Archaeology Underwater Cultural Heritage, Shipwreck Introduction The conservation of maritime and underwater cultural resources has become a major field of great scientific and regional importance world over. Maritime cultural heritage is a critical element of Kenya’s wellbeing. In addition to its intrinsic value, it provides us 1 �with important space for recreation and has a significance that makes it worth preserving; it is part of the environment, has an economic and scholarly value. This resource is however under ever increasing pressure from human activity. Its protection is thus a key part of sustainable development, whereby policies to encourage social and economic development should be equaled by policies to protect our environment. To effectively protect this heritage one important step is to document how much of this resource is available. The National Museums of Kenya (NMK) cannot afford to rely on “accidental” discoveries by non-scientific ventures and still remain an authentic custodian of the national heritage. It is for this that Kenya has made efforts to implement the preservation of underwater cultural heritage (UCH). The country has developed capacities in maritime and underwater cultural heritage through the training of underwater archaeologists and establishment of an underwater artifact conservation laboratory. NMK has designed a maritime archaeological programme for the study of this heritage as well as a database of all shipwrecks in the country. These efforts are expected to increase the dimension in which we understand and interpret this heritage in addition to mitigating the risk of loosing this resource to vandalism and uncontrolled development. Maritime History of the Kenyan Coast Kenya is a maritime country with a coastline approximately 600 km long with many small islands and navigable channels. This coast, which is part of the Western Indian Ocean (WIO), commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’, was a major player in the ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard. Its inhabitants are known to have had a history of long and continuous interaction with not only the Indian Ocean but also foreign visitors including the Greeks, 2 1 Fig. 1 Trade goods exchanged across the Western Indian Seaboard. (C. Bita) Arabs, Portuguese and the �Europeans. Further, several early Swahili settlements ranging in time from the 8th-17th centuries AD dot both the entire coastline as well as its off-shore islands (Garlake, 1966; Chittick, 1984; Horton, 1984; Abungu, 1989; Bita, 2011b). Such include Mombasa, Lamu, Pate, Faza, Dondo, Kiunga, Ishakani, Ungwana, Siyu, Kilepwe, Mambrui, Malindi, Gedi, Jumba La Mtwana and Kilifi. These ancient towns linked the Swahili Coast and other continents across the Western Indian Ocean seaboard including the Arab world, India sub-continent, south East Asia, the Far East and China, America and Europe (Fig. 1). Several historical records make reference to ancient seafaring off the Swahili coast. The Periplus of Erytharean Sea, document by the a an anonymous Greek sailor, mentions the east African coast as early as 2000 BP (Freeman- Fig. 2 Figure showing the concentration of shipwrecks along the Grenville, 1962; 1975; Wright, 1984; Horton, Kenya coast. (C. Bita) 1990; Whitehouse, 2001; Chami, 2006). Records by Chinese travelers refer to the Somali coast and her trade connections with the Far East by late 800s AD, while reports by Arab geographers allude to thriving maritime communities on this coast by 900 AD (Kirkman, 1964; Datoo, 1970; Martin, 1973; Freeman-Grenville, 1975; Horton, 1990; Hall, 1996). The period between the first millennium BC and the 2nd half of the first millennium AD was characterized by crude shipping technology and lack of nautical charts. These crude navigation technologies, as well as oceanic changes, are likely to have made early seafarers casualties of coral reefs and violent sea waves. In addition, the East African coast has been a centre of rivalry between major powers and the resultant wars 3 �witnessed a number of marine armour destroyed and sunken in these waters. This evidence is today lying on the sea-bed and foreshores in the form of shipwrecks, anchors, military structures among others (Bita, 2014). In Kenya this underwater archaeology comes to light from researches, accidental discoveries by fishermen, written records and oral tradition. Recent investigations that corroborate historical literary sources have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of ancient shipwrecks. Studies have shown the highest concentration of these sites in Kenya to be around Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu (Fig. 2) (Breen and Lane, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2003; Bita, 2008; 2010; 2011b; 2014). Maritime and Underwater Archaeological explorations in Kenya There are significant pointers towards the richness of Kenya’s maritime and underwater cultural heritage. A survey to establish the full range of this resource is ongoing in the country. The objectives of this undertaking are to identify and understand the range and distribution of this resource in the Kenya coast and to develop a database of the maritime and UCH sites for further archaeological investigation and conservation. Kenya initiated an underwater archaeological expedition after successful survey and excavation of the 17th century Portuguese shipwreck in Mombasa. This Portuguese frigate was sunk by Oman Arabs in 1698 in Mombasa during a battle to free Fort Jesus from the Arabs (Piercy, 1977; 1978; Sassoon, 1980; Boxer, 1960; Lynch, 1991; Patience, 2006). Following this development, this shipwreck, later dubbed ‘Mombasa Wreck’, was gazetted as a national monument and is today protected by the country’s legislation. It is this initiative that made Kenya the first east African sub-Saharan country to legally recognize the value of underwater cultural heritage. In the subsequent years, there was a growing importance of underwater archaeology including management of UCH in Kenya. With the potential of underwater archaeology in the country, a new research and heritage management perspective was required. As such, Kenya sought to develop capacities in underwater cultural heritage management through training and infrastructure development. The country has trained two underwater archaeologists, three conservators of underwater cultural material and has a well established underwater artifact conservation laboratory. Additionally, a database of maritime and 4 �UCH sites has been developed for the coastal region and undersea cultural heritage impact assessments are conducted as part of these efforts. Recent Discoveries Several underwater surveys have been undertaken off the Kenyan coast in which a lot of archaeological heritage has been documented. These surveys include a 2001 maritime archaeological study of Mombasa Island (Breen and Lane, 2003). Others are the 2006-2009 surveys in Lamu, Malindi and Mombasa by NMK (Patience, 2006; Bita and Wanyama, 2007; Bita, 2008; 2009 a-b). The latest, and ongoing, is the survey by National Museums of Kenya in collaboration with National Museums of China, in the “Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology project” (Bita, 2011a; 2013a). In these surveys numerous maritime and underwater heritage sites have been documented including shipwrecks, structures and artifacts. Interestingly these have been found to occur around the ancient towns of Lamu, Mombasa and Malindi; towns that played a major role in the ancient transoceanic interactions across the Western Indian Ocean (Fig. 2). Underwater archaeological surveys have also focused on these important towns. Underwater Archaeological survey in Mombasa Mombasa Island borders the open sea to the south east and has several channels. There have been numerous underwater archaeological surveys of this island in the previous years that realized a lot of maritime and heritage sites. underwater The first cultural survey undertaken was the excavation of the Santa Antonio recovered Indian shipwreck wares, which Chinese porcelain, Martaban and Portuguese jars, canons, mortar shells and bronze medallions (Piercy, 1977; 1978; Bita, Fig. 3 Lamu Archipelago: the eastern shores 2013b). A later survey revealed several have many rock outcrops where ancient ships 5 are believed to have sunk while entering Lamu Town. (C. Bita) �anomalies, some being shipwrecks (Breen and Lane, 2003; Forsythe et al., 2003). Recent surveys (Bita, 2009b; 2011c) have recorded wreck sites and associated structures (Fig. 3). Underwater Archaeological survey in Lamu archipelago Lamu archipelago is composed of several islands but the main ones are Lamu, Manda and Pate, all with ancient towns by the same names (Fig. 3). Ancient settlements in this archipelago are important landmarks in the history of the Swahili Coast. They were important centres of the northern Swahili world with some, like Manda and Pate, exhibiting evidence of very early occupation (Chittick, 1984; Horton, 1987; Wilson and Omar, 1996; 1997). Ancient Pate Bay for instance was the gateway to Lamu Town for sea travelers. Even up to the present, the eastern shores of this island are referred to by the locals as mlango wa Lamu (gateway to Lamu). This route was used by the Portuguese for decades controlling the WIO trade (Kirkman, 1964; Freeman-Greenville, 1975; Chittick, 1976; 1984; Hall, 1996). The Arabs dominated the Swahili Coast long before the Portuguese and used this route for hundreds of years in trade with the Persian Gulf (Bita, 2011b). Pate Bay has several long reefs and many coral rock outcrops such as Pazzali, Hassani and Hanawi. These rocks are at the confluence of Pate channel and the open sea and being submerged at high tide suggests many vessels may have wrecked here. In addition, the lack of nautical knowledge for this area caused many early seafarer Fig. 4 Portion of a shipwreck embedded in concretion in casualties on these coral rocks Mombasa waters. (Coastal Archaeology, National when sailing through this bay. Over Museums of Kenya) the years, fishermen in the Lamu archipelago have been recovering archaeological materials at various sites along these 6 �reefs and channels in addition to seabed surveys (Bita and Wanyama, 2007; Bita, 2009a; 2014). Recent surveys in Lamu have made major achievements in terms of the volume of artifacts recovered; sites surveyed and amount of data collected. Geophysical studies have recorded several underwater anomalies while sites identified include areas with concentrations of pottery and iron anchors (Bita, 2014). A massive anchor approximately 4m long with 2m long hooks was found (Fig. 4). Standing upright and embedded in coral, one of its hooks is however missing (this suggests probably its line was cut when sailors were unable to take it back into the ship). Similar types of anchors have also been recovered in Mombasa. Small iron anchors 2m long heavily encrusted and of 3 hooks have also been recovered. This style of 3 hook anchors is not a common feature of the Swahili Coast and suggests they belong to foreign ships. Early travel across the Western Indian Ocean was subject to the monsoon winds which alternated every six months. For instance, foreign traders sailed to the East African coast on the northwest monsoon wind which blows from November until April. For six months they would wait for the winds to change direction in order for them to sail back home on the southeast monsoon winds which blow from June to October. During this period of wait, ships would be anchored for loading and repairs while the sailors engaged in trade. Similarly, due to ocean currents and long wait, the ship anchors would, in most cases, be covered in sand or dragged into rock crevices. Such would make them difficult to pull back into the ship at departure forcing the crew to cut the ropes and abandon the anchor underwater. As is the case with Pate channel, many areas have silted over the years with many sites heavily covered in the sands (Bita, 2014). Maritime Archaeological Survey in Malindi Malindi town is located 120km north of Mombasa and is one of the ancient trading towns which had contact with the outside world in the last centuries of the last millennium. The town owes, as do many other coastal towns, its origin and prosperity to the Western Indian Ocean for facilitating transport and trade. It was at one time a gateway where the movement and transformation of goods were facilitated and urban services developed to promote maritime trade (Bita, 2008). It is believed to have been visited by a Chinese fleet in the 15th century. When the Portuguese arrived on the Kenyan coast in 1495, they found a thriving town and made it their trade headquarters 7 �while monopolising the WIO trade (Hall, 1996; Martin, 1975; Bita, 2012). Malindi Bay has three ancient centres, Malindi town, Mambrui and Ngomeni. Mambrui and Malindi were vibrant agricultural regions while Ngomeni was known for production and export of mangroves (Bita, 2005; 2008). In trading areas, shipwrecks would be closer to certain shipping hazards such as reefs and projecting headlands. In Malindi Bay, Ngomeni is located near a headland whereas in Malindi town there is Leopard Bay, the navigation channel of which is between two reefs. In the two areas, many ships are suspected to have sunk (Patience, 2006; Bita, 2008; Bita, 2011a-b; 2012). Portuguese records mention their ships lost and sunk in Malindi and whose locations have not been found (Patience, 2006). Maritime and underwater archaeological surveys in the area have documented several shipwrecks (Bita, 2005; 2008; 2011a) including remains of a ship engine block, sites containing 14th-15th century Indian and Chinese pottery (Bita, 2008; Bita, 2011a). This corroborates Portuguese and British records of ships lost in Malindi waters (Patience, 2006). Fig. 5 The plan of the Ngomeni Ras shipwreck Fig. 6 The remains of the Ngomeni Ras shipwreck site. (Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology lying project) on seabed. (Sino-Kenya Underwater Archaeology Project). Ngomeni Ras Shipwreck While no UCH sites have been located in Mambrui, 10km north of Malindi Town, in Ngomeni, a village about 30 km northeast of Malindi town, several important sites have 8 �been identified. Ngomeni stands on an arm of land jutting towards the sea (Ras Ngomeni), which offers a protected shallow harbour formerly used as a gateway for all seafarers from Lamu to Malindi (Wilson, 1982; Bita, 2008; 2011b). The area was known for mangrove growing which was exported to, and used in house construction in cities around the Persian Gulf (Wilson, 1982; Whitehouse, 2001). Surveys in 2008 discovered a wooden shipwreck that consistently produced materials dating to the 14th century including Persian and Far Eastern wares. The shipwreck was revisited in 2010-2011 and excavated in 2013. The exposed wood remains of this site are however seriously threatened by terredo. Ngomeni Ras Shipwreck is a probable 15th-16th century merchant ship. The site measures 40m x 20m lying 5m below the sea (Fig. 5-6). This discovery has proved the town participated in ancient mangrove trade across the Western Indian Ocean (Bita 2011a-b; 2013a). Fig. 7 A militant bunker overlooking the sea in Fig. 8 Lime and stone jetties and sacred sites on the Mombasa. (C. Bita) maritime zone of Mombasa coast. (C. Bita) Intertidal and Foreshore surveys Intertidal and foreshore surveys have also documented a rich resource of cultural heritage. Irrespective of typology, these sites existed to exploit the maritime resource that is the Western Indian Ocean. The most important include ancient forts, redoubts, anchorages, ports and jetties. Others are maritime practices such as boat building and fishing styles. It is their relationship with this ocean that makes them worth studying and conserving. 9 �Military structures Ancient East African coast was a centre of rivalry between powers such as between rivaling Arab rulers, Arabs and Portuguese and later in the 1st and 2nd world war between Germans, British and Italians (Coupland, 1938; Kirkman, 1964; 1974; Martin, 1973; 1975). These witnessed a number of marine structures erected along the coast as defense forts or escape tunnels (Bita, 2009a-b). The Kenyan coast is awash with such, including redoubts, forts including Fort Jesus, Siyu and Lamu, as well as habitable caves and military bunkers. A majority of these are associated with Arabian, Portuguese and British periods (Fig. 7). Moorings, Anchorages, Jetties and sacred sites Intertidal surveys have recorded ancient moorings and anchorages of different styles (ranging from metal, lime and stone), ruins of jetties built of stone and lime (Fig. 8). A majority of these have been attributed to the Portuguese and British periods. Jetties may probably be related to old crossing points from the Islands to the coastal mainland. Other equally important features are the sacred sites that are manifestations of the relationship between people’s beliefs and the elements of maritime environment. Most shrines are located in rock shelters, caves and secluded places on the seaward side of cliffs (Bita, 2009b). The traditional ritual paraphernalia including talismans, white and or red pieces of cloth; mixed colours of red, blue, white and black are mostly strategically placed so as to come in contact with sea water at high tide. Acknowledgments I am thankful to the Director General, National Museums of Kenya, for his support and nominations to the training in Underwater Archaeology. I am also grateful to UNESCO for the sponsorship to train in the 3rd Foundation and In-Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage courses in Thailand and participation in the Abuja UCH meeting. Thanks too to the Chinese government for the bilateral cooperation in underwater archaeology research in Kenya. 10 �References Abungu, G. O., 1989. Communities on the river Tana, Kenya: An Archaeological study of relations between the Delta and the river basin, 700-1800 AD. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Bita, C., 2014. The potentials of underwater archaeology in Kenya: A short communication. In Sila Tripati (Ed.), Shipwrecks around the world: Revelations of the past, Delta Book World, New Delhi: 486-510. Bita, C., 2013a. Underwater archaeological survey of Ngomeni Shipwreck site. SINOKenya Underwater Archaeology Project Report. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2013b. Martaban jars found in Kenya. Southeast Asian ceramics museum Newsletter. Vol. VII (1) Jun-Sept 2013: 3. Bita, C., 2012. The Origin of Malindi Town: A Case Study of Mambrui. M. A. Dissertation. University of Dar es Salaam. Dar es Salaam. Bita, C., 2011a. SINO-Kenya Underwater Archaeology Project. Preliminary Report. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2011b. Ancient Afro-Asia links. New evidence from a maritime perspective. In Mark Staniforth et al., (Eds.), Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, 8-12 November 2011, Manila: 289-301. Bita, C., 2011c. Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment for the Lion 2 Undersea Fibre Optic Cable in Mombasa. National Museums of Kenya, Mombasa. Bita, C., 2010. Protection of maritime and underwater cultural heritage in Kenya. Paper presented to the International Conference on Maritime Cultural Heritage, Alexandria, Egypt. Bita, C., 2009a. Inter-tidal and foreshore survey of Pate island. Survey Report, Fort Jesus Museum. Mombasa. Bita, C., 2009b. The intertidal and foreshore archaeology of Mombasa Island: An inventory of maritime sites. Survey Report, Fort Jesus museum, Mombasa. 11 �Bita, C., 2008. The Western Indian Ocean Maritime Heritage: An overview of the maritime archaeological heritage in Malindi. British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Bita, C., 2005. Malindi. A Review of the History of a Coastal Town at the mouth of River Sabaki, Kenya. National Museums of Kenya, Malindi. Bita, C., and Wanyama, P., 2007. Preliminary intertidal and underwater archaeological survey of Lamu archipelago. Research Report, Fort Jesus Museum, Mombasa. Boxer, C. R., 1960. Fort Jesus and Portuguese in Mombasa, British Museum, London. Breen, C., and Lane, P., 2003. Archaeological Approaches to East Africa’s changing Seascapes., World Archaeology, Vol. 35 (3): 469-89. Chittick, H. N., 1976. An archaeological reconnaissance in the Horn: the British-Somali Expedition 1975. Azania, Vol. 11: 117-34. Chittick, N., 1984. Manda: Excavations at an Island Port on the Kenya coast. Memoir No. 9, British Institute in Eastern Africa, Nairobi. Coupland, R., 1938. East Africa and its invaders. Clarendon press, Oxford. Chami, F., 2006. The Unity of African Ancient History: 3000 B.C. to AD 500. Dar es Salaam, E and D Vision Publishers. Datoo, B. A., 1970. Rhapta: The location and importance of East Africa’s first port. Azania, Vol. 5: 65-77. Forsythe, W., Quinn, R., and Breen, C., 2003. Subtidal archaeological investigations in Mombasa’s Old Port. In P. Mitchell., A. Haour, and J. Hobart (Eds.), Researching Africa’s Past: New Contributions from British Archaeologists, Oxford University School of Archaeology Monograph 57, Oxbow Books, Oxford: 133-138. Freeman-Grenville, G. P., 1975. The East African Coast: Selected documents from the first to earliest nineteenth century. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Freeman-Grenville, G. P., 1962. The Medieval History of the coast of Tanganyika, Oxford University Press, London. 12 �Garlake P. S., 1966. The early Islamic architecture of the east African coast. Nairobi. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hall, R., 1996. Empires of the Monsoon. Harper Collins, London. Horton, M. C., 1990. The Periplus and East Africa. Azania, Vol. 25: 95-99. Horton, M. C., 1987. Early Muslim trading settlements on the East African Coast: New Evidence from Shanga. Antiquaries Journal, Vol. 67: 290-322. Horton, M. C., 1984. The early settlement of the northern Swahili coast. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. Kirkman, J., 1964. Men and Monuments on the East African Coast. Butterworth, London. Kirkman, J., 1974. Fort Jesus: A Portuguese Fortress on the East African Coast. Clarendon, Oxford. Lynch, M., (Ed.), 1991. The Mombasa wreck excavation. Institute of Nautical Archaeology Newsletter, Vol. 18 (2): 2-29. Martin, E. B., 1975. The History of Malindi: A geographical analysis of an East African Coastal Town from the Portuguese period to the present. East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi. Martin, E. B., 1973. A History of Malindi, Nairobi. East African Literature Bureau. Nairobi. Patience, K., 2006. Shipwrecks and Salvage on the East African Coast. Dar Akhbar Al Khaleej, Bahrain. Piercy, R, C, M., 1977. Mombasa wreck excavation, Preliminary Report. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 6 (4): 331-47. Piercy, R, C, M., 1978. Mombasa wreck excavation, Preliminary Report. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 7 (4): 301-19. Sassoon, H., 1980. Mombasa Wreck Excavation. Interim Report, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. 13 �Whitehouse, D., 2001. East Africa and the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean AD 8001500. In B. S. Amenoreti (Ed.), Islam in East Africa: New Sources, Herder, Rome: 411424. Wilson, T. H., 1982. Spatial analysis and settlement patterns on the East African coast. Paideuma, Vol. 28: 201-219. Wilson, T. H., and Omar, A. L., 1997. Archaeological investigations at Pate. Azania, Vol. 32: 31-76. Wilson, T. H., and Omar, A. L., 1996. Excavation at Pate on the East African coast. In G. Pwiti., and R. Soper (Eds.), Aspects of African Archaeology, University of Zimbabwe, Harare: 543-554. Wright, H. T., 1984. Early seafarers of the Comoro Islands: the Dembeni phase of the 9th-10th centuries AD. Azania, Vol. 19: 13-60. Biography Caesar Bita has a Masters degree in Archaeology from the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; a Postgraduate Diploma in Management of Heritage and Museum Collections from the University of Nairobi, a Professional Diploma in Underwater Archaeology from Underwater Archaeology Center in China. Bita has participated in training programme such as Maritime Heritage Training and Integrated Coastal Zone Management Course (2006, Zanzibar, Tanzania), Regional Training on Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Management (2010, South Africa), International Training Workshop on Preservation, Presentation and Education on Maritime Cultural Heritage (2010, Alexandria, Egypt). He participated in the 3rd UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater Cultural Heritage and In-Situ Preservation of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2011, Thailand). He joined the National Museums of Kenya in 1999 and currently coordinating underwater archaeological research and underwater cultural heritage management at Fort Jesus museum, Mombasa, Kenya. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 13: Maritime and Underwater Archaeology of the Indian Ocean Region Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 13 chair Dr. Sila Tripati and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Maritime archaeology, a new branch of social sciences, took its birth in the Mediterranean Sea in the 19th century and academically it began after 1950. Maritime archaeology is also known as ‘underwater’, ‘marine’ and ‘nautical’ archaeology. All are valid terms for different aspects. One aspect of Underwater Archaeology is the study of the past through submerged remains such as shipwrecks, habitations and ports. Maritime Archaeology, while being similar to ‘Underwater Archaeology’, goes beyond waterscape, because it includes all related disciplines covering maritime and nautical archaeology. In the recent past, the new nomenclature ‘Hydro-archaeology’ has been coined to include all aspects of maritime archaeology where water plays a great role. Taking into consideration the importance of maritime archaeology, many universities, research institutes and professional societies have introduced maritime archaeology in their regular curriculum and are carrying out explorations and excavations and offer training to researchers, students and amateurs. Maritime archaeological studies have been carried out all over the world, except a few countries, either by the respective states or by state sponsored or private or international organisations. Taking into account the relevance and wider prospective of maritime archaeology, papers dealing with recent researches on maritime and underwater archaeology and allied disciplines are considered in this session. Studies on shipwrecks, sources on maritime archaeological studies, ports and trade routes, traditional boatbuilding technology, anchors are welcome. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Sila Tripati Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime and underwater archaeological explorations in Kenya: Recent discoveries Description An account of the resource Kenya is the first sub-Sahara African country to initiate an underwater archaeological expedition thus legally recognizing the value of underwater cultural heritage. This was after successful survey and excavation of the 17th Century Portuguese shipwreck, Santa Antonio De Tanna, in Mombasa. Kenya coast is part of the Western Indian Ocean; commonly referred to as the ‘Swahili coast’. This coast was a domain of foreigners from the early centuries of the first millennium AD. It was visited by the Greeks; controlled by the Arabs, Portuguese and the Europeans. In addition, it played a major role in ancient transoceanic maritime trade across the Indian Ocean Seaboard linking the Swahili Coast with the Arab world, India sub-continent, Far East and China, America and Europe. Owing to crude navigation and sea faring technologies of the time, there are on the seabed of Kenya traces of these interactions in the form of archaeological remains. Recent studies have shown that the Kenya coast is home to a number of shipwrecks and has immense potential in underwater cultural heritage. Drawing from ancient literature, previous and current maritime and underwater archaeological studies, and this paper presents the recent discoveries from underwater archaeological surveys in Kenya. The paper illustrates that there is immense potential for underwater archaeology in Kenya that requires new attention both in research and conservation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Caesar Bita, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 13 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/441a6e06092d6cbdbdbf82c563a63c83.pdf 69c4d9b45eed6d9d44e5325074d22952 PDF Text Text Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage at Kalaupapa National Historical Park: A Manager’s Perspective Erika Stein Espaniola National Park Service, Kalaupapa, 96742 Hawai’i United States E-mail: erika_stein@nps.gov Abstract Kalaupapa, an isolated peninsula with no road access, is situated on the north shore of the island of Molokai, Hawai`i. Though it has a long history of Native Hawaiian occupation, it is most well-known for its history as a Hansen’s disease (leprosy) settlement. Through the former patient’s advocacy efforts and concerns for their home and sacred place, the peninsula eventually became a National Historical Park in 1980. The Hawai`i state Department of Health (DOH), who co-manages the peninsula with the National Park Service (NPS), has rules that have essentially created an informal marine protected area containing resources with important indigenous cultural values. Due in part to its history, topography, and geography, Kalaupapa has been saved of wide-scale development providing us with outstanding preservation of maritime historic properties. Expanding maritime resources to include maritime and underwater cultural heritage values and biocultural heritage resources allows the NPS to more inclusively manage the site and provide stewardship opportunities, in light of inevitable change in the future. Keywords: Kalaupapa, Maritime, Underwater, Cultural Heritage, National Park, Management Introduction Nestled between Maui, Lana`i, and O`ahu, in the Hawaiian Island chain is the island of Molokai. On its north shore lays the Kalaupapa peninsula. Isolated and remote, its geologic, geographic and human histories have shaped the land and its adjoining valleys into a National Historic Landmark, National Natural Landmark, and an internationally sacred site. Its layered histories and abundant resources are permeated with significant heritage. With inevitable change approaching, Kalaupapa faces unique challenges in the years to come. At the forefront is ensuring that Kalaupapa retains its essence for future generations. 1 �The island of Molokai was first formed by the eruption of two shield volcanoes. It then endured a cataclysmic landslide, around 1,400,000 years ago, that dropped the northern third of Molokai into the sea, generating a 2,000 ft. high tsunami (Satake et al. 2002). A subsequent eruption of a small shield volcano, about 230,000 years ago (Stearns and Macdonald 1947), rose from the sea floor and abutted the rest of the land resulting in the island we see today and the north shore peninsula known by most as Kalaupapa, Fig. 1: The island of Molokai showing the peninsula of Kalaupapa and the NPS boundary in yellow. Author: NPS image though also referred to as Makanalua and Kalawao peninsula at various times throughout history. Kalaupapa has a long history of Native Hawaiian occupation (see McCoy 2007), but it is most well-known for its history as a Hansen’s disease (leprosy) settlement. Bounded by deep water on its three sides and 3,000 ft. cliff (pali) to the south, the peninsula is in effect, a ‘natural prison’. This combined with its perceived abundant agriculture, made Kalaupapa the ideal place to relocate those with the feared disease. The period of forced isolation stretched the years of 1866 through 1969, also resulting in the native people of the peninsula, the kāma`āina, to be dislocated from the land (Greene 1985). The renowned work of Father Damien and Mother Marianne were also completed within the era of forced isolation. Both individuals have since been canonized into sainthood, Saint Damien in 2009 and Saint Marianne in 2012. Kalaupapa remains the home to a declining population of people who were once afflicted with Hansen’s disease and banished to the location. Through the former patient’s advocacy efforts, the peninsula eventually became a National Historical Park in 1980. Presently, the peninsula is co-managed between the National Park Service (NPS) and the Hawai`i state Department of Health (DOH). Management responsibilities are divided with the NPS handling the utilities, grounds, historic preservation and natural resource conservation, and the DOH primarily providing care to the remaining former patients. Inevitably, the former patients will one day reach the end of their era, and when they do, the DOH will no longer have a reason to remain in Kalaupapa. The NPS is in the midst of drafting a general management plan (GMP), which 2 �provides guidance for park operations for the next 15-20 years and at the point of DOH’s eventual departure (see www.nps.gov/kala). For the protection and privacy of the remaining former patients, Kalaupapa Settlement Rules have been established and created in concert with the Patients Advisory Council. The rules are governed by the DOH as per Hawai`i Revised Statues (HRS), Chapter 326. The DOH’s rules for Kalaupapa Settlement are highly adhered to and greatly restrict access; enforce a limited resident population; and unless one is a former patient or employed at Kalaupapa, it also limits fishing and prohibits hunting and shellfish extraction, among other things. Furthermore, commercial activities within the park boundary must adhere to the NPS’s enabling legislation at Kalaupapa, which states that former patients have “first right of refusal to provide revenueproducing visitor services” (Public Law 96-565, Section 107). Today, only two patient businesses exist, one that provides a guided day tour of the site and a second that provides janitorial services contracted by the NPS. Commercial dive boats and fishing vessels are not present in Kalaupapa’s waters. Kalaupapa’s history is also free from large industry endeavors like cattle ranches; pineapple plantations; sugar plantations and wide-scale tourism. Combined with the history and its remoteness, this has left the peninsula with excellent examples of archaeological landscapes, historic architecture, and healthy natural and native ecosystems. In fact, it could be said that the combination of its remote location, history as a leprosarium, lack of extensive development, and restrictive rules have left Kalaupapa’s waters to have haphazardly created a marine protected area. This paper will look at a variety of maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH). It will consider three categories of MUCH at Kalaupapa: 1) maritime and underwater historic properties, 2) biocultural resources and 3) maritime and underwater cultural heritage values. The paper will briefly identify how they are currently being managed and provide some discussion on why broadening one’s understanding of maritime and underwater cultural heritage is beneficial to park managers, stakeholders and the general public. 3 �Maritime and Underwater Historic Properties at Kalaupapa Poking above the waterline, even at high tide, are the remnants of the ship Ka`ala. Ka`ala was enroute to O`ahu from Maui with a cargo of lumber when poor weather hit and she put in at Kalaupapa for safe haven in 1932. The weather was too rough that day and Ka`ala ran aground. (Greene 1985). Among town, it is said that the patients salvaged the lumber cargo in the dark and quiet of the night. Due to heavy weather on this side of the island (including the tsunami of 1946), wreckage is broadly scattered. The core area of the wreck, however, is in good shape. Mapping of the site has begun as well as its initial condition assessment. An inspection schedule and further management recommendations will be forthcoming. Fig. 2: Crew of Ka`ala. Author: Kalaupapa Historical Society Photo Collection Canoe landings, ko`a (fishing shrines) and a possible navigation heiau (temple) are some of the maritime historic properties that also dot the Fig. 2: Crew of Ka`ala. Author: Kalaupapa Historical Society Photo Collection landscape at Kalaupapa. Interestingly, one ko`a is considered to be a maritime historic property but found in the mountains (Summers 1971). These maritime historic properties have been inventoried and are on an inspection schedule to monitor their condition, possible threats, and any disturbances. They have been or will be mapped and photo documented as part of typical resource management practice. Kalaupapa’s Biocultural Resources Part of understanding biocultural resources is understanding the human environment. Through the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), a federal agency needs to consider, among other things, the human environment; that is, the cultural uses of the built and natural environments. Hawaiians are a sea-faring and maritime culture. There are mo`olelo (stories), aumakuas (family gods) and rituals that relate to the sea. For the purposes of this paper, biocultural resources are being defined as natural resources that are managed as part of a marine ecology resource management program and are also imbued with cultural value. Subsistence practices such as fishing, salt, and limu (seaweed) gathering have important indigenous cultural value. A proposal has been put forward to create a community-based 4 �subsistence fishing area on the northwest coast of Molokai, which would include Kalaupapa (Hui Mālama O Mo`omomi n.d.). To gain a sense of the importance of marine subsistence practices in Hawaiian culture, and especially the north shore of Molokai, the proposal points out that the local community are still defined by traditional Hawaiian values; that fishing is interwoven with all aspects of community life and cultural identify; that household seafood consumption in this area is Fig. 3: Boat Day, now known as Barge Day. Author: Kalaupapa Historical Society Photo Collection estimated to be about 10 times higher than the island of O`ahu and that subsistence fishing comprises about 38% of the food consumed by residents of Hawaiian ancestry in this area. The proposal is in its early stages but community-based management persists to the extent possible in these north shore communities. Kalaupapa is no stranger to the cultural importance of marine subsistence activities and the above cultural significance can be echoed here. Because of Kalaupapa’s DOH rules, and the haphazard marine protected area it has created, Kalaupapa has one of the healthiest fish populations in the eight main Hawaiian Islands. The fish populations are similar to some of the fish communities in the remote and human uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in terms of their numbers and size (Friedlander et al. 2008). Regular water quality monitoring, herbivory studies and all sorts of marine ecology inventories are undertaken as part of the NPS’s marine ecology resource management program. There are many other biocultural resources at Kalaupapa, too many to name in any detail here. Recall that Hawaiians are a maritime culture and so many aspects of daily life relate to the sea. While standard natural resource management methods are useful in tracking the health and stressors of these resources, the NPS has broadened its standard management practice to be more reticent of community concerns and cultural values. Some examples include scoping with the community before project implementation; sharing regular project updates at monthly community meetings; incorporating Hawaiian cultural protocol at the start of projects and at 5 �other given times; and becoming adaptive and flexible to modifying projects in light of new information or community concern. Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Values Maritime and underwater cultural heritage (MUCH) is certainly not a new concept in the discipline. At Kalaupapa, MUCH values have been interpreted to be various beliefs, rituals, oral traditions and significant events. This interpretation also includes a timescape concept. More than a timeline, these are events that, over time, cumulatively provide a sense of place, location, feeling, or setting. The heritage values to follow are not tangible but are still important facets of Kalaupapa’s history- and need to be managed into the future. The NPS must still make the attempt to determine if its undertakings may cause impacts to these MUCH values. Surfing at Kalaupapa Kalaupapa has beautiful waves prime for surfing, called Pua`ō “onslaught of dashing waves”, and was liked the best by the Molokai chiefs (Finney 1959: 347). It was said that “The waves are fearful but the boys of Kalaupapa that were skilled surf riders enjoyed riding on them. They are not mere things to be trifled with either.” (Summers 1971: 194). Many would say that these waves, and surfing in particular, are culturally valuable. At some point during the forced isolation era in Kalaupapa’s past, surfing became prohibited. Typically such rules were created in order to protect the patient’s health. Yet, the ‘no surfing’ rule persists today. Many of the same rules that were imposed on the former patients have in turn been imposed on the non-patient residents at Kalaupapa. Some former patients, and even some of the public, believe that surfing is a recreational activity and one not compatible with the sacredness of the peninsula. While a former patient community is still present, it will be up to them to decide whether or not they would like to change this rule. Once there is no longer a patient population, and the DOH leaves, the NPS will need to determine how best to manage surfing in the future. Fortunately, the NPS has identified the cultural (and conflicting) cultural values of surfing and will continue to gather information from the former patients and the public in order to inform this decision in the future. Port of Entry, Port to Exile Many of us wonder, what it was like to be exiled from family and friends and forced to live in an isolated place knowing that you would never be allowed to leave. For many patients, the Kalaupapa Landing was their port of entry to a life of exile. The landing was a liminal zone, a place where one transitions from being on the ‘outside’ to being a resident patient. An invaluable 6 �account, handwritten by Ambrose Hutchison, who was a patient at Kalaupapa from 1879, describes his experience of entering Kalaupapa from the landing: …cast into jail like a felon and sent to Honolulu in a sailing vessel and taken to the leper detention station….and put aboard a steamer named Mokolii… which put to sea, and the following morning came to anchor in the roadstead and put into a boat as human cargo and rowed ashore, and finally dumped at the landing place, a crevice in the rock-flat and left to the tender mercy of the officials in charge of the leper settlement…such is the fate men, women and children over whom the pronouncement of a Government physician the magic word leper, sealed their doomed, these afflicted and adjudged exiled for life from home and all they hold dear, to enter into a Penal Institution over its portal is inscribed the words: ‘He or she who enters here leave hope behind’ with all ambition and hope banished. Yes, to the wicked and sinners all too true, but not to penitents, hope lingers in their bossom. The sight that meet the eyes of a new exiled, comer, the disfigured ulcerated faces deformed, maimed, ulcerated hands and feet of the sufferers you meet. Your future associates make the heart sink and sick at the sight of suffering humanity. Contrast differently from that of the landscape panoramic view of promontory publicly known as Kalaupapa, rocky and treeless tract of land, but nevertheless clothed in the beauty of its surroundings, nature’s handiwork, make a lasting impression on the mind of an exiled stranger that after all it was not a bad place to live in. [Hutchison 1931: 64-65] Retaining the sense of isolation, setting, feeling and place will be imperative in honoring the story. Although not many people arrive to Kalaupapa by boat anymore, the peninsula still has no road access so anyone who has come to Kalaupapa has likely realized its peculiar logistical requirements. One’s choices are to come in on a steep trail via mule or their own two legs, or to be flown in on a small plane. The sense of isolation and remoteness are still there. Other aspects of managing the isolated setting and feeling of the place may be inspired by the panoramic view that Hutchison describes. Park management should be thoughtful that this view does not become obstructed. Regatta Day A 1948 publication gives a wonderful account of Regatta / Labor Day at Kalaupapa Settlement: If one happens to be at the Settlement on Regatta Day in September, one may shout with the rest over the events of numerous spirited swimming races at the 7 �wharf, with prizes of fresh cakes made by the girl patients themselves. All the contestants are young patients. The special event is the duck race in which ten or twelve white Pekin ducks are taken out in a boat and let out of their crate some thirty yards from shore. Without hesitation they turn and swim quietly for home until a dozen boys leap after them from the end of the concrete pier. Great is the shouting from spectators and splashing from both types of swimmers, the ducks often escaping by submerging like the good divers they are, and most of them managing to reach the rocky shore before being snatched up by neck and proudly exhibited by their captors. [Damon 1948: 43] Regatta and Labor Day events are no longer present at Kalaupapa. These were very physical activities and the present former patient community is elderly. Regardless, the non-patient community in Kalaupapa has occasionally brought back historic events that went stagnant for decades. Knowing that such activities existed in the past is telling of the lively community at Kalaupapa, even in the years of forced isolation. The whole story is not just one of isolation and exile, but it is also a story of community, hope and solace. While many former patients strongly care about educating the public on the hardships that they faced, many patients also want to be remembered not for what they suffered through but how they lived. It is important that the stewards of the site retain balance when interpreting and educating on this era of history and that these community and energetic events of their history are not forgotten. Discussion From a management perspective, widening our understanding of maritime and underwater cultural heritage to include, not only historic properties, but also biocultural resources, and other heritage values has helped us to learn more about the place we are protecting. The NPS is in the “forever” business; that is, protecting resources and their values, unimpaired, for the benefit of future generations. With Kalaupapa’s inevitable changes, (the final decline of the former patient population and the DOH’s departure) certain things will not be exactly the same as they were. It is necessary then, to understand Kalaupapa’s MUCH character and how best to retain it. Fig. 4: Opening of Regatta / Labor Day sports activities 8 at Kalaupapa Pier, 1953. Author: Kalaupapa Historical Society Photo Collection �Some of the abovementioned heritage values speak about Kalaupapa’s character; the isolation and sense of community, for example. Management could also look at certain events, and the patient’s interaction with them, to see if they may be indicative of character. We wouldn’t want to recreate incidents such as the wrecking of Ka`ala for example, but through the patients salvaging the lumber, we see that the event is telling of resourcefulness and adaptation. Resourcefulness is character-defining value in Kalaupapa. We’ve seen it other places on the peninsula; through the reuse of bottle glass into blades; adapting everyday implements to create better tools for impaired bodies; and the reuse of fishing net into fencing. Identifying MUCH Properties, Resources and Values Obviously, the first step in understanding how to manage a site containing MUCH values is to identify what MUCH values exist. Expanding MUCH generally, has led to integrated resource management; acceptance that there is cultural value in many natural resources; and respect to stakeholders in how they interact with the natural environment. Applying the human environment concept is helpful. Take salt gathering places for example. It’s not just the locales that are significant, but also the roads and pathways to them. At Kalaupapa, where the primary stakeholder is an aging population, it’s essential that those roads to salt gathering locations are accessible, especially since now, they are driven to by car. It’s also advantageous to be open to feedback and to realize when a mistake was made. Take the salt gathering locations again. Several jeep trails were created over time and a roadblock was erected to allow the grass to grow back. Even though the proposal was brought to a community meeting, one key stakeholder was not in attendance. The roadblock obstructed the easiest road access to a salt gathering location. This was an easy-fix case, luckily, and the road block was removed. Certainly, not all undertakings may have such an easy fix and it’s essential that a manager be cautious and cognizant of Fig. 5: Regatta Day at Kalaupapa Pier, 1953. Author: Kalaupapa Historical Society Photo Collection potential cumulative impacts and even the cumulative effects of making mistakes. It would seem that the key is constant communication and being open to comment. Again, for 9 �Kalaupapa resource managers, this is especially important now while the former patients are around so we can better understand how they interacted with the resources to inform our management into the future. Imua, Moving Forward Making the attempt to incorporate indigenous and former patient perspective into everyday management is important. Having these folks as a part of the NPS team is one approach in achieving this. Kalaupapa National Historical Park’s enabling legislation actually states that native Hawaiians and former patients should receive training opportunities to enhance their chances of becoming managers and stewards of Kalaupapa. The enabling legislation also states the hiring preference for native Hawaiians. About half the NPS staff at Kalaupapa are native Hawaiians and they range through the various work departments and management levels. Another method of incorporating indigenous and former patient perspective is through regular scoping, consultation and community meetings. We’ve also invited former patients to be a part of our planning teams. Many did join the team for the long-term general management plan. Others are commissioners on the NPS’s advisory committee. Further, more and more local and Hawaiian students are showing interest in resource management. The resource management departments at Kalaupapa have made a particular effort to engage with students from the rest of Molokai and Hawai`i universities. The NPS has regular interaction with University of Hawai`i students and every summer, Kalaupapa radiates a younger energy when they join the team and further their education in terrestrial and marine ecology; museum studies; and archaeology while providing the NPS with workforce. There is certainly still room to grow. It can be echoed here that the acceptance of nonperfection; being open to feedback and being adaptive allows a manager to more effectively incorporate cultural values into management practices. Through the expanding MUCH at Kalaupapa, heritage values can more aptly be managed into the future ensuring that the landscape and character of Kalaupapa will be available to future generations. Bibliography Damon, E.M, 1948. Siloama The Church of the Healing Spring: The Story of Certain Almost Forgotten Protestant Churches. The Hawaiian Board of Missions, Honolulu, HI. Finney, B and J.D Houston, 1996. Surfing: A History of the Ancient Hawaiian Sport. Pomegranate Artbooks, Rohner Park, CA. 10 �Friedlander, A., G. Aeby, R. Brainard, E. Brown, K. Chaston, A. Clark, P. McGowan, T. Montgomery, W. Walsh, I. Williams, and W. Wiltse, 2008. “The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Main Hawaiian Islands” In The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States, edited by J. Waddell 219-61. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS11. Silver Spring, MD: NOAA/NCCOS Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s Biogeography Team. Greene, L. W., 1985. Exile in Paradise: The Isolation of Hawai`i’s Leprosy Victims and Development of Kalaupapa Settlement, 1865 to Present. Historic Resource Study, prepared for the National Park Service, Denver Service Center, Denver, CO. Hui Mālama O Mo`omomi, n.d. “Proposal to Designate the Northwest Coast of Moloka`i a Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area” prepared for the Department of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawai`i Hutchison, A.T., 1931. In Memory of Revered Father Damien J. DeVeuster and Other Priests Who Have Labored in the Leper Settlement of Kalawao, Molokai. Typed manuscript available at Kalaupapa National Historical Park. McCoy, M.D., 2007. “A Revised late Holocene Culture for Moloka`i Island, Hawai`i.” Radiocarbon 49.3: 1273-1322 Satake, K., J.R. Smith, and K. Shinozaki, 2002. “Volume estimate and tsunami modeling for the Nuuanu and Wailau landslides.” In Hawai`ian Volcanoes: Deep Underwater Perspectives, edited by E. Takahashi, P.W. Lipman, M.O. Garcia, J. Naka and S. Aramaki 333-48, vol. 128. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. Stearns, H.T. and G.A. Macdonald, 1947. Geology and Ground-water Resources of the Island of Molokai, Hawai`i. Honolulu, HI: Hawai`i Division of Hydrography, Bulletin 11. Summers, C.C., 1971. “Moloka`i: A Site Survey.” Pacific Anthropological Records 14. Honolulu, HI: Bishop Museum Department of Anthropology. Biography: Erika Stein Espaniola earned her Masters of Maritime Archaeology from James Cook University in Queensland, Australia. She concentrated her thesis research on indigenous perspectives of WWII material in the Solomon Islands. Erika then worked as a contract archaeologist throughout the Hawaiian Islands before she joined the US National Park Service (NPS) in Kalaupapa. During her NPS tenure, Erika has been an archaeologist, the cultural resource program manager, and is presently the Superintendent at Kalaupapa National Historical Park. She has particular interest in maritime societies, indigenous cultures, and integrated resource management. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 10: Indigenous Cultural Landscapes and Biocultural Resources in Hawaii and the Pacific Subject The topic of the resource Video interviews with Session 10 chair Dr. Kehau Watson and panel participants William J Aila Jr. and Kepa Maly, and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Responding to the effort to protect both natural and cultural resources within the marine environment for the benefit of present and future generations, state and federal resource management agencies have been re-examining their cultural resource preservation mandates. New understanding of cultural heritage, marine cultural resources, tribes, indigenous peoples, and cultural landscapes is beginning to emerge. It is clear that “all traces of human existence that lie under water and have a cultural or historical character” (UCH) includes much more than simply shipwrecks and aircraft. The potential for these new definitions to engage local communities and associated disciplines and to address biocultural conservation needs is great, particularly for indigenous communities in Hawaii and the Pacific who are currently undertaking extraordinary efforts to plan for and protect their resources from climate change and other environmental threats. By integrating indigenous cultural landscapes and their related biocultural resources into a dynamic paradigm on underwater cultural heritage, the field looks to gain allies across stakeholder groups and develop its relevancy for younger generations, thus helping to ensure long-range traction for the preservation of all underwater heritage resources. Participants in this session will focus on policy and research issues in indigenous cultural landscapes, and the dynamic nature of cultural heritage management in Hawai‘i and across the Pacific. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Kehau Watson Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage at Kalaupapa National Historical Park: A Manager's Perspective Description An account of the resource Kalaupapa, an isolated peninsula with no road access, is situated on the north shore of the island of Molokai, Hawai`i. Though it has a long history of Native Hawaiian occupation, it is most well-known for its history as a Hansen’s disease (leprosy) settlement. Through the former patient’s advocacy efforts and concerns for their home and sacred place, the peninsula eventually became a National Historical Park in 1980. The Hawai`i state Department of Health (DOH), who co-manages the peninsula with the National Park Service (NPS), has rules that have essentially created an informal marine protected area containing resources with important indigenous cultural values. Due in part to its history, topography, and geography, Kalaupapa has been saved of wide-scale development providing us with outstanding preservation of maritime historic properties. Expanding maritime resources to include maritime and underwater cultural heritage values and biocultural heritage resources allows the NPS to more inclusively manage the site and provide stewardship opportunities, in light of inevitable change in the future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Erika Stein Espaniola, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 10 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Archaeology and Shipwreck Ceramics in Malaysia / Sjostrand, Sten. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Roxanna M Brown Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Published on the occasion of the exhibition Malaysian Maritime Archaeology by Dept. of Museums & Antiquities in collaboration with Nanhai Marine Archaeology Sdn. Bhd. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Roxanna M Brown Item Type Book ISBN 9679935167 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Place Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Published on the occasion of the exhibition Malaysian Maritime Archaeology by Dept. of Museums & Antiquities in collaboration with Nanhai Marine Archaeology Sdn. Bhd. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Archaeology and Shipwreck Ceramics in Malaysia / Sjostrand, Sten. Malaysia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f3652dd25b3d76dd7d326655d335d8a8.pdf d1ef307b45df57e446ef643f5247c761 PDF Text Text Maritime archaeology in New Zealand: trials, tribulations and opportunities Matthew Carter and Andy Dodd Abstract New Zealand is an island nation that was initially settled via the sea firstly by Polynesian voyagers and later by a European maritime culture. These two groups traded and traversed in and along the coastline leaving considerable physical evidence of their seafaring ways. Today this maritime past is reflected in more than 2000 shipwrecks as well as numerous canoe landing sites, fish traps, inundated villages and sunken canoes. Despite this wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and a strong legislative base for the protection of archaeological sites, maritime archaeology in New Zealand is significantly underdeveloped with no effective program for the management or protection of UCH. As a consequence the public of New Zealand rarely views shipwrecks and other UCH as sites that need to be protected. This lack of perceived value results in limited funding being available for the investigation or management of maritime archaeological sites and as such developmental pressures, commercial salvage and fossicking continue to damage this non-renewable resource. Although these are major challenges there are still considerable opportunities for underwater archaeology in New Zealand. Increased awareness of underwater cultural heritage can be achieved by engaging the public in various ways such as through Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology/Nautical Archaeology Society (AIMA/NAS) training courses. In addition, the global nature of New Zealand‟s maritime trade means that there is enormous scope for international collaboration between researchers at a diverse range of organisations around the world. Such actions would help provide the impetus for capacity building and the eventual establishment of an effective maritime archaeology program in New Zealand. Introduction New Zealand is an island nation that was initially settled via the sea firstly by Polynesian voyagers and later by a European maritime culture. These two groups traded and traversed in and along the coastline leaving considerable physical evidence of their seafaring ways. Notwithstanding this wealth of UCH and a strong legislative framework for the protection of heritage sites, maritime archaeology is significantly underdeveloped within New Zealand. As a result no formal positions exist for the research, protection or management of UCH. Despite this shortcoming, a number of maritime archaeological projects have been undertaken by volunteer groups with considerable success. These projects have shown the potential that the investigation of UCH has to contribute to our understanding of New Zealand's past and the opportunities that exist for maritime archaeology in the future. New Zealand’s Underwater Cultural Heritage New Zealand‟s diverse topography means that UCH is not restricted to the open sea but also includes sites in estuaries, rivers, streams, lakes and swamps. These waterways include both those of natural occurrence and those created or maintained through human intervention. Where they remain in a largely unmodified state, New Zealand‟s waterways and wetlands have yielded significant archaeological finds. They have potential to preserve significant archaeological information relating to �New Zealand‟s maritime heritage. The UCH of New Zealand includes both resources of Maori and European origin. The underwater resources of European origin cover the period of the maritime exploration and the colonisation of New Zealand (17691900 A.D.) and include around 1500 documented shipwrecks (of which only around 10% have been relocated), military sites, wharves, navigation markers, ballast dumps, slipways and debris (Dodd 2003:151; Churchill 1991:7). Equally important are Maori underwater heritage sites which date from as early as the mid thirteenth century (Higham and Jones 2004:215). These sites include canoe landings, eel weirs, fish traps, inundated villages and sunken canoes (McCarthy 2006:9; Gumbley et al 2005; Campbell 1977:139). All of these resources offer significant opportunities for maritime and underwater archaeology as well as the potential for advancement of terrestrial archaeology through the provision of comparative assemblages and material culture that does not survive in a dry environment. Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage As an island nation many New Zealanders feel a strong connection with the ocean and waterways and as a result an attitude of open availability and equal participation in relation to marine resources is widespread. Perhaps as result of this outlook many divers believe sites such as shipwrecks are available to all and that anyone has the right to take artefacts or items off them (Dodd 2003:151). Unfortunately such unregulated fossicking leads to a fragmentation of the material culture and a loss of context, thus essentially limiting the material‟s usefulness in scientific inquiry (Green 2004:10). Furthermore, such looted materials are rarely conserved properly and are often lost to all through corrosion or decay (Churchill 1991:8). In addition, coastal and inland underwater sites are also becoming increasingly threatened by the plans of other users of the coastal marine area who place pressure on these sites through the construction of infrastructure such as marinas, port expansion, undersea pipelines and drilling, and carry out activities such as dredging, marine farming and mineral extraction. These developments often disturb the equilibrium of the environment which has preserved the underwater site and may accelerate the processes of site destruction. UCH resources in New Zealand are also threatened by natural post-depositional processes which include sedimentation, currents, corrosion, marine growth, and mechanical disturbances due to wave action and earthquakes (Gould 2000:2). These natural and cultural processes threaten our underwater heritage and as such have significant implications for the protection, preservation and management of UCH in New Zealand. Heritage Legislation in New Zealand The protection of New Zealand‟s cultural heritage resources (including terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites) is provided for by three main acts: the Protected Objects Act (1975), the Resource Management Act (1991) and the Historic Places Act (1993). These acts combine to create a legislative landscape that is supportive �to the protection and management of historic heritage (Vossler 2000:68). Despite the fact that this legislation provides the basis for the control and sponsoring of both submerged and terrestrial archaeology in New Zealand, its application to underwater cultural resources has yet to be undertaken in a systematic or significant way (Dodd 2003:151; McKinlay 1977:23). Protected Objects Act 1975 The Protected Objects Act provides for the protection of certain objects by regulating the export of protected New Zealand objects and also allows for the ownership of ngataongatuturu (Maori artefacts) to be awarded through the Maori Land Court. The Protected Objects Act repealed the Antiquities Act 1975 in 2006 and makes it unlawful to export Protected Objects without a certificate of permission from the Ministry for Culture and Heritage who administer the Act. Protected New Zealand objects are objects: forming part of the movable cultural heritage of New Zealand that - (a) is of importance to New Zealand, or to a part of New Zealand, for aesthetic, archaeological, architectural, artistic, cultural, historical, literary, scientific, social, spiritual, technological, or traditional reasons; and (b) falls within 1 or more of the categories of protected objects set out in Schedule 4 (Protected Objects Act 1975: section 2). Schedule 4 of the Act includes, “New Zealand archaeological objects. This category consists of any objects, assemblages, scientific samples, organic remains derived from a New Zealand archaeological site, as defined by the Historic Places Act 1993” (Protected Objects Act 1975: schedule 4). In this way the Protected Objects Act can be used to protect artefacts from underwater cultural heritage sites from being exported out of New Zealand. Resource Management Act (1991) Although the Resource Management Act (RMA) is not primarily concerned with the protection of heritage resources, it provides considerable scope for the management of terrestrial and submerged archaeological sites. The purpose of the act is to ensure the sustainable management of natural and physical resources (RMA section 5). Under this Act archaeological sites are considered „physical resources‟ and local authorities are required to recognise and provide for the protection of historic heritage as a matter of national importance (RMA section 6). Under the RMA the role of local authorities includes: The preservation of historic heritage from inappropriate subdivision, use and development. And recognition of the relationship of Maori and their culture and traditions with their ancestral lands, waters, sites, waahi tapu and other taonga. (RMA Section 6) The influence of the RMA on archaeological practice is twofold. Firstly the RMA requires an assessment of environmental effects when applying for resource �consent. This assessment process includes both terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites and the consent may not be given if such a site is threatened by the intended development (Walton and Keefe 2004:271; Gumbley et al. 2005:19). The second influence of the RMA is increased responsibility for councils in identifying and managing historic heritage. Regional councils and local authorities must now have plans, rules, policies and objectives as to how they will manage the matters that the RMA puts within their responsibility (Gumbley et al. 2005:18). Regional and local authority plans are reviewed on a ten yearly cycle, however, with the exception of the Auckland Regional Council, few plans adopted policies and schedules specific to the protection of historic heritage in the coastal marine area, but this is becoming more common in second generation plans. Historic Places Act (1993) The Historic Places Act (HPA) provides the primary legislation for heritage management in New Zealand (Walton and Keefe 2004:273). The purpose of this act is to “promote the identification, protection, preservation, and conservation of the historical and cultural heritage of New Zealand” (HPA section 4). This Act defines archaeological sites as: …any place in New Zealand that – Either – (a) Was associated with human activity that occurred before 1900; or (b) Is the site of the wreck of any vessel where that wreck occurred before 1900; and (c) Is or may be able through investigation by archaeological methods to provide evidence relating to the history of New Zealand (HPA schedule 2). In relation to archaeological practice, the HPA established a system for the control of works that could adversely affect an archaeological site (Vossler 2000:62; Barber 2000:25). At the centre of this management system is the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (NZHPT) whose purpose is to promote and preserve the historic and cultural heritage of New Zealand. The NZHPT principal statutory functions are the registration of historic places, advocacy and public education (http://www.historic.org.nz/). The NZHPT also exercises statutory power to protect archaeological sites through the HPA which essentially imposes blanket protection for both terrestrial and underwater archaeological sites making it illegal for any person to destroy, damage or modify any part of a site without an authority obtained from the Historic Places Trust (Barber 1998:59). The provisions of the HPA apply to archaeological sites irrespective of whether they are currently registered or recorded (Vossler 2000:64). �History of Underwater Archaeology in New Zealand Sports diving in New Zealand began in the 1950s, and a number of diving clubs started up around this time (Gordon 1999). The earliest underwater shipwreck surveys in New Zealand were undertaken in the 1960‟s by pioneers such as Kelly Tarlton however, the prevailing philosophy of the time was directed towards salvage and exploration rather than preservation and conservation (Sale 1988:182; Dodd 2003:155). In recent years the practice of underwater archaeology in New Zealand has been furthered in three main ways; through the work of volunteer groups, the teaching of AIMA/NAS training courses and the registration of shipwrecks as historic places. Avocational projects The need to control and direct maritime archaeology in New Zealand led to the establishment of the Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand (MAANZ) in 1989 (Churchill 1991:7). Through this association a number of underwater and maritime heritage sites have been subject to archaeological attention. Mahanga Bay wharf A series of coastal military defences were built around New Zealand in the 1880s, in response to a perceived threat from the Russian navy. A small wharf was built in Mahanga Bay on the Miramar Peninsula in Wellington to service the torpedo boats that were stationed there. In 1993-1994 and 2000 MAANZ undertook a survey and investigation of the remnants of the historic wharf. The purpose of this work was to locate and map the remains of the wharf and associated artefacts. The history of the construction, use and demise of the wharf was also researched and a report published (MAANZ 2005). Surveying & condition report on Hydrabad The square rigged sailing ship Hydrabad was wrecked on Waitarere Beach (north of Wellington) in 1878. Successive storms and dynamic beach action have left the wreck well above high water mark. The wreck is now inundated with sand, and is periodically uncovered and re-covered through storm and wind action. The Waitarere Residents Association invited MAANZ to undertake an investigation of the wreck to help in decision making on the future of the wreck. This investigation was undertaken in 1997 and involved the mapping and assessment of the wreck site and the taking of samples to assess the composition of the ship. A report was compiled outlining the history of the ship and also the results of the survey (MAANZ 1998) and the site continues to be visited and photographed by MAANZ members. The Horowhenua District Council has recently installed updated interpretative signage at Waitarere and the site was nominated for historic place registration by MAANZ in 2010. It was assessed by NZHPT and awarded category II historic place registration in 2011. This officially recognised the wreck site as a place “of historical or cultural heritage significance or value to New Zealanders” (HPA section 23). �Mapping & park proposal for Evans Bay Patent Slip A patent slip operated at Evans Bay on the edge of the Wellington Harbour from the 1870s until well into the 20th century. The rails of the slipway remain intact, as does buried slipway machinery. MAANZ supervised a geophysical survey of the site to determine the amount of subsurface equipment still extant, and successfully lobbied the city council to extend the extent of the protected heritage area. Inconstant project The Inconstant was wrecked on Wellington‟s coast in 1849, and refloated on the coastal edge of the city as a floating warehouse and bond store. The ship was eventually inundated by reclamation and revealed again during refurbishment of the overlying historic buildings in 1996. Archaeologists revealed and recorded the fabric of the ship, some of which remain in situ and on public display. MAANZ members were actively involved in the processing and curating of artefacts from the site (O‟Keeffe 1993). On-going conservation of artefacts on the Hikitia In 1997 MAANZ had opened their dedicated conservation laboratory aboard the Hikitia, one of the two remaining floating cranes in the world. MAANZ converted one of the below decks spaces into a laboratory to conserve objects from maritime archaeological sites. The lab operates on a volunteer basis and is available to conserve objects for the general public and museums. The lab is also a key resource for the association's education and information program. The activities of this avocational body have greatly furthered the development of maritime archaeology in New Zealand. AIMA/NAS courses Six AIMA/NAS courses have been run in New Zealand since 2002. These courses are targeted towards providing recreational divers with basic information about underwater archaeology, site recording and conservation. The first AIMA/NAS Training courses in New Zealand were held in February-March 2002 by Mark Staniforth and Cosmos Coroneos who conducted two Part 1 Training courses at the Museum of City and Sea, Wellington. Three further Part 1 & 2 courses were run in November-December 2008 in Auckland, Wellington and Dunedin. Peter Ross and James Hunter tutored the courses which were facilitated by Department of Conservation and also included input from Otago and Auckland University specialists in underwater photogrammetry and wet wood conservation. In June 2011 a Part 1 course was run in Tauranga by Andy Dodd and Robert Brassey for divers involved in the ssTaupo recording project being coordinated by Shane Wasik. These courses have promoted the field of underwater archaeology to a diverse range of interest groups. �NZHPT shipwreck registrations Shipwreck sites and sites in the coastal marine area have been under represented in New Zealand‟s Historic Places Trust Register. The first ship wreck to be registered was the ssVictory (no.5712), wrecked on the Otago Peninsula in 1861 and registered in 1985. In more recent years new registrations have included the 1881 ssTararua wreck site, cemetery and Waipapa Lighthouse (no.7785) registered 2009, ps1Tasmanian Maid wrecked off New Plymouth in 1868 (no. 9521) and ssAlexandra wrecked off Puke Aruhe in 1865 (no. 9520) both registered in 2010, and the 1878 Hydrabad wreck site at Waitarere Beach (no. 9559) registered 2011. By placing these ships on the Historic Places Trust Register they are provided with a greater level of protection and increased public awareness about these unique sites. Opportunities for the Future New Zealand has a small but active number of technical divers who regularly dive shipwrecks at depths of 40-120 metres. Collaboration with these highly skilled and trained individuals offers the opportunity to investigate shipwrecks that have only been minimally impacted by the actions of divers. Such cooperation has the potential to not only gain valuable information from these archaeological sites but also to establish a principle of custodianship which would help protect these wrecks for future archaeological investigation. Further AIMA/NAS courses for recreational divers in New Zealand could improve diver appreciation of shipwreck conservation and may encourage some people to seek further education in maritime archaeology. It can also be a positive means of promoting a responsible attitude towards wreck diving amongst dive clubs and shops that might see value in promoting the conservation of local shipwreck sites. To date, courses have only been held in a limited number of locations around the country. By ensuring that courses are spread more evenly around New Zealand more divers will be able to attend and become involved in maritime projects. Encouraging archaeology students from Auckland University and the University of Otago with an interest in maritime history and archaeology to attend these courses may also mean more students formally incorporate maritime archaeology into their studies. New Zealand‟s rich maritime heritage includes a tradition of Colonial shipbuilding and repair that is represented in the archaeological record in the form of shipwrecks and other maritime infrastructure. In Australia the archaeological study of Colonial shipbuilding has been a major area of research within the field of maritime archaeology (e.g. see Coroneos 1996; Bullers 2006; O‟Reilly 2007). This research has provided a great deal of information about the construction of early Australian built wooden sailing vessels and the role of shipbuilding in Colonial society. Like Australia the archaeological investigation of shipwrecks and shipbuilding yards 1 paddle steamer �around New Zealand has the potential to significantly increase our understanding of this formative industry and could provide an area for Trans-Tasman research. A notable component of the maritime archaeological record of New Zealand is the presence of ship‟s graveyards which are found within a number of the country‟s harbours. The vessels that make up these graveyards have considerable archaeological value with the potential to offer insights into, not only, propulsion and shipbuilding technologies from the 19th and 20th centuries but also the diversity of craft that plied the waterway of New Zealand. Such archaeological investigations could facilitate the comparison and contrast of abandonment processes in relation to ship‟s graveyards around New Zealand and also with such work undertaken internationally. Conclusions New Zealand has a rich maritime heritage which is evidenced by a range of UCH sites of both Maori and European origin. Unfortunately the underdeveloped nature of maritime archaeology in New Zealand means that this resource suffers from a lack of active management and protection. As such, much of the maritime archaeological work that has taken place in New Zealand has been undertaken by volunteers. It is hoped that by working with such interested parties and collaboration with international researchers will help to provide the impetus for capacity building and the eventual establishment of an effective maritime archaeology program in New Zealand. Bibliography Barber, I., 2000 Bullers, R., 2006 Churchill, D., 1991 Coroneos, C., 1996 Dodd, A., 2003 Green, J.N., 2004 Gordon, K., 1999 Gould, R.A., 2000 “Archaeological Heritage management Reform in New Zealand: What Happened?”, in Archaeology in New Zealand, 43(1), pp. 2236. “Quality Assured: Shipbuilding in Colonial South Australia and Tasmania” in Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Monograph Series Number 8, Flinders University, Adelaide. “The Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand MAANZ (Inc)”, in The Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 15(1), pp. 7-10. “One interpretation for the short working lives of early Australian wooden sailing vessels in Victorian waters", in The Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 15, pp. 7-14. “Opportunities for Underwater Archaeology in New Zealand”, in Archaeology in New Zealand, 46(3), pp.151-160. Maritime Archaeology: A Technical Handbook, Elsevier Academic Press, London. "Deep beginnings", in Dive New Zealand Magazine, Archaeology and the Social History of Ships, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. �Gumbley, W. Johns, D., and Law, G., 2005 Higham, T., and Jones, M., 2004 MAANZ., 1998 MAANZ., 2005 McCarthy, M., 2006 McKinley, J.R., 1977 O‟Keeffe, M., 1993 O‟Reilly, R., 2007 Sale, E.V., 1988 Walton, T., and Keefe, M., 2004 Vossler, M., 2006 Management of wetland archaeological sites in New Zealand, Science for Conservation 246. "Chronology and Settlement", in (eds) L. Furey, and S. Holdaway, Change through time: 50 years of New Zealand Archaeology, NZAA, Monograph 26. Investigation of the wreck of the Hydrabad, The Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand, Mahanga Bay Wharf Archaeological Survey. The Maritime Archaeological Association of New Zealand, "Maritime Archaeology in Australasia; Reviews and Overviews", in (eds.) Mark Staniforth and Mike Nash, Maritime Archaeology: Australian Approaches, Springer Science + Business Media Inc, New York. “The New Zealand Historic Places Trust and the laws covering Marine Archaeology in New Zealand:, in (ed.) Jeremy Green, papers from the First Southern Hemisphere Conference on Maritime Archaeology, Australian Sports Publications, Melbourne. "The Inconstant shipwreck Wellington, New Zealand", in Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 23, pp.121126. An assessment of Australian built wooden sailing vessels (constructed between 1850 - 1899) operating the South Australian intrastate trade: methods and materials, Flinders University Maritime Archaeology Monograph Series Number 5. Kelly. The Adventurous Life of Kelly Tarlton, Lee Printing Co, Auckland. "Archaeological Heritage Management", in (eds) L. Furey and S. Holdaway, Change through time: 50 years of New Zealand Archaeology, NZAA, Monograph 26. "Sense of Nonsense? Heritage Legislation in Perspective", in (ed) A. Trapeznik, Common Ground? Heritage and Public Places in New Zealand, University of Otago Press, Dunedin. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime archaeology in New Zealand: trials, tribulations and opportunities Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 Pacific Islands region: Building UCH Capacity Description An account of the resource New Zealand is an island nation that was initially settled via the sea firstly by Polynesian voyagers and later by a European maritime culture. These two groups traded and traversed in and along the coastline leaving considerable physical evidence of their seafaring ways. Today this maritime past is reflected in more than 2000 shipwrecks as well as numerous canoe landing sites, fish traps, inundated villages and sunken canoes. Despite this wealth of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) and a strong legislative base for the protection of archaeological sites, maritime archaeology in New Zealand is significantly underdeveloped with no effective program for the management or protection of UCH. As a consequence the public of New Zealand rarely views shipwrecks and other UCH as sites that need to be protected. This lack of perceived value results in limited funding being available for the investigation or management of maritime archaeological sites and as such developmental pressures, commercial salvage and fossicking continue to damage this non-renewable resource. Although these are major challenges there are still considerable opportunities for underwater archaeology in New Zealand. Increased awareness of underwater cultural heritage can be achieved by engaging the public in various ways such as through Australian Institute of Maritime Archaeology/Nautical Archaeology Society (AIMA/NAS) training courses. In addition, the global nature of New Zealand’s maritime trade means that there is enormous scope for international collaboration between researchers at a diverse range of organisations around the world. Such actions would help provide the impetus for capacity building and the eventual establishment of an effective maritime archaeology program in New Zealand. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Matthew Carter Andy Dodd Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 8 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/057f2b28fbb1d5bba3d04aa9a82d48f2.pdf c24516f4c28cb0ce0b4718bd32c19a62 PDF Text Text Maritime Archaeology of Gujarat: Northwest coast of India A.S. Gaur and Sundaresh Abstract rd The evidence of maritime activity in India may be traced back to the Bronze Age (early 3 nd millennium BC to mid- 2 millennium BC). The excavation of several Harappan sites including Lothal, Kuntasi, Padri, Nageshwar, Bagasra and many others have conclusively demonstrated an advance maritime culture during the third millennium Before Christ (BC). During the historical period several coastal towns had international trade and commerce including Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Hathab, Vallabhi, and Bharuch. Maritime activity reached it’s zenith in Gujarat during th th the Medieval period (8 to 14 century AD) when Arab traders dominated the Indian Ocean for over a millennia. Underwater investigations have been carried out at various places along the Saurashtra coast and a large number of stone anchors were found. This paper also discusses the effect of tide when using jetties and anchoring points along various parts of the west coast India. The archaeological evidence indicates that two gulfs along the Gujarat coast (Gulf Kachchh and Gulf of Khambhat) witnessed the hectic maritime activities in the past. Both gulfs have very high tidal ranges. The Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal range in India (11 meters). Ancient texts such as Vishnu Puran and Periplus of the Eruthreanean Sea vividly describe the tidal range and its uses in navigation. The discovery of the large number of stone anchors in the inter tidal zone along the gulf region support the above references. Introduction Maritime activities along the Gujarat coast dates back to the Harappan period and extensive excavations at Lothal (Rao 1974:70), Kuntasi (Dhavalikar, et al. 1996:76), Nageshwar (Hegde, et al. 1990:152), Bagasra (Sonawane, et al. 2003:41) and Nagwada (Bhan and Gowda 2003:51-80) have yielded conclusive evidence on maritime practices during the 3rd millennium BC. During the historical period (3rd century BC to 4th century AD) a series of ports existed all along the Gujarat coast and important among them were Nani Rayan (Irani and Dandekar 2003:91-97) Bet Dwarka (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66), Dwarka (Ansari and Mate 1966), Vallabhi, and Hathab (Pramanik 2004:133-140). Whereas by the Medieval period (8th to 14th century AD) the entire Gujarat coast had series of ports. Gujarat coast is punctuated with several creeks and seasonal rivers that facilitated safe harbours all along the coast. The waters around the Gujarat coast are also rich in marine resources, such as shells which were used as food as well as export products. Conch shell have been a major economy source for many fishermen in Gujarat (Pota and Patel 1991:445-450). The important sites of the maritime archaeological investigations along the Gujarat coast include Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Miyani, Visawada, Somnath, Kodinar and Ghogha (Figure 1). The brief descriptions of the findings from these sites are provided in the following paragraphs. �Figure 1. Map showing archaeological sites mentioned in the manuscript along Gujarat coast (Prepared by. S.B. Chitari) Dwarka Dwarka was the first site in India where marine archaeological exploration commenced and investigations continued for almost two decades (Rao 1988:4753; Gaur, et al. 2004:1256-60). A number of artifacts were discovered during offshore explorations between 3 and 16 m water depths. Several stone structures were noticed off Dwarka and they are of various shapes and sizes. A few semicircular structures are partially intact and have jointed with hard binding material. The semicircular structures were constructed by using L-shaped blocks with provision for dowels (Gaur, et al. 2008:16). Besides semicircular blocks, a large number of rectangular blocks have been noticed in this area. They are scattered over a vast area and do not follow any regular plan. These blocks are found close to the semicircular structures, which indicate that these might have been parts of a larger structure. The circular and semicircular structures are presumably the bases of pillars and rectangular and square dressed blocks are of a main jetty structure that ran from shore into the water and continued until 300 m offshore. Hasmukh Sankalia (1966:10) has mentioned that “Sayajirao Gaekwad of Baroda had built a dock along the Gomati creek and a landing place on the opposite side, with huge stone pillars to facilitate tying the ship”. It is quite �likely that the remains lying on the shore and offshore regions are remains of the same dock. The presence of stone anchors that are lying along these structures also supports this hypothesis. Along with stone structures a large number of stone anchors of different shape and sizes were noticed between the inter-tidal zone and 16 m water depth, the concentration of them being in 6 to 8 m water depth (Sundaresh, et al. 1999:229-252). Broadly these anchors have been divided into three groups, a) Composite anchors: majority of the anchors have been chiseled out of a thin limestone block triangular in shape but often the narrower portion has a half circle with a circular hole known as rope hole and two rectangular or square holes on the wider side called fluke hole. The biggest anchor of this variety has a length of 1.8 meter and maximum width 86 centimeters (cm) and the estimated weight is 496 kilograms (kg) (Figure 2). The smallest anchor weighs 16 kg. b) Indo-Arabia type of anchors were cut from a hard and long stone block with a tapering on one side and a circular hole and the other side with two rectangular or square holes on either face of the block (Gaur, et al. 2004a:134-51). The biggest anchor has a length of 2.37 m, a width of 40 cm and an estimated weight of 668 kg while the smallest anchor with its shape fully preserved has an estimated weight of 82 kg. c) Ring stone anchors: twenty-four ring stone anchors have been found from Dwarka water and they are of various sizes (Gaur, et al. 2002: 390-404). The biggest has a height of 50 cm and diameter 52 cm and an estimated weight of 245 kg whereas the smallest ring stone weighs 20 kg. Similar types of ring stones have been reported from Oman waters (Vosmer 1999: 301). �Figure 2. Dwarka: Composite type stone anchor (Photo by S.N. Bandodkar in 2001) Bet Dwarka Bet Dwarka is an island situated in Okhamnadal and at the entrance of the Gulf of Kachchh. The area is also referred to as the Gulf of Barake in the Greek sea guide, the Periplus Maris Erythraei (Schoff 1912:38). However, Ptolemy mentioned Barake as an Island in the Gulf of Kanthi, which has been identified as the Gulf of Kachchh (McCrindle 1885:36). In the 17th century BC the late Harappan people had established their settlement on the northwest part of the Island (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66). They used rich marine resources available around the Island such as the variety of fishes and shells (Gaur, et al. 2005:941-46). A large fishhook (Gaur and Sundaresh 2004:512-14) and shell artifacts are the testimony of the above statement. The scanty habitation deposit suggests that the site was abandoned after a couple of centuries (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003:57-66). The Island was again inhabited during the 8th century BC on the southeastern coast of the Island. Maritime activities reached it’s zenith during the historical and the medieval periods. The Island continued to be an important center of maritime activity until the emergence of the Okha port in the Okhamandal area. The underwater explorations were carried out near the present Bet Dwarka passenger jetty in two seasons (2001 and 2002). A large number of artifacts including sherds of amphorae, lead anchors, lead ingot, a hand-mill of �stone, besides 45 stone anchors, were noticed from this area between water depth of 5 and 8 m. There are 42 stone anchors lying in Bet Dwarka waters close to the present Bet Dwarka jetty, in 6-8 m water depth. They are of two types: A) composite type: majority of them were cut from locally available limestone blocks. The circular hole (rope hole) is often found broken whereas two square/ rectangular holes on other side are preserved. The anchors are very similar to those reported from Dwarka and other places in Saurashtra. B) Indo-Arab type anchor are made of hard rock such as basalt and sometimes sandstone. The stone anchors have been dated between the historical and medieval periods. Pindara The ancient temple site of Pindara is situated close to the Northern Saurashtra coast in the Gulf of Kachchh about 36 km west of Khambhalia and 24 km from Kalyanpur. On the west of Pindara is a vast marshy land known as Okha Rann. Pindara is a well sheltered area, free from open sea waves. It is comprised of mud flats up to a distance of 2 km from the high waterline with a gentle slope. The average tidal range in the region is 1 to 4 m. A huge temple complex (10 X 10 m) is exposed during low tide in Pindara at about 300 m from high water line (Gaur, et al. 2007:733-35). Presently, the floor area is made of dressed lime stone blocks (Figure 3), it is well preserved, while the superstructure has been destroyed and the stone blocks have been washed/ taken away. This temple was dedicated to the Lord Shiva, as a yoni1 is present in the middle of the temple complex. The majority of the stone blocks measure 60 X 45 X 25 cms. The remaining part of the sanctum (Garbha griha) measures 4.75 X 4.5 m. The yoni measures 40 X 40 cms. The architectural feature of the submerged temple corresponds more or less with existing temple on the shore of Pindara. The size of the submerged temple must have been as big as other surviving temples in Pindara’s group of temples dating back to the 7th to 10th century AD. The evidence indicates that the Saurashtra coast shoreline has changed significantly during the last 1000 years. 1 Yoni is symbol of creation and worshipped across the Indian subcontinent since the antiquity. �Figure 3. Pindara: An ancient temple complex exposes during low tide (Photo by A.S. Gaur, 2006) Miyani Miyani is situated about 40 km east of Dwarka. This area is famous for ancient temples dating back to the 10th century AD (Sampura 1968: 87). On the coast of Miyani a temple is dedicated to a Goddess (locally known as Harshadmata). It is situated on a high hill. A vast creek known as Meda Creek runs a few miles into the hinterland, which has been used as a shelter in the harbour for local small craft, particularly fishing vessels. Underwater explorations were undertaken about 1 km offshore of Harshad Mata temple. Archaeological findings comprised of twelve stone anchors of various types. Visawada The small town of Visawada lies about 40 km west of Porbandar and about 20 km east of Miyani. The Hindu pilgrimage center and a temple dedicated to the Lord Krishna, is situated in the middle of the town. Kindari Creek runs a long distance up to Kindar Kheda (a Harappan town) and perhaps the creek’s name is derived from this particular ancient town. The western side of the coast is represented by a high cliff while the eastern coast consists of sandy beaches. Explorations were undertaken off the Kindari Creek as a baseline, it is located about 500 m from the coastline. Features and artefacts were concentrated between 5-6 m water depths. A total of 14 stone anchors were �found and types. represent three varieties: composite, Indo-Arabia and ring stone Somnath The archaeological excavations on land at Prabhasa by the Baroda University and Deccan Collage Pune have yielded evidence of a township dated to 2000 BC (Rao, et al. 1992:13-16). The temple of Somnath nearby is dedicated to Lord Siva and the linga2 is counted among the 12 Jyotirlingas of India mentioned in various Puranas. The explored area in Somnath water is located at a distance of 400 m south-west of the Somnath temple. Somnath waters contained the largest occurrence of ring stones anchors (Figure 4). Out of the 43 total anchors discovered, 80% are ring stone. The water depth varies from 7 m to 15 m. The ring stones observed shallower than 8m water depth had seaweed growth, however ring stones of deeper depths have a layer of greyish marine growth. Figure 4. Somnath: Ring-stone anchor (S.N. Bandodkar in 2001) Kodinar (Mul Dwarka) A small coastal village known as Mul Dwarka near Kodinar in the district of Junagad is one of the claimants of the original Dwarka of Mahabharata. The proximity with Junagadh hills on the north and the sea on the south situate the town as being associated with Dwarka (Sankalia 1966:7). An ancient temple is situated on raised land close to the sea. The temple is dilapidated and not under worship. The shrine is dated to the post 10th century AD (Sampura 1968:113). A circular structure situated close to the ancient temple is about 4 m in height and 2 Linga is a phallus symbol worshipped across the Indian subcontinent since the antiquity. �constructed with a similar type of dressed limestone blocks as that of the temple. Locally this structure is called as Diva Dandi which means a lighthouse (Gaur, et al. 2010:418-422). If this structure served as a lighthouse then this may be the oldest lighthouse remains on the Saurashtra coast. An ancient well was noticed near the jetty which is still used as a drinking water source. The exploration in the inter tidal zone yielded a composite stone anchor. The anchor is exposed during low tide. It is made of sedimentary rock. The anchor is similar to those reported from Dwarka (Gaur, et al. 2008:23-57) and Bet Dwarka (Gaur, et al. 2005:113-129) and dated between the historical and the medieval periods. The underwater investigations in and around Mul Dwarka (Kodinar) have been of significance in respect to understanding the archaeology of this region. Now the data of underwater explorations from all the three Dwarka on the Saurashtra coast are available and the most common aspects of them is the presence of similar types of stone anchors, therefore, the tradition of Dwarka at these places might have been existed contemporaneously (around 7th - 8th century AD). Another common aspect of these sites is the presence of Harappan (mid 3rd millennium BC) and late Harappan (early 2nd millennium BC) settlement within close proximity to each other. For example, Nageshwar and Bet Dwarka near Okhamandal Dwarka, Kindar Kheda near Mul Dwarka (Visawada) and Kanjetar and Kaj near Mul Dwarka (Kodinar). All the three Dwarka have ancient temples dated to the 10th -12th century AD. Nonetheless, these sites were busy ancient ports and perhaps temples were served as coastal marker points for navigators, as well as for worship before embarking on long voyages. Mithi Virdi The small village Mithi Virdi is situated about 30 km south east of Talaja, a taluka headquarter. The village is lying on a raised plateau close to the seashore. A small seasonal river merges with the sea on the western side of the village. The archaeological site is located about one km west of the village in an agriculture field. Five stone anchors are lying on agricultural land (ground nuts are the important crop of this field) about 1 km north of the seashore. Three anchors are lying together at a distance of 10 m and oriented in the east-west direction (Gaur, et al. 2005:110-14) The fourth anchor is laying partially buried north of the other three and oriented in the east west direction. All the anchors are similar to each other in shape and size. The anchors have rectangular cross-sections and trapezoidal longitudinal sections. These have sharp edges and chisel marks on them are clearly noticed. They have been cut from conglomeratic sedimentary grit rock, which is dark brown in colour and small gravel can be noticed. The anchors have two lower rectangular holes and an upper circular hole is absent in all the anchors. Ghogha The town of Gogha is located on the mid western coast of the Gulf of Khambhat in Bhavnagar district of Gujarat. A famous Gujarati proverb, “Lankani lari ane �Ghoghono var” (Bride of Lanka and groom of Ghogha) indicates direct overseas relation between Gogha and Sri Lanka in the past (Chaukasi 1989: 634). The presence of ancient Jaina temples at Gogha dating back to the 10th – 11th centuries suggest that this was a religious center also. The earliest Arabic inscription from Gogha dates to 1170 AD (Oza 1885: 2). During the British period ships up to 1500 tons were laden here (Habib 1982: 23). The exploration at Gogha was undertaken during low tide and findings were recorded with still photography and drawing. A large number of stone anchors were recorded between 100 and 200 m distance from the high water line (Gaur 2010:146-155). The majority of the anchors belong to the Indo-Arab type and nearly about 40% anchors are fragmented. Interestingly, the fresh surface of broken parts suggests that fragmentation of the anchors took place during the manufacturing stage and not during the anchoring processes. A composite anchor made of lime stone was found at the site. A few unfinished anchors were found from Gogha and Hathab. However, these anchors were submerged in 5 to 7 m water depth during high tide. Thus, it indicates that big boats were anchoring at this point during high tide. The author of the Periplus of the Erythrenean also refers to such activities detailing that during low tide boats rest on the seabed. The exploration in the inter tidal zone has also yielded several sherds of the glazed ware in the vicinity of stone anchors. These include a jar with internally and upper half externally glazed; and the rest of the sherds are glazed internally only. There are three main types of glazed ware (i.e. green, blue and brown). These are very similar to the Islamic glazed ware found from various parts of the country (Mohammad 1985:105). The medieval period glazed ware at Hastinapur (Lal 1954-55:5-151) was found in association with coins of Balban (1206-87 AD). The sherds recovered from the inter-tidal zone of Ghogha are very similar to those reported from another medieval period site at Lashkarshah in Khambhat which have been dated to 14th-16th century (Bhan 2006: 90-95). Thus the glazed sherds Ghogha may also be dated to the late medieval period. Hathab Hathab an early historical site is referred to as Astacampra in the Periplus of Erythrenean Sea (Schoff 1912: 40). On shore excavation yielded rich antiquities of the historical period and maritime contact with the west. It is located about one km into the hinterland. The exploration in the inter tidal zone of Hathab yielded two anchors similar to those of the Indo-Arab type and one anchor with a wide groove wrapped around the middle of the anchor. This is very similar to those reported from Japan and Chinese waters (Yang 1990:113-121). The remains of a jetty were noticed at the mouth of the river Shetrunji near the village Sultanpur. This was primarily a wooden jetty now abandoned due to emergence of other ports in the vicinity. Conclusions Coastal and maritime archaeological investigations along the Gujarat coast have conclusively proven that it holds the earliest evidence of the maritime activity in �the Indian subcontinent. Archaeological set up of the Kachchh region provide enough indication that the Rann of Kachchh was a navigable body during the third millennium BC. During the historical period Gujarat witnessed hectic maritime activities and boats from various regions including the Mediterranean Sea. The maritime activity reached its zenith during the Indo-Arabia trading network of the medieval period and a large number of evidence indicates that Gujarat played an important role in the Indian Ocean trade system during this period. Marine archaeological investigations during the last two and half decades have brought out a number of potential sites along the Indian coast which include ancient ports, jetties, and shipwrecks. The extensive explorations of the Saurashtra coast revealed several ancient ports and jetties. Interestingly, archaeological discoveries suggest that natural phenomena like tidal variations have been very effectively used in the Gulf of Kachchh and the Gulf of Khambhat in the past. Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Mr. K.H. Vora for providing various comments and suggestions in the manuscript. 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Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime Archaeology of Gujarat: Northwest coast of India Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource The evidence of maritime activity in India may be traced back to the Bronze Age (early 3rd millennium BC to mid- 2nd millennium BC). The excavation of several Harappan sites including Lothal, Kuntasi, Padri, Nageshwar, Bagasra and many others have conclusively demonstrated an advance maritime culture during the third millennium Before Christ (BC). During the historical period several coastal towns had international trade and commerce including Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Hathab, Vallabhi, and Bharuch. Maritime activity reached it’s zenith in Gujarat during the Medieval period (8th to 14th century AD) when Arab traders dominated the Indian Ocean for over a millennia. Underwater investigations have been carried out at various places along the Saurashtra coast and a large number of stone anchors were found. This paper also discusses the effect of tide when using jetties and anchoring points along various parts of the west coast India. The archaeological evidence indicates that two gulfs along the Gujarat coast (Gulf Kachchh and Gulf of Khambhat) witnessed the hectic maritime activities in the past. Both gulfs have very high tidal ranges. The Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal range in India (11 meters). Ancient texts such as Vishnu Puran and Periplus of the Eruthreanean Sea vividly describe the tidal range and its uses in navigation. The discovery of the large number of stone anchors in the inter tidal zone along the gulf region support the above references. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A.S. Gaur Sundaresh Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2