31 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/3f5efb8c7f818cca5ed0e846279246c1.pdf e988c4420337e0f82d0072147dce0829 PDF Text Text Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa Hans K. Van Tilburg, PhD (Maritime Heritage Coordinator, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries) ABSTRACT American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States with a long and continuous history of ocean connection and maritime activities, from the initial voyaging discovery some 3,000 years ago to modern cruise ships and fishing fleets. Understanding this history as it is reflected in the maritime landscape helps us appreciate not only how the maritime past has evolved, but how the cultural and ecosystem benefits related to the ocean persist and remain important today. NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries recently completed a descriptive ArcGIS StoryMap of American Samoa, drawing from tangible and intangible cultural resources inventories and data compiled by NOAA’s sanctuary staff, archival information, archaeological surveys, and site cultural information from participant workshops. The territory’s story is presented as something of a maritime voyage through time, touching upon elements of the original Pacific voyaging and discovery of the islands, Samoan settlement culture and watercraft, western discovery and mapping, fautasi longboat heritage and copra plantations, activities during the naval period and WWII, and contemporary maritime spaces (commercial shipping and fishing). This StoryMap presents our human ties to the ocean, and the maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa, placing an importance on ocean locations, activities and events that have shaped the Samoan Islands and continue to define who we are today. Hopefully, a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural significance of our ocean spaces can contribute to better conservation and management of marine resources. Keywords: American Samoa, cultural landscape, marine environment List of Figures and Tables Figure 1 Foaga or grinding holes/bait cups carved into the reef at Fagatele Bay, American Samoa. Figure 2 Modern fautasi racing in Pago Pago Harbor. Figure 3 Types and quantities of excess ordnance to be jettisoned at sea, Naval Station Tutuila, Figure 4 The industrial landscape of Pago Harbor today. American Samoa Government Port Administration. INTRODUCTION The underwater cultural heritage (UCH) consists of properties and locations associated with the narrative of past events or human story. And whether that story is reflected in oral, written and/or archaeological and cultural resources, the broader context of our relationship to the environment is critical to the assessment of UCH. In other words, the ocean possesses a legacy of submerged properties that have cultural value, as well as implications for the health of the ecosystem. Maritime cultural landscapes are places where the interactions of culture and nature have resulted in identifiable cultural and ecological imprints. Every maritime cultural landscape captures a unique combination of nature and culture that is expressed in the condition of the marine environment, in both material and intangible cultural heritage, and in the meaning attached to that location by different stakeholder groups (Barr 2014). Understanding the ocean and shoreline as a cultural landscape helps us appreciate the full significance of UCH sites that would otherwise exist as isolated properties without context and connection.   American Samoa, an unincorporated island territory of the United States consisting of the eastern part of the Samoan archipelago, consists of five inhabited volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, plus two coral atolls. The territory has a long and continuous history of ocean connection and activities, from the initial voyaging discovery thousands of years ago to the modern cruise ships and fishing fleets of today. The maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa captures elements of this long history in terms of locations, cultural activities and UCH resources, within the 1 �broader maritime narrative of where we are from and who we are today. Importantly, the landscape approach supports a broader definition of UCH elements and inclusion of their influence upon the health of our marine ecosystems. LEGACY OF VOYAGING The sea is a highway. The first discoverers came by sea in what is considered one of the boldest maritime migrations in human history. The Samoan Islands were originally discovered and settled more than 3,000 years ago as part of the Austronesian expansion eastward into the Pacific. Over hundreds of years, double-hull voyaging canoes, guided by specialists trained in non-instrument navigation, moved throughout the western Pacific, bearing men and women, and all necessary supplies to support permanent remote settlement. Migration theory is based on dating the traces of ancient Lapita pottery, along with subsequent obsidian and basalt stone tool production, associated with this expansion and settlement. In 1973, dredge spoils from Mulifanua Harbor on Upolu Island (Western Samoa) revealed thousands of pottery sherds dated to 3000 BP, and coastal terrestrial Lapita remains have been excavated from Ofu Island in American Samoa (Kirch andHunt 1993). Coastal village ruins, reef petroglyphs, submerged whetstones, and remnants of foaga or reef grinding holes/bait cups (Figure 1) add to the UCH archaeological footprint (Clark 1980, 24). Figure 1 Foaga or grinding holes/bait cups carved into the reef at Fagatele Bay, American Samoa. Photograph by Hans Van Tilburg/NOAA. The legacy of traditional navigation extends beyond archaeology. There are a great number of legends and stories represented by geo-cultural features or locations within the marine environment. These culturally significant places range from stacked rock formations (tupua) to coves, cliffs, and even submerged freshwater springs or passages in the reef, associated with famous chiefs, voyages, or mythic events in folklore. All are potential “traditional cultural properties” associated with cultural practices or beliefs of a living community that: (1) are rooted in that community's history, and (2) are important in maintaining and continuing the cultural identity of the community (Parker and King 1992). Chants are still performed at Turtle and Shark Cove, a place commemorating the death of an old woman and young girl, and the cove is protected by nomination to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Records at the Feleti Barstow Library document at least 20 geo-cultural locations in American Samoa’s coastal and marine environment (Van Tilburg 2007, 29). 2 �Near the village of Fagasa on Tutuila, the semi-submerged formation known as Sina’s Rock recalls the time when Chief Li`ava`a’s crew, departing the island, mistakenly abandoned his daughter, her grief and tears being the origin of the local spring (Kikuchi 1963, 84). This legend accounts for the dolphins that visit Fagasa today. Such sites “are of extraordinary significance to Samoan culture. Compared to all of the archaeological and historic sites that the HPO tries to protect, these sites are seen as the most significant to local residents'' (Volk et al 1992, 32). Local and Indigenous perspectives that highly value the cultural significance of “natural” resources, and the importance of traditional practices and places to the maintenance of cultural identities, challenges us to examine the definition of UCH as “all traces of human existence of a cultural, historical or archaeological nature…” For purposes of heritage preservation and protecting marine resources, Sina’s Rock should be considered UCH. WESTERN ARRIVALS Over time, 18th and 19th century Spanish, Dutch, French, British and American explorers shaped their own routes to the islands of Samoa, opening the seaway for whalers, merchants, and missionaries in pursuit of oil, copra and converts. The intentional adoption of new tools and nautical technology would shape the Samoan cultural landscape in new ways. The story of the Samoan longboat or fautasi provides an example of this evolution. The origin of fautasi dates back to the 1840s and observation of the effectiveness of British naval longboats, leading to innovations in boat building. Samoan carpenters began to construct an outrigger-less craft known as taumualua. Given the importance of watercraft in the archipelago and the competitiveness of human nature, these soon advanced in length from 50 feet to 60 feet and onwards. Aided by the skills of the castaway whaler and shipwright Eli Jennings, who came ashore in 1847, these hybrid craft took on the lightweight shiplap designs of whaleboats. By the last decade of the 19th century, fautasi (and the smaller version known as tulula) were capable and useful watercraft that served multiple roles: warfare, cargo transportation, passenger service, racing vessels, and more (Van Tilburg et al 2018, 124). With the regulation of interisland travel imposed in 1903 by the U.S. Naval Administration, and the increasing use of motorized craft, the role of fautasi was slowly reduced to racing, which later remained as their sole function. Today, on Flag Day in American Samoa (17 April), 10 to 15 village fautasi longboats manned with 45 village members line up outside of the deep-water harbor port of Pago Pago for their fiercest competition of the year, acknowledged by some as the largest cultural event in the territory. These computer-designed modern material watercraft cost tens of thousands of dollars to purchase and maintain, and the race outcomes are intricately tied to financial benefits, village pride, community identity and a deep historical tradition of seafaring (Herdrich et al 2020, 46). The maritime cultural landscape of fautasi today encompasses the village boathouses, launching and training areas for the race (crews train for months in advance), and the race course itself from Taema Bank of Tutuila’s south shore into the inner harbor of Pago Pago. 3 �Figure 2 Modern fautasi racing in Pago Pago Harbor. Photograph by David Herdrich. The extraction of resources and increasing trans-Pacific commerce would also change the landscape and UCH resources. Throughout the South Pacific, the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) has been known as the “Tree of Life” due to the incredible value and usefulness of every part of the tree for food, medicine, shelter, and transportation. The commercial products derived from dried white coconut meat or copra, including oil for soaps and cosmetics and copra “cake” or meal for animal feed, would play a major role in the economic development of the Samoan Islands. Therefore, the collection of copra from the islands of American Samoa for shipment and sale abroad was critical. The copra export business in the territory was centralized around the U.S. Naval Station. Villages without copra sheds or wharves were responsible for transporting copra to the Naval Station (or to Leone in the Western District) by their own boat, bus, vehicle, or on their shoulders. Villages with copra sheds and wharves transported copra to the Naval Station or Leone by regular service public customs boats or public works trucks (NARA RG284). Thus, the cultural landscape components of wharves, landings, channels, and buoys came under the early management of the Public Works Department and the U.S. Navy. Additionally, the inventory of vessel losses, some 40 scattered around the islands between 1828-1993, including whalers, steamers, schooners, brigs, and fishing vessels, are landscape elements (Van Tilburg 2007, 8). ON THE EDGE OF BATTLE In 1899 Germany, England, and the United States signed a tripartite agreement (effective 16 February 1900), that granted control of the Samoan Islands of Upolu and Savai`i to Germany and control of Tutuila, Aunu`u, and Manu`a to the United States. Subsequently, The Ali’i (chiefs) of Tutuila and Aunu`u ceded their islands to the U.S. on 17 April 1900. The king and matai of the Manu`a Islands signed a deed of cession to the U.S. in 1904. Thus, a series of naval commanders served as military governors of American Samoa for the territory’s first 50 years.  Although largely insulated from World War I, during World War II the American Samoa Defense Group (headquartered at Naval Station Tutuila) was, geographically, the largest command area in the South Pacific. Pago Pago Harbor on Tutuila served as a staging area for the preparation of amphibious forces engaged in South Pacific operations. The territory was home to thousands of Navy and Marine service men and women, including Samoan recruits in the Fita-Fita guard and the Samoan Marine Brigade known as Maligi Samoa or Samoan Marines (Hudson 1994, 25). Tutuila possessed the largest 4 �jungle training center in the South Pacific. American Samoa, on the edge of the Pacific combat theater, was also an important link in maintaining communication between the United States, Australia, and New Zealand.  The scale and intensity of activities during the war years, even for peripheral American Samoa, made significant changes to the maritime cultural landscape and UCH inventory of the islands. During World War II, Tutuila supported a naval air station, maintaining up to 60 fighter aircraft and 12 long-range bombers at any one time. Moorings for seaplanes were located in the shallow lagoon near the landing strip. As a consequence of intensive wartime training and patrols, 43 naval aircraft ditched or crashed into local waters between 1942 and 1944, many in the vicinity of Tutuila (Van Tilburg 2007, 12). The naval airfield, constructed in 1942, is today the location of Pago Pago International Airport.  The remnants of numerous concrete pillboxes along the shoreline, as well as gun emplacements, bunkers, naval buildings, foundations, etc. are the more visible reminders of the war. A National Register of Historic Places multiple property nomination for many of these World War II sites was prepared in 2005 listing at least 79 coastal pillboxes (Kennedy 2005). Erosion and subsidence have placed some of these pillboxes into the ocean. The fortifications built at the entrance to Pago Pago harbor include gun emplacements at Blunts Point and Breakers Point. Both gun emplacements are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. National Archive records also locate minefields protecting the entrance to the deep-water harbor. The Naval Station significantly enlarged the harbor’s infrastructure with the fuel dock, LST landing areas, wharves and moorings, and the ship repair facility across the bay (now a tuna cannery). DANGEROUS LEGACY Many of these sites can pose potential threats to the marine environment. Following the war, on 7 October 1949, the naval gasoline tanker USS Chehalis burned, exploded and sank in Pago Pago Harbor, with the loss of six crewmen. In 2007 the American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency completed a site investigation, confirming the aviation gasoline cargo, as well as the possibility of unexploded ordnance. In April 2009, the U.S. Navy conducted a preliminary survey, and fuel removal actions (60,000 gallons) were completed in April 2010 (Goldstein 2013). Further archival research in 2022 revealed extensive documentation of disposed ordnance and military materials by Naval Station Tutuila. Deteriorated, unused and obsolete ordnance and supplies, stockpiled throughout the wide Samoan Defense Area, were sent to area headquarters (Tutuila) to be disposed. Disposal meant dealing with the hazardous material in one of several ways: excess ordnance could be salvaged, forwarded to the West Coast, kept for peacetime storage, or jettisoned at sea. Ultimately, hundreds of tons of deteriorated or obsolete ammunition and materials were jettisoned somewhere in the nearby ocean. Specific locations were unspecified, but initial orders often carried instructions stating “sink in not less than 50 fathoms of water,” changed at a later date to “dump in not less than 150 fathoms of water and not less than 10 miles from the nearest land” (NARA RG313). The extensive lists of jettisoned materials included: 500 and 1,000 lb bombs, demolition blocks, hand grenades, depth charges, mortars, howitzers, anti-aircraft ammunition, small arms ammunition, anti-tank mines, fuses, bomb tail vanes, fragmentation bombs, parachute flares, and more. An explosives dumping area of roughly 70 square miles was indicated some 15 miles southeast of Pago Pago. Disposed ammunition has been reported on Taema Bank, at the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor, and a dangerous wreck “loaded with explosives,” was reported near Aunu`u Island in 1971 (Hudson 1994, 87). 5 �Figure 3 Types and quantities of excess ordnance to be jettisoned at sea, Naval Station Tutuila, 13 October 1945. Source: National Archives and Records Administration RG313. AMERICAN SAMOA’S MARITIME LANDSCAPE TODAY Today there are some 56,000 people living in American Samoa, with about 98% of those residents located on Tutuila Island. The territory is integrated into a modern global maritime world as an exporter of marine resources, communications hub, and recreational destination. The shipping and transportation landscape in American Samoa has evolved since the early 1900s when fautasi longboats were used to transport imported supplies from large ships, and as transportation to coastal villages and neighboring islands. Today, large container ships arrive weekly with supplies that the majority of the islands’ residents rely on for food and livelihoods. Ferry services are available on a weekly basis for the domestic market between Tutuila and the Manu’a islands, and via the Samoa Shipping Corporation LTD., internationally between Tutuila and Apia. Fishing has likewise advanced. Canneries first began operating in American Samoa in 1954. Today, tuna processing and the territorial government are the largest employers and the mainstay of American Samoa’s economy. International fishing fleets supply catches to the canneries for export, while small-scale artisanal fisheries supply the local market for fish (Levine and Allen 2009, 21). The footprint of UCH resources and the maritime cultural landscape has evolved, reflecting now disposed and wrecked long liners, cruise ship moorings and cannery infrastructure, modern navigational infrastructure, shoreline armoring for protection against erosion and climate change impacts, and more. 6 �Figure 4 The industrial landscape of Pago Harbor today. Source: American Samoa Government PortAdministration. Today there is an increasing desire and urgent need to achieve sustainable commercial and recreational practices in order to address the damage of pollution and climate change impacts. Our ocean environments are increasingly understood as places of critical marine research in this context. Maritime cultural landscapes have a role to play in this research. That role includes a broader definition of UCH and understanding the interactions between UCH sites and the marine environment, for better or worse (sites as potential habitat and cultural value, sites as potential environmental threat). Shipwrecks have been, and always will be, a unique subset of UCH resources both rich in historical and archaeological value, and exciting to the general public. However, becoming better stewards of our oceans implies reexamining our UCH from a broader perspective, one inherently supported by the maritime cultural landscape approach. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Barr, Brad. “Observations on developing a maritime cultural landscape approach to managing US National Marine Sanctuaries.” In Proceedings of the 2nd Asia Pacific Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference, 51-60, edited by Hans Van Tilburg, Veronica Walker Vadillo, Jun Kimura, Brian Fahy, Sila Tripati. Honolulu: Electric Pencil, 2014. Clark, Jeffrey T. Historic Preservation in American Samoa: Program Evaluation and Archaeological Site Inventory. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum, 1980. Goldstein, Carl. Success story—USS Chehalis: Investigation and fuel offload operation. (Pacific Islands Office presentation-Pacific Environmental Success Stories) Guam: June 28, 2013. https://issuu.com/guamepa/docs/goldstein_uss_chehalis_investigatio accessed 4/28/2023. Herdrich, David, Hans K. Van Tilburg, and Atuatasi Lelei Peau. Fautasi Heritage of American Samoa: Fa‘Aga I Le Tai: O Ala O Le Vavau A Samoa. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA, 2020. Hudson, Jack C. and Kay G. American Samoa in World War II. Cultural Resources Services Inc. 1994. Kennedy, Joseph. Results of an Archaeological Survey and Archival Research of WWII Coastal Defenses on Tutuila Island, American Samoa. Haleiwa, Hawai`i: Archaeological Consultants of the Pacific, 2005. Kikuchi, William K. Archaeological Surface Ruins in American Samoa. Honolulu: University of Hawai`i (MA Thesis), 1963. Kirch, P.V. and T.L. Hunt. The To'aga Site: Three Millennia of Polynesian Occupation in the Manu'a Islands, American Samoa (Contributions to the University of California Archaeological Research Facility No. 51). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. Levine, Arielle and Stewart Allen. American Samoa as a Fishing Community. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA, 2009. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) RG284. Records of the Government of American Samoa, Office of the Attorney General, Island Government files, 1931-1964, box 461. Correspondence from Secretary of Native Affairs to Governor 22 July 1947. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) RG313. Records of Naval Operating Forces, U.S. Naval Government Unit Tutuila, American Samoa, General Correspondence 1945-1951, box 10. Survey Request, Report and Expenditure, 13 October 1945. Parker, Patricia L. and Thomas F. King. Guidelines for Evaluating and Documenting Traditional Cultural Properties (NPS Register Bulletin 38). Washington D.D.: U.S. Department of Interior National Park Service, 1992. Van Tilburg, Hans. American Samoa Maritime Heritage Inventory. Silver Spring: U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA, 2007. Van Tilburg, Hans K., David J. Herdrich, Michaela E. Howells, Va‘Amua Henry Sesepasara, Telei‘Ai Christian Ausage and Michael D. Coszalter. “Row as One! A History of the Development and Use of the Sāmoan Fautasi.” In Journal of the Polynesian Society 127 no.1 (2018): 111-136. Volk, Richard D., Pamela A. Knudsen, Karla D. Kluge, and David J. Herdrich. Towards a Territorial Conservation Strategy and the Establishment of a Conservation Area System for American Samoa. Pago Pago: Le Vaumatua Inc., 1992. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 16: The significance of Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Seascapes and Living Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Session 16 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 16 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa Description An account of the resource American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States with a long and continuous history of ocean connection and maritime activities, from the initial voyaging discovery some 3,000 years ago to modern cruise ships and fishing fleets. Understanding this history as it is reflected in the maritime landscape helps us appreciate not only how the maritime past has evolved, but how the cultural and ecosystem benefits related to the ocean persist and remain important today. NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries recently completed a descriptive ArcGIS StoryMap of American Samoa, drawing from tangible and intangible cultural resources inventories and data compiled by NOAA’s sanctuary staff, archival information, archaeological surveys, and site cultural information from participant workshops. The territory’s story is presented as something of a maritime voyage through time, touching upon elements of the original Pacific voyaging and discovery of the islands, Samoan settlement culture and watercraft, western discovery and mapping, fautasi longboat heritage and copra plantations, activities during the naval period and WWII, and contemporary maritime spaces (commercial shipping and fishing). This StoryMap presents our human ties to the ocean, and the maritime cultural landscape of American Samoa, placing an importance on ocean locations, activities and events that have shaped the Samoan Islands and continue to define who we are today. Hopefully, a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural significance of our ocean spaces can contribute to better conservation and management of marine resources. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans K. Van Tilburg Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Van Tilburg, Hans K. . 2023. “Sea Voyage: The Evolving Maritime Cultural Landscape of American Samoa.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2030 Asia-Pac Session 16 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Misunderstood junks: The western view of Chinese maritime technology Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Konrad Van Tilburg Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Type The nature or genre of the resource Thesis Zotero Author Hans Konrad Van Tilburg Item Type Thesis Abstract Note This dissertation examines the history of western and particularly American cultural perceptions of Chinese nautical technology. Ten Chinese-built junks and their journeys across the Pacific in the 20 th century serve as the primary resource for the investigation. This is not a comprehensive sample of all junks which crossed the ocean, but reflects the selection of non-mass produced craft, those more representative of traditional working vessels. Details of these voyages have been pieced together from a wide variety of sources. In order to interpret the junks of this select sample, a brief survey of the appropriate nautical literature is followed by the detailed analysis of each individual vessel. This analysis relies heavily on eastern and western sources, as well as the fields of anthropology, archaeology, and the history of technology. The physical form of the vessel possesses more than just technical information, and so an appreciation of cultural features and practices for junks is also provided. Having come as close as possible to understanding these junks as complex technical and cultural artifacts, a comparison can then be made to American perceptions. The description of public reaction to the journeys and to the junks is drawn mainly from newspaper and journal articles. Such craft were immediately seen by the public as unchanged artifacts from ancient times, as representations of sea monsters, as barbaric crazy oddities, as almost anything except what they really were, relatively efficient sailing craft. Often the entrepreneur who sold tickets for admission encouraged the belief that these vessels were pirate ships stocked with torture devices and beheading swords. Only those few nautical specialists and the crews of the junks themselves seemed capable of a more pragmatic appreciation. The reasons for popular misperceptions of these junks include broader issues of museums and display and infatuation with exotic objects from far away. Unfortunately, such misperceptions precluded most serious evaluation of these historic vessels, and none of these junks, some of the oldest wooden sailing craft in the world, benefited from any efforts at effective preservation. They have now almost completely vanished. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2002 Extra Ph.D. Library Catalog ProQuest Num Pages 360 Short Title Misunderstood junks Title A name given to the resource Misunderstood junks: The western view of Chinese maritime technology University University of Hawai'i China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Maritime History and Nautical Archaeology of China in Southeast Asia: Song to Early Ming Dynasties (960-1435 C.E.) Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1994 Type The nature or genre of the resource Thesis Zotero Author Hans Van Tilburg Item Type Thesis Call Number INQUIRE ON 4TH FLOOR Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1994 Extra : 1994 : 1994 : 175 leaves : ill., maps ; 28 cm : Submitted to the faculty of the Department of History : Thesis (M.A.)--East Carolina University, 1994 : Includes bibliographical references (leaves [154]-175) Other contributor: East Carolina University. Dept. of History Library Catalog abbott.lib.ecu.edu Library Catalog Short Title The Maritime History and Nautical Archaeology of China in Southeast Asia Title A name given to the resource The Maritime History and Nautical Archaeology of China in Southeast Asia: Song to Early Ming Dynasties (960-1435 C.E.) University East Carolina University China Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/9544967a4eac4b2d233ee1d56daac76c.mp4 d6ff25765a12dc25890b8cd543c4224e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 2: New Approaches in UCH Management in the US Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 2 chair Dr. Hans Van Tilburg and links to the papers included in the session. Description An account of the resource In 2009, responding to the effort to protect the significant natural and cultural resources within the marine environment for the benefit of present and future generations, the U.S. National Marine Protected Areas Center formed a Cultural Heritage Resources Working Group to provide expert advice on improving the conservation and management of maritime heritage resources. The resulting White Paper provided a series of recommendations to both the U.S. Department of Commerce and the Department of the Interior, including new definitions for cultural heritage, marine cultural resources, tribes, indigenous peoples, and cultural landscapes. Central to these recommendations was a strong endorsement for the Cultural Landscape Approach in the understanding and management of maritime heritage resources (or UCH). Subsequently, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Maritime Heritage Program has adopted the recommendations of this paper and is implementing a “maritime cultural landscape” approach to the management of cultural resources within the National Marine Sanctuary System. Also as a part of this initiative, NOAA and the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management (BOEM) have teamed up to support maritime cultural landscape studies of heritage resources by Native American Tribes and Native Hawaiian communities in the Pacific region. These projects on the U.S. West Coast and in the Hawaiian Islands demonstrate the necessity of adapting a broader range of recognized cultural resources and a more inclusive and participatory management and preservation process. Charismatic resources like historic shipwrecks will always provide unique information for archaeologists and historians, but we do ourselves a disservice if we focus solely on these types of properties, and neglect other perspectives and the broader nature of all types and traces of human existence that lie underwater. Participants in this session will focus on the status of these ongoing ground-breaking projects, the advantages of a broader and more inclusive approach compared to the previous cultural heritage management paradigm in the U.S., and the challenges that this creates. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Hans Van Tilburg Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Video interview with Session 2 chair Hans Van Tilburg. Subject The topic of the resource <br /><br /> Description An account of the resource In 2009, responding to the effort to protect the significant natural and cultural resources within the marine environment for the benefit of present and future generations, the U.S. National Marine Protected Areas Center formed a Cultural Heritage Resources Working Group to provide expert advice on improving the conservation and management of maritime heritage resources. The resulting White Paper provided a series of recommendations to both the U.S. Department of Commerce and the Department of the Interior, including new definitions for cultural heritage, marine cultural resources, tribes, indigenous peoples, and cultural landscapes. Central to these recommendations was a strong endorsement for the Cultural Landscape Approach in the understanding and management of maritime heritage resources (or UCH). Subsequently, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Maritime Heritage Program has adopted the recommendations of this paper and is implementing a “maritime cultural landscape” approach to the management of cultural resources within the National Marine Sanctuary System. Also as a part of this initiative, NOAA and the Bureau of Ocean Energy and Management (BOEM) have teamed up to support maritime cultural landscape studies of heritage resources by Native American Tribes and Native Hawaiian communities in the Pacific region. These projects on the U.S. West Coast and in the Hawaiian Islands demonstrate the necessity of adapting a broader range of recognized cultural resources and a more inclusive and participatory management and preservation process. Charismatic resources like historic shipwrecks will always provide unique information for archaeologists and historians, but we do ourselves a disservice if we focus solely on these types of properties, and neglect other perspectives and the broader nature of all types and traces of human existence that lie underwater. Participants in this session will focus on the status of these ongoing ground-breaking projects, the advantages of a broader and more inclusive approach compared to the previous cultural heritage management paradigm in the U.S., and the challenges that this creates. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/9/2014 Asia-Pac Session 2 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4f65c347d4d34c5a643fb6a716dfff1e.mp4 a31142eecf6737ee0a455b0ab9f27142 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 16: The significance of Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Seascapes and Living Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Session 16 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 16 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource An interview with Hans Van Tilburg - Chair of Session 16: The significance of Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Seascapes and Living Heritage in Oceania Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg Michelle Damian Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource MP4 Language A language of the resource English Asia-Pac Session 16 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0037e0d2e87477eee0c40cad8dfb0ebf.pdf 52ea01e0512fd17b928ed70eef8d5ef2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 4: Heritage Preservation and the Journey of the Sailing Vessel Free China Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Technology from Overseas: Misunderstanding Vessels from Afar Description An account of the resource In the maritime heritage preservation field, we preserve what we value, and (perhaps) we only value what we truly understand. The nautical technology of traditional Chinese sailing vessels that crossed the Pacific, often demonstrated through the stories of their voyages, have now opened a window for non-Chinese to understand more of the maritime heritage of China and the legacy of Chinese seafaring. Yet, when the Western public first began to encounter these unfamiliar vessels, very few were capable of understanding what they were seeing. With the exception of the few nautical experts of the time, most could not grasp the technical or cultural construction features. Foreign observers were hampered by their social biases, reluctant to grant maritime expertise to shipwrights and sailors from a non-European tradition, unable to recognize the obvious skills that produced vessels so unfamiliar to their own experiences. They regarded Chinese vessels as quaint and unwieldy creations, derived somehow by accident, or built after the fashion of sea monsters. Vessel designs were generally thought to represent "ancient times," no matter where or when they may have truly originated. Public appraisals often comprised an odd mixture of surprise and contempt. As we now know, the exact opposite was often true: the Chinese vessels that found their way to scattered ports across the Pacific were complex craft. Most represented successful regional designs evolved over many years of trial and error on long sailing voyages. The Free China was one of the vessels that successfully crossed the Pacific, yet was then subject to some of this foreign bias and misunderstanding. The obstacles faced, therefore, in the preservation story of the Free China include not just the storms of her ocean passage and the ravages of shipworms and weathering over time, but also inherent biases and misunderstandings during her sojourn to the West. Maritime encounters on the global ocean, including Western experience with versions of Chinese traditional ship design, sometimes tell us more about our own limitations as humans, than they do about the amazing variety of nautical design within our shared maritime past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Van Tilburg, Hans. 2021. “Technology from Overseas: Misunderstanding Vessels from Afar.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/680 Asia-Pac Session 4 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4aea55e530064191d379e06efdadfe8f.pdf 6dc8a24541380ba4039d357a2273a1f4 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Proceedings of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Papers presented at the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Closing Remarks APCONF 4, Taiwan Description An account of the resource Closing remarks Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Van Tilburg, Hans. 2021. “Closing Remarks APCONF 4, Taiwan.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/700 Asia-Pac 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/4aa437aae0f4b03e1556034917967a78.pdf d81539f5a6662f3363d36e1fd15e2d3a PDF Text Text The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime heritage resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Hans Van Tilburg NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Honolulu, Hawaii 96825, USA Email: hans.vantilburg@noaa.gov Abstract The systematic investigation of underwater cultural heritage in the islands started in 1989 with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program. This slowly grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history. Manned submersibles with the Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab contribute to deep water discoveries and site surveys. Today the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries continues heritage resource site assessments in Hawai`i, in collaboration with partner agencies and programs. The underwater cultural heritage in Hawai`i reflects a multicultural diversity of archaeological and historic properties, such as coastal stone fishponds, submerged heiau, 19th century plantation landings, inter island steamships etc. Major events like World War II left behind numerous naval shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. These are the physical elements of maritime cultural landscapes that describe Hawai`i’s maritime past. Key words: Hawaii, World War II, Culture landscapes, Heritage preservation, Maritime archaeology Introduction Hawai'i’s underwater cultural heritage speaks directly to the ancient past, the multicultural historical period, and the forces of modernization and globalization leading to the modern present. It is a testimony to dynamic change. The resources that reflect this diversity lie beneath the warm blue waters of the North Pacific, generally unknown to the public, on the slopes of the tallest mountain on Earth (including the undersea portion). Discovering these resources opens windows on elements of the Islands’ otherwise unseen history. Awareness of the value of this unseen heritage has been increasing steadily over the past two decades. This paper provides an introductory description of the current state of underwater cultural heritage investigations in the main Hawaiian Islands and some of the chief types of heritage resources found in Hawai'i. (Note: the term “UCH” here includes U.S. national criteria, 50-year limit, etc.) 1 �Current State: Surveys in the Context of Education Academic investigation started in 1989 with an in-water workshop and small symposium hosted by the University of Hawai'i’s Marine Option Program. The Marine Option Program (MOP) provides hands-on marine education experiences for students from any field of study, operating across the ten-campus university system. MOP’s maritime archaeology component was initiated partially in response to the passage of the U.S. Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 (ASA, 1987). Over time the symposium grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history, led by an instructor trained at East Carolina University’s Maritime Studies Program. Between 1996 and 2002 MOP offered annual classroom and field courses in maritime history, anthropology, and a six-week maritime archaeology field class. Numerous students obtained the specialized certificate, and some went on to Masters-level studies at Texas A&M University or East Carolina University (Van Tilburg, 2002). Though the maritime archaeology certificate program no longer exists, a two-week field survey class for university students continues today under a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/University of Hawai'i partnership. The class is known as the Maritime Archaeology Survey Techniques (MAST) course. Taught by NOAA staff, students are introduced to broad aspects of the UCH preservation field in the classroom, prior to beginning the underwater survey. Study sites are selected among the main Hawaiian Islands, and students gain field experience while documenting previously unrecorded heritage resources, thus contributing to the State’s archaeological inventory. Non-diving days are used to explore local heritage among the Hawaiian Islands (e.g. monuments, museums, other archaeological sites) and talk with local divers and Hawaiian cultural practitioners about marine resources and preservation management. NOAA instruction in maritime archaeology also takes the form of public outreach (in addition to formal university education), as Maritime Heritage Program staff have been certified to teach the Nautical Archaeology Society’s (NAS) training curriculum. NAS is a non-profit organization based in the United Kingdom and dedicated to advancing education in nautical archaeology at all levels. To date, NOAA has conducted six NAS Intro and Level One courses in the Pacific (Juneau and Anchorage in Alaska, Seattle in 2 �Washington State, and several courses in the Hawaiian Islands). Maritime archaeology field courses taught at the University of Hawai'i also give the students the opportunity to obtain the NAS training credential. From its early inception until today, the University and now NOAA have also supported the annual Symposium on the Maritime Archaeology and History of Hawai'i and the Pacific. The maritime symposium, now in its 24th year, regularly draws 60-70 professional and avocational participants, as well as local divers and the general public. The three-day event includes presentations, panels, receptions, field trips, and usually an informal back-yard barbeque for the conference “banquet,” local-style grinds. NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program In 2002, NOAA launched its Maritime Heritage Program under its Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. The Maritime Heritage Program is designed to support maritime heritage discovery and resource preservation across the sanctuary system. The sanctuary system serves as the trustee for a national network of 14 marine protected areas encompassing more than 170,000 square miles of marine and Great Lakes federally protected waters (Fig. 1). More than half of these protected areas are in the Pacific: Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (NMS), Cordell Bank NMS, Gulf of the Farallones NMS, Monterey Bay NMS, Channel Islands NMS, National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa, Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale NMS, and the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. With the incorporation of cultural resource management, maritime archaeologists could begin to take existing equipment, capacities advantage of platforms, and diving previously Fig. 1 NOAA map of sanctuary system locations (NOAA ONMS) 3 �dedicated to purely natural resource research missions. More importantly, cultural resources and historic properties within marine protected areas began to gain consideration as unique, significant and worthy of protection. The legal mandate to protect cultural resources was actually already an integral part of the sanctuary systems’ founding legislation, the National Marine Sanctuary Act of 1972, which allowed designation of marine protected areas of special national significance due to their “conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural, archaeological, educational, or aesthetic qualities…” (emphasis added…NMSA, 1972). Today the NMSA is one of the most important pieces of federal legislation in the United States for protecting cultural submerged resources in the oceans and Great Lakes. The Maritime Heritage Program is vital, but not large. With five sanctuary sites on the U.S. West Coast, and three in the island Pacific, there are currently only three NOAA archaeologists in the Pacific region. Deep water surveys (beyond typical scuba depths) are often cost-prohibitive. Fortunately Hawai'i benefits from a unique manned submersible program known as the Hawai'i Undersea Research Lab (HURL). HURL was established in 1980 as a joint NOAA/University of Hawai'i center with the primary responsibility of advancing knowledge of the nation’s deep water resources and marine processes. Simply put, operations director Terry Kerby and his HURL team, with the two three-person submersibles Pisces IV and Pisces V, have located more underwater heritage sites than any single other program in the State. These discoveries have been accomplished through surveys conducted during HURL’s pre-season preparatory dives, (testing/training dives for both subs and pilots), cost-efficient opportunities for target site identifications and assessments. Maritime Cultural Landscapes in Hawai`i To date, there has been no single comprehensive assessment of these resources in the waters around the main Hawaiian Islands. Rather, information comes from different sources: the HURL deep water database; the University of Hawai`i’s collection of student site reports; a desk-based assessment of U.S. Navy properties in Hawaiian waters (Van Tilburg, 2003); and local journalists and avocational researchers combing through historic newspapers. Importantly, trust is slowly being built between 4 �management agencies and the general public, and sport divers are beginning to report their own investigations and discoveries. This has led to a partial resource inventory in the main Hawaiian Islands of some 150 underwater ship and aircraft locations, many of them potential heritage properties. It is impossible here to list all the heritage sites discovered and all the maritime archaeology projects conducted in the Islands, but rather than discussing sites individually, contextual understanding of Hawai`i’s UCH can be gained by considering thematically-organized maritime cultural landscapes, for it is the cultural context of human activity that patterns this resource. This approach also better integrates archaeological data with the existing and broader ecosystem-based marine management approaches. Resources associated with three types of maritime cultural landscapes will be introduced here: 1) ancient aquaculture production; 2) the plantation and ranching era; and 3) the military landscape. Ancient Hawaiian Aquaculture Systems Prior to Western contact, the stone seawalls and gates of coastal fishponds, or lokai'a, were prominent features of the Hawaiian landscape. Hundreds of coastal ponds of various sizes produced protein for a large population by taking advantage of nutrientrich runoff from the highlands through the loʻi or taro fields and the brackish coastal setting. Ocean tides through the seaward gates or makaha created flow through the ponds, while the long seawalls protected juvenile fish populations from marine predators. Each island had a handful of notable and productive ponds, while the island of Moloka'i, with is shallow shoals, featured the greatest number of coastal pond locations. The construction and maintenance of these systems represented an impressive commitment of labor and social structure. Most of the traditional ponds are now in ruins, submerged, orcompletely distroyed. Coastal development and sedimentation, as well as the degradation of upstream runoff, have combined to serious effect. Fishpond sites are vulnerable to these larger-scale processes, rather than to the perhaps more familiar individual impacts of divers on historic resource sites. However, an increasing effort exists today to physically restore some of these fishponds to productivity (Handy et al., 1972). 5 �University of Hawai'i students assisted in mapping the shallow submerged remains of stone fish traps and fishpond wall at Kaloko Honokōhau National Park on Hawai'i Island in 1997 with limited success, and have also pursued surveys of other lithic sites including the ruins of an underwater heiau or temple, and the distribution of stone fishing tools (basalt sinkers, anchors, etc) at specific off shore locations (Fig. 2). Statewide archaeological studies assessing the styles and conditions of the many fishpond locations around the main Hawaiian Islands have been completed, but there has been no other underwater archaeological survey conducted on the structural remnants of this type of coastal cultural resource. Existing archaeological reports are exclusively terrestrial, while the ruins of the fishponds are often totally submerged. The question should be posed: would the type of archaeological survey techniques designed for historic UCH properties like shipwrecks be appropriate or even effective for scattered and broken stone walls often buried in coastal sediments? Fig. 2 (left) University of Hawai`i students mapping submerged fish trap structures at Kaloko Honokōhau National Historic Park, 1997. (J. Kuwabara UH MOP) Fig. 3 (right) Near shore survey work on a plantation-period steamship wreck, Shipwreck Beach, Lanai. (J. Kawabata UH MOP) Hawai`i’s Historic Plantation and Ranching Period The early to mid-19th century saw the skills associated with both sugar plantations and with cattle ranching introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, and subsequently plantations and ranches had an enormous impact on the economy and society of historic Hawai'i. Both ranching and plantation economies relied on maritime transportation to the transshipment port of Honolulu, and from there to continental destinations. Yet, with the few exceptions of Honolulu on O'ahu, Hilo on Hawai'i, and Kahului on Maui, the Islands 6 �lacked protected harbors where ships could lie in safety in all weather. Open roadsteads and narrow passages between fringing reefs were the usual setting, and often the skillful use of surf boats or cliff-side moorings and overhead wire systems were the only way to transport both passengers and products. Historic documents record the losses of hundreds of commercial sailing ships and steamers, generally clustered in the vicinity of historic landing locations (Thomas, 1983). Inter island commerce was hazardous business. The shipwrecks identified with Hawai'i’s early plantation history, some submerged in a high-energy warm-water marine environment for over 100 years, have experienced significant biochemical deterioration and mechanical break-up. Whether wood or iron or steel-hulled, Hawai'i’s known steamship wreck sites generally consist of only the heaviest machinery components (boilers, engines, propeller and shaft, anchors etc.) lying on the sea floor adjacent to scattered cargo, small artifacts, and hull debris. These components are often heavily encrusted in corals and coralline algae (Fig. 3). Some of the shipwreck sites were intentionally disposed hulks already stripped of useful equipment. Notably, rough and remote Shipwreck Beach on the north shore of Lāna'i was used by Hawai'i ship owners for many years to dispose of hardworking steam ships which had outlived their useful service. Lāna'i’s north shore was chosen as wind and water there would force the hulks firmly aground on a relatively uninhabited coast. The reefs along the island’s north shore also presented natural hazards to inter island shipping. The resulting cultural landscape at Shipwreck Beach therefore reflects not only Hawaiian settlements and history, but also at least a dozen accidental losses and intentional disposals of 19th and 20th century schooners, barges, and steamships. Several seasons of maritime archaeology fieldwork (1999, 2001, 2009) have been conducted at Shipwreck Beach (The Lāna'i Project, 2009). Nine wreck sites associated with the plantation and ranching era have been assessed to some level, and four of those (SS Maui survey in 2010, SS Kaua`i in 2012, SS Hornet survey in 2009, and an unidentified steamship in 2001) have been the specific subject of NOAA/UH field class surveys, with historical interpretations and site plans. Steamship landings are also considered as potential historic locations, with the potential to shed light on both land and marine human activities. Landing locations typically include pilings, heavy mooring chains and anchors, cargo handling equipment like 7 �winches and derricks, cable, pilings, and assorted artifacts like bottles, fire extinguishers, etc (Fig. 4). Only two of these landing sites have been surveyed in full by maritime archaeologists: Waimanalo plantation landing in 1999 and industrial Mahukona Harbor, former entry-point to the Kingdom of Hawai'i, in both 1994 and 2012. Fig. 4 The industrial archaeology of landing locations: loading derrick at the Waimanal plantation landing site, in-use circa 1880. (T. Casserley NOAA ONMS) Military Vessels U.S. naval activities in Hawai'i have evolved through a number of distinct phases, beginning with early goodwill visits in the 1820’s, and progressing through the commitment to develop a major naval base at Pearl Harbor by 1900, and beyond. The military construction boom and transfer of forces to the islands accelerated in the 1930’s prior to World War II. Hawai'i soon became home to the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and numerous air stations, naval stations and other facilities. Unprecedented naval activity took place among the Hawaiian Islands during the War, in the skies as well as on and under the sea. To understand the military landscape of heritage resources, though, we need to look beyond combat losses. The Hawaiian Islands only came under actual attack a handful of times: the attack on Pearl Harbor and O'ahu military installations on December 7th 1941; the Battle of Midway June 4-7th 1942; Japanese submarine shelling of Kahului, Nāwiliwili, and Hilo harbors on December 30th 1941; and a Japanese seaplane bombing incident on O'ahu March 3rd 8 �1942 known as Operation K. By far, the many known military properties in Hawai'i’s waters today are testimony to the intensive combat training operations (leading to accidental losses) during the war years, rather than direct attack. The known footprint of the military cultural landscape within the main Hawaiian Islands is significant in size and complexity, and may make up the majority of the underwater heritage resource sites. Thousands of naval aircraft and pilots took part in intensive training activities in preparation for combat operations in the Pacific. Records from 1924-1952 indicate over 1,485 naval aircraft sunk in the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands during that period. Many of these submerged aircraft crash sites are also war graves. The submerged aviation landscape is not random, but patterned and island-specific. Often, naval aircraft are found in direct relationship to former naval air station runways. Locating and identifying these aircraft has become a popular pursuit for local sport and technical divers, particularly as closed-circuit re-breather (CCR) technology has advanced and become more available to the specialized public. Some submerged aircraft have become regular destinations for Hawai'i’s recreational diving industry. Several formal surveys have focused on documenting naval aircraft (Catalina PBY-5A in Kaneohe study 1994; Corsair F4U-1 survey in Maunalua Bay 2002; Helldiver SB2C-1 and Hellcat F4F in Mā'alaea Harbor 2011…see Rodgers et al., 1998). Additionally, HURL's research submersibles have located and identified dozens of deep water aircraft sites, including several Keystone PH-1 biplanes from the 1930’s, several Dauntless SBD’s, Avenger TBM’s, and Helldiver SB2C’s…and the giant Martin JRM-1 flying boat (Naval, 2004). Of the many aircraft lost in the islands, over 30 have been located and assessed to some extent. The Hawaiian Islands played a major role in the development of naval aviation in the Pacific (Fig. 5). In a fashion similar to the numerous aircraft, the wreck sites of amphibious landing craft (ramped craft delivering troops onto the beach) and amphibious assault vehicles (tracked vehicles transiting the ocean/beach and moving inland) are also ubiquitous in Hawai`i. Several surveys have focused on documenting the remains of these resources (LVT-3 AMTRACK Maui survey 2011; LVT (A)-4 AMTRACKs Maui survey 2013; LSM O'ahu survey planned for 2014). As with the aircraft, the distribution of these amphibious sites is also patterned and specific. Several areas in the main Hawaiian Islands served as amphibious training beaches 9 �prior to major amphibious operations during WWII (invasions of Saipan, Iwo Jima, etc). These include the shores of North Kohala on Hawai`i Island and the southern corridor of Mā'alaea to Mākena on Maui, both within the NOAA sanctuary (Fig. 6). Maui also featured facilities for the Maui Amphibious Training Center and the Combat Demolition Training Center on Mā`alaea Bay, where the first Underwater Demolition Teams (UDT) were trained in surveying and destroying undersea obstructions and in reconnaissance for shore invasions. (Maui’s WWII Legacy, 2011) Hawai'i proved to be the major combined forces Pacific training area for the innovation of amphibious tactics during World War II. Fig. 5 (left) A WWII dive bomber (SB2C-1 Helldiver) ditched 31 August 1944; now a popular recreational dive site. (H. Van Tilburg NOAA ONMS) Fig. 6 (right) MAST students at the site of an amphibious assault vehicle (LVTA-4 AMTRACK), near the former Maui amphibious training beaches, 2013. (H. Van Tilburg NOAA ONMS) There are many other military vessels in Hawaiian waters. The naval inventory lists over 80 US Navy ships and submarines lost in the vicinity (including inshore patrol vessels, fleet oilers, requisitioned fishing sampans, numerous auxiliaries) and many of these have been located and identified. Unlike the early whaling or plantation periods, the peak of military activity in Hawai'i during World War II occurred only a little over 50 years ago. Modern steel construction, pre-fabrication, and sheer industrial productivity account for the fact that there are many more identified WWII and military-related properties in Hawaiian waters than any older sites. Furthermore, several military sites directly associated with the December 7th, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor and O`ahu military installations have an importance far beyond individual archaeological surveys. 10 �The battleship USS Arizona BB-39, launched from the New York Navy Yard in 1915, was sunk in Pearl Harbor during the December 7th attack with the loss of 1,177 casualties. Much has been written about the USS Arizona, the reverence felt for this site, and the place it occupies in the American national narrative. In 1983 the National Park Service Submerged Resources Center initiated the archaeological survey of the site (Lenihan, 1989), and subsequent field projects took place in 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001, partnering at various times with academic, commercial, and military groups. Follow-up studies on bio-fouling and metals corrosion, as well as a site monitoring program, continue today. Multiple lines of inquiry revolve around questions of structural integrity, the specific processes of deterioration, the amount and location of fuel oil remaining in the ship, and the possibilities for long-term site preservation (Russell and Murphy, 2004). In many ways, these studies are defining the nature of submerged World War II resources and their relationship to the ecosystem. In 2002 Terry Kerby and his HURL team discovered a small two-man submarine sitting upright in over 1,200 feet of water off the south shore of the island of Oahu (Japanese Midget Submarine, 2005). This submarine was one of five secret weapons of the Japanese Imperial Navy involved in the attack on Pearl Harbor, which heralded America’s entrance into World War II in the Pacific. The sub sits upright and intact, in relatively good condition, with a slight list to port. Both torpedoes were still in their tubes, and no extensive exterior damage was visible except for a shell hole at the base of the conning tower’s starboard side, corresponding to the shot which sank the sub. Since then, agencies have collaborated on multiple survey and monitoring missions to the site, and a programmatic agreement for preservation management is currently being reviewed between NOAA, National Park Service, State Historic Preservation Division, and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (Van Tilburg, 2007). Also since then, HURL has continued its efforts in deep water maritime inventory, and gone on to discover the fifth and last Japanese two-man submarine from the 1941 attack, and several other advanced and aircraft-carrying Japanese submarines scuttled after the war (I-14; I-201; I-401; I-400…see Kerby, 2013). The society in Hawai`i today was largely influenced by the Pacific conflict; the Islands were almost overwhelmed by the number of servicemen and military activity during the war. The heritage resources 11 �beneath the sea stand as the physical reminders of this period. The echoes of this major national and international event still strongly reverberate for island residents and visitors alike. Looking Towards the Future There is great potential for the investigation of Hawai'i’s submerged heritage resources, and the indigenous aquaculture structures, historic properties related to the plantation and ranching periods, and the extensive military resource base, will remain important additions to the story of Hawai'i’s past. Though there is no longer any academic UCH program in the state, the public agency collaboration between NOAA and the University of Hawai'i continues. The necessary prioritization, which is an inherent part of that effort, must carefully consider public opinion, for public agencies which employ maritime archaeology as a tool for public resource management have that responsibility. The field of underwater cultural heritage is relatively new to Hawai'i and not well understood. Effective education and outreach efforts remain, therefore, equal to or greater than efforts to simply conduct more individual site assessments. How the investigation of underwater cultural heritage resources in the islands can continue to be incorporated into marine planning processes, and how heritage sites can ultimately contribute to increasing ocean awareness and ocean resource stewardship, remains to be seen. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank Dr. Cindy Hunter and the UH Marine Option Program, Terry Kerby and the UH Hawai'i Undersea Research Program, and the local divers and colleague scientists in Hawai'i who are sharing in the growing awareness and protection of our underwater cultural resources. References ASA Abandoned Shipwreck Act 1987. 43 USC ss2101-2106 http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/43/ch39.html, accessed 11 November 2013. Handy, E. S. C., and E. G., and M. K. Pukui, 1972. Native Planters in Old Hawaii. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 12 �Japanese Midget Submarine 2005 http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/midget_sub.html, Expedition. accessed 10 September, 2013. Kerby, T., 2013. Discovery of Imperial Japanese Navy Submarine August 1st, 2013. Hawaii Undersea Research Lab unpublished report, Honolulu. The Lāna`i Project. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/lanai/welcome.html, accessed 8 December 2013. Maui’s World War II Legacy. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/maui/ accessed 10 October, 2013. Naval Aviation and Deep http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/expeditions/mars.html Water Discoveries. accessed 12 December 2013. NMSA National Marine Sanctuaries Act 1972.16 USC s1431 et seq. http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/about/legislation/ accessed 10 November 2013. Rodgers, B. A., Coble, W. M., and Van Tilburg, H., 1998. The Lost Flying Boat of Kaneohe Bay: Archaeology of the First U.S. Casualties of Pearl Harbor. Journal of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Vol. 32 (4): 8-19. Russell, M., and Murphy, L., 2004. USS Arizona Preservation Project Research Rationale October 2004. National Park Service Submerged Resources Center, Santa Fe. Thomas, M., 1983. Schooner from Windward: Two Centuries of Hawaiian Inter Island Shipping. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Van Tilburg, H., 2002. Underwater Archaeology Hawaiian Style. In C. V. Ruppe, and J. F. Barstad (Eds.), International Handbook of Underwater Archaeology, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York: 247-266. Van Tilburg, H., 2003. U.S. Navy Shipwrecks in Hawaiian Waters: An Inventory of Submerged Naval Properties. Naval Historical Center report, Washington Navy Yard. Van Tilburg, H., 2007. The Japanese Midget Sub at Pearl Harbor. In J. H. Jameson and D. A. Scott-Ireton (Eds.), Out of the Blue: Public Interpretation of Maritime Cultural Resources, Springer Press, New York: 182-195. 13 �Biography Hans Van Tilburg holds a BA in geography from University of California Berkeley, an MA in maritime archaeology/history from East Carolina University, and a PhD in history from the University of Hawai`i, where he ran the graduate program in maritime archaeology and history. Hans has taught courses in world maritime history and published over 30 articles and book reviews, as well as several books. He has served as a consultant for UNESCO’s cultural heritage program and instructor for UNESCO’s UCH Foundation courses. He is currently the maritime heritage coordinator and unit diving supervisor for NOAA’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries in the Pacific. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Local Pacific Inventory: Maritime heritage resources in the Main Hawaiian Islands Description An account of the resource The systematic investigation of underwater cultural heritage in the islands started in 1989 with the University of Hawai`i’s Marine Option Program. This slowly grew into a graduate certificate program in maritime archaeology and history. Manned submersibles with the Hawai`i Undersea Research Lab contribute to deep water discoveries and site surveys. Today the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Office of National Marine Sanctuaries continues heritage resource site assessments in Hawai`i, in collaboration with partner agencies and programs. The underwater cultural heritage in Hawai`i reflects a multicultural diversity of archaeological and historic properties, such as coastal stone fishponds, submerged heiau, 19th century plantation landings, inter island steamships etc. Major events like World War II left behind numerous naval shipwrecks and submerged aircraft. These are the physical elements of maritime cultural landscapes that describe Hawai`i’s maritime past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hans Van Tilburg, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869-1945 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hansgeorg Jentschura Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1977 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Hansgeorg Jentschura Item Type Book ISBN 1854095250 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1977 Edition 2nd Num Pages 284 Place Maryland Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Naval Institute Press Title A name given to the resource Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869-1945 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Islamic Maritime Law: An Introduction Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hassan S. Khalilieh Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brill Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Hassan S. Khalilieh Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Place Leiden Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brill Title A name given to the resource Islamic Maritime Law: An Introduction