30 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Harappan ‘Port’ at Lothal: Another View Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Lawrence S. Leshnik Gregory L. Possehl Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Carolina Academic Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Lawrence S. Leshnik Gregory L. Possehl Item Type Book Section Book Title Ancient Cities of the Indus Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1979 Place Durham, NC Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Carolina Academic Press Title A name given to the resource The Harappan ‘Port’ at Lothal: Another View India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0c1b2ecb8556ec307b9bda615458b7e0.pdf f21284b0bbace28faa2a5d5d7d3587e5 PDF Text Text Oil Spill Analysis on Ambon Bay, Moluccas, Indonesia: Its Influence on the SS Aquila Shipwreck Site Ulung Jantama Wisha Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia email: ulungjantama@gmail.com Guntur Adhi Rahmawan Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia email: guntura06@gmail.com Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia email: niahasanah79@gmail.com Gunardi Kusumah Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia email: lrkpl.balitbangkp@gmail.com Abstract The Steam Ship (SS) Duke of Sparta or SS Aquila shipwreck site is one of the underwater cultural heritages (UCH) discovered in Ambon Bay, Moluccas waters, Indonesia. Currently, this 1940-s British-Italian shipwreck is threatened by an oil spill contamination on Ambon Bay. In Ambon Bay, there is Wayaime Port, which is a transit port for ships, and the port for oil tankers to loading and unloading their oil cargoes. One of the biggest oil spill incidents in Ambon Bay occurred in August 2005, when a fishing boat of MV Fu Yuan Fu F66 was exploded. This on-going oil spill occurrence can affect SS Aquila site sustainability due to corrosion issue, disrupt marine tourism activities, and harm marine biota in the surrounding area. One purpose of the study conducted by Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2016 is to determine the oil spill distribution inside the Ambon Bay which is threatening the SS Aquila shipwreck site. The method employed in this �research is a hydrodynamic modelling approach of oil spill module. The result of oil spill modeling is then analysed spatially. The study results show the period of diesel oil distribution is reached ± 285 hours, with the spread direction is toward to Southwest (outer of the bay). The processes found in this oil spills event includes a process of dissolution, evaporation, and vertical dispersion. Based on the study, it can be concluded that the intake of the oil spill on Ambon Bay waters is undoubtedly threatening the preservation of the SS Aquila underwater cultural heritage along with its marine environment, and the development of marine heritage utilization. Keywords: SS Aquila, hydrodynamic modelling, oil spill analysis, underwater cultural heritage preservation Introduction The waters of Indonesian Archipelago, both in east and west parts, are significant on the regional-interregional maritime trade routes, and is wellknown as the center of the spice trade. The eastern part of Indonesian Archipelago became a vital area of global sea navigation due to abundant spices resources such as cloves, nutmegs, and cinnamon. While, the western part was important in the spice trade routes due to its position as the center of pepper trade (Harkantiningsih, 2013). That condition is caused by the strategic geographical location and the existence of the transportation network which facilitated the distribution of these primary trade commodities since an ancient time (Fig. 1). One of the essential spice trading spots in Indonesia is the Moluccas, which is also popular as Spice Islands. �Fig. 1: Map of Maritime Trade Routes (Source: http://juliansoplanit.blogspot.co.id/2011/11 modified by authors) The center city of Moluccas is Ambon city. This city has a long history of World War II (WWII) incident which involved the Japanese imperial troops and Allied Forces including Dutch Het Koninklijke Nederlands(ch)Indische Leger (KNIL) and Australia. After WWII was over in 1945, Ambon city along with other cities in eastern part of Indonesia faced a rebel movement incident committed by Perdjuangan Rakjat Semesta (PERMESTA) or The Universal People Struggle Army in 1957-1958. This rebellion to attack the Indonesian central government, and implicitly, to reestablished the Dutch colonialism in Indonesia, was supported by Allied Forces, particularly Dutch and United States of America (USA). In this PERMESTA rebellion time, the trade ship of SS Aquila was bombed by a Douglas B26 Invader plane in 1958 in the northern of Ambon Bay. This bombing of SS Aquila was planned by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of USA to clutter up the economic sector from trading activities in Indonesia (Amal, 2006). �Today, the location of SS Aquila is well-known as a dive site among the locals and international divers. It becomes one of the underwater cultural heritage sites discovered in Ambon Bay1 . This shipwreck is located on a slope on the seabed off Ambon, with its stern about 15 meters (8 fathoms) below the surface and its bow about 35 meters (19 fathoms) depth2 . Besides Aquila, there are some other shipwreck sites which have not been identified yet found in this bay. Recently, the existence of SS Aquila shipwreck is threatened by disposal waste, sedimentation, marine litters, and oil spill contamination which directly stream to SS Aquila and other UCH sites in the inner of Ambon Bay. A Wayaime Port in Ambon Bay is a transit port for many types of ships, and also the port for oil tankers to loading and unloading their oil cargoes. Therefore, oil spill incident becomes quite common in this bay. In August 2005, a fishing boat of MV Fu Yuan Fu F66 was exploded3 and became one of the biggest oil spill incidents in Ambon Bay. This on-going oil spill occurrence may affect SS Aquila site sustainability due to corrosion issue, disrupt marine tourism activities, and harm marine biota in the surrounding area. In addition, the lack of heritage knowledge and awareness of the local community, local authorities, oil and shipping companies, and general public regarding the importance of UCH preservation in Ambon Bay require immediate attention. Those conditions can endanger the wreck site and inhibit the site preservation, the development of maritime conservation area, and can decrease shipwreck diving tourism activities. Due to that reason, the research which deeply concerns in the oil spill impact to the shipwreck site is necessary to be conducted. Besides identifying the shipwreck site in Ambon Bay and researching its current physical condition, the underwater archaeological study carried out by the research team of Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2016 was also aimed �to determine the oil spill distribution inside the Ambon Bay which is threatening SS Aquila shipwreck. The History of SS Aquila (SS Duke of Sparta) SS Aquila was a cargo ship which initially named as SS Duke of Sparta. This Duke of Sparta was launched in 1940 from William Gray Shipyard, West Hartlepool, and later on, sold to a Napoli Italian company in 1951. Its name was changed and became SS Aquila. In Indonesian history, SS Aquila has been targetted to be destroyed by USA to support PERMESTA rebel movement interest in disrupting an economic sector of Indonesia. Besides SS Aquila, there are two other cargo ships in Ambon Bay, which were a Yunani ship, SS Armania, and Panama ship, SS Flying Lark. Those ships had been raided by Allen Lawrence Pope, a USA paramillitary aviator who flew CIA bombing missions in the PERMESTA rebellion. He joined USA Air Force officer, William H. Beale Jr, to operate a bomber aircraft Douglas B-26 Invader for PERMESTA rebels. In 27th April 1958, Allen Pope did his first mission at the same time of William Beale's 3rd bomb mission. The air raid of SS Aquila by Allen Pope was not resulting in any fatalities, and that ship was sunk one month after bombing incident on 27th May 1958. The Potential of Maritime Archaeological Resources of SS Aquila The top position of SS Aquila shipwreck was found in the depth of 15-35 meters with the bow position facing to southwest. The shipwreck body was still intact and several parts has collapsed, such as the crane, chimney, and the crane wall. Some parts of the shipwreck were damaged due to human pillaging. The ship engines, which were still intact and covered by cables and stairs, were found in the depth of ± 40 meters. While, the profiler cannot be seen anymore. Coral covered the shipboard name. �According to the information obtained from local people, there were massive lootings of SS Aquila shipwreck committed by irresponsible people using makeshift tools. It is assumed that the looters salvaged the ship profiler which has high economic value. The dimension of SS Aquila can be seen in Table 1. At the time of diving SS Aquila, the team still could penetrate some parts of the shipwreck to take a video and photo documentation. Figure 2 shows the underwater documentation of SS Aquila, and the location of Aquila shipwreck site is shown in Fig. 3. Table 1. The Specification of SS Aquila (Source: Tony, 2013) Name Type The sunken date Weight Length Width Height Propulsion Power SS. Aquila (1951-1958) SS. Duke of Sparta (1940-1951) Cargo ship 27th May 1958 in Wayame, Ambon Bay 5397 Ton 441.1 ft. (134.4 m) 57.8 ft. (17.6 m) 25.4 ft. (7.7 m) 3-cylinder triple-expansion steam engine 492 NHP �Fig. 2: SS Aquila and its current condition. Fig. 3: The location of the SS Aquila. There were a lot of biota living in the shipwreck site including 42 types of reefs which are covering the ship's body. Additionally, some types of fish can also be seen around the site. Local communities and foreigners �have known the presence of Aquila shipwreck. However, even though today it has been utilized for diving tourism, this Aquila site has not been managed properly by government, both local and central. The underwater cultural heritage potential in Indonesia is tremendously huge (Ridwan, 2011) in the form of shipwreck sites. This includes some shipwreck sites discovered across the Moluccas waters which related to the significance of sea trading activities in the maritime history of Moluccas waters. According to Amal (2006), the trading strategy implemented was expropriated the spice production area to facilitate monitoring. While, they also developed the collecting area of spices, such as Ambon waters, where the spices later on will be sent to Europe. Therefore, it is clear that the Moluccas is one of the most important regions of spice sea trading at that time with large number of sailing ships from many countries and regions. This situation added by many incidents from WWII until the PERMESTA rebellion caused the richness of UCH found in this area. The Oil Spill Problem in the Inner of Ambon Bay The presence of oil spill in the inner of Ambon Bay was severe alarming. The ships daily activities in Waiyame Port in Ambon Bay affect and increase the oil concentration in this sea waters area. This condition which is also supported by the weak water mass dynamics can result in the deposition of the oil spilled. According to Huang (1983), nine processes (including the physical, chemical, and biological processes) can cause the providence and behavior of spilled oil such as advection, spreading, evaporation, dissolution, emulsification, dispersion, auto-oxidation, biodegradation, and sinking/sedimentation. The spilled oil does not only inhibit the environmental condition but also affects negatively the biota. Moreover, all of part of sea water in the area will be polluted, and �consequently will also affect SS Aquila site sustainability and cause a corrosion issue on the shipwreck. The explosion incident of MV Fu Yuan Fu 66 resulted in the water pollution in Ambon Bay (Research Center of Biotechnology, 2009), which widespreaded along the coastline around the exploded ship. The source of explosion was an engine room and caused the ship's engine leaking, therefore, the oil spilled into the sea water (Helut, 2015). The prevention action was done by the local people using an oil boom net. However, the effort did not really work in reducing the impact of this oil spilled incident. Oil Spill Simulation Result The oil spill simulation was supported by a hydrodynamic flow model implementation which simulated to determine the oil spill distribution. The simulation applied for 15 days to represent the oil distribution period until the oil degraded and deposited in the bottom of the water. Flow model was employed to build a hydrodynamics simulation which is shown in the form of two-dimensional form (Warren and Bach, 1992; Mehdiabadi et al., 2015). The input of the model is using winds, bathymetry, and coastline data digitized using Google Earth image 2016. The surface elevation is obtained from NAOtide tide forecasting in the form of time series data. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) was deployed in shipwreck site area for 2x24 hours. ADCP records several physical data such as tide, temperature, and current data. The tides data are used for the verification of the results of the hydrodynamic modeling which employed Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) formula. The simulation applied only used one scenario which employed the diesel oil with the oil viscosity of 6.9 %v/v. The distribution velocity of oil that spilled in the surface is based on the viscosity of that oil. Oil with low �viscosity will be easier to flow and vice versa (Mukhtasor, 2007). The source of diesel oil spill was implemented as well as the sunken point of MV Fu Yuan and Wayame Port. The model simulated the oil contamination from the source which is modeled based on the release of the particles. The model result must be validated. The model validated by comparing the model data and field measurement data obtained. The graph of model validation is shown in Figure 4, which shows that the fluctuation of surface elevation has the same phase between two data. The RMSE value obtained of 4.57 %. The current speed obtained by retrieving the ADCP measurement result, which ranged from 0.1-0.3 m/s. According to Wang et al. (2008), the amount of oil released at sea is distributed among a large number of particles which are tracked separately. These particles are driven by a combination of induced currents, waves, and wind velocities. Fig. 4: Model validation using Surface Elevation. Exposure time is the time needed by the oil spilled to move from one grid to another grid (DHI, 2007). Based on the 15 days simulation resulted the distribution pattern of spilled oil, it shows that the diesel oil has the exposure time of ± 285 hours. According to Simonato et al. (2010), the diesel oil is easier to be exposed due to the unsupported of residual fraction. Fig. 5 shows the spilled diesel oil which well distributed around �the border of inner and outer Ambon Bay. The oil flows gradually following the current direction. For 15 days simulation, the oil exposed to the area of UCH preservation in Ambon Bay. The processes found in this oil spills event includes a process of dissolution, evaporation, and vertical dispersion. McCAy and Paine (2001) stated that the dissolution rate of hydrocarbons in water is useful in predicting both weathering pathways and possible biological harm. The oil evaporation effects on the formation of emulsification which the different types of emulsification are formed under different condition (Xie et al., 2007). Li et al. (2008) pointed out that the effectiveness of dispersion can be found in the water column oil concentration and size distribution of dispersed oil droplets. It dispersed and diluted under the regular wave and breaking wave condition. �Fig. 5: Simulation for exposure time to diesel oil for 15 days. The thickness of the diesel oil surface layer ranged from 105-185mm. It shows that the surface layer of diesel oil is 60% wider in the surface water, and the diesel oil is more readily exposed by hydrodynamic factors. The influence of spilled oil is threatening the existence of SS Aquila including the biota around it. This on-going vertically dispersed oil might be evoking the corrosion issue of the shipwreck impacted. The impression of SS Aquila is dominated by the remains of the boiler, engine, and frames which are formed from steel and iron. In the tropical seawater which is warm, the corrosion of steel and iron are faster due to the support of encrusting organism’s encapsulation such as bryozoan, corals and coralline algae (MacLeod, 2002). The occurrence of oil spilled aggravated the corrosion issue. The oxidation processes occurred beneath the marine growth and oil compound separation is the major �factor in the seabed corrosion. Supporting by the high rate of sedimentation will destroying the UCH of SS Aquila. Conclusion Based on the study of oil spill incident in the area of SS Aquila shipwreck site in Ambon Bay, it can be concluded that the distribution of diesel oil dominantly caused by hydrodynamic factors which evoke the process of dissolution, evaporation, and vertical dispersion. The water column dispersed oil triggers corrosion of the iron material such as a sunken ship in Ambon Bay. The intake of the oil spill on Ambon Bay is undoubtedly threatening the preservation of the SS Aquila underwater cultural heritage along with its marine environment, and disrupting the development of marine heritage utilization. This study can be useful as a basis for the preservation of SS Aquila and other UCH sites in Moluccas waters. This research can also raise awareness of the local government to give more attention to oil spill incident, sea water pollution, and plundering activities of shipwreck sites cpommitted by local communities in Ambon Bay. The rich history and potential of UCH sites in Ambon Bay can be utilized for the sustainable tourism development that gives opportunities to prosper the society in the vicinity. A lot of method to resolve oil spill problems has been developed by researchers around the world such as by using oil booms, organic solvents, and superhydrophobic and superoloephilic sponges. It is recomended that the local government in particular the environmental agency to periodically control the condition of the waters and the symptoms of oil spills in Ambon Bay. Preventive action to safe the marine environment is urgently necessary to overcome the corrosion effects �which occur in SS Aquila. The corrosion and site destruction on shipwreck site are unavoidable. However, it can be reduced through monitoring effort of ships movement on shipwreck site, decrease oil spill incidents and other pollutants, and use cathodic protection method . Endnotes 1 Information related to SS Aquila shipwreck diving can be found in some blogs of local divers. http://www.divingmaluku.com/2017/03/ambonwreck-diving-ss-aquila-duke-sparta/. The integrated scientific research regarding SS Aquila shipwreck has never been done before the research conducted by Research Institute of Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2016. The specification of SS Aqulla can be found in the Lloyd’s Register, Streamers & Motorships. London: Lloyd’s Register 1941. 2 3 This information was retrieved from http://www.m.liputan6.com. (Tumpahan minyak di perairan Ambon meluas/11 July 2017) Acknowledgements The acknowledgement and gratitude are given to Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (LRSDKP) for DIPA research budget 2016 in the Ambon Bay. We pay tribute to all research member team and everyone who have assisted the completion of this work, particularly Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan who has supervised the writing of this paper. References Amal, M. A., 2006. Spice Islands: A Journey History of Moluccas 12501950, Cooperation of Gora Pustaka Indonesia Nala Cipta Litera And Eastern Indonesia Stock Exchange, Ternate, Indonesia. DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute Water and Environment), 2007. Manual Mike 21 Particle and Spill Analysis, Scientific Background, DHI Headquarters Agem Alle, DK-2970 Horsholm, Denmark. �Harkantiningsih, N, 2013. Ceramics Along the Spice Trade Route in the Indonesian Archipelago in the 16th -19th Century. Forum Arkeologi, 26 (1), 29-37. Helut, S., 2005. Tumpahan Minyak di Perairan Ambon Meluas, Local news online report 2015. Website (http://news.liputan6.com/read/107719/tumpahan-minyak-diperairan-ambon-meluas). Retrieved on 11th July 2017. Huang, J. C., 1983. A review of the state-of-the-art of oil spill fate/behavior models. In International Oil Spill Conference, American Petroleum Institute, Rhode Island: 313-322. Li, Z., Lee, K., King, T., Boufadel, M. C., & Venosa, A. D., 2009. Evaluating crude oil chemical dispersion efficacy in a flow-through wave tank under regular non-breaking wave and breaking wave conditions. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 58 (5): 735-744. MacLeod, I. D., 2002. In situ corrosion measurements and management of shipwreck sites. In International handbook of underwater archaeology (pp. 697-714). Springer. USA. McCay, D. F., & Payne, J. R., 2001. Model of oil fate and water concentrations with and without application of dispersants. In Proceeding of the 24th Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, Environment Canada, Edmonton, Alberta: 611-646. Mehdiabadi, F. E., Mehdizadeh, M. M., & Rahbani, M., 2015. Simulating wind driven waves in the Strait of Hormuz using MIKE21. Indonesian Journal of Marine Sciences, Vol. 20 (1): 1-8. Mukhtasor, 2007. Coastal and Sea Pollution. Pt. Pradnya Paramita, Jakarta. Research Center for Biotechnology, 2009. Molecular analysis of olyaromatic Hydrocarbon-Dioxygenase Gene from Indonesia marine bacteria: Strategy for biomonitoring oil spill, Indonesia TORAY Science Foundation (ITSF TORAY) 2008, Monitoring Result 29th October 2009, Indonesian Institute of Science, Cibinong. Ridwan, N. N. H, 2011. The Importance of empowering local community in preserving underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia: Case study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi. In Staniforth, M. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2011 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila: 222-237. �Simonato, J. D., Guedes, C. L., & Martinez, C. B., 2008. Biochemical, physiological, and histological changes in the neotropical fish Prochilodus lineatus exposed to diesel oil. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Vol. 69 (1): 112-120. Tony, A., 2013. SS Aguila (II) (+1941). Website (http://www.wrecksite.eu/wreck.aspx?11832). Retrieved on 14th July 2017. Wang, S. D., Shen, Y. M., Guo, Y. K., & Tang, J., 2008. Three-dimensional numerical simulation for transport of oil spills in seas. Ocean Engineering, Vol. 35 (5): 503-510. Warren, I. R., & Bach, H.,1992. MIKE 21: a modeling system for estuaries, coastal waters and seas. Environmental Software, Vol. 7 (4): 229240. Xie, H., Yapa, P. D., & Nakata, K. 2007. Modeling emulsification after an oil spill in the sea. Journal of Marine Systems, Vol. 68 (3): 489-506. Biography Ulung Jantama Wisha is Oceanography Research Scientist who has been working in the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries since 2015. He was graduated from Oceanography Department of Diponegoro University in 2014. Until present, he has contributed in several research projects on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites in Indonesia which conducted by Research Institute of Coastal Resources and Vulnerability. In 2015, he attended an underwater archaeology summer school organized by Institute of Archaeology-ICOMOS-ICUCH-SEAMEO SPAFA-UNESCO in Vietnam. His research interest is an applied oceanography area, including maritime archaeology, ocean modeling, environmental aspects, as well as ocean climate issues. He has published 17 writings until today. Guntur Adhi Rahmawan is Geomatics Research Scientist working in Indonesian Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries since 2015. He was graduated from Department of Geomatics Engineering, Diponegoro University. His research interest is a coastal resources and vulnerability, particularly in Hydrography area. Last year, he and his team have conducted research maritime archaeological resources for conservation �area in Ambon Bay which eventually provided the basis data of this paper. He also frequently contributed to other archaeological researches in RICRV and assisted in the making of shipwreck sketches in complementary analyzes of coastal resources. Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan is Maritime Archaeology Researcher working in Ministry of Marine Affairs since 2005. She hold a Master of Social Science in Environment and Heritage from James Cook University. Until present, she has led some research projects on underwater cultural heritage (UCH) sites throughout Indonesian Water. For her dedication, The President of Indonesia awarded Satya Lancana Wira Karya Award in 2015. Nia's interests include the relationship between UCH and its environment; threats to UCH; UCH long term protection; maritime museum affairs, community engagement; marine-heritage tourism; and illicit trafficking. Nia had attended some trainings held by UNESCO, ICCROM-SEAMEO SPAFA-The Getty Foundation, and The Netherlands Cultural Heritage Agency. She has published 51 her research results. Gunardi Kusumah has been working in the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. In 2010, he was assigned as a Head of Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) until present. His research interest is an Environmental Geology area. In recent years, he has focused his research on hydrogeology and groundwater resources, especially their characteristics and potency, as well as the interaction with coastal environment. He was also involved in all maritime archaeological researches conducted by RICRV from 2012-2017, and dedicates his expertise on sedimentation process and marine geological aspects to examine the vulnerability of shipwreck sites. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 9: Maritime/Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Southeast Asia (SEA) has been rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) over a long period, from ancient pre-history, through the age of commerce, into the World War II era. Recently, UCH research, survey, and mapping activities; preservation and management efforts; as well as human capacity building programs show the promising progress in SEA countries. However, various threats to UCH preservation and some shortcomings still can be found in many SEA countries, for instance, lack of funds, inadequate technology, limited human resources, and also lack of public and government attention to UCH legal protection and its long-term preservation. This session will highlight some topics, including current status of UCH preservation; current research or investigation on maritime heritage or UCH in SEA countries; maritime history in SEA; current legislations; recent human and natural threats to UCH in SEA countries; raising awareness and public education programs; in-situ preservation of UCH; sustainable shipwreck tourism development and balancing preservation efforts with economic benefit; community and general public engagement in UCH management plan; regional capacity building in Southeast Asia; as well as collaboration opportunities among stakeholders and SEA countries in researching, protecting, preserving, and managing UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig, Mc Gill University Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Oil Spill Analysis on Ambon Bay, Moluccas, Indonesia: Its Influence on the SS Aquila Shipwreck Site Description An account of the resource The Steam Ship (SS) Duke of Sparta or SS Aquila shipwreck site is one of the underwater cultural heritages (UCH) discovered in Ambon Bay, Moluccas waters, Indonesia. Currently, this 1940-s British-Italian shipwreck is threatened by an oil spill contamination on Ambon Bay. In Ambon Bay, there is Wayaime Port, which is a transit port for ships, and the port for oil tankers to loading and unloading their oil cargoes. One of the biggest oil spill incidents in Ambon Bay occurred in August 2005, when a fishing boat of MV Fu Yuan Fu F66 was exploded. This on-going oil spill occurrence can affect SS Aquila site sustainability due to corrosion issue, disrupt marine tourism activities, and harm marine biota in the surrounding area. One purpose of the study conducted by Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2016 is to determine the oil spill distribution inside the Ambon Bay which is threatening the SS Aquila shipwreck site. The method employed in this research is a hydrodynamic modelling approach of oil spill module. The result of oil spill modeling is then analysed spatially. The study results show the period of diesel oil distribution is reached ± 285 hours, with the spread direction is toward to Southwest (outer of the bay). The processes found in this oil spills event includes a process of dissolution,evaporation, and vertical dispersion. Based on the study, it can be concluded that the intake of the oil spill on Ambon Bay waters is undoubtedly threatening the preservation of the SS Aquila underwater cultural heritage along with its marine environment, and the development of marine heritage utilization. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ulung Jantama Wisha, Guntur Adhi Rahmawan Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Gunardi Kusumah Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Language A language of the resource English https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7512c47f527a62b96d97b981d0d0f61b.pdf a915684fbd11f437885dc4f3e0947a99 PDF Text Text USAT Liberty Shipwreck Site in Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali is Under Threats Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan, Semeidi Husrin, and Gunardi Kusumah Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerabilities Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Republic of Indonesia Jl. Raya Padang – Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245 Email: niahasanah79@gmail.com Abstract USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province is the most popular shipwreck diving attraction in Indonesia. The shipwreck is well-known throughout the world and brings in many domestic and foreign tourists since the 1980s. This underwater cultural heritage has a historical-archaeological value; it is a US cargo ship that sank during World War II and now the shipwreck functions as an artificial reef and is home to various marine life. This makes the wreck a very important coastal resource of this region and has a significant impact in the local people’s life. The condition of the site is currently considered to be vulnerable due to a variety of damage caused by natural and human factors. Threats due to high water dynamics such as currents and waves that could cause erosion, scouring, sliding, and other changes in the physical environment make this shipwreck site highly vulnerable to a variety of mechanical and physical damage as well as chemical weathering and corrosion. The large number of tourist who dive on this site also threatens the site. The marine archaeological research of 2013 conducted by Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is aimed at study the deterioration of the wreck, to collect hydrodynamics, sedimentation, and water quality data for providing an overview of recent conditions of this underwater site, the ocean dynamics of Tulamben waters, along with the damages suffered by USAT Liberty wreck which threatens its sustainability as an underwater cultural heritage and diving attraction. Identify the different types of potential vulnerabilities would become the basis of policy making for its preservation efforts in the future. Keywords: USAT Liberty shipwreck site, Natural and Human Threats, Vulnerability, Dive attraction, Bali Introduction There are a lot of publications on USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Kubu District, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province that highlights the importance of the site; it is the best known shipwreck diving destinations throughout Indonesia and one of the best in the world. We could find hundreds of thousands posts 1 �mentioning the site on the internet (Fig. 1). The research found also many publications discussing the locals attempt to protect the site traditional by imposing laws, their Awig-awig, local which includes fishing prohibitions nearby shipwreck location and prohibitions of destroying the ship's structure and coral reefs. The rules seemed indeed to be obeyed and nobody dares to intentionally violate this laws. Such matters have been discussed very Fig. 1 USAT Liberty in 1918 and 1941 and Its Wreck Site Location. (US Army Signal Corps Photo SC 131484, comprehensive in the writings US National Archives & Research Institute for Coastal Kamaludin (2002), Supriyatun (2007), Resources and Vulnerability) Noerwidi (2007), and Ridwan (2011) and it has also been confirmed by the elders of Tulamben Village through interviews with Mr. Nyoman Karyasa (Kelian Adat Tulamben)i and Mr. Degeng (Kelian Banjar Dinas Tulamben)ii. However, until now there are no attempts from governments to discuss the vulnerability of USAT Liberty to withstand the effects of the natural environment and human factors. These risks are not covered by studies conducted by relevant institutions and authorities on the site. Thus far, undertaken studies are only focused on the stage of mapping and documenting, as the work carried out by Bali Office for Preservation of Cultural Heritage in 2011 (Tenaya, 2011). Therefore, this paper will discuss the vulnerability of USAT Liberty based on the identification of numerous factors threatening the shipwreck and its ecosystem, both environmental and human. This paper will also discuss what measures need to be considered to prevent further damage that could lead to the destruction and loss of the USAT Liberty. This extremely important issue requires to be addressed because the existence of USAT Liberty and its diving industry are the only basis of the villagers' life. USAT Liberty History According to Radigan (1996), USAT Liberty is American freighter ex AK-35, and ex Liberty (ID 3461), built in 1918 by Federal Shipbuilding Co., Hackensack, NJ with 2 �125.43 x 17 x 8.08 m in dimension, 4,809 tonnage, and equipped with one piece 2500ihp power steam engine. She was launched on 19 June 1918, and the local newspapers at that time mentioned that she was the largest steel freighter ever made. In October 1918, this ship was used by US Navy and was named the USS Liberty (ID 3461). In 1939, it was used by US Army who renamed her as Liberty US Army Transport (USAT Liberty). In May 1941, US Army and US Navy approved the decision that US Navy would return to take over the ship, but then US Navy did not get the personnel to be placed on her so that the ship eventually remains Army’s property. In her journey from Australia to the Philippines carrying railroads, rubber, and logistics for the Allied Forcesiii, USAT Liberty torpedoed by Japanese Submarine I-166 in January 1942 off Lombok Straits. US Destroyer, Paul Jones, and Dutch Destroyer, Van Ghent, attempted to drag her to Singaraja Port but she was already damaged and could not go very far and stranded at last on Tulamben shores (http://pacificwrecks.com; wikipedia). The ship then sank deeper and deeper into the depths and currently resides in a sandy slope at 3 - 30 m depth about 40 m from shoreline. USAT Liberty Shipwreck Dive Attraction Shipwrecks in Indonesian waters are one of the main potential marine resources that could be utilized for marine tourism (Ardiwidjaja, 2007). Under Indonesian regional autonomy law, shipwreck sites could become region’s assets as marine tourism destination, as well as for the establishment of maritime museums. USAT Liberty is the most famous shipwreck dive site in Bali and has been included in the top 12 world shipwreck sites to be dived as noted by scuba diving website. Tourists regard this site as "a giant aquarium" due to the present of ± 400 marine life species which live around the site. There are also ± 100 species of high seas fish which visit the site regularly. Divers can find groups of bumphead parrotfish, barracuda, grouper, pigmy seahorse, nudibranchs, morray eel, jackfish, napoleon, fusiliers, surgeon fish, trevally, bream, anthias mill, batfish, large sweet lips fish, angelfish, butterfly fish, anemone fish, lionfish, scorpionfish, hawkfish, pufferfish, coral trout, the gobies, blennies, shrimps, dottyback, and others. Hard corals and soft corals i.e, giant barrel sponges, giant sea fans, tubastrea, gorgonians can also be found easily at this location. Scuba-mania claimed Tulamben as one of the most beautiful dive sites in Indonesia besides Komodo Island, 3 �Bunaken, Wakatobi, Raja Ampat, Lembeh Strait, Karimun Jawa, Bangka, Banda Sea, and Alor (Pickel, 2010; http://gekodivebali.com; http://scuba-mania.com/). In addition, it is the easiest location to enjoy recreational diving and to enjoy underwater scenery around the shipwreck. All skill levels divers could dive due to its unique positions in the seabed that ranging from shallow water until 30 m. USAT Liberty has brought immense Tulamben benefits people's to lives since 1980s and is closely related to people's livelihoods. It is important not Fig. 2 Characteristics of Tides and Currents in Tulamben Waters. (Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability) only for villagers the but Tulamben also communities in Bali Province because all diving operators in Bali offer diving trips to USAT Liberty to the tourists. Nowadays, there are about 150-200/day tourists diving on the site and communities’ income obtained from fees and services is about 500-1,000 USD/day. Meanwhile, the Tourism and Cultural Agency of Karang Asem noted that its regional revenue from tourism sector in 2012 was 1,200,000 USD and there were 416.363 foreigners came to the region to dive. This number is increasing continuously every year (http://karangasemkab.bps.go.id; Ridwan, 2011). Marine Archaeological Research In 2013, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability conducted research at USAT Liberty shipwreck site in order to determine its significance and current condition as well as to carry out a visual observation of the deterioration and the extent of the damage. The research also aims to find out the physical environmental conditions and its changes as well as to identify the various factors threatening the site. This research result could become a basic reference for further conservation effort and a basis for the establishment of Maritime Conservation Area in accordance with the 4 �Marine and Fisheries Ministerial Decree No. 17/2008 and the Underwater Cultural Heritage Site (UCH) determination in accordance with Law No. 11/2010 on Cultural Heritage. The field survey was conducted in June-July, August, and September 2013. Interviews with local communities, agencies, and relevant stakeholders to obtain data and information on the weather and climate conditions; shipwreck's history, and tourism industry development, had also been conducted. The team performed marine geology, ocean hydrodynamic, and water quality measurements to obtain sedimentation, water quality, and hydro-oceanographic data such as tidal, currents, and wave. Installing Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) equipment at 22 m depth with bottommounted system at USAT Liberty site location is a method to collect hydrodynamics data. Those data above are needed to determine water dynamics surrounding site location and to analyze the environment’s influence on shipwreck sustainability. Threats and Site conditions Natural Factor Nicholas Flemming (2011) said that globally, underwater archaeological sites are vulnerable to variety of damages caused by nature or human. A number of sites are devastated due to waves and erosion processes. Threats to shipwreck sites can be related to the changes in environmental factors due to the ocean dynamics in the region. The currents and winds could spur high waves and cause sedimentation, erosion, shifting, and sliding, thus making shipwreck sites susceptible to variety of physical-mechanical damages, as well as chemical damage i.e corrosion matters. USAT Liberty site is located in an area strongly affected by a very dynamic oceanographic conditions where the currents from Pacific and Indian Ocean meet. Tidal data measured by ADCP has 26.9 days duration commencing on August 29, 2013 until September 25, 2013 with a 10 minute data interval. Furthermore, the data were analyzed by using the T_TIDE processing program (Pawlowicz, 2002). Figure 2 shows the results of data analysis in which the tidal analysis results (predictions) appears closer to the actual data rate of up to 96.5% representation. Dominant tidal constituents are O1, K1, M2, S2, SK3, M4, S4, 2MS6 and M8. Based on the number formzahl (Fz = 0822), the nature of the tides in Tulamben waters is a mixture tidal tends to double 5 �(Mixed predominantly semi-diurnal). ADCP current measurements enables us to see the profile of water mass flow column. Figure 2 shows the flow characteristics of Tulamben waters in the form of scatter plots at 4 different depths from the bottom waters, each 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, and 20 m. From scattter plot, it is clear that the current in Tulamben waters are generally dominant moving from East to West direction. Based on the wind data, other factors that lead to differences in the surface characteristics of the scatter plots clearly caused by currents driven by waves and a longshore. Profile of current flow also show the current tendency to move westward and northward, so that the resultant predominantly direction to is the Northwest. The current results measurements show the maximum current to the North reaches v=1 m/s, while to the West the maximum flow reaches u=0:58 m/s. Volcanic sandy seabed around the wreck and the presence of strong currents at certain times Fig. 3 Extreme Weather Condition in Tulamben Coast on can cause scouring in the Juli 2013. (Nia Ridwan) shipwreck area. The hull section located in shallow waters can be affected by all kinds of weather conditions and there is also a large swell which can destabilize the fragile sections of the ship. The part of USAT Liberty shipwreck at the top is starting from a depth of 3-10 m so they could be affected significantly by the power of waves, currents, and winds at the surface. The weather conditions that are occasionally extreme lately in Tulamben waters most likely caused by climate change phenomenon. In extreme weather condition, wind will drive high waves and strong currents on the surface of Tulamben waters and could put strong pressure and make the ship parts in the shallow areas suffered the damage, became fragile, unsteady, and finally collapsed and fall down to the bottom, or befall the another ship part below it. So that successive events happened will cause even more damage 6 �(Fig. 3). High waves on July 2013 hit Tulamben beach for 3 days and reached 3-4 m in height, and even had destroyed some hotels located right in front of shipwreck location. A few days after storms, we found there are 4 parts of USAT Liberty ship that are collapsed and dislodged from her superstructure: 1 point at the stern area, 1 point at the middle section, and 2 points at bow area. In fact, previously the collapsed parts of the hull have also experienced significant corrosion, so we strongly assumed that the high corrosion rate in these parts has weaken them, added by high waves effect so eventually those parts were no longer capable attached in her superstructure, then detached and fallen down (Fig. 4). In 1998, El Nino caused severe bleaching in the coral reefs of the shipwreck site (Pickell, 2010) and from our observation, nowadays coral reefs attached to the hull are also experiencing stress. Tulamben dive guides stated that at this time many species of fish are disappeared from the site. The strong currents and waves in Tulamben waters also led to high erosion processes. Based on our observation, a process that deposited the USAT Liberty in its current location due to strong coastal erosion that occurs continuosly. While the USAT Liberty initially shipwrecked on the beach, it has been moving to greater depths because the sandy bottom upon which it rests has been eroded by currents, tides, and waves. Athough all existing publications indicate that the tremor from the 1963 Mount Agung eruption was a major contributor to the shipwreck´s current location, our research shows that the erosion is probably the main process responsible to USAT Liberty's current location. Mount Agung tremor may also have affected her movement, but erosion is the most predominantly ocean and coastal dynamic process in that area. The elders of Tulamben Village mentioned that the difference between the distance of the current Tulamben beach and the previous shore line is about 100 m, thus, it can be said that there have been a shoreline change. The Regional Spatial Layout Plan 2012-2032 of Karang Asem Regency on Distribution of Protected Areas nowadays states that Tulamben is one of the coastal areas which is highly vulnerable to coastal erosion. Tulamben beach is covered by black volcanic stones from Mount Agung's eruptions prior to 1963. We presume those stones used to be covered by sand, and then the sand was progressively run out and eroded by waves and currents. Eventually later, the 7 �expanse of volcanic stones previously existed in the layer below the sand are appearediv. Since the erosion process has progressiveley "dropped" the USAT Liberty into the ocean and taking into account its position on a 60%-90% slope, it is highly likely that the USAT Liberty will move deeper into the ocean at depths that are no longer safely accessible by divers (Fig. 5). Human Factor The concept of in-situ preservation in protecting and managing UCH raises the idea of making an underwater museum in the site (Delgado, 2011) and a wreck dive attraction. In fact, the easy access to the shipwreck site for tourists and divers represent a potential threat even though it is an opportunity for archaeologist to present UCH to society. The marine tourism has improved the communities’ welfare; however, the impact of yacht marina construction, coastal buildings, hotels, water sports resorts, touristic scuba diving, and the collection and souvenir sales have also impacted negatively in the preservation of the site (Fleming, 2011). The damage to the shipwreck caused by humans is not as dramatic as the damage caused by nature; however, this damage is cumulative and significant (Viduka, 2006, 62). The excessive use of USAT Liberty shipwreck in Bali is indicated by the large number of divers and their impact on ship preservation and its environment have not been examined by local governments. They do not Fig. 4 The Heavy Corrosion Ship Hull at Bow Section which are Collapsed right after High Wave Event on July 2013. (Nia realize that the large number Ridwan) of divers who perform underwater activities have incurred in a tremendous pressure on USAT Liberty and its ecosystem. Increasing number of divers in USAT Liberty does give a significant 8 �advantage to the development of that area, although on the other hand it could cause environmental damage problems to the sea floor and the shipwreck itself. The concern about its further degradation is actually emerging from the communities and local dive guide lately. They dive with the guests almost every day and they notice that there has been extensive damage to the USAT Liberty and its ecosystem. They also informed that at present time many fish species no longer appear on the site and many coral reefs are damaged and destroyed by the divers' negligence and carelessness (Pickell, 2010). The tourists at USAT Liberty site are not intentionally damaging the site and breaking awig-awig, but it is certain that many divers unintentionally destroy the site. The ability of each tourist diving in USAT Liberty is not homogeneous. Many tourists do not have diving qualifications and they use the site to get their diving certification. Uncontrolled flapping fins, arbitrarily penetration into the hull, hands touching and holding the ship's parts directly could cause damage Fig. 5 The Hypothesis of Tulamben Beach Erosion History that Showing the Chronology of the Fall of USAT Liberty into Her Current Position. (Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability) to USAT Liberty. Moreover, the habit of most divers to feed the fish is also against the rules of fisheries conservation. The large number of divers visiting the site may also lead to exposure of the sandy sea floor in USAT Liberty site. The divers’ fin kicking could agitate the seabed and kill unique animals and destroy some sensitive coral reefsv. Besides physical-mechanical damage, the concentration of oxygen from air released by divers may transform into air pockets trapped in the ship's hull. This will accelerate the oxidation process which will increase the corrosion level and will accelerate the chemical destruction process, and corrosion is one of the most threatening chemical damage to iron objects (Fig. 6.) 9 �Conclusion Nowadays, extreme weather conditions often hit Tulamben area and the estimated effect is fairly severe on shipwrecks and its marine life. Erosion is the most dominant environmental changes in Tulamben which can substantially influence the preservation Liberty. currents, of The the USAT movement tides, high of waves, especially in extreme weather conditions damage causes and physical accelerates the Fig. 6 A Large Number of Divers in USAT Liberty Site. mechanical fragility of shipwreck (Nia Ridwan) that has been previously corroded. Meanwhile, the sedimentation rate is relatively small and does not significantly affect USAT Liberty. Today, awig-awig protection is not sufficient and needs to be strengthened by other preservation efforts, i.e. limiting the number of divers on the USAT Liberty. This may not be easy to apply and there will be disagreeing parties who think it will reduce the community's income. Another solution could be to make the site an exclusive dive sites like SS Yongala in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia which has a limit of 7,000 tourists per year. We can monitor and limit the number of divers and still get a high income for the community by raising the entrance fee. In order to implement these policies, mapping this tourist destination according to its type becomes very important. Tulamben needs to be reviewed whether it is a mass-tourism, limited tourism, or eco-tourism area. Placing fish apartments and sinking another ship nearby can also be performed to build a new artificial reef and to provide an alternative dive site. The use of in-situ preservation methods such as corrosion prevention by cathodic-anodic protection using 10 �sacrificial anode can also be done. Another site stabilization to anticipate problems caused by natural hazards can also be enforced. Depth study, long-term measurements and model analysis need to be done to get the complete of data. Measurement and monitoring the hull's progressinve shift can be performed by regularly benchmarking and photo recording of the site after extreme weather conditions events. Making physical models, and numerical modeling are needed to prove the erosion evolution hypothesis that occurs over a fairly long period in Tulamben beach. References Ardiwidjaya, R., 2007. Pemanfaatan Benda Arkeologi Bawah Air (Shipwreck): Satu Peluang Peningkatan Daya Tarik Wisata Selam. Diskusi Ilmiah Sumberdaya Arkeologi Laut, Jakarta. Delgado, J., 2011. The Impact on and Opportunities arising from Tourism to Submerged Sites. UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on Factors Impacting the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 13th-14th December 2011, Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels. Flemming, N., 2011. UNESCO Scientific Colloquium on Factors Impacting the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 13th-14th December 2011, Royal Library of Belgium, Brussels. Kamaluddin, L., 2002. Pariwisata Bahari dan Konservasi. Pembangunan Ekonomi Maritim di Indonesia, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Noerwidi, S., 2007. Pemberdayaan Masyarakat pada Pelestarian Situs Bangkai Kapal USS Liberty, Tulamben Bali, http://arkeologika.wordpress.com/2007/10/31, retrieval April 5, 2013. Pickell, D., and Wally S., 2010. Diving Bali: The Underwater Jewel of Southeast Asia. Periplus, Singapore. Radigan, J. R., 1996. USAT Liberty ex-AK-3, ex-Liberty (ID 3461), http://navsource.org, retrieval March 19, 2013. Ridwan, N. N. Hasanah., 2011. The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi. In Proceeding on the Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila. Pawlowicz, R., Beardsley, B., and Lentz, S., 2002. Classical Tidal Harmonic Analysis including Error Estimates in MATLAB using T_TIDE. Journal Computers and Geosciences, Vol. 28. Supriyatun, R., 2007. Potensi Obyek Wisata Warisan Budaya Bawah Air di Tulamben, Kabupaten Karang Asem. Varuna, Jurnal Arkeologi Bawah Air, Vol. (1/2007): 00-00. 11 �Tenaya, I. W., Gde Yadnya, dkk., 2011. Laporan Pemetaan dan Penggambaran Situs/Kapal Karam U.S.A.T Liberty, Tulamben Karang Asem. Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Bali, Gianyar. Viduka, A., 2006. Managing Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Sites: The Yongala as a Case Study. In Underwater Cultural Heritage at Risk. http://gekodivebali.com, retrieval July, 2013. http://karangasemkab.bps.go.id, retrieval May 10, 2013. http://scuba-mania.com/tag/indonesia/17, retrieval November 17, 2012. http://pacificwrecks.com/ships/usn/USATliberty, retrieval April 2, 2013. http://wikipedia_USAT Liberty, retrieval October, 11, 2011. Biography Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan is Maritime Archaeology Research Scientist graduated from Department of Archaeology, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta. Since 2005, she has been working in Ministry of Marine Affairs & Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia in Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability. In 2011, Nia appointed as Head of Research Cooperation & Technical Services Division until present. She has researched several underwater sites throughout Indonesian waters. Her current research focuses to identify the factors threatening shipwreck sites and to examine ways to mitigate it. Nia had attended UNESCO Foundation Course on Underwater Cultural Heritage (2010) and In Situ Preservation Course (2011) in Thailand; 3 SEAMEO SPAFA-ICCROM trainings: in Thailand (2010), Singapore (2011), Philippine (2011); The Netherlands Cultural Heritage Agency Course on Managing Climate Risks towards a Sustainable Conservation of Mutual Cultural Heritage in Brazil (2011); and ICCROM Forum on Science in Conservation (Italy 2013). Endnotes i Kelian Adat is community leader who deal with social issues such as funeral rites, marriage ceremonies, rituals and traditional customs regulations. ii Kelian Banjar Dinas is a hamlet head who is in charge in taking care of administrative matters, i.e. making residents identity card, family card, and then passing them to the village office, district office or civil registry office. iii Tulamben residents said that USAT Liberty also carried large quantities of black pepper and eucalyptus oil. iv This is confirmed by the village elders were say that they have no idea where those stones suddenly appeared. Even mentioned that these stones arise because of the "miracle of God". However, this can be explained scientifically associated with coastal erosion processes were fairly dramatic. v In the 90s, a French photographer, who despite professional but was reckless, dived on USAT Liberty and dropped his fairly heavy camera. It hit a poisonous coral reefs attached to ship's hull. Besides destroying the hull and the reef, he and the other divers nearby also experienced severe poisoning (Pickell, 2010). 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 12: Underwater Cultural Heritage of Southeast Asia Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 12 chair Nia Hasanah and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The richness of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Southeast Asian region has been very well known throughout the world. Various shipping activities, trade, warfare, piracy occur in Southeast Asian waters since prehistoric times to the present, causing many archaeological relics in the bottom of the sea in that region, such as shipwrecks which are a traditional ships owned by countries in Southeast Asia and also foreign ships from various countries in the world which sank due to various causes in Southeast Asian Waters. UCH in Southeast Asia has become a very important resource for science, history and even for economic interests relating to the welfare of the local communities which in some areas, UCH shipwreck sites serve as diving attractions. UCH in Southeast Asia have also attracted treasure hunters both the international big companies and national companies in Southeast Asian countries. In many areas, in particularly in small islands and coastal areas with low level economic life, the locals often plunder the UCH sites, raise up the cargoes, and also take the ship parts mainly made of metal materials to be sold for sustaining their lives. Treasure hunt problem; looting by local people; the lack of human resources, facilities, and funds for research, monitoring, and conservation; as well as the lack of understanding and awareness of the central government, local government, civil society, and local communities make the problems associated UCH in Southeast Asia being very complex. The UCH richness and the complexity of the problems associated with it in Southeast Asia make this being one of critical theme to be highlighted in this conference. There is a need to share a current information betweeen the countries to strengthen the bond and to foster the regional and international cooperation. This session will discuss: • Current issues, problems, and challenges faced by Southeast Asian countries in efforts to study, to protect, and to preserve the UCH. • The threats faced by UCH i.e. the human factors, climate change, and changes in the physical environment in the waters of Southeast Asian countries. • The results of resent research conducted in the field of UCH in Southeast Asian countries. • Protection and conservation measures in accordance with the UNESCO Convention 2001 which can be applied in Southeast Asian countries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Hasanah Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource USAT Liberty Shipwreck Site in Tulamben, Karang Asem Regency, Bali is Under Threats Description An account of the resource USAT Liberty shipwreck site located in Tulamben Village, Karang Asem Regency, Bali Province is the most popular shipwreck diving attraction in Indonesia. The shipwreck is well-known throughout the world and brings in many domestic and foreign tourists since the 1980s. This underwater cultural heritage has a historical-archaeological value; it is a US cargo ship that sank during World War II and now the shipwreck functions as an artificial reef and is home to various marine life. This makes the wreck a very important coastal resource of this region and has a significant impact in the local people’s life. The condition of the site is currently considered to be vulnerable due to a variety of damage caused by natural and human factors. Threats due to high water dynamics such as currents and waves that could cause erosion, scouring, sliding, and other changes in the physical environment make this shipwreck site highly vulnerable to a variety of mechanical and physical damage as well as chemical weathering and corrosion. The large number of tourist who dive on this site also threatens the site. The marine archaeological research of 2013 conducted by Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries is aimed at study the deterioration of the wreck, to collect hydrodynamics, sedimentation, and water quality data for providing an overview of recent conditions of this underwater site, the ocean dynamics of Tulamben waters, along with the damages suffered by USAT Liberty wreck which threatens its sustainability as an underwater cultural heritage and diving attraction. Identify the different types of potential vulnerabilities would become the basis of policy making for its preservation efforts in the future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Semeidi Husrin Gunardi Kusumah, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 12 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Nanhai Trade: The Early History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Gungwu Wang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Times Academic Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Gungwu Wang Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Edition 2 Place Singapore Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Times Academic Press Title A name given to the resource The Nanhai Trade: The Early History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/8d87d78d46c3dca6c0a564b0ba97b372.pdf 4201c17d4aab2a18c96a9a725fb4b32e PDF Text Text The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia Wisnu A. Gemilang1 Nia N. H. Ridwan1 Guntur A. Rahmawan1 Ulung J. Wisha2 1 Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries Jl. Raya Padang-Painan Km. 16, Bungus, Padang, West Sumatera, 25245 2 National Research and Innovation Agency ABSTRACT The potential of shipwreck site resources in “Spice Routes,” Ternate-Tidore, reflects several historical pieces of evidence relating to archaeological remains from the Portuguese and Spanish eras in the surrounding sea and coastal areas. In the 1990s, a plethora of archaeological remains were salvaged. An integrated archaeological study is an initial step to optimize the use of underwater archaeological resources in the area of interest. The survey consisted of local coordination, expert consultation, literature study, field surveys and underwater observations, mini excavations using water dredging, artefact samplings site measuring and documentation, artefact desalination, and C14 carbon dating analysis for wooden materials found within the site. Moreover, the water quality survey for marine tourism interests and Trinidad ship reconstruction is significant in supporting 500 years of circumnavigation of the earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano and supporting publication and dissemination. Based on the present study, it is observed that Soasio and Tongowai sites have the potential to be developed as the centre of integrated marine ecotourism with maritime archaeology-based sites. This consideration is due to plenty of historical artefacts and tourism feasibility assessments. Therefore, local and regional regulations relating to regional spatial planning are crucial before implementing the ecotourism project in this area. Keywords: Maritime archaeology, shipwreck sites, sustainable marine tourism, Tidore List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: The distribution of underwater archaeology sites in Tidore Islands. Source: Field survey, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, 2021. Figure 2: The distribution map of historical sites in Tidore Islands. Figure 3: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; shipwreck indication (a); ceramic findings (b); jars and earthenware findings (c); bird’s eye view of Soasio site (d). Figure 4: Biodiversity in the surrounding Soasio site; coral covers (a); fish ecosystem (b), sediment substrate (c). Figure 5: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; underwater cannon finding (a); excavated cannon from Tongowai site (b); A pile of earthenware (c); coral covers and ecosystem in Tongowai site (d). Table 1: The formulation of the underwater heritage trail development strategy. 1 �INTRODUCTION Tourism is an essential aspect for a country, which can increase state and local government revenue (Runtunuwu 2020, 1). Tidore Island is becoming the preferred ecotourism destinations in North Maluku Province. Exotic natural panoramas combined with cultural-historical sites create an enchanting paradise in eastern Indonesia (Wijayanti et al. 2022, 1). Tidore Island is worthy of further development due to its strategic position and many mesmerizing coastal areas as a potency for supporting marine tourism. However, in developing the tourism potency of this region, many aspects should be considered since there many existing problems (Kader 2017, 20), such as the local facility and the low awareness of the underwater cultural heritage UCH importance (Fahri & Alhadar 2022, 2; Runtunuwu 2020, 2). The existence of two underwater archaeological sites, Soasio and Tongowai Sites, highlight the potential for underwater archaeology in the Tidore Islands. Aside from high biodiversity within the sites, these two primary sites have a historical value related to the shipping and international trade in the 15-17 centuries AD (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 173). Therefore, the further development should be supported by a tourism development strategy. Local tourism management and third party’s authorities should contribute to conserve the remains by establishing policies and protections (Masberg and Morales 1999, 290). Therefore, this research article on "The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia" is significant to support the development of underwater historical tourism in the Tidore Islands. CASE STUDY Based on information from the local community and local government in Ternate and Tidore, around the 1990s, there was a lot of goods looting in several archaeological sites in Tidore waters. The lack of knowledge of the local government and the community about the existence of UCH makes the remains more vulnerable and less protected (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 170). Therefore, identification of underwater archaeological potential in Tidore waters is essential as a basis for further conservation, development, and decision-making in terms of protecting the underwater archaeological remains. In addition, this study is expected to promote the potential of the site for marine tourism and other preservation strategies in dealing with the vulnerability of the site and its aquatic environment. RESOURCES As mentioned earlier, the primary location of this study is in the Soasio and Tongowai sites, Tidore Island, North Maluku Province (Figure 1). Many historical objects have been managed as an attraction for supporting the tourism aspect, such as the Tidore Sultanate Palace, Torre Fort, Tahula Fort, Sonyine Malige Museum, Sultan Nuku Tomb, Sultan Mosque and Sultan Pier (Sosmiarti and Fahlefi 2019, 282). However, the Tidore Islands underwater history is less promoted and even rarely visited due to the lack of local awareness regarding the importance of UCH. Therefore, in this study we will exhibit the underwater archaeological resources in Tidore and further development planning to promote and manage the remains. 2 �Figure 1. The distribution of underwater archaeology sites in Tidore Islands. Source: Field survey, Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability, 2021. FRAMEWORK The primary data of this study were obtained from a research report by the Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) in 2019 and 2021. The research activities included: mapping bathymetry, hydro-oceanography, geology, and diving to observe archaeological sites' photos and videos, and the quality of the ecosystem and aquatic environment (Irani et al. 2022, 3). In addition, local interviews with the government, village officials, and communities around the site were also carried out. Masberg and Morales (1999, 290) suggest that five factors are included in ecotourism development: (1) an integrated approach; (2) planning and a slow start; (3) Education and Training; (4) maximizing local benefits and (5) evaluation and feedback. Outcomes are for a successful and viable ecotourism development; these five factors ensure the objectives are achieved. Artefact data analysis identified UCH from the Soasio Site and the Tongowai Site (Figure 1). We aimed to determine artefacts type, age, and the place of origin of production. In addition, observations of the position of the sites and GPS tracking data of important historical sites along the coast near the Soasio and Tongowai sites were also carried out, which were analysed to know the spatial distribution in relation to the two sites. 3 �RESULTS Historical Tourism and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Tidore Islands The oceanography of the Soasio site is characterized by relatively weak currents so divers can dive anytime. Aside from the underwater archaeological remains, clear seawater with various types of coral reefs and fish are attractions. The Soasio seabed has a slope of about 130 degrees. The distribution of artefacts in ship wood, ballast stone, and ceramics is 15-20 m deep (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 175). Figure 2: The distribution map of historical sites in Tidore Islands. Another site is situated in Tongowai Village where the cannon was found at a depth of 37-42 m (Figure 2). According to local interviews, the cannon had previously been lifted along with other artefacts by a salvage company in 1998. This was done by Japanese investors, as proved by the existence of two drums and ropes tied to the cannon, which were used to lift the cannon. The artefacts discovered in 1998 are stored in a Central Halmahera Guesthouse in Itagapura. The lifting of the artefacts at the Tongowai Site occurred when Tidore Islands was under the Halmahera Tengah Regency. The Significance of Underwater Archaeology in Tidore Islands Underwater Archaeology in Soasio The presence of shipwrecks at the Soasio site was known based on findings of four meters of wood in an inclined position at the depth of 12 meters. The remains are mostly covered by coral reefs and sediment deposits (Figure 3a). According to the historical records and local interviews, only Spain and 4 �Portugal colonized Tidore Island. Therefore, initial suspicions were that the ship was a Spanish or Portuguese ship anchored in the port of Tidore. However, the results of the C14 analysis show the oldest wood sample is from 1054 AD, and the youngest is from 1379 AD. The ceramics found at the Soasio site are categorized as porcelain and stoneware. Ceramics made from porcelain have a white glaze and blue-white colour under the glaze. One intact plate is known as Swatow blue and white porcelain, which was produced during the Wanli period (1575 – 1659 AD) of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), and a bowl fragment is known as blue-white porcelain from the time of Emperor Tianqi (1621 – 1627 AD) of the Ming Dynasty (Figure 3b). The findings of earthenware jars based on their size consist of large and small jars. There are seven large jars and two small jars. The jars are glazed brown, and three of them have four ears. The jars are all incomplete (Figure 3c). In the water area of the Soasio Site, there are interesting remains in the form of rock formations deliberately arranged from ancient times that look like wave breakers or beach protectors (Figure 3d). Figure 3: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; shipwreck indication (a); ceramic findings (b); jars and earthenware findings (c); bird’s eye view of Soasio site (d) The ecosystem around the Soasio site is covered by coral reefs, of about 60% (good condition) at a depth of 4-15 m, with the basic contour being a reef slope. The coral reef genera found included: Acropora sp, Merulina sp, Giniastrea sp, Montipora sp, Porites sp, Pectinia sp, Symphyllia sp, Favia sp, Astreopora sp, Montastrea sp, and Diploastrea sp (Figure 4a). Meanwhile, the types of fish found were indicator fish or associated fish and target/economic fish such as grouper, snapper, and pelagic 5 �fish (Figure 4b). The seafloor substrate consists of rubble/dead coral rubble, sand deposits and sediment resulting from landslides around the coast (Figure 4c). Based on the results of the calculation of the tourism suitability index, the Soasio site is included in the quite suitable category with a value of 73.02%. The suitability index value is based on the water brightness parameter, coral community cover, life forms, types of reef fish, archaeological site depth, current velocity, and reef depth. Figure 4: Biodiversity in the surrounding Soasio site; coral covers (a); fish ecosystem (b), sediment substrate (c). UCH in Tongowai Site The Tongowai site at a depth of 37-42 m is where the cannon was discovered. The artefacts found at the Soasio site are more scattered than at the Tongowai site. According to locals documented in Rahmawan et al. (2021, 175), the observed cannon was an artefact left over from salvage conducted in 1998 (Figure 5a). Another cannon, earthenware, and ceramics were removed in 1998 by a Japanese company and are in the government house of Halmahera Tengah Regency (Figure 5b). The condition of the pottery was not conserved, so a white surface was observed due to salting (Figure 5c). The brightness or visibility on the seabed of the Tongowai Site reaches 25 m. The bottom contour of the Tongowai waters is made up of reef flat and reef slope, with the bottom substrate consisting of dead coral fractures and sand deposits. Coral reefs are found at depths from 1 - 25 m with concentrations of dense coral cover at depths of 2 - 10 m. Percentage Cover (PC) of live coral reaches 6 �50 % (Good Condition…Figure 5d). The coral genera that can be found include: Acropora.sp, Montipora sp., Seriatopora sp., Oxipora sp., Porites sp., Stylopora sp., Pectinia sp., Psammocora sp., Galaxea sp., Fungia sp., Pocillopora sp., Favia sp. and Hidnopora sp., Goniastrea sp., and there are sponges, soft corals, and sea fans/Gorgonians. Based on the results of the tourism suitability index calculation, the Tongowai site's location is categorized into entirely appropriate for tourism with a value of 77.8%. Figure 5: Documentation of UCH in Tidore Islands; underwater cannon finding (a); excavated cannon from Tongowai site (b); A pile of earthenware (c); coral covers and ecosystem in Tongowai site (d). Maritime and Underwater Heritage Trail Developments The places where the shipwreck and the underwater remains do exist in the Tidore Islands have potential for marine tourism, especially for underwater diving objects. Based on the process of identification and analysis of the data, a strategy for further protection and development of sustainable UCH in the Tidore Islands can be initiated. The formulation of the management strategy for developing underwater archaeology potential in the Tidore Islands is shown in Table 1. 7 �Table 1: The formulation of the underwater heritage trail development strategy. No Identified Criteria Strategic Plan  Aligning the vision and mission makes the Soasio and Tongowai 1 Mutual commitment sites sustainable tourist destinations  Involve community members in decision making. 2 People empowerment  Ensure that local communities receive benefits.  Ensure environmental sustainability.  Develop a tourist image (brand image) Gurabunga in line with the existing tourism image in the area.  Raising the history of various old buildings in the Tidore Island area, especially Tongowai and Soasio site  Environmental conservation. 3 Village attractiveness  Preservation of traditional customs and culture  Development of tourism product packaging in the form of enrichment of tourist attractions, development of tourism packages, and integrated tourism promotion.  Provision of supporting facilities for local product development.  Develop tour packages in Soasio and Tongowai village.  Education and training on village tourism and tourism awareness.  Tourism-based entrepreneurship courses/training for residents of productive age and school dropouts in order to develop local crafts, 4 Human resource development souvenirs, etc.  Intensive guidance to local guides on tourist assistance (especially climbing guides).  Provide knowledge to the public about UCH.  Formation of tourism awareness group.  Increase the creativity of the existing community.  Provide capital strengthening for the provision of support for tourism development, both for business capital for souvenirs and capital for 5 Villagers’ motivation supporting equipment for artistic attractions.  Equipping tourist companions, especially diving companions, and providing adequate diving support equipment.  Encouraging local regulations that facilitate licensing of business operations in the tourism sector in Soasio and Tongowai villages.  Planning and development of facilities & infrastructure adapted to the concepts and strategic plans of tourist destinations (coordination with Indigenous elders and the Tidore city government).  Building support facilities for unique traditional tourism activities.  Prioritizing the development of road infrastructure to facilitate access for tourists to Tongowai and Soasio Sites and adjacent villages.  Re-enable the security post along with the security forces or officers, 6 Facility and infrastructure to avoid criminal acts while in the tourist area.  The addition of a homestay in an adequate resident's house.  Public toilet construction.  Make a spatial/land use plan in the context of developing an environmentally friendly tourist village.  Install mooring/marking buoys on the two sites (Figure 8a).  Promoting Soasio and Tongowai to various mass media, namely print media, electronic media and also online media.  Make booklets and leaflets containing information on Soasio and Tongowai Village and guidebooks about UCH tourism.  Conduct counselling and socialization for tourism actors. 7 Promotion  Holding various events related to Tidore UCH.  Participate in national tourism festival events or exhibitions.  Installation of information boards (heritage trail) that tell the history of the sinking of the Trinidad ships and the history of the presence of the Spanish and Portuguese in Ternate-Tidore (Figure 8b). 8 �The right strategy for developing tourist destinations in Tidore UCH is through Community-Based Tourism, which reflects the diversity of culture, traditions, natural beauty, crafts and cuisine. Aim to become the local identity with a concentration of tourist destinations that does not compete for tourists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank Research Institute of Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV), Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesia for research funding in 2019 and 2021 in Ternate-Tidore. Gratitude is also given to the local communities of Tidore who have assisted during the field surveys. BIBLIOGRAPHY Fahri, J., Abubakar, R. and Alhadar, F.M. “Strategy for developing excellent tourist destination (A case study of Gurabunga Village, Tidore Island Municipality, North Maluku).” Journal of International Conference Proceedings 5, no.1 (2022): 1-12. Irani, H.R., Golverdi, M., Rastegar, R. and Rezaei, S. “Rapid ecotourism development and challenges: the case of ecolodge in Iran.” Tourism Recreation Research (2022):1-6. Kader, Abdurrahman. "Development planning of tourism destination as local superior economy sector: study at Tidore city islands." International Journal of Management and Administrative Sciences 5, no. 3 (2017): 19-25. Masberg, B.A. and Morales, N. “A case analysis of strategies in ecotourism development.” Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management 2, no.3 (1999): 289-300. Rahmawan, G.A., Ridwan, N.N.H., Wisha, U.J., Ilham, I., Gemilang, W.A., Andriani, F.W., Sudaryadi, A. and Irwansyah, I. “Ekowisata Terintegrasi Situs Kapal Tenggelam di Tidore Kepulauan, Maluku Utara.” Jurnal Kelautan Nasional 16, no. 3 (2021): 169-184. Runtunuwu, P.C.H. “Tourism sector development strategy in North Maluku: A case study of Tidore Islands.” International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality in Asia Pasific 3, no. 3 (2020): 1-8. Sosmiarti, S. and Fahlefi, U.A. “Pengembangan Potensi Wisata Sejarah Dan Kearifan Lokal Masyarakat Soasio Melalui Program Paket Wisata Dan Rumah Budaya Sebagai Pusat Kesultanan Tidore.” Buletin Ilmiah Nagari Membangun 2, no. 2 (2019): 94-108. Wijayanti, H., Marfai, M.A., Mutaqin, B.W., Hadmoko, D.S., Lavigne, F., Faral, A. and Riasasi, W. “Ecotourism in a Hazardous Small-Volcanic Island: Tidore Island, Indonesia.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1039, no.1 (2022): 12021. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 21: New Technologies and Interdisciplinary Strategies for the Promotion and Protection of Maritime Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 21 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 21 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia Description An account of the resource The potential of shipwreck site resources in “Spice Routes,” Ternate-Tidore, reflects several historical pieces of evidence relating to archaeological remains from the Portuguese and Spanish eras in the surrounding sea and coastal areas. In the 1990s, a plethora of archaeological remains were salvaged. An integrated archaeological study is an initial step to optimize the use of underwater archaeological resources in the area of interest. The survey consisted of local coordination, expert consultation, literature study, field surveys and underwater observations, mini excavations using water dredging, artefact samplings site measuring and documentation, artefact desalination, and C14 carbon dating analysis for wooden materials found within the site. Moreover, the water quality survey for marine tourism interests and Trinidad ship reconstruction is significant in supporting 500 years of circumnavigation of the earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano and supporting publication and dissemination. Based on the present study, it is observed that Soasio and Tongowai sites have the potential to be developed as the centre of integrated marine ecotourism with maritime archaeology-based sites. This consideration is due to plenty of historical artefacts and tourism feasibility assessments. Therefore, local and regional regulations relating to regional spatial planning are crucial before implementing the ecotourism project in this area. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wisnu A. Gemilang Nia N. H. Ridwan Guntur A. Rahmawan Ulung J. Wisha Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Gemilang, Wisnu A., Nia N. H. Ridwan, Guntur A. Rahmawan and Ulung J. Wisha. 2023. “The Potential of Maritime Archaeology (Shipwreck Sites) for Sustainable Marine Tourism Management and Strengthening Historical Narrations in Tidore, North Moluccas, Indonesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Hans van Tilburg. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1916 Asia-Pac Session 21 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/f0e63f4b022e8e2370822d990e345714.pdf c038f175fbb3ee168cfeb27bb5e6162e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 7: Submerged War Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract While evidence of conflict in the Asia-Pacific Region dates back thousands of years, World War II brought more people into contact with the seas of the Asia-Pacific region than ever before and left a correspondingly large archaeological signature. Today, the ship and plane wrecks, maritime infrastructure and underwater dumping sites from WWII present an archaeological resource of conflicting values ranging from artificial reefs and tourism assets, to war-graves and even ecological threats. Most recently, the different values placed on these sites has been thrown into sharp relief with the illegal salvage of a number of naval ships in South-East Asia and subsequent outcry from former colonial powers. Maritime warfare throughout the Asia-Pacific Region has had a far-reaching impact on the people who lived, and continue to live in these areas that goes beyond the mere recording of battlefields and the machinery involved. Maritime archaeology has significant potential to provide insights into the lives and experiences of those who have been overlooked by traditional war histories including non-combatants and indigenous people. The protection and management of World War II-related Underwater Cultural Heritage (WWII UCH) provides particular challenges in the contemporary Asia-Pacific Region. While the 2001 UNESCO Convention provides a code for internationally recognised best practice, most countries in the region are yet to become signatories. Many countries in Oceania in particular see the current interest in WWII UCH as overshadowing the need to protect and preserve indigenous UCH. A potentially useful framework that could be used to provide a balance in interests and benefits for more of the Asia-Pacific community is the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals that provide a holistic and relevant path for incorporating all UCH into sustainable environmental and development policies and practices. This should lead to an appreciation of all that constitutes Asia-Pacific UCH and their particular challenges. Session Organisers: Matt Carter Bill Jeffery Hans Van Tilburg Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Vulnerability Assessment of USS Houston: A World War II Historic Shipwreck from the Battle of Sunda Strait Description An account of the resource Sea battles between the Allies and the Japanese Navy Fleet during World War II in Indonesian waters left many physical evidences in the form of shipwrecks. One of the most well-known naval battles in the history of World War II in Asia Pacific is the Battle of Sunda Strait which caused the sinking of USS Houston and HMAS Perth along with a number of their crews in 1942. The assessment activities conducted by Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability in 2018 show that the American heavy cruiser, USS Houston, is currently prone to various disturbances. USS Houston shipwreck site is located at 15-30 meters deep near Panjang Island in Banten Bay. Site location is influenced by sediment input from the surrounding plateau. The number of river mouths and hydrodynamic conditions of Banten Bay with its strong currents also play a role in sediment transport process which affects the visibility and transport of pollutants and marine debris found on site. Other problems include dense industrial areas in the mainland around the site, sea sand mining activities, bustling sealane activities, warships metal scavenging, and a high intensity of marine spatial utilization by local fishers regarding capture fisheries and aquaculture. All of the above conditions need to be taken into consideration for the protection and preservation of USS Houston site which is also a War Graveyard. Its future site development needs to be in line with the interests of the local fishing communities who have been utilizing the marine space at USS Houston area since long ago. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Wisnu Arya Gemilang Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Ulung Jantama Wisha Guntur Adhi Rahmawan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Gemilang, Wisnu Arya, Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan, Ulung Jantama Wisha, and Guntur Adhi Rahmawan. 2021. “Vulnerability Assessment of USS Houston: A World War II Historic Shipwreck from the Battle of Sunda Strait.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/684 Asia-Pac Session 7 2021 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/b6b9e89542960db2f017cdfddbedcc21.pdf d554cf66cc6f250e73d969dcb8a29c95 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 8: Underwater and Maritime Archaeology in South East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 8 papers Description An account of the resource Abstract South East Asia is an Asian Sub Region with 11 countries with an area of 8.94 million square kilometres, and its water areas covering the China Sea, the Java Sea, the Sulu Sea, the Philippine Waters, the Celebes Sea, the Banda Sea, the Flores Sea, the Arafura Sea, the Timor Sea, and the Andaman Sea. With a total area of 2.5 % of the surface of all oceans in the world, South East Asia is a large sub region in the world which its waters and coastal areas are very rich in underwater and maritime cultural heritage. Underwater heritage in South East Asia are diverse and come from various times, namely from ancient Southeast Asian kingdoms, the European colonialism period, to World War II, which consisted of traditional ships of the South East Asian countries, Chinese junks China, Spanish Galleons and Naos, ships from the Middle East, VOC and EIC vessels; historic ships, planes, submarines during World War II; and also the remains of human settlements in the past or submerged landscape. The session will explore the richness of maritime history and the legacy of underwater and maritime cultural heritage in the countries of South East Asia. This South East Asian Session also seeks papers to be presented on the current development of underwater and maritime archaeology in South East Asia including the latest results of researches, studies, and projects of protection, preservation, sustainable use of underwater heritage, and the development of innovation and technology applying in the fields of underwater and maritime archaeology in various institutions in South East Asian countries. Moreover, the challenges, current threats, and any shortcomings that are currently being hot issues facing by South East Asian countries regionally, such as massive plundering of historic wrecks, destructive activities on shipwreck sites, natural disasters affecting underwater and maritime heritage, lack of long-term site monitoring and inappropriate management of underwater heritage will also be the focus of discussion in this session. This South East Asian Session also encourages the presentation of studies or projects on community engagement and opening access for the public in managing a sustainable underwater heritage in South East Asian countries, where the role of the local community is significant and can assist in determining the sustainability or the destruction of underwater and maritime heritage sites. Session Organiser: Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Swath Bathimetry Application for Underwater Archaeology in Indonesia Description An account of the resource Mapping the depth of the ocean for supporting underwater archaeological works can be carried out by utilizing acoustic technology that converts electromagnetic waves into sound waves. Acoustic technology can be used to detect the structure of the soil layer and the thickness of sediments in seawaters area. The Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability have identified several underwater heritage sites scattered throughout Indonesian waters and utilized this technology through a bathymetry survey to determine the depth and the structure of the seafloor where underwater cultural heritage sites are located. The Echosounder Ecotrack Teledyne Dual Frequency Odometer has been used in this bathymetry survey. The sea depth data will be corrected to Mean Sea Level (MSL) using the tidal data of the local station for 30 days. The underwater topography is processed and displayed in 3D. The use of in-situ bathymetry application to determine the shape of the seabed at the identified sites can be used as part of the assessment process to determine the next research steps, to provide recommendations regarding diving activities, as well as to determine proper site preservation and appropriate management measures, for example, for diving tourism and marine conservation area in Indonesia. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Guntur adhi Rahmawan Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rahmawan, Guntur adhi, and Nia Naelul Hasanah Ridwan. 2021. “Swath Bathimetry Application for Underwater Archaeology in Indonesia.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/687 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A History of Persian Navigation Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hadi Hasan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Methuen Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1928 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Hadi Hasan Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1928 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Methuen Title A name given to the resource A History of Persian Navigation Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mizu to Saishi No Kokogaku Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Nara Kenritsu Kashihara Kokogaku Kenkyujo Hakubutsukan. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Gakuseisha Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Nara Kenritsu Kashihara Kokogaku Kenkyujo Hakubutsukan. Item Type Book ISBN 4311202784 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2005 Extra External Resources: Find this item at Abebooks.com (Bookseller) Find this item at Antiquarian Booksellers Association of America (Bookseller) Find this item at Biblio (Bookseller) Cite This Item Advanced options ... Language: Japanese (Show non-Roman characters) Geographic: Japan -- Antiquities. Japan -- History -- To 645. Identifier: Nihon; Isekiibutsu.; Saishiiseki. Note(s): Includes bibliographical references. Class Descriptors: LC: DS815 Responsibility: Nara Kenritsu Kashihara Kokogaku Kenkyujo Fuzoku Hakubutsukan hen. More Records: Show record information Entry: 20050117 Update: 20081113 Provider: OCLC Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 280 Place Tokyo Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Gakuseisha Title A name given to the resource Mizu to Saishi No Kokogaku Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/5df5e09f6b217b3038a4d027d42a9979.pdf 18b80206bf82db574b7b27b419c19e8c PDF Text Text Maritime History of Steamship Companies Impact in Modern China, 1840-1911 Han Qing Abstract This paper aims to provide evidence of historical documents in Chinese steamship industry and how these materials may provide context to better understand the underwater cultural heritage. What were the economic impacts of steamship industry on China’s littoral landscape? Through a discussion on maritime policies the following examples are noted: a) Assistance Policy – In 1876 Japan ordered a cessation on Chinese steamships from entering Japan to purchase coal. In response the Chinese government enacted the September 1876 Decree for Coal Aggregate Industry in Kai Ping in support of the first national coal mining industry. This caused great changes in the littoral landscape with the building of mining infrastructure. b) Preferential treatment – The 1872 Royal Act declared the development of the first Chinese steamship company. The China Merchants Steam Navigation Company gained monopoly of the inland-waterway systems (Yangtze River – Shanghai to Hankou to Chong Qing). In support of its development the policy entailed the following: i. Raised high-prices on freights with the implementation of a tax to twice their value; ii. Private company taxes were increased but taxes reduced on the steamship company. iii. prohibition on other competitive steamship companies until 1896. These historical records can help to interpret maritime archaeology by providing reasons for ship-type shifts in cargo assemblages. When the government stepped in with these raised freights and taxes then the private companies operating junks were ousted by the national steamship company. This could explain why a shipwreck would encase high-valued merchandise along the canal system. The cargo could be misinterpreted to represent a pirate ship. However, knowledge of the relevant policy clarifies the fact that working steamships would have been the preferred vessel to carry cargoes of high-value. Introduction In this discussion of policy I will first start with the definition of keywords and their context. 'Supportive Shipping Policy' means the governing state provides the national shipping companies privileges in finance, tax, operation and loans. Foreign shipping companies do not have the same privileges under these policies. The policies are an impetus for encouraging new ship building and the expansion of new and/or developing national shipping companies. In the 19th century the world market expanded on a large scale after the Industrial Revolution. Private investments were made in attempts to adapt to the growing trade that brought about the increased demands of shipping transportation. National governing bodies, in countries geographically located in the western hemisphere, noted these dynamics in world economics and instated regulations to support their national shipping companies. At the forefront of global maritime activities was Britain. The 1651 Navigation Act restricted trade by foreign ships between England (in 1701 under the Acts of Union became 'Great Britain') and its colonies. The goal was to force colonial development into Liners favourable to England and stop direct colonial trade with the Netherlands, France and other European countries. The original ordinance of 1651 was renewed during the Sovereign Restoration (1660's), in 1660 and 1663, and subsequently subject to minor amendment. These Acts formed the basis for British overseas trade for nearly 200 years. �In 1837 the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O) won a contract from the British Admiralty to deliver mail to the Iberian Peninsula. This was the first mail contract awarded to a commercial shipping company. Later it was paid by the Royal Post Office. The mail contracts provided P&O with a degree of financial security and a major source of revenue for more than 100 years until the outbreak of the Second World War. Other contracts, similar in nature, were awarded to other shipping companies, especially Alfred Holt`s Ocean Steamship Company. Japan and other western states such as America, France and Germany followed this example and made similar steps towards the development of national shipping companies. Forms of supportive shipping policies Ship-building Subsidy To encourage national shipping companies to build new vessels governments provided money towards the costs of construction. The amount was calculated according to load-tons. For example, in 1881 France adopted ship-building subsidy acts which entailed offers of 25.10 francs per ton for iron boats, 11.58-15.44 francs per ton for wooden boats and 5.80 francs per 100 kilograms (kg) for new engines, boilers and affiliated parts. On 1st October 1896 Japan enacted the Navigation Encouragement Law for vessels ranging in size from 700 to 1000 tons. The subsidy offer was 12 yen per ton. Larger vessels were offered 20 yen per ton. Additionally, the Japanese authority offered 5 yen per indicated horsepower (ihp) for machines made in Japan. Mail Allowance or Navigation Bounty Rapid expansion of new Liners and national mail shipments were encouraged and indeed occurred with the aide of subsidies towards national shipping companies. These subsidies were usually a contract between authority and company, not an act or regulation. In the introduction I discussed how Britain was the initial country to enforce these policies, which was later followed by other countries. I will here introduce the initiatives of France, America and Germany respectively. In 1851 the French state agreed on a subsidy to Messageries Nationales (in 1871 renamed the Compagnies des Messageries Maritimes) for the postal service of an annual subsidy of 300,000 gold francs. This original agreement was guaranteed for ten years (Ramona 2001). On 25th August 1865 the American Congress authorized a subsidy to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company (PMSS) for transporting mail to Yokohama and Hong Kong. From 1867 the initial subsidy was $500,000 for twelve round trips a year, to the total sum of $4,500,000 over nine years. The German government provided support to Norddeutscher Lloyd with an annual subsidy of 4,400,000 deutsch marks to cover three routes of mail service. This initial contract lasted for 15 years. Government supported capital or loans At times the government has built up new shipping enterprises with government funds and then turned it over to renowned business groups to operate it. Otherwise, in order to develop its maritime enterprises, governments have bought steamers for �specific shipping companies free of charge, and/or they provided loans to be paid back in instalments. Japan's government has the reputation for providing the most to the development of its steam-shipping. Nippon Yusen Kabushiki Kaisha (NYK) and Nisshin Kisen Kaisha (NKK) were founded by the Japanese government. In August 1872 the Japanese government gave 15 ships to NYK at the price of 250,000 yen, this was lower than the original cost to build steamships. Further, the company could repay the money by instalments. In September 1875 the Japanese government bought 13 steamships (total tonnage 11,174) and gave the ships to NYK without imposing any fee. In October of the same year the government lent $810,000 to NYK. With this money NYK purchased four steamships (total tonnage 6761) from the American company PMSS's Yokohama-Shanghai line, this sale included shore properties. NKK or Janpa-China Steamship Company was established in March 1907. Originally there were four Japanese shipping companies that conducted business on the Yangtze River. They were a direct competition with British, German, French and Chinese firms. The Pass Letter Province of Japan decided that a merger of these companies would enable stronger competition against foreign companies. The new company (NKK) was formed with approximately 46% of shares held by OSK, 41% by NYK, 10% by shareholders of Hunan Kisen Company, and 2.5% by Daiton Kisen Company interests. Reducing tax burden The government took over the responsibility of covering the costs for shipping companies to operate on their routes. They started special tax policies to provide national shipping enterprises money towards custom charges, port dues, tonnage tax, transit duty, etc. This allowed for the companies to operate virtually free of charge along their transit. For example, when the Suez Canal was completed and opened for shipping traffic the British government covered the Canal transit dues for British shipping companies. Cabotage right (Coastal transportation right) Cabotage originally is the transport of goods or passengers between two ports in the same country by a vessel. Cabotage has since been expended to now cover aviation, railways and road transport. ‘Cabotage rights’ are defined as the right-of-passage of company ship(s) owned by one country to trade or transport in the waters of another country. Most countries do not permit cabotage by foreign companies, however in the late Ch’ing Dynasty, after the second Opium War, foreign shipping companies had this right. Only a few countries in the world have currently renounced this right. Speed rate allowance Only Japanese shipping companies operated the speed rate allowance. When the Japanese ships transported between foreign ports the Japanese government provided an allowance of 25 yen per 1,000Miles per ton. This came into action under the 1896 Navigation Encouragement Law. It was limited to vessel(s) with a gross tonnage over 100, which had the capacity to sail at a speed of over ten knots, and the age of the vessel was under 15 years old. The allowance would increase by 10% for every additional 500 gross tons, with a further 20% increase for every extra knot of speed it could achieve. The highest limit was 6,000 gross tons and 17 knots. However, this policy had a fatal flaw in that in order to get the allowance the shipping �companies focused on building larger and faster vessels in spite of hold capacity and economic benefit (Wray 1984:305). Inspired by these policies the shipping companies quickly controlled many main lines of the world. For example, the shipping market of China was monopolized by foreign companies. Chart 1.Tonnage percentage of foreign flag ship entered and cleared in the ports of China (1864-1911) (data from Yang, et al. 1931) % 80.00 70.00 60.00 BRITAIN 50.00 AMERICA GERMAN 40.00 FRANCE 30.00 JAPAN 20.00 10.00 0.00 1864 1869 1874 1879 1884 1889 1894 1899 1904 1909 YEAR China Merchant Steam Navigation Company (CMSNC) was the pioneer Chinese-flag steam shipping venture. It was formed at the end of 1872 and began official operations on the 17th January 1873. It changed the situation that Chieseflag shipping shared no more than 1% in the overall Chinese shipping market. The new company was a serious intervener and rival with the foreign lines. Unlike foreign companies the Ch’ing Dynasty government did not have any special law or regulation to support it. CMSNC mainly relied on the idea of its initiator---Li Hungchang. Hung-chang’s support chiefly entailed the following four forms: 1. Government Loans and moratorium The Ch’ing Dynasty government provided loans to CMSNC and postponed the return on the captial. In 1873 the initial total capital for CMSNC was Tls.1400,000; Tls.134,000 of which was a government loan 2 . In 1876 CMSNC experienced difficulties under the pressure of their rivals Shanghai Steam Navigation Company (SSNC), China Navigation Company (founded by Butterfield & Swire) and China Coast Steam Navigation Company (founded by Jardine, Matherson & Co.). Li Hungchang lent Tls.500,000 from the Navy and Land expenditures, along with taxes 1 Tls, Shanghai Tael silver, Chinese monetary unit, one Tls approximately equals one-third Great British Pound in 1870`s. 2 This was drawn from the military expenditure of Chilli province. �collected from Yantai customs. In January 1877 the company purchased the entire fleet and shore properties of SSNC for Tls.2,220,000. This included an initial payment of Tls.1,000,000, this was obtained from a government loan. It was the largest loan in company’s history. In 1878 the government loans reached its height in the company’s history at Tls.1,960,000. In 1885 CMSNC was to repay the last government loan of Tls.770,000. Simultaneously more than Tls.1,000,000 of the foreign loan was to be repaid. Without doubt it was difficult to repay both loans at the same time so Hung-chang decided to the foreign loan should be repaid first. Once this was accomplished the Chinese government loan was to be repaid. This meant that the Chinese government loan was postponed by 5 years, and was not repaid until 1890. 2. Monopolization of transport “tribute rice” Tribute rice is a special tax for the eight provinces along the littoral of the Grand Canal 3 (Shandong, Henan, Anhui, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan and Hubei). The eight provinces were to transport different amounts of rice along the Grand Canal to Beijing by sampan every year. The amount of tribute rice was 4,000,000Picul4 per annum. The concession of transport tribute rice was a privilege reserved solely for CMSNC. Hung-chang explained to the Ch’ing Dynasty government on 23rd of October 1872, the reason for the build of a new steamship company. His points included transport tribute rice and the challenge of the foreign monopoly of steam ship companies in China. In 1873 CMSNC transported 20% of the tribute rice with a rapid increase to 40-50%. Transporting tribute rice had great affect on the development of CMSNC in its early stage. Its freight was a stable source of income. This was due to the fact that the Ch’ing Dynasty government paid higher freights. Before 1879 the freight was Tls.0.5615833 per Picul and was later reduced by 10%, a fee for the Sea Transportation Office, and 5%, a fee for all daily costs. The net profit of it was Tls.0.4773. Additionally, the government paid Tls.0.15 per Picul for repairs. This included waste rice allowance and a 20% fee tax for carrying other cargo when ships returned from Tianjin, so the freight was in fact higher than it was for junks to conduct the same activity. Through the 1880’s the freight declined to Tls.0.531 per Picul, although essentially remaining higher. The following quote provides evidence of this: For the transport of tribute rice from Shanghai to Tientsin,the government for many years paid Tls.0.55 per Picul---a rate at least twice as high as that charged by foreign firms for moving cargo between the two ports (Liu 1959:443). Some foreign shipping companies never attempted to transport tribute rice. In 1875 SSNC proposed to transport the tribute rice by Tls.0.1 per Picul. The freight was lower than the cost of the goods. A writer for the Shanghai News (16th March 1875) commented, "it was astonishing to hear this news and forced everyone have to think about what was the reason behind it". This may signify that there was no doubt that the manager of SSNC wanted to drive out CMSNC. In 1884 a German named Flexsys offered another proposal. He wanted to transport the tribute rice for ten years by seven steamships. His proposal included the fee of Tls.0.6 per Picul, at no 3 4 The Grand Canal refers to ports along the north-south oriented River from Beijing to Hangzhou. Picul, Chines unit of weight, one picul equals 71.616 kilograms. �less than 800,000 Picul annually; if, however, this amount was not reached he offered to pay Tls.0.3 per Picul for any sum that lacked. In return for this contract he would give seven steamships to China as a gift in kind. Li hung-chang said, “now in China, there are only two privileges of transport: for the Chinese shipping company one is tribute rice, and another is salt……It is obviously a bait [for the seven steamships], we should not believe this offer and instead politely refuse it” (Wu 1905-1908: 4-6). The tribute rice market did not open to foreign shipping companies for its entire duration. Transporting tribute rice brought considerable profits to CMSNC. From 1873 to 1884 the net profit of transporting tribute rice totalled Tls.2,600,000. This did not include the subsidy for repairs and free taxes. The annual average calculation of the tribute rice freight was 18% of the total income. In 1874 the income from the rice tribute totalled one-third of the company’s income at Tls.155,000 (Zhang 1988). The privilege of transport tribute rice became a sharp weapon for CMSNC in the rivalry with foreign steamship companies. 3. Tax concessions The company also benefited from certain government tax concessions. (1) Free tax of cargo. If the company`s steamship succeeded in transporting tribute rice to Tianjin and carried cargo from the three opened northern ports: Tianjin, Yingkou and Yantai, when it returned, the export duty of the 20% of the total weight of tribute rice would be free. In 1876 this policy extend to transport relief food and the cent-tax5 was free. (2) Taxation of tea cargoes was another outstanding example of favouritism. In 1873 Li Hung-chang proclaimed that tea brought by Chinese steamers to Tianjin would be forwarded to Zhangjiakou (Kalgan) for the Mongolian and Russian markets. These would not endure any payment of inland duties. The export duty of tea was usually Tls.2.5 per 100Jin 6 but it declined to Tls.0.6 when tea cargoes were transported by CMSNC and this included free the coast duty. (3) Tonnage tax was initially free for the company when it entered and left some ports. In 1877 after purchasing SSNC, the fleet of the company was enlarged. The Tonnage Tax started initially with a fixed tax at Tls.1000 per month for the whole fleet for all ports of China, thereby providing a savings of approximately Tls.30004000 every year. (4) Free Transit Dues for foreign companies were only ever provided to the CMSNC. 4. Forbiddance of any other new company to be built Before the Sino-Japan War (1894) the Ch’ing Dynasty government did its best to keep the CMSNC as a monopoly over Chinese shipping companies. Any one who wanted to operate a new steamer line were thwarted. In 1895 Japan forced the Ch’ing Dynasty government to sign the unfair Treaty of Shimonoseki. In which it was agreed that Japanese steamships could sail alongside the Grand Canal from Shanghai to Suzhou and Hangzhou. This was the first time that China opened inland steam navigation to foreigners. Foreign shipping companies seized this opportunity to extend their business to inland waterways. 5 Cent-tax, one of business tax. In 1853, the Ch'ing Dynasty government collected tax on overland cargo transport. At first the tax was 1% of the value. 6 Jin, Chinese weight, one Jin equals 596.8 grams. �With the power and capacity of steamships as well as the privilege of taxes they robbed the traditional junks` business in no time. This situation aroused some Chinese to set up national shipping companies. Forced by peerage pressure the Ch’ing Dynasty government had to change their attitude. On 13th July 1898 the government issued the regulations of inland steam navigation which permitted Chinese people to set up their own steam shipping companies. This was the end of the CMSNC’s reigning era. Conclusion Though the Ch’ing Dynasty government took the above mentioned steps to support the CMSNC it was limited and insufficient. This could largely be attributed to the contemporaneous weak government. The CMSNC gave up ocean transportation first, the purpose of which was to improve the situation along the Chinese coastal trade and inland shipping markets so they were not monopolized by foreign companies. However, we can conclude from Chart 2 that these efforts received limited change. Chart 2. Percentage of numbers & tonnage of Chinese flag ships that entered and cleared in the ports of China (1864-1911)7 (data from Yang, et al. 1931) 80.00 % 70.00 60.00 50.00 percentage of ship numbers 40.00 percentage of tonnage 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 1864 1869 1874 1879 1884 1889 1894 1899 1904 1909 YEAR The government's preference tended towards steamships over junks, although the change was slow. Largely, CMSNC initiated the privatized sector of modern historical Chinese maritime culture which of course has left its imprint in underwater cultural heritage. It was the first to have its own commercial ship's flag, develop infrastructure for steamship dockyards, build steamship dockyards, build Chinese steamships, and lose a steamship in a shipwreck. From 1873-1877 the 7 The sudden rise of ship numbers in 1904 is because the statistics included junks from this year, however, we can see the percentage of tons decline. �tonnage percentage increased quickly from 1% to 33%, later the percentage declined due to the increase in shipwrecks. The demands of War were another important factor. The three low points in Chinese steamship development during this period was caused by the following three wars: Sino-France War (1883), Sino-Japan War (1894) and the Boxer War (1900). The CMSNC, the first Chinese steamship company, was also the impetus for new Chinese industries such as: the fuel support of Kaiping Coal Mining (started September 1876), the first Chinese business to offer insurance of goods and ships by the Renhe Insurance Company, communication development and independence with the Tianjin Telegraph Office and the first higher-education institution in maritime studies the Shanghai Industrial College of Ministry of Posts and Telegraph (started in 1909). To appreciate the potential of Chinese underwater cultural heritage during the modern historical period we must turn to the development in maritime history of privatized industry. The first step of which was to compete with the fast globalized trade that was only possible with the advanced technology used in steamships. This paper attempted to lay out the history of that development through historical records and bring together the information in comparative charts. The next step would be to conduct critical analysis of specific sites related to this industry in China. Bibliography Great Britain. Parliament 1877 Liu, K.C., 1959 Ramona, P., 2001 Wray, W. D., 1984 Wu, R.L., 1905-1908 Yang, C., Hau, H.B., and others 1931 Zhang, H.Q, 1988 Commercial Reports from Her Majesty’s Consuls in China,1876, Harrison and Sons, London. "Early enterprise in Nineteenth-Century China", in Journal of Asia Studies, Association for Asia studies, Vol.18, No.4, pp. 442-443． Paquebot vers L'Orient, Editions Alan Sutton, ProvenceAlpes-côte-d’Azur. Mitsubishi and the N.Y.K. , 1870-1914: business strategy in the Japanese shipping industry, Harvard University Asia Centre, Boston. Document Record of Li hung-chang, Nanjing Press, Vol.16. Statistics of China Foreign Trade During the Last SixtyFive Years, Monograph no. 4, National Research Institute of Social Sciences, Academia Sinica. History of China Merchant Steam Navigation Company, People's Transport Press, Beijing. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Maritime History of Steamship Companies Impact in Modern China, 1840-1911 Subject The topic of the resource Session 11 Diversity in approaches to maritime archaeology, underwater cultural heritage and related areas Description An account of the resource This paper aims to provide evidence of historical documents in Chinese steamship industry and how these materials may provide context to better understand the underwater cultural heritage. What were the economic impacts of steamship industry on China’s littoral landscape? Through a discussion on maritime policies the following examples are noted: a) Assistance Policy – In 1876 Japan ordered a cessation on Chinese steamships from entering Japan to purchase coal. In response the Chinese government enacted the September 1876 Decree for Coal Aggregate Industry in Kai Ping in support of the first national coal mining industry. This caused great changes in the littoral landscape with the building of mining infrastructure. b) Preferential treatment – The 1872 Royal Act declared the development of the first Chinese steamship company. The China Merchants Steam Navigation Company gained monopoly of the inland-waterway systems (Yangtze River – Shanghai to Hankou to Chong Qing). In support of its development the policy entailed the following: i. Raised high-prices on freights with the implementation of a tax to twice their value; ii. Private company taxes were increased but taxes reduced on the steamship company. iii. prohibition on other competitive steamship companies until 1896. These historical records can help to interpret maritime archaeology by providing reasons for ship-type shifts in cargo assemblages. When the government stepped in with these raised freights and taxes then the private companies operating junks were ousted by the national steamship company. This could explain why a shipwreck would encase high-valued merchandise along the canal system. The cargo could be misinterpreted to represent a pirate ship. However, knowledge of the relevant policy clarifies the fact that working steamships would have been the preferred vessel to carry cargoes of high-value. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Han Qing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 11