30 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d3572ce1d953c3278846b2457d15b06e.pdf f9ae2df85d4614b9dfccb24ea7fc1fe4 PDF Text Text Legally in situ: legislative allowance for the practical application of in situ preservation pertaining to marine archaeological materials Debra Shefi1 ‘The protection of underwater cultural heritage through in situ preservation shall be considered as the first option. Accordingly, activities directed at underwater cultural heritage shall be authorized in a manner consistent with the protection of that heritage, and subject to that requirement may be authorized for the purpose of making a significant contribution to protection or knowledge or enhancement of underwater cultural heritage’ (2001 Convention: Annex, General Principles, Rule 1). Abstract The protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) often falls prey to interpretation of, or exclusion from, the law. With the ratification of the 2001 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) encouraging the use of in situ preservation as the preferred option for managing these submerged sites, there is a need for a more refined guideline as to what constitutes in situ preservation within the 2001 Convention. Cultural heritage managers utilise a number of proactive and reactive in situ preservation methods with the intent to establish and maintain a stable environment for submerged cultural material, which can only be employed if the State Party has supporting legislation. Within the Asia Pacific region, the degree of State Party laws pertaining to the protection of UCH ranges from being in compliance with the rules and principles outlined by the 2001 Convention to contradicting the fundamentals within the document outright. Furthermore, terminology found within State Party laws varies from terminology found within the 2001 Convention, which further differs from terminology used by practitioners. With this in mind, it is necessary to try and bridge the gap between written definitions found in international texts and laws with the practitioners’ application of in situ preservation in order to strengthen the relationship between language and practice for the purposes of more efficiently supporting the management of underwater sites. This paper will focus on terminology within the Asia Pacific region pertaining to UCH management by examining the differences between legal boundaries and best management strategies. This paper will specifically look at terminology within regional domestic laws, discuss Rule 1 of the Annex, and address how amending terminology within these texts may benefit the region. Introduction Heritage, along with the debate surrounding its ownership, has existed as a legal entity in various capacities for over a century. As an all-encompassing term, heritage has been defined as both the tangible and intangible aspects of society that are considered valuable enough to preserve and pass on through the generations (Davison 1991; Schofield 2008; Smith 2006). More specifically, the term can be broken down into individual facets, including cultural heritage (together with underwater cultural heritage), natural heritage, intangible heritage, industrial heritage, and ethnographic heritage (UNESCO.org; Smith 2006; Rössler 2006; UNESCO 1972). Heritage can also 1 Flinders University, Department of Archaeology, Australia, Debra.shefi@flinders.edu.au 1 �be considered an aspect of history, a discourse, and a tradition, thus providing a resource to better understand the past (Schofield 2008; Smith 2006). More broadly, it is a useful term to describe what is remembered, practised, continued and evolved throughout the ages. Laws regarding the protection of cultural heritage within the Asia Pacific region vary in degree of legal definition with regards to what constitutes the term in accordance to age, material, location and ownership. The different definitions have significant implications on the classification of material, and therefore the extent of protection. This paper will focus on identifying key phrases within State Party laws that are associated with heritage found underwater, and how these relate to the General Principles, Rule 1 in the Annex associated with the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. The purpose of this investigation is to consider the need to amend specific terminology or definitions of terms within the 2001 Convention’s Annex in order to provide stronger support for State Parties that have either ratified or agreed to the rules and guidelines provided in the Annex. In order to do this, the discussion will first set out which nations in the region have cultural heritage laws specifically referencing UCH and the terminology applied within these texts. Nations included in this study are based on UNESCO’s parameters for the Asia Pacific region (UNESCO.org). The discussion will then continue by reviewing Rule 1 followed by how the domestic laws relate to the Annex. It is necessary to consider the relationship between domestic law and the 2001 Convention, and whether this relationship can be strengthened. Asia Pacific as defined by UNESCO UNESCO delineates Asia Pacific as the following countries: Afghanistan Australia1,2 1 Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Darussalam Cambodia1 1 China Cook Islands Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Fiji India Indonesia Islamic Republic of Iran Japan Kazakhstan Kiribati Kyrgyzstan People’s Democratic Republic of Lao 1 Malaysia Maldives Marshall Islands Federated State of Micronesia Mongolia Myanmar Nauru Nepal New Zealand1 Niue 1 Pakistan 1 Palau Papua New Guinea Philippines1 Republic of Korea Russian Federation Samoa Singapore Solomon Islands Sri Lanka Tajikistan Thailand Timor-Leste Tonga Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uzbekistan Vanuatu Viet Nam 1 State Party with laws referencing the protection of underwater cultural heritage within general law. 2 State Party with specific laws referring to the protection of underwater cultural heritage. Within the cultural heritage legislation of these countries, there is a spectrum of protection for UCH. This ranges from specific protection of archaeological material located beneath the surface of the seabed, through to allowing treasure hunting by permit. There are forty-eight Parties listed above 2 �and only two have ratified the 2001 Convention: Cambodia and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Many of the remaining nations listed above have agreed to the Annex but because of political reasons or contradictions with their own domestic laws, have yet to ratify the 2001 Convention. Of the forty-eight countries, no cultural heritage legislation was found for fifteen countries, and an English translation was not available for five countries. As a note, there may be relevant heritage legislation for these fifteen Parties however no mention of UCH laws could be found in English sources. Thirteen of the twenty-eight English translations for the Parties have legislation pertaining to the protection of cultural heritage in regards to water. Of the thirteen nations, Australia is the only country to have specific UCH legislation, and this specific legislation only pertains to shipwrecks (HSA 1976). None of these thirteen nations refer to in situ preservation within their cultural heritage laws. The most common terminology found within the domestic laws are in regards to the location of heritage material – in internal waters, archipelagic waters, and territorial waters. Of the thirteen Asia Pacific nations with underwater references in their legislation, Malaysia and Sri Lanka reference internal waters. Malaysia, for example, includes antiquities located in, ‘any part of the soil or of the bed of a river or lake or of the sea’ (MAA 1976: Part I.2.a), and includes any undiscovered antiquities, ‘lying on or hidden beneath the surface of the ground or in any river or lake or in the sea’, to be ‘absolute’ property of the Malaysian government (MAA 1976: Part II.3.3). This legislation however, does not reference preservation of these antiquities, merely the location and ownership. Terminology and phrasing regarding the location of State-specific legally defined cultural heritage ranges from ‘on land and underwater’, to ‘on ground or underwater', ‘to the Territorial Sea', and to ‘the Continental Shelf’; however, active management regarding preservation is neither outlined nor referenced. Examples of cultural heritage legislation consisting of these terms include: Bangladesh – Antiquities Act 1968; Philippines – Cultural Properties Preservation and Protection Act 1974 and National Cultural Heritage Act 2009 (see Orillenada and Ronquillo this volume); Sri Lanka – Antiquities Ordinance 1956 (Revision); Turkey – Conservation of Cultural and National Property 1983. Cambodia has more specific laws stating that it is illegal to, ‘carry out excavations or survey on land or under water, for the purposes of bringing to light cultural property...’, without approval from the appropriate authority (RPCH 1992: Section 8. Article 47; LPCH 1996: Chapter 2. Section 7. Article 40; see Heng Kamsan; Nady Phann this volume). China also extends legislation regarding the preservation of ancient remains and relics out to the, ‘territorial seas within the boundaries of the People’s Republic of China’ (LPRC 1982. Chapter 1. Article 5), as does New Zealand under the Antiquities Act 1975 (see Charter and Dodd this volume) and Viet Nam under the Law on Cultural Heritage 2001. Again, these laws do not address specific methods for managing the preservation of underwater cultural material. Pakistan’s legislation, in contrast to many others, does provide some framework regarding the survey and excavation of cultural heritage. The Pakistani Archaeological Excavation and Exploration Rules 1978 (AEER) �defines excavation to mean, ‘any research aimed at the discovery of an antiquity, whether such research involves digging of the ground or is carried out on the bed or in the sub-soil of inland or territorial waters of Pakistan’ (AEER 1978:2.1.b). The AEER also defines exploration to mean, ‘investigation, without digging; or surface, aerial or underwater operations aimed at the discovery, survey or recording of an antiquity’ (AEER 1978:2.1.c). Furthermore, no significant archaeological materials found during a survey or excavation can be, ‘destroyed, dismantled, removed or disturbed, save with the previous permission’, nor can individuals, ‘mutilate, discolour, disfigure, remove, dismantle or damage any antiquity found in the course of excavation or exploration’ (AEER 1978:9.d and 9.f). Excavation can be a destructive method of information extraction, and is potentially damaging to the stability of underwater cultural resources. The AEER sets out that practitioners who are surveying and excavating must, ‘take necessary measures for safeguarding and preserving the site under excavation or exploration during and between seasons of work’ (AEER 1978:9.m). This implies in situ preservation without defining the specific parameters of ‘safeguarding and preserving’. This is an example where the integration of the international 2001 Convention with a strengthened definition for in situ preservation could support and encourage more active preservation under domestic law. Of the laws mentioned above, the trend within domestic law focuses on the location and ownership of heritage, not the management and preservation of the sites. UNESCO – Background on the 2001 Convention One of the first events in initiating the development of the 2001 Convention occurred during discussions leading up to the establishment of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1958 (UNCLOS). This was in regards to the conscious omission of, ‘objects such as wrecked ships and their cargoes (including bullion) lying on the seabed or covered by the sand of the subsoil’, within the document (YILC 1957:298). The UNCLOS does however stipulate that, ‘this article is without prejudice to other international agreements and rules of international law regarding the protection of objects of an archaeological and historical nature’, (1982: Article 303.4) – a proviso that extends to include the 2001 Convention. As an institution, UNESCO, ‘is the sole intergovernmental organization with near universal membership which has a mandate to help States protect their cultural heritage’ (Engelhardt 2006:7). Although this agency encourages Parties to ratify the 2001 Convention, the process of ratification is long and arduous. More than 100 countries were present during the meetings to create the document, and although these countries helped develop the outline and terminology applied throughout the text, each nation had to sacrifice key points or terms that complied with their domestic laws. With omissions and alterations, many States were no longer able or willing to ratify the 2001 Convention. However, they did often state that, ‘they [would] ensure that the Rules of the Annex are implemented’ (Engelhardt 2006:7). Although ratification of the 2001 Convention is, for some countries, unrealistic in the near future, the �participating bodies agreed that the 2001 Convention helps establish an international standard and regulation specific to the management and preservation of UCH (Englehardt 2006). To date, 40 State Parties have ratified the 2001 Convention (UNESCO.org). Part One of the Annex Framework The General Principles outlined in the Annex to the 2001 Convention provide rules regarding the protection of UCH. Rule 1 of the General Principles states that in situ preservation is to be considered as the first option in managing submerged cultural material. According to UNESCO, this means that objects, ‘should preferably be left on the seabed in their original location’ (UNESCO.org). Although in situ preservation is stated as the preferred option, under certain conditions the removal of artefacts from on or beneath the seabed may be acceptable as long as excavation can provide, ‘a significant contribution to protection or knowledge or enhancement of underwater cultural heritage’ (2001 Convention: General Principles, Rule 1). By the broad UNESCO definition, UCH could be considered preserved if it were left submerged in its current place of rest, either beneath the seabed or resting on the seabed. While practitioners may not argue with this statement, if the site is located in an exposed or dynamic environment, a passive response will do nothing for the long-term protection and preservation of the site. In order to more effectively manage the site, an appropriate proactive in situ preservation method suited to the environmental conditions should be applied. In this case, a clearer definition for best management may include actively managing a site in its original location, ‘in order to extend its longevity while maintaining original context and spatial position’ (Ortmann, et al. 2010:28). If the material is degrading at a high rate due to exposure from extreme tidal movement, sand movement, coastal erosion, looting, salvage, construction, or marine organisms a proactive preservation measure suited to the environment should be applied. This course of action leaves the site in situ - thus falling under the stipulated best management practice – while still allowing for and encouraging active management and preservation of the UCH. Since the 1950s, practitioners around the world have acknowledged the importance of in situ preservation and experimented with a number of different methods regarding the stabilisation of shipwrecks and associated underwater material. These preventative and proactive in situ preservation methods include backfilling, sediment dumping, hessian and polypropylene sandbagging, deposition of ballast and stones, and the use of geotextiles, artificial seagrasses, plastics, tyres, toxins, trenches, and iron and plastic fences (Harvey 1996; Hosty 1988; Moran 1997a; Moran 1997b; Oxley 1998; Sledge 1979; Waddell 2007). It may be difficult, however, to obtain support for the application of these methods due to a lack of specific reference within both domestic law and the 2001 Convention. UNESCO’s current definition encourages ethical practices and promotes protection of cultural heritage, however it does not provide specific guidance in methodology for in situ site preservation. �Any method of in situ preservation, whether proactive or reactive, should reflect the importance of context as well as scientific site formation processes, while helping to re-establish equilibrium at the site after exposure. Research in countries such as Australia, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Canada have demonstrated that proactive in situ preservation helps slow down the rate of decomposition by increasing the establishment of an anaerobic environment (Bergstrand 2002; Björdal and Nilsson 2008; Curci 2006; Gregory 1998; Grenier 2007; Manders 2006; Manders, et al. 2005; Nyström 2002). These various scientific data strengthen the argument for an expansion of the definition of in situ preservation, and reinforces the importance for the 2001 Convention to address specific methodological approaches within internationally accepted standards for best practice. With a lack of countries in the Asia Pacific region having domestic cultural heritage laws specifically inclusive of heritage underwater, the broad acceptance of the Annex, with suggested methodology, is a crucial step in more effective preservation in the Region. Furthermore, those Parties with laws regarding UCH will have a more comprehensive document to help support their own laws in regards to more efficient and proactive site protection. Parallel Terms between Entities The 2001 Convention is a necessary adjunct to the UNCLOS in regards to underwater archaeological material. The 2001 document extends State Party jurisdiction beyond individual Territorial Seas to include waters within the Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ) and Contiguous Zone, up to the nominal boundary of the Continental Shelf (2001 Convention: Article 8, 10.1, 10.2). Under special circumstances, the jurisdiction of a State Party may extend out into the Area (2001 Convention: Article 11.1). The 2001 Convention establishes a framework that addresses the safeguarding and preservation of UCH with the intent of helping to establish an international standard for the survey, exploration, and management of submerged archaeological sites. Restrictive economic circumstances that many nations face due to the ongoing global financial crisis have implications on the management of cultural heritage. Decisions around site preservation and protection methods may be limited in this current environment. It is however still the responsibility of individual countries to protect their own UCH by, ‘the best practical means at their disposal and in accordance with their capabilities’ (2001 Convention, Article 2.4). While the capabilities of individual Nations may vary, further developing the definition of in situ preservation provided by UNESCO may also introduce a greater onus on governments to consider their duty of care by actively stabilizing sites under internationally accepted rules and principles. Conclusion One of the most important aspects of the 2001 Convention is that it encourages international co-operation and fosters the exchange of information and methodologies that improve the protection and preservation of significant UCH. This information, in conjunction with domestic law within the Asia Pacific region, helps practitioners better manage UCH at an �internationally accepted standard. Rule 1 from the Annex, General Principles identifies in situ preservation as the first option for managing submerged cultural heritage. It does not, however, outline in situ preservation methodologies acceptable for application. As the specific concept of in situ preservation is not addressed in any domestic laws relating to cultural heritage management within the Asia Pacific region, it is necessary to better integrate UNESCO’s definition with methodologies and applied practice to more effectively manage underwater sites. Amendments to the 2001 Convention and to the Annex can occur in 2014, five years after the January 2009 ratification. In this context, clarifying in situ preservation techniques as best practice in managing UCH sites will enable more cohesion between domestic laws and the international 2001 Convention for the Asia Pacific region. This will be of great benefit to participating governments and to practitioners, leading to better outcomes for the long-term preservation and value of UCH. Abbreviations 2001 Convention AEER 1978 HSA 1976 LPCH 1996 LPRC1992 MAA 1976 RPCH 1992 UNESCO.org UNESCO 1972 UNCLOS YILC 1957 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. Pakistan - Archaeological Excavation and Exploration Rules 1978 Australia - Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 Cambodia - Law on the Protection of Cultural Heritage 1996 China - Law of the People’s Republic of China on Protection of Cultural Relics 1982 Malaysia – Antiquities Act No. 168 1978 Cambodia – Resolution on the Protection of Cultural Heritage 1992 www.UNESCO.org United Nations Eductional, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. 1972 World Heritage Convention United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1958 United Nations, 1957, Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1956, Vol II. United Nations, New York. 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Engelhardt, R., 2006 “The Asian Pacific Underwater Heritage and The UNESCO Convention 2001” in Finishing the Interrupted Voyage: Papers of the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Workshop on the 2001 Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (ed) Prott, L.V. Institute of Art and Law, Leicester, pp. 6-9. Gregory, D., 1998 “Re-burial of timbers in the marine environment as a means of their long-term storage: experimental studies in Lynæs Sands, Denmark” in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology Vol. 27, Issue 4, pp. 343-358. “The Parks Canada Red Bay Project: A Synopsis” In R. Grenier, M.-A. Bernier and W. Stevens (eds.). The Underwater Archaeology of Red Bay: Basque Shipbuilding and Whaling in the 16th Century. 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Cambridge University Press, New York: pp. 201 – 205. “Heritage Management, Theory and Practice” in G. Fairclough, R. Harrison, J.H. Jameson and J. Schofield (eds.) The Heritage Reader Routledge, Oxon: pp. 15 – 30. "On shifting a wooden wreck: Supplementary note to the Day Dawn." The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration. Vol. 8, Issue 3, pp. 245. Uses of Heritage. Routledge, Oxon. “Timber Reburial”. In R. Grenier, M.-A. Bernier and W. Stevens (eds.) The Underwater Archaeology of Red Bay: Basque Shipbuilding and Whaling in the 16th Century. Public Works and Government Services Canada, Ottawa, Vol 1, pp. 149-152. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Legally in situ: legislative allowance for the practical application of in situ preservation pertaining to marine archaeological materials Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource The protection of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) often falls prey to interpretation of, or exclusion from, the law. With the ratification of the 2001 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) encouraging the use of in situ preservation as the preferred option for managing these submerged sites, there is a need for a more refined guideline as to what constitutes in situ preservation within the 2001 Convention. Cultural heritage managers utilise a number of proactive and reactive in situ preservation methods with the intent to establish and maintain a stable environment for submerged cultural material, which can only be employed if the State Party has supporting legislation. Within the Asia Pacific region, the degree of State Party laws pertaining to the protection of UCH ranges from being in compliance with the rules and principles outlined by the 2001 Convention to contradicting the fundamentals within the document outright. Furthermore, terminology found within State Party laws varies from terminology found within the 2001 Convention, which further differs from terminology used by practitioners. With this in mind, it is necessary to try and bridge the gap between written definitions found in international texts and laws with the practitioners’ application of in situ preservation in order to strengthen the relationship between language and practice for the purposes of more efficiently supporting the management of underwater sites. This paper will focus on terminology within the Asia Pacific region pertaining to UCH management by examining the differences between legal boundaries and best management strategies. This paper will specifically look at terminology within regional domestic laws, discuss Rule 1 of the Annex, and address how amending terminology within these texts may benefit the region. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Debra Shefi Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b65cbf0cbec872baa0ddbb28f16f76e6.pdf 1b17632f5b816ae268b5ec79c4e15964 PDF Text Text Lessons from the Inland Seas: A Submerged Landscape Study in the Great Lakes Dr. Ashley Lemke (Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee, Associate Professor) ABSTRACT The topic of this abstract fits best within Session15 because it is a case study of 9,000-year-old archaeological sites on a submerged landscape under a lake. The case studies under consideration are the following 1) conducting prehistoric archaeology 30 meters below water, 2) studying a submerged landscape in an inland setting, in this case, a large freshwater lake, and 3) novel data preserved underwater in the Great Lakes challenges our previous ideas about hunter-gatherer societies. The resources available to conduct the work include funding from the National Science Foundation and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (both based in the United States) and methods include sonar surveys, remote operated vehicle investigations, photogrammetry, scuba diving, environmental sampling, and virtual reality computer modeling. The research questions/approach/problems are 1) how can we conduct anthropologically relevant underwater archaeology, 2) how do you investigate sites 30 meters below water, and 3) what can submerged data tell us about prehistoric peoples? The [expected] results are stone tools and debitage, stone constructed hunting features, and ancient peat deposits.   Keywords: Submerged landscapes, North America, Great Lakes, Deep-water archaeology List of Figures Figure 1. Lake Huron and the Alpena-Amberley Ridge Figure 2. Two obsidian flakes recovered from a submerged landscape below Lake Huron, Great Lakes, United States Figure 3. Sampling an exposed peat layer on a submerged landscape below Lake Huron, Great Lakes, United States. INTRODUCTION The topic of this article fits best within Session 15, The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters because it is a case study of Early Holocene (9,500-8,900 cal. yr. BP) archaeological sites on a submerged landscape under an inland lake. Over the past 200,000 years the earth experienced several phases of glacial and interglacial climates and associated changes in global water level. During these periods, when large amounts of water were frozen, sea-level lowered by as much as 130 meters (Joy 2021). These global processes of sea level change, including glaciation, isostatic rebound, and fluctuating water levels are mirrored on a local level in the North American Great Lakes. The North American Great Lakes is a region in the midcontinent of North America with five fresh bodies of water. Amongst the largest lakes in the world, the Great Lakes are often referred to as the “inland seas” given their size, depth, ecological habitats, and significant weather and waves. Today these lakes greatly impact communities in the region in terms of commerce, travel, subsistence, climate, and recreation. The same was true for these lakes in the past, where they have influenced, and been influenced by, the human communities on and around them for thousands of years. The Great Lakes have been a region of study for nautical archaeologists for many decades, given the unique and varied vessels to sail across them and their long-standing role in transportation, trade, and conflict (e.g. Lardinois 2021). In addition to the rich maritime history of the area, the cold, fresh waters of the Great Lakes provide some of the best preservation habitats for archaeological remains, particularly wooden and metal ships given the lack of salt (and its corrosive properties), absence of ship worms (Teredinidae), and cold-water temperature. Indeed, the large numbers of shipwrecks and their immaculate state of preservation has resulted in two National Marine Sanctuaries in the Great Lakes, one in Lake Michigan, the Wisconsin Shipwreck Coast National Marine Sanctuary, and one in Lake Huron, the Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary. 1 �Within the Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary in Lake Huron, this project seeks to move beyond shipwrecks and further back in time, to explore submerged landscapes in the Great Lakes, using Lake Huron as a test case. At the end of the last ice age, during the Lake Stanley time period, water levels in Lake Huron were 100 meters lower than modern sea level and exposed more than 250,000 hectares of previous lake bottom. These lower water levels created a long, narrow dryland feature called the Alpena-Amberley Ridge (AAR) that runs across the modern Lake Huron basin, splitting it in two (Figure 1). The AAR is ~145 kilometers long and between 12-16 kilometers wide, it now rests in an average of 25-30 meters of water. Between 9,500-8,900 cal. yr. BP this causeway was a dryland environment that connected mainland Michigan and Ontario on either side of the lake and served as a migratory pathway for caribou herds in the area which in turn attracted human hunter-gatherers. Figure 1. Lake Huron and the Alpena-Amberley Ridge. Interdisciplinary research since 2008, including paleoenvironmental studies and computer science applications, but focusing on archaeology, has documented 9,000-year-old hunting sites for targeting caribou (Lemke 2022; O’Shea and Meadows 2009; O’Shea et al. 2014). Organic remains and stone artifacts have been collected including two lithic flakes fashioned out of an exotic obsidian from over 4,000 kilometers away (O’Shea et al. 2021 Figure 2). 2 �Figure 2. Two obsidian flakes (specimen numbers 105-1 and 105-2) recovered from a submerged landscape below Lake Huron, Great Lakes, United States (O’Shea et al. 2021). CASE STUDIES While one project, the case studies under consideration are the following: 1) conducting prehistoric1 archaeology 30 meters below water, 2) studying a submerged landscape in an inland setting, in this case, a large freshwater lake, and 3) novel data preserved underwater in the Great Lakes challenges our previous ideas about hunter-gatherer societies in the region. While submerged landscapes studies are now common across the globe (Bailey et al. 2020; Benjamin et al. 2011; Evans et al. 2014), it is still a small group of archaeologists working in prehistoric time periods within the larger field of underwater archaeology. As such, projects across the globe have targeted different regions, various time periods, diverse research questions, generated novel data, and have utilized unique methods while creating new research designs. While many approaches from nautical archaeology 1 A note about the use of “prehistoric” here. While many archaeologists are using pre-contact to refer to ancient sites in the Americas, the author prefers the use of prehistoric, arguing that “pre-contact” obscures diversity and artificially creates a homogenous “pre-contact” North America that did not exist (akin to the use of “pre-colonial Africa” see Táíwò 2023) 3 �can be adapted to older sites, submerged landscapes also present their own unique challenges, and project teams have often invented new techniques combined with standard methods to approach these archaeological records. For the Lake Huron project specifically, a new approach was applied that worked in iterative, mutli-scalar levels, developed out of necessity for working in very old contexts in deep, fresh water, far offshore (55-80 kilometers). Conducting prehistoric archaeology in water depths of 30 meters required a multi-scalar approach to submerged landscapes, to first understand the underlying landforms and their associated paleoenvironments to then make predictions about where hunting and gathering sites would be located. Therefore, the first research conducted was large-scale mapping of the central portion of the AAR using multibeam and side-scan sonars. The AAR was broken into 4 research areas, targeting unique geological aspects of the landform. Area 1 (56 kilometers squared) focused on high ground outcrops that may have included local chert/flint deposits, Area 2 (49 kilometers squared) has some of the deepest water on the AAR, thus representing evidence from the earliest stages of Lake Stanley (those areas that would have been exposed first after water levels lowered), Area 3 is a narrow section of the AAR with a pronounced slope (17 kilometers squared) and Area 4 is an large, flat area that likely would have had the best grazing/browse for migrating herds (165 kilometers squared). The central portion of the AAR was targeted for investigation because archaeological deposits offshore are less likely to be deeply buried by modern sediment and are less likely to be significantly impacted by coastline waves and weather (e.g. ice thrusts, erosion, etc.). Once these large areas were mapped, investigations focused on targets of interest on the sonar surveys, and research focused on these smaller areas. Fortunately, the archaeological record on the AAR investigated thus far consists of stone-constructed hunting features, some of which are large enough to see on large-scale sonar surveys given their high reflectivity. These sites are similar to hunting architecture sites known from the terrestrial record (Lemke 2022) and are stone lines, rings, v-shapes, funnel-shapes, and other constructions used to attract and channel wild prey into predictable hunting areas. Many of the sites under Lake Huron have rocks with diameters of 1 meter and some rock line constructions are 30 meters long and thus are visible on side-scan surveys (O’Shea and Meadows 2008) and were chosen for more in-depth research. Once an area on the AAR is known to have a prehistoric structure, finer scale survey is conducted with scanning sonar, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV) with side-scan sonar, and a remote operated vehicle (ROV) resulting in micro-regional investigations of 150-hectare areas (O’Shea 2021). Given the depth and temperature of the water, large-scale scuba surveys are not possible given limitations on bottom time, and these remote sensing methods coupled with the live video of the ROV have proven very successful at finding archaeological sites and conducting preliminary mapping and video surveys of features. Once sites are fully photo-documented using the ROV and mapped using the scanning sonar and/or AUV, they are then sampled for cultural materials by scuba divers. Sampling on the AAR has taken a varied approach depending on the context. In general, archaeological sites and materials are shallowly buried (less than 10 centimeters of sediment overlay archaeological deposits). At large sites, preliminary sampling was conducted in a fashion similar to shovel testing in the United States where a small area, 30 centimeters squared, was hand excavated and screened and cultural material was collected every three meters. Once cultural material was recovered, further excavation was completed in one by one-meter square units. Locations of all samples are collected via the ROV which is equipped with a tracking sonar with real time geospatial coordinates. Other sampling methods include 100 mL plastic vials which are primarily used for collecting sediment for paleoenvironmental and geoarchaeological analyses, including pollen, testate amoebae, grain size, etc. These samples occasionally also collected cultural materials, such as the two obsidian flakes (O’Shea et al. 2014). To date, numerous stone constructed sites have been documented and sampled on the AAR using the above methods. These include Drop 45, a long liner drive lane site that has associated hunting blinds and 4 �stone artifacts (O’Shea et al. 2014), the Gap Locality, an area of hunting blinds and other constructed features that yielded the obsidian artifacts (O’Shea et al. 2021), and the Dragon Drive lane, a site with a long, liner drive lane feature and a hunting blind (O’Shea and Meadows 2009). In addition to the cultural material, paleoenvironmental data characterized this submerged landscape as a peri-glacial sub-arctic like environment with spruce and tamarack trees, freshwater lakes, bogs, and marshes. Most recently, a preserved peat bog was discovered. Radiocarbon dates from this peat layer ranged from 9678-9296 cal. yr. BP (Figure 3). Samples of the peat have been submitted for environmental DNA analyses which aim to further illuminate the flora and fauna present on this early Holocene now submerged landscape. Figure 3. Sampling an exposed peat layer on a submerged landscape below Lake Huron, Great Lakes, United States. Photograph by John O’Shea, used with permission. In general, the archaeological record on the AAR can be characterized as evidence of a modified, cultural landscape, where groups of foraging societies encountered caribou on their semi-annual migrations and used targeted hunting techniques in both the fall and spring using built structures. Hunting architecture sites increase the yield and predictability of wild animal resources and provide meeting areas on the landscape for people to come together for cooperative hunts while also likely trading goods, socializing, sharing foods, exchanging information, conducting rituals, etc. Significantly, the archaeological evidence preserved on this inundated landform is notably different from terrestrial archaeological sites in the region. Historically the standard model of occupation for the area began with the Paleoindian time period (~13,000-10,000 cal. yr. BP) as the earliest occupants, characterized as highly mobile, big-game hunters, using distinctive fluted point projectiles, changing to lanceolate points during the later stages. Such technology is unique in the Americas and has been well-studied; although, regionally archaeological sites with this technology are not well dated due to 5 �acidic soils and largely ephemeral deposits (Lothrop et al. 2016). The following Archaic period is characterized by notched and stemmed points in the Great Lakes, with the Hi-Lo variety often assumed to be transitional between these and the earlier fluted points. To date, no large bifaces have been recovered from submerged sites on the AAR. While the two obsidian flakes are likely the byproduct of bifacial manufacture/maintenance (O’Shea et al. 2021), other lithics from the AAR are more indicative of a microtool tradition, unknown from the terrestrial record in the region. The AAR archaeology therefore offers a unique window in diverse lifeways that characterize the late Pleistocene/early Holocene, a time period of immense environmental change, mosaicked flora and fauna, and likely small regional refugia such as the AAR (see Lemke and O’Shea 2019). RESOURCES The resources available to conduct the work include funding from the National Science Foundation and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (both based in the United States) and methods include sonar surveys, remote operated vehicle investigations, photogrammetry, scuba diving, environmental sampling, and virtual reality computer modeling. FRAMEWORK The research questions/approach/problems are 1) how can we conduct anthropologically relevant underwater archaeology, 2) how do you investigate sites 30 meters below water, and 3) what can submerged data tell us about prehistoric peoples? First, submerged landscapes represent a fundamentally different problem than sunken wrecks (boats, ships, or airplanes), rather than a time capsule of a historical event, submerged landscapes are often palimpsests of longer periods more akin to most terrestrial archaeological sites (Lemke and O’Shea 2022). As such, they can be investigated like terrestrial archaeological sites, admittedly with some unique methods, such as those developed for the deep-water archaeology conducted on the AAR. The investigation of submerged landscapes also requires geoarchaeological, paleoenvironmental, and paleolimnological data to understand when sites were submerged, how long environments were habitable, and what type of climates and resources they provided to past peoples. Ultimately it is critical to investigate these landscapes from an anthropological archaeology perspective (Lemke 2021). The Great Lakes case study presented here also offers ideas for research designs in deep-water, offshore contexts, but it is important to stress that while theoretically submerged landscapes share many commonalities with each other and their terrestrial counterparts, siteand regional-level modeling must be done on a case-by-case basis. For example, most sea-level curves are not appropriate for wide-scale use, and water levels need to be reconstructed for specific areas keeping in mind their unique geomorphology. Additionally, methods that work well for one submerged site will not work at others, for example, an airlift that was designed to excavate ancient, submerged sites in Florida karstic sinkholes and rivers was used in Lake Huron and froze given the dramatic differences in water temperature. Lastly, it is important to note that data from submerged landscapes date to some of the most critical time periods in the human past, and rather than providing redundant data, they often preserve unique evidence about the past to better elucidate the lifeways of prehistoric peoples. RESULTS The [expected] results from this research are stone tools and debitage, stone constructed hunting features, and environmental DNA from ancient peat deposits. Taken together, this case study from the inland seas presents unique methodologies for conducting deep-water archaeology, a long-term regional study of a submerged landscape, and novel results that indicate a unique early Holocene environment, significant 6 �modification of the landscape best characterized as niche construction by hunter-gatherers, and a mosaic of foraging lifeways in the ancient Americas. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research presented in this article is the result of interdisciplinary collaborative work with project founder and co-director John O’Shea, and research partners including Tyler Schultz, Elisabeth Sonnenburg, Brendan Nash, Daneille Riebe, Jeffery Ferguson, Alex Nyers, Robert Reynolds, Thomas Palazzolo, Chencheng Zhang, Sarah Saad, Matthew Boyd, and Cailen O’Shea. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bailey, Geoff, Galanidou, Nena, Peeters, Hans, Jons, Hauke, and Mortiz Mennenga (,eds.). The Archaeology of Europe’s Drowned Landscapes. Verlag: Springer, 2020. Benjamin, Jonathan, Bonsall, Clive, Pickard, Catriona, Pickard, and Anders Fischer (,eds.). Submerged Prehistory. Oxford ; Oakville: Oxbow Books, 2011. Evans, Amanda, Joe Flatman, and Nic Flemming (,eds.). Prehistoric Archaeology on the Continental Shelf. Verlag: Springer, 2019. Joy, Shawn. “Coastally-adapted: A developing model for coastal Paleoindian sites on the North American eastern continental shelf.” Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 16, no.1 (2021): 150-169. Lardinois, Anna. Shipwrecks of the Great Lakes: Tragedies and Legacies from the Inland Seas. Essex: Globe Pequot, 2021. Lemke, Ashley. “Submerged Prehistory and Anthropological Archaeology: Do underwater studies contribute to theory?” Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 16, no. 1 (2021): 5-26. Lemke, Ashley. The Architecture of Hunting: The Built Environment of Hunter-Gatherers and its Impact on Mobility, Property, Leadership, and Labor. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2021. Lemke, A. K., and J. M. O’Shea. “The End of an Era? Early Holocene Paleoindian Caribou Hunting in a Great Lakes Glacial Refugium.” In People and Culture in Ice Age Americas: New Dimensions in Paleoamerican Archaeology, edited by R. Suárez and C. F. Ardelean, 156-171. Salt Lake City: Utah University Press, 2019. Lemke, A. and J. O’Shea. “Drowning the Pompeii Premise: Frozen Moments, Single Events, and the Character of Submerged Archaeological Sites.” World Archaeology 54, no. 1 (2021): 142-156. Lothrop, Jonathan C., Lowery, Darrin L., Spiess, Arthur E., and Christophere J. Ellis. “Early Human Settlement of Northeastern North America.” Paleoamerica 2, no. 3 (2016): 192-251. O’Shea, John M. “Micro-regional Approaches for Submerged Site Archaeology.” Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 16,1 (2021): 103-117. O’Shea, J. M., Lemke, A. K., Sonnenburg, E., Reynolds, R.G., and B. Abbott. “A 9,000- year-old Caribou Hunting Structure beneath Lake Huron.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, no. 19 (2014): 6911-6915. O’Shea, J. M., Lemke, A. K., Nash, B. S., Sonnenburg, E. P., Ferguson, J. R., Nyers, A. J., and D. J. Riebe. “Central Oregon Obsidian from a Submerged early Holocene Archaeological Site beneath Lake Huron.” PLOS ONE 16, no. 5 (2021): e0250840. O’Shea, John M. and Guy A. Meadows. “Evidence for Early Hunters beneath the Great Lakes.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 25 (2009): 10120-10123. Táíwò, Olufemi, “It never existed: The idea of a ‘precolonial’ Africa is theoretically vacuous, racist, and plain wrong about the continent’s actual history.” Aeoni (2023) https://aeon.co/essays/the-idea-of-precolonial-africa-is-vacuous-and-wrong?utm_source=rss-feed 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 15: The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters Subject The topic of the resource Session 15 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 15 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lessons from the Inland Seas: A Submerged Landscape Study in the Great Lakes Description An account of the resource The topic of this abstract fits best within Session15 because it is a case study of 9,000-year-old archaeological sites on a submerged landscape under a lake. The case studies under consideration are the following 1) conducting prehistoric archaeology 30 meters below water, 2) studying a submerged landscape in an inland setting, in this case, a large freshwater lake, and 3) novel data preserved underwater in the Great Lakes challenges our previous ideas about hunter-gatherer societies. The resources available to conduct the work include funding from the National Science Foundation and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (both based in the United States) and methods include sonar surveys, remote operated vehicle investigations, photogrammetry, scuba diving, environmental sampling, and virtual reality computer modeling. The research questions/approach/problems are 1) how can we conduct anthropologically relevant underwater archaeology, 2) how do you investigate sites 30 meters below water, and 3) what can submerged data tell us about prehistoric peoples? The [expected] results are stone tools and debitage, stone constructed hunting features, and ancient peat deposits. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ashley Lemke Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Lemke, Ashley . 2023. “Lessons from the Inland Seas: A Submerged Landscape Study in the Great Lakes.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Jennifer McKinnon. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1992 Asia-Pac Session 15 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/31f0710f184369d94b0f8a75476a0866.jpg f579583b10f8061ab9b16bb23f3542cd Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 2247 Height 3180 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Let Us Not Desecrate It - Poster Description An account of the resource Many ships were sunk with loss of lives. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions destroyed and submerged coastal settlements and entire cities, together with their inhabitants. Underwater archaeological sites are therefore significant, not only for their archaeological and historical contexts, but also for the respect and veneration that are due them as resting place of those who perished and who may be our ancestors. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Montakarn Suvanatap Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Asia Pacific Regional Capacity Building Programme on Underwater Cultural Heritage UNESCO Bangkok Field Office Email: m.suvanatap@unesco.org www.unescobkk.org/culture/uch Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Poster Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Letters from Mesopotamia: Official, Business, and Private Letters on Clay Tablets from Two Millennia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource A. Leo Oppenheim Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University Of Chicago Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Translator A. Leo Oppenheim Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1967 Place Chicago Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available University Of Chicago Press Title A name given to the resource Letters from Mesopotamia: Official, Business, and Private Letters on Clay Tablets from Two Millennia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/70fd792b136141ca517c120504da6fea.pdf 3623413390aac2d2ae646036d3b65e6d PDF Text Text Literary & Archaeological Evidence of Early Seafaring & Navigation Technologies in India S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty1 Abstract India is situated at the central point of the ocean that washes on its coast on three sides, seemed destined very early for a maritime future in the region. Both literature and archaeological works of the region are providing ample evidence about the early sea routes and maritime trade activities of the region. Vedic literature, one of the early existed texts, has provided copious references about the early seafaring. There was a time in the past when Indians were the masters of the long distance seaborne trade. They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried overland or via sea. The archaeological excavations of several Indo-Saraswathi, the first civilization in the region, sites and many others have also conclusively demonstrated advance maritime activities right from the third millennium Before Christ2 (BCE). During the early historical period (second BCE to second CE) several coastal towns, both east and west coasts of peninsular India, had international trade and commerce. The subject matter for the present discussion are based on glimpses of the regional seafaring and navigation technologies mentioned in the available early indigenous literature of the Sanskrit language, as well as archaeological records. Key words – Vedic literature, Sanskrit, Rigveda, Matsya yantra India has all required geographical feature suitable for water transportation, which has been utilized by human since the ancient times to the present day. It is situated at the central point of the ocean (see Map). Figure 1. Map of India's geographical location, the red arrow extends from its most western coast to its eastern border (by author). 1 Prof & Geoarchaeologist, SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipuram – 631561., India. Email- sramakrishna.pisipaty@gmail.com 2 A designation of the Gregorian Calendar, from the year -1 and continuing backwards from the year of the birth of Jesus Christ of Nazareth. Common Era - abbreviated as CE, is an alternative designation for the calendar era, traditionally identified with Anno Domini (abbreviated AD), both systems are numerically equivalent. BCE - Before the Common Era, an alternative to BC (Before Christ). �The rivers flow from the Greater Himalayas and other Ghats, further provide the intra-connection within the region to the coast. From the region many advanced traits were evolved for the first time in the history of mankind. Among them is a vast amount of literature developed by the Sindh region around 2000 BCE. This has been a major source in reconstructing the past on various aspects. It may be true that the Sanskrit literature is only existing early literature. Early Indian literature has appeared in two major groups depending on the language – one is in Sanskrit language and other group of literature is in the regional dialects of that period (Mujumdar 1996; Datta 2006). Literature in Sanskrit language is grouped in to two types of texts – one related to Veda origin; and the second category is classical literature (Keith 1993). In the former group of text, of Sanskrit language, according to scholars Rigveda is an early text and complied around 2000 BCE (Kochhar 2000). It may be noted that the vast Indian literature has oceanic depth. For the present study evidence related to the early India seafaring have been restricted to the Rigveda and a few other early text along with archaeological data unearthed from various Indo-Saraswathi sites. According to various scholars the Rigvedic compilation and the late phases of the Indo-Saraswathi civilization (around 2000 BCE) were happened almost in the same period (Kochhar 2000; Talageri 2000). Allusions to Early Maritime Activity in Sanskrit Literature In Sanskrit literature constant reference is made to merchants, traders and men engrossed in commercial pursuits. The oldest evidence on record is supplied by the Rigveda which contains several references to sea voyages undertaken for commercial purposes (Table I). The word "navy", or related word, has its origin from the Sanskrit word Navgatih, potentially the word "navy" derived from the word nou meaning boat. From Sanskrit language Samudra is usually translated as "ocean and/or sea" and the word itself means "gathering of waters". The term Samudra occurs 133 times in the Rigveda, referring to oceans (real, mythical or figurative) or large bodies of water as well as to large Soma vessels (RV 6.69.6). However, the Samudra is never said to flow in the Rigveda, but it receives all rivers (RV 6.36.3; 8.44.25). The Rigveda also describes the Sarasvati River as a river that flows to the ocean (RV 2.41.16-18) and, "is pure in her course from the mountains to the sea" (RV 7.95.2). Rigveda (1.71.7) describes the seven great rivers seeking the Samudra. All rivers flow to the Samudra but are unable to fill it (RV 7.33.8). It also says that the Samudra is the eldest of the waters (Samudra jyestha) and that the goal of the rivers is to reach the Samudra (RV 7.49). One passage (RV. I. 25,7) represents Varuna, the rain God who has full knowledge of all sea routes. In another context (RV. I.56,2) it speaks of merchants, under the influence of greed, going abroad on ships to foreign countries. Another verse (I. 56.2) mentions merchants whose activities know no bounds, who go everywhere in pursuit of gain, and frequent every part of the sea. The seventh mandala (book) (VII. 88. 3 & 4) alludes to a voyage undertaken by Vasishtha and Varuna in a ship skillfully fitted out, and their, "undulating happily in the prosperous swing". A verse in first mandala/book, which is the most interesting passage (RV. I.116. 3), mentions a naval expedition on which the Tugra, a King (mentioned in Rigveda) sent his son Bhujyu against some of his enemies in the distant islands. Bhujyu, however, is shipwrecked by a storm, with all his followers, on the ocean, "where there is no support, no rest for the foot or the hand", from which he is �rescued by his twin brethren, the Asvins (Rigvedic Gods), in their hundred-oared galley. The Panis in the Vedas and later classical literature were the merchant class who pioneered to unknown lands and succeeded in crossing oceans and rivers between many regions and diverse nations. The Phoenicians were no other than the Panis of the Rigveda (RV X.108). They were called Phoeni in Latin which is very similar to the Sanskrit Pani. From the above verses show that the people credit Varuna (rain God in Rigveda) with knowledge of the ocean routes and the versus describe naval expeditions having occurred by the time of the Rigveda compilation (around 2000 BCE). It may also appear that the Vedic culture was a maritime culture, the Vedic people lived by the sea for some time before the hymns of the Rigveda were composed. Rigveda articulation of sea voyages include (I. 97.8), "Do thou convey us in a ship across the sea for our welfare". “As a ship crosses the river (or sea), Agni takes us across to safety” (RV I. 97.8). Besides these examples there are numerous allusions in the Rigveda to sea voyages and to ships with a hundred oars. According to the text, “all the universe rests within your nature, in the ocean, in the heart, in all life” (RV IV. 58. 11). Manu Smriti is the oldest law book in the world. It is written in Sanskrit and lays down laws to govern commercial disputes. Its references, of concern for this paper, are to sea borne traffic as well as inland and overland commerce (MS I-XVIII). The Ramayana refers to the Yavan Dvipa and Suvarna Dvipa (Java and Sumatra respectively) and to the Lohta Sayara or the Red Sea (Buck (ed) 1976 (rp)). In the Kishkindha Kandam (4,40) in Ramayana Sugriva, the Lord of the Monkeys, gives directions to monkey leaders for the quest of Sita (wife of Lord Rama and the main female character in Ramayana), and entails all the possible places including islands where Ravana could have concealed her (RY 4.40.34,37,38 &45). In Ayodhya Kandam there is a passage which hints at preparation for a naval fight, thus indirectly indicating thorough knowledge and universal use of waterways (RY 2.52). Construction of overpass on sea to reach island Srilanka, is another example of early navigation and sea exploration from India to the other regions (RY). The well known story of the "churning of the ocean" (Samudra manthan or Ksheera Sagara Mathanam in Sanskrit language) in the Mahabharata, Vishnu purana and Bhagavata purana is not without significance (Wilson 2006; Mani 1975). According to the story, all kinds of herbs were cast into the ocean and fourteen Ratnas (gems or treasures or most important) were produced from the ocean during churning and were divided between asuras and gods. The list of Ratnas in the scriptures are ranges from 9 to 14. This is further indicating the exploitation and extraction of natural resources from the sea by the people of the region. Moreover, the most interesting passage in the Mahabharata is that which refers to “a large ship with machinery and all kinds of weapons of war that is able to defy storms and waves” (Buck 2004 (rp)). Ancient texts such as Vishnu Puran (around fifth century CE) and the Periplus of the Eruthreanean Sea (a mid-1st century date is now the most commonly accepted) vividly describe the tidal range and its uses in navigation practice. The fabulous literature of India is also replete with stories of sea voyages by Sindh regions. The Jatakas (JS), Buddhist scriptures in Pāli language (other than Sanskrit language) are also providing information about the merchantization and navigation through the sea. Some very definite and convincing allusions to sea voyages and �sea-borne trade are also contained in the vast body of Buddhist literature, which are generally taken to relate themselves to a period of one thousand years beginning from 500 BCE (Viggo Fausbll (ed). 2010). The Baveru Jataka without doubt, points to the existence of commercial intercourse between India and Babylon in preAshokan days (before second century BCE) (BJ 313; Moorkerji 1999). There is another to consider, a Prakrit text on ship-building named Angavijja written in the Kushana period (around second century BCE) and edited in the Gupta period (around fifth century Common Era (CE)). This text enlists about a dozen names of different types of ships, such as Nava, Pota, Kotimba, Salika, Sarghad, Plava, Tappaka, Pindika, Kanda, Katha, Velu, Tumba, Kumba and Dati. Some of these varieties of ships such as Tappaka (Trappaga), Kotimba and Sarghad have also been mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. They are considered to be very large ships capable of sailing along the coast as well as in deep sea (Vincent 1998). Tamil literature of a few centuries before and after the present era, which was composed in the southern part of India, especially Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai also testify to this great overseas trade. Technologies Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja gives a detailed classification of ships. There were two kinds: ordinary (Samanya) ships comprising those used in inland waters; and special (visesa) meant for sea journeys. The largest of these called ‘Manthara’ measured 120 cubits (1 cubit = 45.72 centimeters) in length, 60 in breadth and 60 cubits in height. During the days of the composition of Yuktikalpataru (around ninth century CE), it appears that ship-building was highly advanced. It explains how to build ships (YK 81-82), ship types (YK 89), sizes (YK 90-95) and materials (YK 83-87), including suitability of different types of wood. Bhoja has advised the builders of the sea-faring ships not to join the plants with iron as, in this case, the magnetic iron in sea water could expose the ship to danger (YK 88). To avoid this risk, he suggests that planks of the hull's bottom should be held together with the help of substances other than iron (YK 88). According to the literature ships could carry crews numbering between 100 to 600. Out of regard for passenger convenience and comfort the ships were well furnished and decorated. Gold, silver, copper and compounds of all these substances were generally used for ornamentation and decoration. The magnetic compass was first used in India around 1800 BCE, for navigational purposes at sea, and was known as ‘Matsya yantra’ (which roughly translates to fish machine), because of the placement of a metallic piece shaped into a fish in a cup of oil (Prakash 2008). Yantra Sarvaswa (All about machines) composed by Maharishi Bharadwaj and other sages is another resource book in the Sanskrit language commemorates early Indian technologies. Vaimanika Shastra (YS), the extant text is claimed to be only a small (one-fortieth) part of a larger work, four planes called Shakuna, Sundara, Rukma, and Tripura are described in greater detail. The Tripura Vimana in Vaimanika Shastra (see plate 1) described a hi-tech vessel which could have been use in three natural environments - air, water and land (Josyer 1973). �Plate 1. Hi-tech vessel which could have been use in three natural environments air, water and land (Josyer 1973). Archaeological evidence From the archaeological horizon, the representation of ships on a seal and coin indicate maritime activities, there is enough evidence to show that the people of the Sindhu region carried on trade, not only with other parts of India, but also with Sumer and the centers of culture in Western Asia, Egypt and Crete (Behera 1999). At Lothal a tidal dock, believed to have been built during Indus Valley Civilization (2300 BCE), near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat (west) coast is an example of early Indian seafaring. According to Rao (1979, 1985; 1987; 1991) the dock has been used in two stages: at the first stage it was designed to allow ships 18-20 meters long and 4-6 meters wide, at least two ships could simultaneously pass and enter easily; in the second stage the inlet channel was narrowed to accommodate large ships but only single ships with flat bottoms could enter. The terracotta models of a boat from Lothal and engravings on Indus seals give some idea of ships going to the sea (Rao 1979, 1985). Further, the Indus Valley ports were set up to trade overseas with ancient Mesopotamia (the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers corresponding to the regions of modern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey) and Arabia along the Gulf of Cambay. These ports trans-shipped much sought after Indian products from upriver cities along ancient Indus Valley rivers to the world market (Moorkerji 1999). The distance from the mouth of the Sindhu river to Mesopotamia was approximately 2000 kilometers (km), and probably covered by Sindhu merchants from sites such as Dholavira and Mohenjo-daro by sailing along the coast to various ports of the Arabian Gulf and Mesopotamia. From the above information one can note concrete evidence about the seafaring and technology involved in the construction of vessels in ancient India. �Further, there was a time in the past when Indians were the masters of the seaborne trade of Europe, Asia and Africa (Chanda 1977). They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried overland or by sea. Indian traders sailed their ships not only on the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, they also ventured into the Red Sea and even into the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea (Vincent 1998). From the very beginning Indian traders had a very fair knowledge of all the ancient oceans and seas of the populated world (Radha 1912). The Egyptians called India ‘God's land’ because India was, in those days, very culturally developed (Prasad 1990). The priest of ancient Egypt required vast quantities of aromatic plants for burning incense; and frankincense, myrrh and lavender were also used for embalmment. Herodotus (around 425 BCE) has left us a sickening description of the great number of spices and scented ointments of which India was the center (Marincola 2003). Beauty products from India also attracted the women of Egypt and the cosmetic trade was entirely dependent on imports chiefly from India (Prasad 1977). The Pharaohs of the fifth and sixth dynasties made great efforts to develop trade relations with the land of Punt (Prasad 1977). Knemphotep made voyages to Punt eleven times under the captainship of Koui (Mitra 2007), these expeditions were organized and financed by the celebrated Queen Halshepsut. The vast extent of Indian cultural influences, from Central Asia to the north to tropical Indonesia including Philippines in the south and from the borderlands of Persia in the west to China and Japan in the east, has shown that ancient India was a radiating central civilization. Its advanced cultural thoughts, art and literature were destined to leave deep marks on the races wholly diverse and scattered over the greater part of Asia (as defined by the ‘United Nations geoscheme for Asia’). The most valuable of the exports of India was silk, which under the Persian Empire is said to have been exchanged by its weight in gold. It is evident that there was a very large consumption of Indian manufactures in Rome (Warminton 1974). Roman coins in large quantities are found in places in India (Gupta 1965; Singh 1988), whence beryl, pepper, pearls and minerals were exported to Rome (Begley & De Puma 1992). The chief articles of export from India were spices, perfumes, medicinal herbs, pigments, pearls, precious stones (like diamonds, sapphires, turquoise and lapis lazuli), animal skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn, muslin, indigo, ivory, porcelain and tortoise shell (De Silva 1970). The chief imports were cloth, linen, perfume, medicinal herbs, glass vessels, silver, gold, copper, tin, lead, pigment, precious stones and coral (Chanda 1977). Some important verses from Rigveda, quoted in the above text (first in Verses in Romanized Sanskrit Font (transliterate) and original text in Sanskrit) vedā yo vīnāṃ padamantarikṣeṇa patatām | veda nāvaḥ samudriyaḥ || वेदा यो वीनां पदम�त�र�ेण पतताम | वेद नावः समु�ियः || (RV I. 25. 7) Tam gurtayo nemannishah parinash Samudram na sancharane sanishyavah �Patim dakshasya vidathasya nu saho Grim n a vena adhiroha tejasa तं गूतय � ो नेम��नषः पर�णसः समुिं न संचरणे सिनंयवः | पितं द�ःय !वदथःय नू सहो िग�रं न वेना अिध रोह तेजसा || (RV I.56.2) tughro ha bhujyumaśvinodameghe rayiṃ na kaścin mamṛvānavāhāḥ | tamūhathurnaubhirātmanvatībhirantarikṣaprudbhirapodakābhiḥ || तुमो ह भु)युम�*नोदमेघे रियं न क�-न म.वानवाहाः | तमूहथुन/िभरा0म�वतीिभर�त�र�ूु!2रपोदकािभः || (RV I. 116.3) ā yad ruhāva varuṇaśca nāvaṃ pra yat Samudramīrayāvamadhyam | adhi yadapāṃ snubhiścarāva pra preṅkha īṅkhayāvahai śubhe kam || vasiṣṭhaṃ ha varuṇo nāvyādhād ṛṣiṃ cakāra svapā mahobhiḥ | stotāraṃ vipraḥ sudinatve ahnāṃ yān nu dyāvastatanan yāduṣāsaḥ || आ यद 4हाव व4ण- नावं पर यत समुिमीरयावम5यम | अिध यदपां सनुिभ-राव पर परे ङख ईङखयावहै शुभे कम || विस;ं ह व4णो ना<याधाद र!षं चकार सवपा महोिभः | सतोतारं !वूः सु�दन0वे अ=ां यान नु दयावःततनन यादष ु ासः || (RV VII 88. 3 & 4) vedāyovīnāṃpadamantarikṣeṇapatatām| veda nāvaḥ samudriyaḥ || वेदायोवीनांपदम�त�र�ेणपतताम| वेद नावः समु�ियः || (RV I. 25.7) dviṣonoviśvatomukhātināvevapāraya| apa...|| sanaḥsindhumivanāvayātiparṣāsvastaye| apa ... || द!वषोनो!व*तोमुखाितनावेवपारय| अप...|| सनःिस�धुिमवनावयाितपष�सवःतये | अप ... || (RV I. 97. 7 & 8) �Strengthened with sacred offerings, Indra-Visnu, first eaters, seRVed with worship and oblation, Fed with the holy oil, vouchsafe us riches; ye are the lake [Samudra], the vat that holds the Soma. (RV 6.69.6) sūryasyeva vakṣatho jyotireṣāṃ samudrasyeva mahimā ghabhīraḥ | vātasyeva prajavo nānyena stomo vasiṣṭhā anvetave vaḥ || (RV 7.33.8) ekācetat sarasvatī nadīnāṃ śuciryatī ghiribhya ā samudrāt | rāyaścetantī bhuvanasya bhūrerghṛtaṃ payo duduhe nāhuṣāya || (RV 7.95.2) aghniṃ viśvā abhi pṛkṣaḥ sacante samudraṃ na sravataḥ sapta yahvīḥ | na jāmibhiRVi cikite vayo no vidā deveṣu pramatiṃ cikitvān || (RV I.71.7) taṃ sadhrīcīrūtayo vṛṣṇyāni pauṃsyāni niyutaḥ saścurindram | samudraṃ na sindhava ukthaśuṣmā uruvyacasaṃ ghiraā viśanti || (RV 6.36.3) indrāviṣṇū haviṣā vāvṛdhānāghrādvānā namasā rātahavyā | ghṛtāsutī draviṇaṃ dhattamasme samudrah sthaḥ kalaśaḥ somadhānaḥ || (RV 6.69.6) Table 1. Some important words related to Sea & Seafaring from Early Sanskrit Literature Sanskrit words Transliterate in English Translation into Suitable term (Romanized Sanskrit Font) English ÌÌ¥Ì: ÌÌÍ¥ÌFÒ ÌÌ¥™Ì˜Ì Æ ²Ì˜ÌÙ‡Ù: ²Ì˜ÌÙ‡ÙO Ì˜Ì Ì˜ÌÆ ²Ì Ì ²Ì˜ÌÙ‡ÙÌ: ̥̖ ̥̖ N¡VAÅ Ship - N¡VIKA Belonging to a Sailor, pilot - Navigable, accessible by a boat or ship navigation sea - SAMUDRAGAMAN AM Voyaging by sea - SAPTA SAMUDR¡Å 7 oceans Lavana, ikshu, sura, ghrita, dadhi, dugdha, jala - NAVABANDHANA K¢LAÅ A nail to tie up a ship Anchor N¡VYAM SAMUDRAÅ �Ì ŒÌ ÌFÒÕ ¡Ô: ¥ÌÌTÌ¥ÌµÌ ˜ÌÆ ²YÌÜ¡Ô— ²YÌÜ¡Ô— ÌÌOÌ: FÂÒÍ Ì ÌH Õ: FÒSÌÊ: ÌÌ¥ÌTÌ¡Ô˜ ÌÆ ¥Ì UÌ–ÌW Ó—ÌÌOÌ: ÌÌOÌ: Wind cloth Sail Expanded area Hull K®NIPA¶AÅ KAR¸AÅ Curved blade Rudder N¡VATALAM Bottom of a Ship Keel Navigation sextant V¡TAVASTRAM STH£LABH¡GAÅ V¤TTAÀA´GABH¡ GAÅ Abbreviations Jataka Stories(JS) Jataka Stories in Theravada Buddhism. (Ed) Appleton, N. 2010. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. England. Manusmrith (MS) http://sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/manusmriti.pdf Ramayana(RY) Buck, W. (ed),1976 (rp) University of California press. England. http://www.valmikiramayan.net/ Rigveda(RV) Rigveda http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/Rigveda/ Yukti Kalpataru(YK) Yukti Kalpataru. 1917. Calcutta oriental series no 1. Vimanika Sastra(VS) The Vimanika Shastra: Ancient Manuscript on the Constructionand Use of UFOs. Forgotten Books Bibliography Begley, V., and R.D. Rome and India, the Ancient Sea Trade. New Delhi. De Puma (eds)., 1992. �Behera, K.S. (ed.)., 1999 Buck, W. (ed), 1976 (rp) Buck, W. (ed), 2004 (rp) Maritime Heritage of India. Delhi: Aryan Books International. Chanda, M., 1977 Datta, A., 2006 De Silva., 1970 Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India. New Delhi. Gill, J. S., 1993 Gupta, P.L., 1965 Humphrey, J. W., 2006 Josyer, G.R. , 1973 Keith, A.B., 1993 Kochhar, R., 2000 Leshnik, S.L., 1979 Mani, V., 1975 Marincola, J.M. (ed) 2003 (rp) Mitra, S., 2007 Moorkerji R.K., 1999 Mujumdar, R.C. (ed), 1996 Prakash, A.A., 2008 Prasad, P.C., 1977 Radha, K. M., 1912 Ramayana. University of California press. England. Mahabharata. The Regents of the University of California, First Indian Edition in 2000, New Delhi. The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature. 2 volumes. Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi. “The Spice and Silk Roads”, in Indian Contribution to World thoughts and Culture: Vivekananda Commemoration Volume. Madras :229-231. “Our heritage of traditional boat building”, in Journal of Marine Archaeology 4, pp. 74. A catalogue of Roman Coins in the Andhra Pradesh. Government Museum. Museum series. Government of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad. Ancient technology. Greenwood guides to historic events of the ancient world, Greenwood Press, Westport. Vymaanika Sastra, The University of Michigan. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarasidas Publishers. Delhi. The Vedic People, their History and Geography. Orient Longman Limited. New Delhi. "The Harappan "Ports" at Lothal: another view", (ed.), Gregory L Possehl, Ancient Cities of the Indus , Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. Puranic Encyclopedia, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi. The Histories, Herodotus (Author), John M. arincola (Editor, Introduction), Aubery de Selincourt (Translator),Penguin Classics. The Vision of India, Crest Publishing House, New Delhi. Indian Shipping. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. New Delhi. The History and Culture of the Indian People, XI volumes, Frist published in 1951, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai. "A Vision of Maritime India 2020", in (ed.) Prakash Nanda, Rising India: Friends and Foes, Essays in Honour of Prof. M.L.Sondhi, Lancer Publishers, New Delhi. Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India. Abhinav Publications, New Delhi. Indian Shipping - A History of the Sea-Borne Trade and Marine Activity of The Indians From The Earliest Times, Bombay. �Rama, S., and Tripathi, S., 1993 Raman, K.V., 1997 Rao, S.R., 1979, 1985 Rao, S.R., 1987 Rao, S.R. (Ed.)., 1991 Singh, A.K., 1988 Talageri, S. G., 2000 Viggo Fausbll (ed). 2010 (reprint) Vincent, W., 1998 Warminton,E.H., 1974 (second edition) Wilson, H. H., 2006 "Boat building technology of Bengal: an overview of literary evidence", in Journal of Marine Archaeology, Goa, 4, pp. 84. "Roads and river transportation", (ed.) A.K. Bag, History of Technology in India, Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp.592-93. Lothal – A Harappan Port Town, 2 vols, Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi Progress and Prospects of Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa, Recent Advances in Marine Archaeology, National Institute of Oceanography, Goa. Indo-Roman Trade. New Delhi. The Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi. Ten Jatakas: The Original Pali Text, with a Translation and Notes. BiblioBazaar. Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean, 2 vols, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. London. The Vishnu Purana: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition. Read Country Books.Cambridge. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Literary & Archaeological Evidence of Early Seafaring & Navigation Technologies in India Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 Nautical (Ship and boat) Archaeology of South Asia Description An account of the resource India is situated at the central point of the ocean that washes on its coast on three sides, seemed destined very early for a maritime future in the region. Both literature and archaeological works of the region are providing ample evidence about the early sea routes and maritime trade activities of the region. Vedic literature, one of the early existed texts, has provided copious references about the early seafaring. There was a time in the past when Indians were the masters of the long distance seaborne trade. They built ships, navigated the sea, and held in their hands all the threads of international commerce, whether carried overland or via sea. The archaeological excavations of several Indo-Saraswathi, the first civilization in the region, sites and many others have also conclusively demonstrated advance maritime activities right from the third millennium Before Christ (BCE). During the early historical period (second BCE to second CE) several coastal towns, both east and west coasts of peninsular India, had international trade and commerce. The subject matter for the present discussion are based on glimpses of the regional seafaring and navigation technologies mentioned in the available early indigenous literature of the Sanskrit language, as well as archaeological records. Key words – Vedic literature, Sanskrit, Rigveda, Matsya yantra Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 2 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a4acebed64062ad76364cbf87b38279e.pdf 98c692ab4592db6be67c9789b9c25c8d PDF Text Text Living and Trading: A Dual Approach to Studying Southeast Asian Port Cities Charlotte Papillaud Looram George Town World Heritage Incorporated charlotte@gtwhi.com.my Abstract The historical ports of Southeast Asia were highly active regional mercantile hubs located at the crossroads between the East Asian and Indian Ocean trading networks. These strategically places attracted merchants and sailors from the world over, some of whom stayed on a permanent or semi-permanent basis to carry out their business. By their very nature, Southeast Asian ports are thus both economic spaces dedicated to maritime activities, and cosmopolitan spaces where people from different social and cultural backgrounds came together. This duality is expressed in the built environment, which contains specialised structures to facilitate trade (such as wharves, warehouses, and boatyards) but also communicates people’s identity. This paper proposes studying historical port cities by combining a maritime cultural landscape approach and urban social theory to understand the economic as well as the socio-cultural fabric of Southeast Asian ports. This approach will be applied to two very different port cities: Hội An in Central Vietnam, and George Town in Malaysia. Whereas Hội An was an informal temporary market place that grew to be one of the region’s biggest entrepôt ports in the 18th century, George Town was founded as a trading outpost for the British East India Company in 1786, before becoming the seat of many mercantile firms and banks in the 19th century. Key words: ports, economies, structures, socio-cultural Introduction Ports, by their nature, are highly economic spaces dedicated to maritime activities. The ports of Southeast Asia, strategically located at the crossroads between the East Asian and Indian Ocean trading networks �(and by extension the East-West trading network), were chiefly stopovers and entrepôts through which moved traders from all corners of the world. Due to the monsoon trade, merchants would often stay in these ports for months at a time waiting for the winds change, and created settlements where the various traditions would intermingle, yet remained distinct (Li, 1998; Lockard, 2010; Reid, 1993). Southeast Asian port cities were thus — in addition to being highly economic — also highly culturally and socially diverse; in other words they were cosmopolitan. Craig Lockard (2010) described them as “places of economic exchanges as well as cosmopolitan gateways for the import and export of people, goods, and ideas.” This paper proposes to apply a maritime cultural landscape approach in conjunction with the environment-behaviour theory in order to highlight this duality and understand the fabric of historic Southeast Asian ports. This paper will address two case studies to illustrate this dual approach: Hội An in Vietnam, and George Town in Malaysia. Both are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, Hội An in 1999 and George Town in 2008, under criterion (ii): “to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, townplanning or landscape design” (UNESCO, 2016).1 Hội An is located on the Thu Bon river in Quảng Nam province in central Vietnam. It was established as a foreign port for the Nguyen Lords some time in the mid to late sixteenth century, though the exact date and circumstances are unknown (Dror and Taylor, 2006; Wheeler, 2006). Hội An was a successful entrepôt until the eighteenth century when was eclipsed by Đà Nẵng, a few kilometres north. During this time, the Japanese and the Chinese were the two largest foreign trading groups in Hội An. George �Town, Penang was established in 1786 by Sir Francis Light as an East India Company free port and naval base (though the naval base did not actually succeed) (Hussin, 2009). It was the first British port city in Southeast Asia, and had attracted over ten thousand Malay, Chinese, and Indian merchants within a decade (Hussin, 200; Lewis, 2016). Theoretical Background Both the maritime cultural landscape and environment-behaviour concepts ultimately aim to understand tangible manifestations of culture, the former from an archaeological perspective and the latter from an urban studies perspective. Underlying these concepts are discussions regarding the nature of culture. The urban theorist Amos Rapoport (1998) summarizes the scholarship on culture by presenting three complementary views of culture: “one view defines it as a way of life typical of a group; the second, as a system of meanings and schemata transmitted through symbolic codes; the third, as a set of adaptive strategies for survival related to ecology and resources.” He views culture as too abstract for his purposes (understanding culture in the built environment); it is unobservable and thus “essentially useless” in environment-behaviour studies (Rapoport, 1998). It is instead the “effects, expressions, or products” of culture, such as social variables, that are visible and useful (Rapoport, 1998). He describes increasingly specific expressions of culture in order to arrive at something actionable: lifestyles and activity systems. A lifestyle is “the outcome of choices about how to allocate resources,” in other words; it is composed of a series of activities, and is influenced by norms, standards and expectations (Rapoport, 1998). Christer Westerdahl arrived at a similar conclusion regarding maritime culture specifically, as will be described below. �Maritime archaeologists have long debated whether there is such a thing as a distinct maritime culture — that is a culture specific to communities living on or near the sea that is inherently and completely different to inland culture. Many have concluded that the separation between land and sea is not in fact absolute (Tuddenham, 2010; Westerdahl, 2007, 2011). Indeed, humans do not ever exclusively experience the sea unconnected to land (Mushynsky, 2011; Tuddenham, 2010; Westerdahl, 2007, 2011). Christer Westerdahl (2007) explains that maritime culture is “eminently a mixture, a creolization, of others. It is based on the subsistence gained from the seas and the water, and consists of all the thought patterns, cosmologies, customs, objects, phenomena and patterns of action connected with a life by the sea.” Like Rapoport, his view of culture is ultimately related to subsistence strategies, even referring to the “life mode” concept, and conceptualizing the maritime life mode as a series of subsidiary trades dictated in this case by living on the coast or related to a primary maritime trade, not unlike Rapoport’s lifestyle concept (Westerdahl, 1992, 2007). Some examples he presents are fishing, hunting, and gathering (at sea or on land), as well as boat building, shipping, ferrying, pilotage, and lighthouse attendance (Westerdahl, 2007). It is this recurring idea of culture as a “mixture” of activities that guides this paper. In order to understand the cultural fabric of Southeast Asian ports, a port should be seen as a sum of parts: a trading community, a crossroad of sea routes, and a concentration of different traditions. Ports are often described in the literature as transit points: the point of change between land and sea, of changing modes of transportation, and of exchanging goods and ideas (Lockard, 2010; Reid, 1993; Parker, 2001; Westerdahl, 1992, 1999, 2006, 2011). They are also, in Westerdahl’s (2006, 2011) words, “maritime enclaves:” semi-permanent or permanent �settlements engaged in maritime activities. As he conceptualises maritime culture as a concentration of maritime activities, these enclaves can be considered the origin of maritime culture, as well as its centre (Westerdahl, 2006, 2007). In them are thus found the “remains,” or expressions, of maritime culture such as sailing marks, beacons, loading places, anchorages, inns, and other cultural deposits (Westerdahl, 2006). Likewise, Jan Bill and Birthe Clausen (1999) argue that maritime trade directly impacts the physical development and appearance of towns, giving them a distinct “maritime town topography.” These are towns that developed around a port or harbour, and thus had to build specialised structures such as wharves, jetties, warehouses, and boatyards in order to participate in maritime trade. This perspective on ports focuses on its economic fabric, not without reason considering their role. It is predicated on Westerdahl’s (1992) innovative maritime cultural landscape concept, which represents “human utilisation (economy) of maritime space by boat: settlement, fishing, hunting, shipping and its attendant sub-cultures.” The maritime cultural landscape is thus a visualisation of people’s relationship to the sea, in particular with regard to economic exploitation. Many of Westerdahl’s definitions of the concept focus on seafaring, for example a later one in a paper about roads and sea routes describes it as the “network of sea routes, with harbours and related constructions and remains of human origin, below as well as above the water” (Westerdahl, 2006). Maritime enclaves are thus the nodes of this network, where maritime culture comes about and a concentration of “constructions and remains” are found. Much of Westerdahl’s discussions still focus on economy and transport, because “their occupations […] to a large extent define their culture” and “living in an ecological niche leads to an adaptation precisely �to that niche” (Westerdahl, 2007). Indeed maritime, riverine, and lacustrine environments tend to develop a culture of transport and communication characterised by rapid transmission of information and spatially extended networks (Westerdahl, 1999, 2006). Thus, taking a maritime cultural landscape approach— as Westerdahl defines it —helps highlight the adaptations specific to maritime environments and maritime activities. This approach however risks overemphasizing the economic role of trade in the development of ports, to the detriment of social and cultural factors. As has been reiterated throughout this paper, ports are very diverse spaces by virtue of their need and ability to attract merchants from all over the world. Along with goods to trade, these merchants bring with them their culture: their beliefs, their values, their lifestyles, their tastes in food, clothes, and architecture... The interaction of people from different social and geographical backgrounds, all of whom are trying to maintain their identity, is reflected in the built environment. Adam Rogers (2013) argues for a more social approach to port and harbour archaeology, as he believes that studies of ports have focused too often on how changing technologies (including the characteristics of ships) and commercial trends have impacted the design of harbours. Paralleling Rapoport and Westerdahl, Rogers brings up the concept of “taskscapes,” explaining that the environmental context of ports, the waterfront, dictates the type of activities people engage in, which in turn influences the shape of the port (Rogers, 2013). He however goes beyond this idea by reminding scholars that “by their nature and function, the connection [of ports] with places across water and overseas means that they could often attract a large range of different peoples with varying perspectives” (Rogers, 2013). He proposes drawing from the domestic �architecture discourse as one way of highlighting the diversity of people living in ports but points out that in a port setting, it might be difficult to separate “domestic” and “business” (Rogers, 2013). Environment- behaviour theory does not necessitate such a distinction, which is why it is well suited to the study of ports. As stated above, Rapoport’s environment-behaviour theory posits that certain aspects of culture, lifestyles and activity systems, are observable in the built environment. He states that in order to understand culture fully in built structures, it is the “latent aspect of activities,” meaning, which must be considered (Rapoport, 1998). This meaning is connected to values and social variables such kinship, gender, social roles, and status, and is transmitted through symbolic codes; it is thus reflected in the choice of things like colour, material, and spatial organisation (Rapoport, 1998). Rapoport (1998) illustrates his point with the example of the kitchen: food preparation varies greatly across cultures, it is also related to other activities and meanings (for example rituals, familial ties, gender roles), all of which affect the design of the kitchen and location within the house. In short, buildings reflect the wants and needs of its users in their structure, layout, and decorative elements. As lifestyles are expressed in the built environment, maritime culture is expressed as “a recurrent set of maritime traits and repetitive maritime behaviour,” which is visible in the archaeological record (including the built environment) (Mushynsky, 2011). David Tuddenham (2010) puts forward the concept of “maritimity” to help guide studies of maritime culture. This concept is based on the idea that material culture is rarely either maritime or terrestrial, rather somewhere on a scale between the two. In order words, determining maritimity asks “how maritime is this?” It is however “to be understood as a category of understanding, not something with empirical qualities,” the �same way that thinking of life modes, activities, and social variables helps understand (maritime) culture (Rapoport, 1998; Tuddenham, 2010; Westerdahl, 2007). The maritime cultural landscape approach in conjunction with the environment-behaviour theory provides a conceptual structure with which to understand the fabric of Southeast Asian port cities, and in particular how maritime trade influenced their development. It is clear that the economic and technological aspects of trade highly dictate the use of space. Their reason for being and their continuing success hinges on the efficiency with which merchants can participate in regional and/or global trade. On the other hand, it is important to continuously remember that around the ports grew towns built by foreign people. In order to understand a Southeast Asian port, one must consider how the Chinese, or European, or Indian trader experienced the setting and how (or if) they maintained their identity. The Development of Hội An The practical application of the above approach can take many forms by focusing on different aspects and characteristics of the port in question. For example, one could look at community-specific trade practices, the way they were adapted to function in a foreign port, and the way they may have been expressed in specialized structures. Another avenue of enquiry would be to compare the inns and hostels of different communities within a same port. Westerdahl sees inns as a major feature of the maritime cultural landscape, acting as relay stations and safe havens in an emergency (Westerdahl, 2006, 2007). The Chinese, Japanese, British, and Indian people of Hội An and George Town had similar institutions that served as accommodation and aid for visiting members of their communities. Though a cross-cultural study would more fully address the �question of cosmopolitanism, this paper will focus on a single foreign merchant community. It will analyse the public buildings and residences of the Chinese merchant communities in Hội An and George Town in order to understand the impact of trade on its lifestyle. The overseas Chinese community represents a large group of migrants in Southeast Asia, who have played important roles in the history of the region since the third century before the Christian Era (Mackie, 1996; Wu, 2010). It is composed chiefly of groups from the southern provinces of China, especially Fujian and Guangdong. Due to the mountainous geomorphology of their home, the inhabitants of this region did not establish very strong ties with Central China, instead turning to the sea and developing mercantile and fishing activities, and later being highly involved in regional and global trade. In addition, population pressures such as poverty, war, and disease, resulted in migration towards Southeast Asia, in particular after the Qing conquest of the Ming in 1644 and in the second half of the nineteenth century as a result of the two Opium Wars (1840–1842, 1858–1860) and the Taiping Rebellion (1851– 1864) (Wu, 2010). The Chinese communities living in Hội An and George Town immigrated at different times and for different reasons. The first Chinese to arrive in Hội An after its establishment were highly involved in maritime commerce, either as traders themselves or running businesses to support trade (Chen, 2002). This was a relatively small group, outnumbered by the Japanese until the mid-seventeenth century. The Togukawa policies of the 1630s prevented Japanese nationals from leaving Japan, leaving a vacuum in Hội An which was quickly filled by the Chinese (Wheeler, 2001). Furthermore, a substantial number of Ming loyalists sought refuge in Hội An in 1644; they were given a special status, Minh Hương, which �allowed them the right to own land, marry local women, and hold office (Chen, 2002). The height of Hội An’s success, the eighteenth century, coincided with what Anthony Reid (1993) and Carl Trocki (1997) refer to as the “Chinese century” when the Qing rescinded the Ming trading bans and breathed new life into the junk trade. Contemporary visitors to Hội An often describe the town as a Chinese town, and comment on the affluence of their neighbourhood (Chen, 2002; Morel, 2010; Wheeler, 2001). The exact number of Chinese living in the Nguyen port is unclear: Thomas Bowyear counts around 100 Chinese households in 1696; an anonymous source counts 6,000 Chinese in 1744, while another estimates 10,000 “married and tax-paying Chinese” in 1750 (Chen, 2002; Dalrymple, 1791– 1797). The bulk of Chinese immigration in Penang takes place over a century later, during the decline of the junk trade and the integration of Chinese merchants into the global capitalist system (Wu, 2010). The majority of Penang’s early Chinese migrants in fact were not from China but from the Malay Peninsula, mostly from Kedah (Hussin, 2009). Only the wealthiest Chinese participated in trade, as owners of shops, shop houses, and ships or members of mercantile companies; while the majority worked for wages as skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled labour (Hussin, 2009). Along with the Indian community (Chulias), the Chinese community formed the bulk of George Town’s population; the number of Chinese grew steadily in the first decades of the nineteenth century, overtaking the number of Indians in 1828 (Hussin, 2009). Both communities dominated the commercial centre bounded by Light Street, Beach Street, Chulia Street, and Pitt Street (Hussin, 2009). Despite these inceptive differences, there are many similarities in the Chinese settlements in Hội An and George Town, particularly with regard �to economic and cultural institutions. The first thing to note is that the “Chinese community” in both these ports was in fact several communities, dictated by clan or hometown, each with distinct traditions and languages (Hussin, 2009). Often, they would create associations, guilds, or societies according to dialect or family name, which provided a sense of comfort and belonging to its members. This institution has purely economic origins in fifteenth century trade guilds that helped regulate business abroad (Moll-Murata, 2008; Naquin and Rawski, 1987; Purcell, 1965; Wu, 2010). The associations in Southeast Asia, named kongsi, provided lodging and a meeting space for visiting merchants, and offered assistance to new settlers, but also served as a storage facility and as the custom house (Naquin and Rawski, 1987). Oftentimes, they would take on the role of a municipal government for the local overseas Chinese population, providing fire-fighting, policing, and schooling services, as well as maintaining public infrastructure (Moll-Murata, 2008; Naquin and Rawski, 1987; Wu, 2010). At the end of the 19th century, the kongsis lost their economic and regulatory roles, instead becoming hui guan: commonorigin associations and public assembly places that promote history and traditional knowledge (Moll-Murata, 2008; Wu, 2010). The institution is made concrete in the form of assembly halls and clan houses that are considered symbols of their community, reflecting unity, loyalty, and prosperity. In Hội An there are five Assembly Halls: four common-origin guilds (Fujian, Guangdong, Teochew, and Hainan) and the Trung Hoa guild that brings together all the Chinese communities; the latter was originally established as the Dương Thương guild, the guild for Maritime Commerce (Chen, 2002). It is notable that an association intended as a professional guild for the main economic activity of Hội An later came to be a pan- �Chinese cultural space. In addition to accommodating travelling merchants and drafting an ethical code of conduct in trade, Dương Thương hall contained a shrine to the Goddess of Mercy2, the patron of fishermen and sailors, and the first deity for whom overseas Chinese would erect a shrine after sailing away from home to settle in a new place (Chen, 2002; Purcell, 1965). Today’s Trung Hoa Assembly Hall still maintains the shrine, which now also contains a model of a Chinese junk. There are some 170 Chinese associations in George Town relating to clan or dialect; some are headquartered in shop houses, such as the Ch’ng Si Soo Bee Tong (now Persatuan Zhuang & Yan Pulau Pinang), though most are housed in grand hall such as Lim Kongsi. The Lim clan had been trading in Penang since 1821 and established their clan house in 1863 on Beach Street, the busiest commercial street of George Town, located on the waterfront until the reclamation projects in the 1870s and 1880s (George Town World Heritage Incorporated, n.d.; Langdon, 2015). Like the Dương Thương in Hội An, Lim Kongsi pays tribute to the goddess of seafarers. She is a recurrent figure around George Town, including at Kuan Im Teng temple, the oldest Chinese temple in Penang built in the eighteenth century. The associations and halls are a public expression of the Chinese merchant identity. In the above examples, the sea plays a clear role in the way the community both views itself and connects with each other. As a community of seafarers, the sea represents to the Chinese merchant group a connection and a divide from home, yet it is also their livelihood. The central role of maritime trade is further illustrated in Hội An and George Town’s predominant style of housing: the shophouse. As its name suggests, the shophouse is both a commercial and residential space. The shop is located at the front of the building, opening on the street, and is �generally larger than the residential part, which is located in the back or on the top floor. In Hội An, the shop houses are built as near as possible to the water to facilitate loading and unloading from ships. Though the basic layout remains the same, the materials and ornamentations varied slightly from Hội An to George Town. The Hội An shop houses were mostly built from an incredibly strong local wood called tin (ironwood); the early George Town houses had attap roofs, while the later houses were built of burnt clay bricks (Dror and Taylor, 2006; Hussin, 2009). The houses in Hội An were also built with flooding in mind, as the river was known to overflow during the monsoon; they had removable boards and pulley systems to protect goods (Dror and Taylor, 2006; Morel, 2010). The façade of shop houses in George Town very distinctly reflected the ethnicity of its owner through ornamentation: “carved wood panels and fascia boards of the indigenous and Indo-Malay, elaborate and superstitious images of the Chinese, the arches of Mogul India, the neoclassical elements of British architecture of the Georgian and Regency periods and the modernism of art deco and modern architecture” (World Heritage Site Special Area Plan SAP §A4.11.8). Conclusion This analysis of Chinese public and private buildings in Hội An and George Town has helped understand one aspect of the fabric of Southeast Asian ports. The overseas Chinese merchant community was a significant presence throughout the region and thus highly impacted both its economy and society. However, this study has also shown that their seaward migration and activities in trading has impacted their lifestyle and culture. The built environment reflects the dual relationship of this group with the sea: there is a preoccupation with efficiently utilizing it for �trading and an understanding of it as something that both separates and connects them to the homeland. The theoretical approach outlined in the first section of this paper considers the port both as part of the maritime cultural landscape and as a maritime cultural landscape in and of itself in order to visualise how the economic and technological aspects of maritime trade impact its form and development. It also proposes focusing on the built environment in order to draw out the characteristics of a cosmopolitan port culture, based on the idea that trade forces cosmopolitanism, that is the coexistence of various cultural groups in one space. The reverse relationship has not yet been investigated. With the same approach, it may be possible to visualise how cosmopolitanism impacts trade (the same way it impacted architecture as seen in the evolution of shop houses in George Town), where the specialised trade structures (wharves, warehouses, customs…) would reflect adaptations to new environments and new people. Endnotes 1 Hội An also fits criterion (v): to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change.” George Town also fits criterion (iii): to bear a unique or at least exception testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilisation which is living or which has disappeared;” and criterion (iv): to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensembles, or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history.” 2 Known in different contexts as Mazu/Matsu, Tianhou, (Thiên Hậu in Vietnamese), or Guanyi (Kuan Im in Penang) References Bill, J., and Clausen, B. L., 1999. Maritime Topography and the Medieval Town: Papers from the 5th International Conference on Waterfront �Archaeology in Copenhagen, 14–16 May 1998. The National Museum, Copenhagen. Chen, C. H., 2002. Historical Notes on Hội An (Faifo). In John E. Wills Jr. (Ed.), Eclipsed Entrepôts of the Western Pacific: Taiwan and Central Vietnam, 1500–1800, The Pacific World Series, Vol. 5. Ashgate Publishing, Hampshire: 285–361. Dalrymple, A., 1791–1797. 1791–1797 Oriental Reperatory. 2 vols. London. Dror, O., and Taylor, K., 2006. Views of Seventeenth-Century Vietnam: Christoforo Borri on Cochinchina & Samuel Baron on Tonkin. Southeast Asia Program Publications. Cornell University, Ithaca. George Town World Heritage Incorporated, n.d. A Guide to Selected Chinese Clan Houses in the George Town World Heritage Site. George Town World Heritage Incorporated, George Town. Hussin, N., 2009. Trade and Society in the Straits of Melaka. Dutch Melaka and English Penang, 1780-1830. NIAS Press, Copenhagen. Langdon, M., 2015. A Guide to George Town’s Historic Commercial and Civic Precincts. George Town World Heritage Incorporated, George Town. Lewis, S. L., 2016. Cities in Motion Urban Life and Cosmopolitanism in Southeast Asia, 1920–1940. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Li, T., 1998. Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Studies on Southeast Asia no. 23. Southeast Asia Program Publications, Ithaca, N.Y. Lockard, C. A., 2010. “The Sea Common to All”: Maritime frontiers, port cities, and Chinese traders in the Southeast Asian Age of Commerce, ca. 1400–1750. Journal of World History, Vol. 21 (2): 219–219. Mackie, J. A. A., 1996. Introduction. In Anthony Reid (Ed.), Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese, University of Hawai’I Press: Honolulu:xii–xxx. �Moll-Murata, C., 2008. Chinese Guilds from the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Centuries: An Overview. International Review of Social History, Vol. 53 (S16): 213–247. Morel, J. P., 2010. Pierre Poivre en Cochinchine. Electronic document, http://www.pierre-poivre.fr/Poivre-en-Cochinchine.pdf, accessed June 22 2016. Mushynsky, J., 2011. Sea Fluidity: Recording Indigenous Seascapes and Maritime Cultural Landscapes in Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, Adelaide. Naquin, S., and Rawski, E. S., 1987. Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century. Yale University, New Haven. Parker, A.J., 2001. Maritime landscapes. Landscapes, Vol. 2 (1): 22–41. Purcell, V., 1965. The Chinese in Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, London. Rapoport, A., 1998. Using ‘culture’ in housing design. Housing and Society, Vol. 25 (1–2): 1–20. Reid, A., 1993. Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680, Volume Two: Expansion and crisis. Yale University Press, New Haven. Rogers, A., 2013. Social archaeological approaches in port and harbour studies. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 8 (2): 181–196. Trocki, C. A., 1997. Chinese Pioneering in Eighteenth-Century Southeast Asia. In Anthony Reid (Ed.), The Last Stand of Asian Autonomies: Responses to Modernity in the Diverse States of Southeast Asia and Korea, 1750–1900, Macmillan Press Ltd, London: 80–101. Tuddenham, D. B., 2010. Maritime Cultural Landscapes, Maritimity and Quasi Objects. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 5: 5–16. UNESCO 2016 Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. UNESCO, Paris. �Westerdahl, C., 1992. The maritime cultural landscape. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 21 (1): 5–14. Westerdahl, C., 1999. Inland water boats and shipping in Sweden the Great Lakes: The application of a theory on transport zones and maritime enclaves. Archaeonautica, Vol. 14: 135–143. Westerdahl, C., 2006. The relationship between land roads and sea routes in the past – Some reflections. Deutsches Schiffarhrtsarchiv, Vol. 29: 59–114. Westerdahl, C., 2007. Fish and Ships. Towards a theory of maritime culture. Deutsches Schiffarhrtsarchiv, Vol. 30: 191–236. Westerdahl, C., 2011. The maritime cultural landscape. In Alex Castambis, Ben Ford, Donny L. Hamilton (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, Oxford University Press, Oxford: 733–762. Wheeler, C., 2001. Cross-Cultural Trade and Trans-Regional Networks in the Port of Hội An: Maritime Vietnam in the Early Modern Era. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Faculty of the Graduate School, Yale University, New Haven. Wheeler, C., 2006. One Region, Two Histories: Cham Precedents in the History of the Hội An Region. In Nhung Tuyet Tran and Anthony Reid (Eds.) Vietnam Borderless Histories, The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison: 163–193. World Heritage Site Special Area Plan SAP §A4.11.8 Wu, X. A., 2010. Chinese Business in the Making of a Malay State, 1882– 1941 Kedah Penang. NUS Press, Singapore. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 9: Maritime/Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Southeast Asia (SEA) has been rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) over a long period, from ancient pre-history, through the age of commerce, into the World War II era. Recently, UCH research, survey, and mapping activities; preservation and management efforts; as well as human capacity building programs show the promising progress in SEA countries. However, various threats to UCH preservation and some shortcomings still can be found in many SEA countries, for instance, lack of funds, inadequate technology, limited human resources, and also lack of public and government attention to UCH legal protection and its long-term preservation. This session will highlight some topics, including current status of UCH preservation; current research or investigation on maritime heritage or UCH in SEA countries; maritime history in SEA; current legislations; recent human and natural threats to UCH in SEA countries; raising awareness and public education programs; in-situ preservation of UCH; sustainable shipwreck tourism development and balancing preservation efforts with economic benefit; community and general public engagement in UCH management plan; regional capacity building in Southeast Asia; as well as collaboration opportunities among stakeholders and SEA countries in researching, protecting, preserving, and managing UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig, Mc Gill University Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Living and Trading: A Dual Approach to Studying Southeast Asian Port Cities Description An account of the resource The historical ports of Southeast Asia were highly active regional mercantile hubs located at the crossroads between the East Asian and Indian Ocean trading networks. These strategically places attracted merchants and sailors from the world over, some of whom stayed on a permanent or semi-permanent basis to carry out their business. By their very nature, Southeast Asian ports are thus both economic spaces dedicated to maritime activities, and cosmopolitan spaces where people from different social and cultural backgrounds came together. This duality is expressed in the built environment, which contains specialised structures to facilitate trade (such as wharves, warehouses, and boatyards) but also communicates people’s identity. This paper proposes studying historical port cities by combining a maritime cultural landscape approach and urban social theory to understand the economic as well as the socio-cultural fabric of Southeast Asian ports. This approach will be applied to two very different port cities: Hội An in Central Vietnam, and George Town in Malaysia. Whereas Hội An was an informal temporary market place that grew to be one of the region’s biggest entrepôt ports in the 18th century, George Town was founded as a trading outpost for the British East India Company in 1786, before becoming the seat of many mercantile firms and banks in the 19th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Charlotte Papillaud Looram Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Charlotte Papillaud Looram Asia-Pac Session 9 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Local and International Trade and Traders in the Straits of Melaka Region: 600-1500 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kenneth R. Hall Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Kenneth R. Hall Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2004 Issue 2 Pages 213-60 Publication Title Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Title A name given to the resource Local and International Trade and Traders in the Straits of Melaka Region: 600-1500 Volume 47 India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Lords of the Sea: Pirates, Violence, and Exchange in Medieval Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Peter D Shapinsky Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Thesis PhD Dissertation Zotero Author Peter D Shapinsky Item Type Thesis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Library Catalog 128.125.253.52 Library Catalog Num Pages 497 Place Michigan Short Title Lords of the Sea Thesis Type PhD Dissertation Title A name given to the resource Lords of the Sea: Pirates, Violence, and Exchange in Medieval Japan University University of Michigan Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/70e06a2fadf957264ddb70074d1735e7.pdf c9c088af0a367c72edf5b8d3efef08fc PDF Text Text � � � � � ) � � � � � � � � � 2 F E F � � F R � P M � � O P W � � T � N � � X � � � � \ � � F � W F Y � L � M R W Y � L � & � � " � " � # � � � � � � � � 0 � $ � � � � � � � ( � 9 # � " � " � � & 9 = � ( � " � : � � � " � � $ " � � � � � � � H M ] Z � S G F P R � i � R P � � � 4 � % R % � ( � � P � U W � � i R � N � � ( : 7 � � X � G � R X � � S � � � M N X c P � ( � � � � � # � � � � � " � " � $ 7 � � � � $ � � " 9 � % � � � � � ( � � � � " � 3 � � & � � $ 9 � ' � � � � � � � % � % $ � � " � � � � � � " " � � " � � " � % � " & � � � � � > X R � Y � � � � � � " � � � � � � b � L � � � � � � � H � d M % � � � P P � � � N X � R � � N � ( � � � " " 7 7 � / � " � � � � ( % " ( � � � � � � � � � � F � N � P � W P M G � � � � � � W � k � � W N P � S k N F Q � � N � � N � F ] � � � X F � � M M R M � T � � P � N X N � W � R P P � S F � M N F S � k F � W N F W M � T � R N � � � � � � U P R k M Q R p N � M G F k Q � G P R U ] ] 1 � R S " � � � � � � � � � � � � 2 � � O S � � N N F � � � � ' / � , � � � � � � � t � � % � � � � � � - � � � " ) * s � � R U � � R U N k \ ` W P Q X F F W � N � � ^ � X s � F G P � P � � � � � N � � � P � � � P M � R P M N � P � M � � � F N � R N � R M P W Q � M R N R S � � N _ N � U Q F P R � M � � O � X N M N N M R N P o � P P � P N � � � � S � N � � n k X R F R P W N P � F � � W X Q � M N f � X P � W U M Y � � ] N W N � � � � R M R N P R � L V d M U � Q P R N � � � ` W � N N Q � P P P F R R � � _ P � W � R � � [ Q M M � � Q W Y L M L Q � F G U N � G � � � R � $ � � � � E � � F R ] W F b L P N � ^ L l P � � b d � Q R P ] P F W F X M d F Q ` W � � � F R X j m � P � i U � _ W � W N P V U ] � N P � P M � P � F W P N R M � P � F � P \ R � P I � R N R ^ e � U Q h � � F W Q R M N � � N L P N � � N � X K � k F X c R L N � J � F N � � � � P � � � N U G � F P T � R R J � F P a L X W P e S � X Q P X � g � R � � Q F � Z S F F � � Q F � � U F � F � � � M N L Y � � F � � N � � � F P T F ^ � � Q Q � � � F R � F � � � � M � � ] F P S M N � G Q � P P � � � N F � P � e S � � � � P F Q � � F S " " M N R � � M � � R � � � W N � L Q b � N � R � ] � � � � Y P � T � S � � Q � � F Q P X � � f F M � P � R � c N � M � � � � U S � � � N L T P P � X S F � � � F � F � R Q � � R � N P � R � � Y � N P P e M � � P ^ L � F � � c � R N Q X R X � � Y P � P G R G F � � N W P � P N U � � � � � W N Q e � F � j R F � � � P � � T L U S � � � � R W k � � P � S P F R P U � \ � V F � � F F W � � � r � W � � e � S � Y � U W N P N q � L R � N P � � N � N U � H � X � � N P W N � R P W � V P e � R X R S � � S F i � P � P R W S W R R X � � R � � W R � P � P � Q Q U � � Q F F � F P F E � M e � E P R F N � � � � P � Q � P F � � � � � U W M � � U F W � Q W S � � N � F � � � F P S � � S � � � Y W U N k O � Q W N � � � % � � � � � � % � � ( � � � # " ) % � " � � ) � & � � � � � � 4 . � � � � 6 � � � � � " � � " � & � 3 � � � $ ' " ( � . � � � � " � - $ � � 8 � � � � � � � � � � � " � � � � � % � � � � � � � " � 1 � � � � � � � ( 2 % � � � " & � " � 8 2 � , 3 � � � � � ' � � / 2 � � � 7 $ " � � " $ 2 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � $ � � � � � � 1 � � � � � � � � � � � & � ( # � � � + � " � � � � # � ' � � � � � & % � $ � � � � � � # � � � " " � # � � ! � " " � � b Z � R � � R e � � Q M U L � � P � � i � N P � � � � � � R � F P R P Q � � � " ( 2 � � ` R � W � V R e G � Q � i � Q F � R � � % # � M N X P R � � R � P � � � P R N � R � R � � W U � P U F L W ( � " � � � � � � 2 P � _ � P W k W N � F Z � F R � F � P L M � T X � F � X F W < � 2 " � " � Q Q � Y F k � F � � M F M � R � � U � � b � � � � � � � " � 1 � � $ L � � N � Z � � " # � � * / � � � � � � � 2 � � � � , � � � � � # � K P � N � N � @ S P � � � � � � � � � � " A J � S R P � � � � � � � D � W N I W P U P ( � H R � S F N � � " � & � � � � � � G � � � - � M Q M W � � � � � � � � � ( C V N a N � � � � � � � � � � � B � � 9 � � � � & 2 � A � � � " � Q R � � � ; � � # � � � 2 � � � � % � : @ E � � � � � � � � � � � � ? 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P � � ² � X X R � ‘ � � � � � F T � � � N � � R F � U f � N � � � � ' 1 › ! ³ ³ ´ � - ± N � � � � R N � - � Q G F ¯ ! � � M M N � � � F R © R N � Q W N M N � � � P � � n M N � � L F b � � F � � N � E � F R P M R R � X � N N Q � Q L � N � F � k L N � M � R � � � � � L N � b � k R M N � S M F � � R M N � T Q � R � � ] � � F M e X F M E Q � � R U � F M N � � E � � P � � � W N � N S e � N � � O � � � � � U X W � F P N R P � P R N ^ F � F � Q � X M Q � � Ž � � � k R k � � F � Y � � � P � � � � � P F ^ � � P � N M N W N � Q c F � � P Q � � ] � � R � N ‘ P � � b Ž c Q � G W R F � Y � Y � N � N ] S ] L N R   R � ¡ X � � M N � R N F R N X � Q L � R N N � � M M M F X � N � � L Q M M N � � U a � F � Q N N T R F � R N R � U L N R � � � s � Q � k P R � � R � F M P � N Q R � M � P � � � � g F W � � Q F N X � P R L � � Q k S P M N S � Y � � F � U � Q � � � P � F � N R � � � P R L N � � N E � ] � N � R � � k � S Q � P � R M F R Q � X P � £ P N P � � � N � Q T � Q � P M \ F � M N O r � b F Y � G � R b k M � | R F S R P � � R d H R T F � � N Q P � � F � ¢ R X F P T � � � � T F � d � � X � P � � L N � F Q P N O � } � S N ] � R L � � � E F � W � N � e U � P � Q S � P � � � � � X F Y � � W P � � � � R M Q U W � � R Q W N N U F � Q � W N � � R F U � � F e R e � € � � F � M N � k � Q O � � P F N � � N � E � � M N � U P U M � F W F N � Ÿ M � � Q Ÿ L � M E ž P e F � � � P � G Q ž Q M � � � F F � L P � � F � � � P � � X � L � U S � T Q P � � i R � — F b R G � F ž � ] F N ‘ Q � X N M N e � R G i W � � W Q n � M F � � R P — N F � F – P � T � � � � R U ] G R P � e S � � � � W � \ N M � X R � � P � � X � � k P F � � W P P N M P � W • F � � � L N W E � � � G M N W U � M N � � � � F _ F � R [ � Z � G � [ � \ Q � V R U R � P Q G � � V � M N � � U W X L M [ � U M � b � F ” R � � “ U n � M N � ’ P F � M N V R ‘ N O R � r �  � F S � R K � U � O P q � W � F F N W W � ¦ Y R ] N F Q � � N X H M c � R Y U R Y � R F P � � N � P X Q N F T � P � N N e P Q U � � � M F � S � F � P M e � � � N F � P P U P } Q � � W M P � N P ¥ � N F � R � P F W M � U � F � � E W N � U X M M � W N � N N � € � W P � Q Z E � � � � R T N N � � � e i � M N �  R Q \ M � F � � F � � � � � U P � N S G � S � X � T � P N � Q P e N � � � � � R L F R � � N P M N S M N M � � � R N ^ P N �  � W P � R � € � � � � � S � � _ F � Y � � k � � � � � P X � X V R S � � U � � � P � R N � Ž R � Q S ] � Q F N F � � � � P e L R X R T R � � � � N ® � N N M b F ] Q � � � F � N P � � � � F \ M N � F � Q P N �� s � S � Q b � � k � � P P � � R � g � � � S � � � � µ Y � Q T } ] � R M N � m G N � � Q P � � F � N S P � M N � Y � W M N e � N � N P � � � � R E R € � R F � � R Q P � i R E � R � F � �  R Q i W N � � R W U � € � � � W N � � P � P _ F W U � � P G N X � � � � � � � � F � � N � 8 · . � � � � 1 " � � � � 1 2 � � � % � 2 " ( � � � 9 " � · " / 3 2 ¸ � ¸ � � ! . � � � " � � � � � � m � � M ´ � � F � � F � � P b M � _ � � Y X P S � � R W � R M � � � F M N S � � Y � R � � � � R W R P � P M � � S F X R R � S P G k � S R R c � W � P M M Œ � � W � � � d � � ] R � M N � F M N � F } � L Q � F M e � R € � N � � P P � � � � S k R R P � Y } G � � k � R Q � P � � F � Q F 1 � � P F P X � W N � � F ] É � � Q � Y � R � k � � X F � � � � M e F F � � 5 � " " � � � � � � � � � R � � M N m � W W S � X N S P ] � N � � F F � � U � Q � � " ( " " � � � � 2 ( � � � � " � & � � $ � � � � � � � � � � " � 2 9 � � � � " � � � � � L 2 � ( � � � � � � � � � � � � � " 2 � � " � : ( � � � � ^ � | H R F � � Z � � R R T R � Q X � � Q � F � � ž P ž H | � N ] � Q � � � U � � � � � N � � G F M � � ª � � � R P � R ( � 2 � % � 9 � � � � � ´ � � ´ � : � 2 � � � $ � � � " � � " � & # � � - � . ) � � � � : � " � 2 " � � � 2 v ( � ( � � � � � � ( � � � � � " � � � � 9 � � ( � � � R " P M � Á � # � S N � F R E � F Z Q � L � Q T E � P F � � ‘ � � P � G R L N � � U Á � � � F e « X R F R � Æ � � G € R F Y R N � M N \ � Y Å P F M Z W S R � T ” � � N M ^ ª N � Q F � � � T ‘ S � b � � � � � P L • R ] R R N M � P � Ÿ b P � � � � � Ä T T � R W ˜ s R M R } ” � � b � N S | � Q � ] � º F � W R P R ‘ � F � H V � � N G d F � � � � O F U L � � F F � R N � R M N P P Ÿ ^ � R N � F � n U È R � N M à P P Q � Ç P Q R � J R � W N � P g n � � b M N F c � ] � F S � S R  L R � � X P N � S X F � � F X P W F � � P M � Y X � � N � � R S P Ž W � L R L � W X s M q O P F X � F � S N Q � � F � � P M H � R S U " � P � F u � N S - $ � F R V � � N N ] Q N � � R � � M M N P P F R N R N � � � � U R Q R T R � Q � Y S � R P T P � Q P � � e � N s � \ � � Q N P k L N N � W � R P � � � � � � � � � m M � � R R T � � � R P R X � M � � � R P � F � G R M N M � � N � T � W P N X � � � P � W  S R M N ] � k � M � � M N F L F k F N � � N L L � � R M N � � N � � Q � R F � U P P W � F � N � N S � F � X � k M � L � � � R � � Q � N P P L W � � Q G � U R � F � \ F � P � X U � � � U S � M U Y L � N P � � R R � E � � P b � N � � � � � � � � � � � G L � F E X � Q � � � � e P ] � P � � P Y M � � R � F � R � U � X M N � X R N U � � Q Y � L N � � Q � � � � O W k � � P N � � � � U P S Q � � Q � � � U P � T M N � F � � � X M P Z R P X N � � ¹ � � � � ] R R � P U R N W � R P � � F � U � R N � W N � U M N � � N � � N R Q Q � � R � R � F � € Y W � ´ W R � N � � � � L N Q � N F � � N M F � M X F À � P U F N F E W F � � � Q X � ¶ � G U � � � X � N Y F � � G f � W � R e R R R P � � M Q E Q Y � � Q � P \ � F � � N � M X P R � T � M N R F � R F V M � � Z L G � � W � T X � � z Ë � Q ] R � N M T � � - � F � % � N � M - � � S N W � F T R M U � [ M X W N � X � M � � R P - � e X � ¶ ] � � � ³ � � # � Ê ) � ] G � H F M � L N � � � U L � T N F � � N ^ R P R F Q � � Y M W Y P � � Q R N � V W S G N M P � F U b M L � F P � G P N � N r N N � � � W F R W N P � � � F F � R W s Y � N R € Y � � M Q � U U � T � � Q � � R � œ P | � V W � N M � � R � M � W � X � � � U � N � � H F M � � � Q � � U N W N \ À � � � e � � X F F � X G F b W F m Y � ] ~ N T � � � R � M N O M Y F T X � U � S � � F � P � Q X M M P R Q � P N � � k ^ N M � U � L � N � � R R R P r ` U P P � U � � � � W Q M W � � R � N P W U M N � 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Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Luso-Asian influences in Macaronesia Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource In early 1607 when the East India Company was preparing to send its first fleet to India, four Asian men were already in London and requested work on these ships as a means to getting home. The men all had Portuguese names; Marcus, John Mendes, John Rodrigues and John Taro. Where did these men come from and what was their story? Through original interdisciplinary fieldwork in Macaronesia, as well as in South and Southeast Asia this paper is an investigative research into the origin of the earliest medieval seaborne Asians to arrive into the Atlantic Ocean from their homelands in the Indo-Pacific regions. Throwing light on a narrative that has been usually projected from the perspective of “European pioneers” from the opposing direction. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Cliff Pereira Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, and the Emergence of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868-1922 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource J. Charles Schencking Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Stanford University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author J. Charles Schencking Item Type Book ISBN 0804749779 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Extra Access: http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0710/2004010793-b.html External Resources: Find this item at Abebooks.com (Bookseller) Find this item at Alibris (Bookseller) Find this item at Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America (Bookseller) Find this item at Biblio (Bookseller) Cite This Item Search for versions with same title and author | Advanced options ... More About This In: Books in Print (Publication status and optional reviews) Language: English Contents: Maritime dreams, Meiji realities, 1868-1878 -- Parochialism and empire: Satsuma, the South Seas, and naval expansion, 1878-1889 -- Political baptism by fire: the Navy and the early Diet Sessions, 1890-1894 -- The rich rewards and rivalry of war, 1894-1904 -- War, pageantry, and propaganda in the service of naval expansion, 1905-1910 -- Coercion, pragmatism, and interservice rivalry: elite-level politics and naval expansion, 1910-1913 -- The rise and fall of Navy political fortunes, 1913-1914 -- Opportunism, expansion, and limitation: the Imperial Navy and Japan's Great War, 1914-1922. Access: Materials specified: Contributor biographical information http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0710/2004010793-b.html Materials specified: Publisher description http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0710/2004010793-d.html Named Corp: Japan. Kaigun -- History. Japan. Kaigun -- Political activity. Geographic: Japan -- Politics and government -- 1868-1912. Japan -- Politics and government -- 1912-1926. Japan -- History, Naval -- 19th century. Japan -- History, Naval -- 20th century. Note(s): Includes bibliographical references (p. [265]-278) and index. Class Descriptors: LC: VA653; Dewey: 322/.5/095209034 Responsibility: J. Charles Schencking. More Records: Show record information Vendor Info: YBP Library Services Baker and Taylor Baker & Taylor (YANK BTCP BKTY) 60.00 Status: active Entry: 20040511 Update: 20080329 Provider: OCLC Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 283 Place Stanford, Calif. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Stanford University Press Short Title Making Waves Title A name given to the resource Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, and the Emergence of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868-1922 Japan