28 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sacred Books of the East Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource F. Max Müller Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Clarendon Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1879 - 1910 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Editor F. Max Müller Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1879 - 1910 Number of Volumes 50 Place Oxford Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Clarendon Press Title A name given to the resource Sacred Books of the East Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Imperial China: 900-1800 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource F.W. Mote Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author F.W. Mote Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Title A name given to the resource Imperial China: 900-1800 China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Travels of Fa-hian. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fa-hsien (Faxian) Hiuen Tsiang [Xuanzang] Samuel Beal Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oriental Books Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1969 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Section Zotero Author Fa-hsien (Faxian) Editor Hiuen Tsiang [Xuanzang] Translator Samuel Beal Item Type Book Section Book Title Si-yu-ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1969 Edition 1884 Place Delhi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oriental Books Title A name given to the resource The Travels of Fa-hian. China https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/14a22bbdef906f20b90585d8b01a489d.pdf ef7d221a7079bbb5e0f64cb5d7d1da36 PDF Text Text Underwater Cultural Heritage Conservation and the Convention Practice in China Fan Yiran National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Beijing People’s Republic of China, 100029 Email: fanyiran@vip.sina.com Abstract China has large number and various types of underwater cultural heritage resources, which altogether forms an essential part of China’s cultural heritage. In order to manage such valuable cultural resources, the nation has been playing the most important, leading role and this state-led working mode is enabled through supports from all aspects: organizational, legal, financial and institutional. Starting from 1970s, underwater archaeology went from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas. Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have also been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a spanking new stage of expanding and transformation. Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, begin surveys in internal waters and get ready for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more international cooperative projects, and actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Keywords: UCH, Underwater Cultural Heirtage, UCH in China, Convention Practice, Nanhai I, Nan’ao I, Underwater Archaeology, White Crane Underwater Museum Introduction As we all know, China is famous for her long and brilliant culture. Possesses over 18000 kilometers’ coastline, nearly 300 square kilometers’ coastal areas and territorial sea and more than 30 square kilometers’ inland waters, China is a nation with great sea power. Its long navigation history and developed water transportation and trade system, as well as the world famous Grand Canal and Maritime Silk Road, made China a country of abundant underwater cultural heritage. At the present day, we are gradually developing a proper way of UCH protection in China. Current situation of UCH Conservation in China In China, conservation and management of UCH is led by the central government, with 1 �support from authorities of all levels. Cross-sector cooperation is also pervasive in this process. However, the real business started rather late, in March 1987, state administration of cultural heritage directed the establishment of the underwater archaeology team, with support from various relevant governmental department and organizations. Later in November, a research department on underwater archaeology was formed within the National History Museum of China (Wu, 2007). The country’s underwater archaeology began from that moment. At the same time, relevant laws and regulations provided all actions a solid legal basis. In 1989, following the “Law of the Peoples Republic of China on Protection of Cultural Relics”1, the state council enacted the “Regulation Republic of of the Peoples China on Conservation and Management Fig. 1 Recent Underwater Archaeological exploration 2 organized by the Center. (National Center of Underwater of Underwater Cultural Relics” , Cultural Heritage) which has been the foundation of all UCH conservation works in China for more than 20 years. As the situations are becoming different day by day, relevant authorities are working actively for an updated version of the regulation. All this time, the government has obtained great results in fighting criminals since a range of activities fighting against looting and vandalism according to the regulation has been proved effective. In today’s China, the State Administration of Cultural heritage3 (SACH) is the leader of UCH conservation team, while the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage (Fig. 1), directly under SACH’s leadership, is the only national and newly established research organization specially focusing on underwater archeology and UCH conservation. The National Conservation Center for Underwater Cultural Heritage was established in 2009 (National Center of UCH of China , 2013), consisting of the Administration Office (Secretary Office), Technique & Equipment Department, Institute of Underwater 2 �Archaeology, Underwater Cultural Relics Protection and Conservation Department, branch organizations are also under construction in Ningbo, Qingdao, Wuhan and Fujian. The Center nicely played its function, actively developed UCH conservation, research and excavation projects, and got fully confirmations from SACH, and local governments and institutes. It marked that UCH has got a new position as the important content of the national cultural heritage and museum undertakings, and a new chance of focused promotion and rapid development. Generally, the Center is responsible for the works below: - Undertakes daily communication and coordination among ministries for national UCH conservation issues; - Organizes, coordinates and implements national UCH surveys, excavations, conservation, preservation, scientific research and trainings; - Draws up national UCH conservation plans, undertakes researches on related legislation, protocols standards; - Undertakes the management, research and development of UCH conservation technical equipment; - Carries on the management of the Nanhai UCH base and Xisha Archaeological Workstation, and provides guidance on professional works of local UCH offices; - Facilitates and enables public outreach, international exchange and cooperation of UCH conservation; - Carries on other tasks assigned by SACH. Other than the Center, a national level organization, most coastal provinces have established their own institutions and organizations working for underwater archeology and UCH conservation, like the well-known Guangdong Maritime Silk Road Museum 4 and the Quanzhou Maritime Museum in Fujian Province 5. As components of the UCH protection army in China, all these organizations and institutions greatly improved our professional abilities and standards. The government also paid great attention to professional training. SACH has held 5 professional underwater archeological training courses successively before 2009. And in more recent time, in order to satisfy this expanding field, the Center has helped SACH with one underwater archeology training courses and two relic preservation 3 �training course (Fig. 2). As a result, there are now over 100 underwater archeology professionals and over 40 restoration/preservation professionals. They work in different coastal cities, but can be gathered together when needed, which buys insurance for the overall UCH conservation work. Financially, the state government has always been very generous in funding works related to conservation and management of UCH. Local government also often paid big money since they consider successful conservation and management of native cultural heritage underwater is in Fig. 2 First Underwater Archaeological Training a way an effective method to Programme. (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) uncover local history, enhance local identity and pass on significant cultural remains to future generations. And a fund guarantee mechanism where the central government dominants and local government facilitates has been well established. Aiming at bring UCH business forward; China funded its very first underwater archaeology work ship in 2011. The SACH and the Center organized and coordinated the design and the construction of the ship. This ship, with a displacement of 930 tons and designed draft of 2.7 meters, is going to have its maiden trip in April 2014 (Fig. 3). Development of such a wide range field needs insight on international trend, which, China has always been paying attention to. For 20 years, China has been actively working with countries like Korea, Japan, Italy, France and Indonesia and so on. During the process of international cooperation, our research ability has been greatly improved and professional team strengthened. Experts from abroad were often invited for talks, conferences and projects. UCH Conservation in China: The Convention Spirit Practitioner The UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, published on 2 Nov, 2001, provided worldwide UCH conservation a scientific and formal reference, 4 �and oriented its development international cooperation. towards The convention is also significant in terms of its philosophy: emphasizes the transformation of underwater archaeology into underwater cultural heritage; draws attention to public education; underlines the importance of in-situ conservation and minimal intervention as well as pays respects to human remains. Although currently not being a contracting party of the convention, China, nevertheless, has already taken part in conserving underwater cultural heritage. With quite a few major UCH projects undertaking, this country is a true practitioner of the convention as it will be outlined in the following Fig. 3 Underwater Archaeology Workshop. (National Center of Underwater Cultural In-situ Practice in China: The White Crane Heritage) section. Underwater Museum6 An outstanding example of in-situ UCH conservation is the construction of the White Crane Underwater Museum in Chong Qing (Fig. 4). This museum is by far the only museum built in-situ built on a submerged site. Visitors can get 40 m underwater through a corridor. Neither the site nor its surrounding environment had been greatly changed, and this practice was widely recognized. The Ridge of White Crane (Baiheliang), a naturally formed sandstone bridge, locates in Yangzi River and can only be seen in winter. It shows us 72 years of water level from 763 AD over 1200 years from now. In order to keep the site original and integrated, we successfully made the museum despite of the difficulties (Gao, 2012). Practice on Increasing Public Awareness. Following the convention’s notion of increasing public awareness, Chinese put lots of efforts in presentation and interpretation of UCH through effective management approaches. The convention requires UCH to be made accessible for the public, 5 �especially for school education, and that is exactly what they did for the late Song dynasty wreck South China Sea I. The Maritime Silk Road Museum7 of Guangdong is a museum themed on this wreck and associated remains, since its opening in 2009; it has welcomed over a million visitors of different types, making it a definite landmark of the community. Authorized Salvage Excavation: Salvage as a Whole and In-situ Excavation Although the Convention believes insitu conservation is the first option, but first choice does not necessarily to be the priority. If the reason is sufficient and urgent, partially or fully excavation becomes a priority ahead of in-situ conservation. Because of illegal Fig. 4 The White Crane Underwater Museum. smuggling and destruction associated (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) with these illegal practices, we conducted the scientific excavation by the authorization of the government, and creatively began the method of “salvage as a whole and exhibit and excavate in-doors” of large shipwrecks. “Nanhai I” was found in 1989 during the China-Japan cooperated investigation of shipwrecks in South China Sea (Fig. 5). It is one of the few Song dynasty ship found well preserved, thus with significant historical value. However, because it was located in the open sea, and it was difficult to monitor, it had been looted and partially destroyed over the years. The successfully salvage of “Nanhai I” as a whole was a good attempt of the comprehensive implementation of underwater archaeology, relic conservation and maritime engineering. It is a strong evidence of the multi-fields, multi-departments UCH cooperation in China, as well as the best interpretation and scientific development of authority and integrity (Wei, 2008). “Nan’ao I” was located in “Nan’ao” waters of Guangdong, miles from the seashore (Fig. 6). Since it had been looted and destroyed for many times in the past, we decided to do the excavation. The project started in Sep. of 2009, though excavations happen in 6 �2010/2011 and 2012. More than 30 underwater archaeologists and over 10 specialized conservators cooperated to finish the work, 3 professionals from Korea were also invited. The team had mastered the distribution of the shipwreck and the structure, the shipwreck heads north, leans east, 2485 cm in length, widest section was 750 cm, 25 boards. Cargos involve pottery and ceramic, metallic and organic relics. The basic structure is complete, 26 thousands artifacts were lifted, sampled big amount of different soils, remains of animals and plants, metal goods, and etc., did the comprehensive research of scientific archaeology, animal archaeology and plant archaeology. The maritime geological environment was mastered though sonar scans. The team established an iron conservation frame after the excavation was over in 2012, to conserve the main body of the site in-situ (Chen, 2012). Fig. 5 “Nanhai I” Shipwreck inside Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage) Fight against Commercial Speculation and Trade Chinese government actively carries out underwater cultural heritage protection; 7 �meanwhile contribute to manage multi-sectorial cooperation, to crack down on destruction of the underwater cultural heritage, such as looting activities. antiques Due to the flourishing of market in China and worldwide, the illegal activities such as smuggling and looting of underwater cultural relics have gone from bad to worse among Chinese coastal areas. Fig. 6 Brown Glazed Porcelain from “Nan’ao I” wreck site. To relieve the serious (National Center of Underwater Cultural situation, Heritage) Chinese government has taken a variety of methods. In recent years, in Hainan, Guangdong, Fujian province, the local police uncovered several crimes on underwater cultural heritage. For instance, in Pingtan county of Fujian province, the local police uncovered 11 cases of relics crimes, detained 40 people believed to be involved in the operations, and recovered 1700 pieces of historical artifacts, namely porcelain. In 2010, Chinese State Administration of Cultural Heritage and the State Oceanic Administration signed "The cooperation framework agreement of underwater cultural heritage protection”, the two sides will jointly carry out eight aspects actions, such as underwater cultural heritage protection strategy and planning, underwater archaeology, underwater cultural relics law enforcement patrol and so on. At the same time we also actively explore the integrated use of modern technology, including GPS, GIS and RS technology, security and monitoring technology. In 2010, for example, we launched China's first underwater cultural heritage monitoring security pilot project – Banyang reef I unmanned monitoring system, in which Buoy monitoring system, sit bottom monitoring, the anti-frogman sonar and unmanned aerial vehicle cooperative monitoring, 3G network monitoring, passive sonar underwater monitoring technology solutions were proposed (Fan, 2013). At the same time the system discussed the combination of technology defense and human defense, as well as the improvement of laws and regulations. The system laid a solid foundation of underwater cultural heritage monitoring, to strengthen the importance of 8 �security monitoring work in underwater cultural heritage protection. Conclusion Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a promising new stage of expansion and transformation. We can summarize this process into five aspects: 1. Academic and practical development from underwater archaeology alone to sophisticated UCH conservation and management (Ding and Fan, 2013); 2. Working area getting from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas; 3. Projects implementation starting to include more stakeholders, departments and organizations; 4. UCH conservation turning from academic and governmental behavior into a business involving the public; 5. Developments emphasizing on diversified and in-depth international cooperation Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. Firstly, top-down system and professional training makes UCH conservation easy to manage. But traditional maritime culture and outdated legal protection somehow negatively affect our work. Secondly, the concept of underwater archaeology and underwater cultural heritage has not been clearly defined, which led to bias in actual field work. At the same time, ideas and philosophies of the Convention have not draw enough attention in Chinese academia. Third, in terms of research method and theories on UCH conservation and management, there is still a big gap between Chinese and advanced international standards. Meanwhile, diving skills received too much attention from professionals. Balance should be achieved although current results are encouraging. Finally, in spite of being a focus of attention worldwide, China’s UCH conservation and management works have not become an organic component of this multinational field of study. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, start surveys in internal waters and prepare for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more 9 �international cooperative projects, and to actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Acknowledgement Sincere thanks to the conference committee for inviting and providing an opportunity for me to share the ideas and knowledge of UCH conservation business in China with experts and professionals from different countries. Also I would like to thank my colleagues, Liu shuguang, Chai xiaoming and Sunjian and so on, they gave me huge support in writing this article. So as my daughter and husband, I would not be able to spend time and energy in work without their care and understanding. Endnote 1 See English version here: http://www.sach.gov.cn/art/2007/10/29/art_1591_58336.html See English version here: http://www.law-lib.com/lawhtm/1989/6039.htm 3 See website here: http://www.sach.gov.cn/ 4 http://www.msrmuseum.com/index.aspx 5 http://www.qzhjg.com/ 6 http://www.cqbhl.com.cn/ 7 See: http://www.msrmuseum.com/index.aspx 2 References Chen, R., 2012. Nao'ao I in Eyes of Site Manager Cuiyong. Ding, J., and Fan, Y., 2013. A Few Issues on Underwater Archaeology. China Cultural Heritage Scientific Research . Fan, Y., 2013. Safty Monitoring of UCH in China. Cultural Relics in Southern China . Gao, Y., 2012. Constructon of the White Crane Museum and UCH Management. Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) . National Center of UCH of China. 2013. Introduction to National Center of UCH of China, retrieved 01 20, 2014, from Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage: http://www.cach.org.cn/tabid/169/InfoID/577/frtid/167/Default.aspx Wei, J., 2008. "Nanhai I" Shipwreck Archaeology and UCH Management. Cultural Heritage . Wu, Chunming., 2007. Maritime Archaeology. Beijing, Science Press China. Biography Fan Yiran worked as a news reporter, and started to cover live broadcast of underwater cultural heritage conservation fieldwork since 2000. She changed her career later in 2005 and stepped into UCH business in 2009. She is now working in the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage as the director of the general office. Yiran is the first female underwater news reporter in China. And after her transformation into an underwater archaeologist, she participated in various UCH conservation projects including “Nanhai I” and “Nan’ao I” wreck sites and has led series of UCH survey project in Liaoning, Tianjin and Hebei. 10 �11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Underwater Cultural Heritage Conservation and the Convention Practice in China Description An account of the resource China has large number and various types of underwater cultural heritage resources, which altogether forms an essential part of China’s cultural heritage. In order to manage such valuable cultural resources, the nation has been playing the most important, leading role and this state-led working mode is enabled through supports from all aspects: organizational, legal, financial and institutional. Starting from 1970s, underwater archaeology went from foreshore to coastal waters then to high seas. Currently, more than a hundred wreck sites have also been located in Chinese waters. Several submerged ancient town remains and burial sites were also discovered. UCH conservation is entering into a spanking new stage of expanding and transformation. Through years of learning, comparison and practical experiences, one has to admit that China has done quite a good job in preserving its underwater cultural heritage resources. However, problems also exist. By now, China’s policy towards UCH conservation is “centered on coastal areas, underline inshore waters, begin surveys in internal waters and get ready for high seas. China sincerely hopes to facilitate more international cooperative projects, and actively take part in the global UCH conservation campaign. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fan Yiran, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ferry, David Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Farrar, Strauss & Giroux Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Translator Ferry, David Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1993 Place New York Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Farrar, Strauss & Giroux Title A name given to the resource Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/53ed4f22acb6422c267ded3703dc2d46.pdf 1142b40d7609cb0908dba9fe361dcb50 PDF Text Text European Ships of Discovery Filipe Castro Texas A&M University fvcastro@tamu.edu Abstract The ships and boats of the 15th and early 16th century European voyages were the space shuttles of their time, and yet we don’t know much about them because most have been destroyed by looters and treasure hunters. This paper will focus on a particular type, the caravel, and presents an overview of the early European watercraft that crossed the Atlantic and sailed along the American coasts during the first decades of the 16th century. Key words: caravel, 16th Century, Europe, ships, looting Introduction The earliest Iberian voyages into the Atlantic were carried out in the existing ships. Soon however the need to adapt the existing watercraft to the sailing conditions of the open sea triggered a process of evolution that is poorly understood, but that reflects the existing cultural, scientific and economic conditions in the Iberian kingdoms. This is an interesting process of technological evolution that is in its earliest states of investigation. The main ships of the European expansion were sailing ships, mainly caravels, naus, and galleons. Rowing ships were also used in the European factories abroad, sometimes shipped in the holds of sailing ships, and sometimes built in Africa and Asia, in the beginning according to European standards, but very soon incorporating local features as they �were understood as advantageous. This paper deals with caravels, a versatile and small ship type that is still poorly understood. Caravels Caravels are among the least understood of all historical vessels. Mentioned in hundreds, perhaps thousands of books, these ships are associated with the Iberian exploration of the Atlantic in the 15th century, and are considered the space shuttles of their time, allowing the Portuguese and Spanish explorers to sail down the African coast, and open the maritime routes to the Caribbean, the west coast of Africa, and the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A few authors have dedicated lengthy works to this ship type, such as Quirino da Fonseca (1934 and 1935), Pimentel Barata (1972), Tengarrinha Pires (1980, 1985, 1986, 1988 and 1990), Malcolm Elbl (1985), Francisco Contente Domingues (1989), or George Schwarz (2008). Their agility is legendary, and more than 150 years after the first mid-15th century references to the new exploration caravels, they are mentioned in an account of a 1597 expedition to the Azores under the Earl of Essex as fast and highly maneuverable: Whilest we thus stayed about the Rocke, ye carvalls of Lyshbourne and of the parts thereabouts would daylie come swarminge about us like butterflies soe neare us as that we might cast a stone into some of them, and yet could we never catch any one of them, soe warie and nimble they are (Gorges, 1604, transcribed by Richard Barker, 2007). These vessels probably originated in the Mediterranean. The Portuguese and the Spanish probably changed and adapted this type of vessels to the navigation along the coast of Africa. Venetian merchant and chronicler �Alvise da Ca’ da Mosto wrote in the late 15th century: ‘...essendo le caravelle di Portogallo i migliori navilii che vadino sopra il mare di vele, ed essendo quelli bene in punto d'ogni cosa che gli fa di bisogno...’ (Ramusio, 1600). Ca’ da Mosto mentions eyes painted on the bow of these caravels, something characteristic in the Mediterranean since long. He says, about the inhabitants of the African coast: ‘...e pensavano che gli occhi che si fanno a prova alli navilii fussero veramente occhi, che 'l navilio per quelli vedesse dove gli andava per mare ‘(Ramusio, 1600). This technology spread to northern Europe and the expression ‘carvelbuilt’ still refers to watercraft built with flush laid planks, nailed to preerected frames, a structural improvement that originated in the Mediterranean and spread along the Atlantic coast of Europe and into the Baltic, during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Although much has been said and written about caravels, these vessels have never been thoroughly described in historical sources, their representations are few and impressionistic, and no ship identified as a caravel has been archaeologically excavated. Replicas have been built with mixed results, never based on solid supporting information. This paper is a tentative summary of what is known about these ships, both from documental sources, written and iconographic, and from the archaeological record. Pictures of caravels labelled as such are rare but clear enough to allow historians, already in the 19th century, to have a fair picture of what they may have looked like. Portuguese historians Quirino da Fonseca (1934) and Tengarrinha Pires (1980) inventoried representations of caravels in existence. the most important Pimentel Barata (1989) published an interesting drawing of a caravel, depicted as the signature of a caravel master from the 15th century named João de Lião, dated to �1488 according to the author. This drawing was first published by Avelino Teixeira da Mota (1971, Fig. 4) who noticed that this is the earliest drawing of a caravel, designated as such, and one of the earliest dated representations of a stern panel, which is clearly defined (Fig. 1). Fig. 1: Signature of a certain João de Lião, master of caravels, dated to 1488, on a document pertaining to the supply of hardtack to a caravel departing to Africa. (Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo, CC II-I-781, in Mota 1971) Documental Evidence Before 1500 we can only guess what the word ‘caravel’ means. All we have to work with are a few textual references: medieval boats named carávos, two 12th century Italian references to a type of boat called Caravellum, one 13th century reference to caravelas in the chart of the Portuguese village of Gaia, one 14th century reference in Spain, and the 15th century caravels of the Discoveries. Auguste Jal and Corominas explored the origins of the words cáravo and qârib, both referring to small boats, sometimes coracles. As to the word caravellum, there is no way to tell what kind of boat the 1159 Genoese caravellum coopertum was. These boat type appears in two Genoese 12th century documents, the first mentioned is decked (coopertum) �serving a navis (1159), and the second (1190) is small, belonging to a caravelator, presumably working as a harbor tender (Ciciliot, 2005). Furio Ciciliot points out the fact that in the 12th century the word caravelum, referring to a small boat, is masculine, and does not become feminine until it is assimilated to a larger vessel: navis sive caravellae (Ciciliot, 2005). Historian Malcolm Elbl mentions a 1226 reference to a Portuguese caravel taken by English ships on a return trip from Gascogne (Elbl, 1985). He cites the French translation Francisque Michel’s Histoire du commerce et de la navigacion à de Bordeaux (Michel, 186). Michel mentions only ‘un navire portugais, appelé le Cardinal’ and indicates the Rotuli Litterarum Patentium (Rot. Litt. Pat., 10 Hen. III, m. 5) and the Rotuli Litterarum Clausarum (Rot. Litt. Claus., 10 Hen. III, m. 27 et 14; t. II p. 89, col. 2; et p. 119, col. 1) as her sources. The Rot. Litt. Pat., mention a ‘navem que vocatur la cardinale’ (1971, p. 36), and the Rot. Litt. Claus. Membrane 14, mentions an unrelated incident pertaining to wine trade with Bayonne (1916, 5). I could not access Membrane 27 of Henry’s 10th year, and I am not sure that all of Henry’s rolls are published. The caravels referred to in the Chart of Gaia (1255) seem to be fishing vessels, of which we know nothing. Square rigged vessels were rare in the Mediterranean between the early 6th century and the mid-13th century, and most references to caravels mention lateen sails (Bellabarba, 1999). Some authors have proposed that caravels were mentioned in Alfonso X’s Libro de las Leyes or Siete Partidas, as it is better known, written between 1254 and 1265. Most authors, however, agree that the passage in question – Partida Segunda, Titulo XXIV, Ley VII – mentions haloques, and not caravelas. �It seems that caravels are not mentioned in Portuguese documents during the 14th century. There is a reference to caravels in 1307. Malcom Elbl (1985) places it in Biscay, Spain, and cites Quirino da Fonseca. Quirino cites Auguste Jal, and places the caravels in northern Europe (1978), and Jal (1848) is silent about the place and cites Pierre Carpentier (1766), who does not place these caravels anywhere, and gives a source for it I could not find: Charta an. circ. 1307. From the mid-15th century onwards chroniclers mention caravels engaged in the exploration of the Atlantic, and later carrying Columbus into the New World. There are some documents describing caravels, the best known pertaining to the caravels Niña and India, used by Columbus in his fourth trip (Smith, 1993), or the caravelões de Arguim published by Alexandre Monteiro (Monteiro at al., 2011). Carlos Etayo transcribed a 1450 contract for the construction of a caravel for a Catalonian mariner named Gracia Amat with one central and two side rudders, and a length to beam ratio around 4/1 (Etayo, 1971). Jacques Paviot and Erich Rieth published a paper relating the construction by Portuguese shipwrights of two caravels in Brussels, in 1438 and 1439, for the Duke of Burgundy, Philippe le Bon (Paviot and Rieth, 1989). Bibliographic research in Italy, where caravels probably originated, is scarce. Lucien Bash refers to 24 caravels sent by the Republic of Venice in 1490, with 24 men each, and 30 caravels in 1499 with capacities between 100 and 400 botte (Bash, 2000). A botta was close to half a Portuguese tonel, if we are to trust a 1519 document mentioned by Lane (1964): ‘Per lettere di Sibilia delli 9 ditto erano avvisi, come a di 6 era venuta una caravella di portata de 60 tonelle, videlicet 120 botte, a qual era stata a discoprire le Indie (Mexico)…’(Fulin, 1881). �Although Portuguese and Spanish historians combed the most important European archives more than one century ago (Domingues, 2004), almost nothing is known about caravels. Around 1600 we have the first lists of timbers for the construction of a caravel in the Lisbon National Library manuscript known as Livro náutico (Anonymous, c.1590), dated to the 1590s, and two cryptic regimentos by Manoel Fernandez, dated to 1616 and illustrated, but difficult to understand because the drawings are not always represented in the same vertical and horizontal scales (Fernandez, 1616). Iconography is scarce and doesn’t shed light on the most important questions. For instance, they do not tell us whether the early Portuguese 15th century caravels had a stern panel and a central rudder. Around 1500, when we have the first images and descriptions, caravels seem to be small ships of 15 to 50 tons, built with flush-laid planking, rigged with one, two, or three masts, all mounting lateen sails. Sometimes they appear with a foremast rigged with a square sail (Fig. 2). Generally, the mainmast is placed on the center of the keel, and the second and third masts are stepped abaft it, with a small stern castle and no forecastle, a stern panel and a central rudder. �Fig. 2: Presumed representations of caravels in the Livro da fortalezas of Duarte d’Armas, circa 1509. (Armas 1509/1997) Central rudders first appear in Denmark, in the 12th century (Hocker and Dokkedal, 2001). The earliest explicit reference to a central rudder is probably Gracia Amat’s contract, in the middle of the 15th century. Stern panels appear in the iconographical record after 1475, and at least in the in 15th century iconographical record, central rudders seem to be characteristic of square-rigged ships. As it often happens, the word caravel designated a wide range of watercraft, even in the 16th century: caravelas latinas, caravelas de Alfama, caravelas redondas, caravelas de armada, and caravelões. In some cases, we have a fair idea about the main differences between them, and in other cases circumstantial evidence allows some provisory hypothesis. Below are presented short description of what each type may have looked like. �Caravelas latinas As already mentioned, during the 14th century they are not mentioned in Portuguese documents. In the mid-15th century caravels appear as lateeners with a capacity around 50 tonéis and crews between 20 and 25 men. It looks like small caravels with 2 or 3 masts with lateen sails endured for over one century without much change. But we don’t know what characteristics defined a caravel, or what separated a caravel from the other lateeners of their time. Fig. 3: Representation of a caravel in the Retábulo de Santa Auta, dated to c. 1517. (Photo: author) Quirino da Fonseca mentions Braancamp Freire describing 54 caravelas leaving Lisbon in 1488 and 1489, with capacities varying between 15 and 50 tonéis (Fonseca, 1935). This range of capacities is compatible with other accounts, some written much later. In 1571, in A vida e feitos de el-rei D. Manuel, D. Jerónimo Osório, describes caravels as rather small vessels. These caravels don’t have tops (cestos de gávea), nor their yards make right angles with their masts, but hang, inclined, secured under the masthead, and the base of the sail is triangular and almost touches the bulwarks. The yards, which �are fastened to the ship’s bulwarks, are as thick as topmasts in their lower part and have smaller sections upwards (Fonseca 1935). Sometimes these small two- and three-masted lateeners are referred as typically Portuguese, but José Luis Casado Soto found references to 125 caravels in the Registro General del Sello in the Archivo General de Simancas between 1476 and 1496, and they seem to come from all over the Iberian Peninsula. His figures show that 45% of the caravels registered were from Andalusia, 21% from the Cantabric region; 19% from Portugal, 12% from the Mediterranean, and 3% from France, England and the North Sea (Soto, 1991). There is no mention of any possible difference between them. Were Cantabrian and Andalusian caravels much different from each other? How different were they from the Portuguese ones? Or how did the Portuguese ones differed from each other? We have a long way to go before we can say that we understand this ship type. Iconography can provide some clues if we are to trust the illustrations in the Atlas of Georg Braun (1541-1622), published between 1572 and 1617 (Fig. 4). The quality of the illustrations in Braun’s Atlas is known, including the figures in local dresses. It is not uncommon for painters and illustrators to register in the mapmaker’s guilds and work on map illustrations when they and an opportunity (Binding, 2003 and Unger, 2010). The ship illustrations in Braun’s Atlas seem to be reliable as well, and vary from city to city. Although no systematic study of the Atlas’ ships has been done yet, the caravels represented in several Portuguese and Spanish cities, in Iberia or around the world, seem plausible and accurate, and consistent with the descriptions below. �Fig. 4: Caravels: presumably Portuguese at São Jorge da Mina (leaf) and presumably Spanish at Santander (right). (After the 1572 edition of Braun and Hogengberg’s atlas) Caravelas de Alfama Paulo Monteiro found this reference in a Spanish late 16th century document: ‘(…) Tambien se quedan despalmando dos caravelas pequenas destas que aqui llaman de Alfama que las pide el Almirante para llevar consigo…’ (Monteiro pers. comm. 2009). Were at least some of the Spanish caravels larger than the Portuguese ones? José Luis Casado Soto mentions a witness account of Columbus’ second voyage, Pedro Mártir de Anglería, who claims that Columbus took 17 vessels: 3 large cargo ships with tops, 12 caravels, and 2 large caravels, with masts large enough to support tops. Nothing is said about their rigging arrangements. Were these typically different from those of the Portuguese caravels? Caravelas redondas Navarrete calls caravelas redondas ‘castellanas’. They have three masts, the foremast mounting a square sail and the main and mizzen masts mounting lateen sails. Quirino da Fonseca cites him: “caravels were divided into Portuguese and Castilian, the first exclusively lateen-rigged, could sail cinco ou seis quartas (56˚ to 67˚) into the wind, facilitating the Portuguese routes to the African gold mines. Castilian caravels used in their seas with square sails, or better, with a square sail on the foremast.” �Quirino also refers to a 1512 letter from D. Fernando to Pedrarias Davilla in Panama: ‘Yo vos mando que … se hagan luego tres o cuatro carabelas, al modo de Andalucía, las dos, e las otras dos, pequeñas, latinas, como las de Portugal...’ (Fonseca 1935). In Columbus’ Diario de a bordo, transcribed by friar Bartolomé de las Casas, the entry for August 9, 1492, famously mentions the explorer decision to change the rigging of his caravel Pinta: ‘y adobaran muy bien la Pinta con mucho trabajo e diligencias del Almirante, de Martin Alonso y de los demás; (…) Hicieran la Pinta redonda, porque era latina;’(Colón, 1991). In the 14th century Mediterranean it was common to rig two-masted cargo vessels with a square sail on the foremast and a lateen sail on the mizzen. Sergio Bellabarba called this rigging arrangement quadra-latina and proposed two possible roots for the development of three-masted, shiprigged vessels, one from the two-masted lateeners and one from the onemasted square-rigged cogs, both common merchant ships in the mid-14th century Mediterranean (Bellabarba, 1999). According to Bellabarba’s plausible theory, both ship types at some point may have adopted a quadra-latina rigging arrangement, the two-masted lateeners by changing to a square mainsail, the cogs by adding a lateen-rigged mizzen mast. The earliest representation of a ship-rigged three-masted vessel dates to 1409 and appears in a Catalonian document. It shows a cocca with a quadra-latina rigging arrangement to which a foremast was added, mounting a square sail (Mott, 1997). Caravelas redondas seem to have evolved in a similar way. It looks like they were two-masted lateeners – which show the mainmast always stepped on the middle of the keel – with a third mast, a foremast stepped far forward. This type of vessel is �represented in Braun and Hogenberg’s Civitates orbis terrarium, especially in Spanish harbors. (Fig. 5) Fig. 5. Lateeners in Lisbon, c. 1530 (detail from the Leiden view of Lisbon, COLLBN J.29-15-7831-110-30) Two documents dated to 1498 (before Columbus’ fourth voyage) contain the inventories of the rigging of two caravels, Santa Clara, or Niña (60 toneles – probably not the Niña of the first voyage – and Santa Cruz, or India, built in Hispaniola during the second voyage with the remains of the ships lost in the hurricane that swept La Isabela in 1495. Both these caravels had four masts, and both had square sails on the fore and main masts, and lateen sails on the mizzen and bonaventure. Additionally Santa Cruz had a bowsprit and a spritsail; and Santa Clara has ‘dos botalos vno del trinquete y otro de la cont[ra]’ (Smith, 1993). Gaspar Correia states that Vasco da Gama sailed to India in 1502 with ‘cinco caravelas latinas, que mandou muito bem concertar’ and ‘iam com velas redondas armadas, para com elas navegarem quando cumprisse’. He does not mention how many masts these ships had, and the representations we have date to around 1565, more than half a century later. �Large cargo ships – naus or naos, caracche, or hulks, as they were known in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Baltic – tend to have three masts and square sails on the bowsprit, fore, and main masts, and a lateen sail on the mizzen mast. When a fourth mast appears, in the late 15th century, square sails are always present, either on the fore and main masts, or only on the foremast. The first type of rigging is common on larger vessels, such as galleons, developed around 1500, or on the Spanish caravelas redondas, such as the Santa Clara and the Santa Cruz. The second type, with square sails only on the foremast, is typical of the Portuguese caravelas de armada. Caravelas de armada It is curious to notice that in the 1550s Fernando Oliveira is skeptical about the qualities of the caravelas de armada. In his Arte da guerra no mar he states: ‘A mim me pareceu sempre, que caravelas de armada, não eram tão boas como são gabadas, por serem um género de navios misturado e neutro, e as partes que tomam de cada um dos outros géneros serem as piores’ (Oliveira, 1555). Later, in his Livro da fábrica das naus, Oliveira states: ‘Aqui me lembra e quero o dizer, antes que me esqueça, que nunca me pareceu bem, fazer da caravela navio redondo, diga cada um o que quiser, que tudo será afeiçoado’ and ‘porque, mudando-se a forma da vela, cumpre mudar-se a fábrica do fundo, a qual já não pode ser mudada’ (Oliveira, c. 1580). In the middle of the 16th century these caravels were purposely built with a forecastle and four masts, rigged with square sails on the foremast and lateen on the remaining three, and later would be as large as 180 tonéis. �As mentioned above, there are two regimentos for the construction of these caravels in Manoel Fernandez treatise (1616), and they both have two decks. We have their main dimensions:  Folios 16 and 107: The caravel with 11 rumos (17m) of keel has 23.2m of length overall, a max beam of 6.42m, a depth of hold of 4.1 m, and a flat amidships of 2.05m.  Folio 24 (and 108?): The caravel with 12 rumos (18.5m) of keel, has 25.5m of length overall, a max beam of 7.19m, a depth oh hold 4.40m, and a flat amidships of 2.31m. These caravelas de armada have length to beam ratios of 3.61 and 3.55 respectively, values that are compatible with the extensive iconography, often with reliable, albeit impressionistic, characteristics. Caravelões It seems that the smaller caravels were sometimes referred to as caravelões (Pico, 1955). Alexandre Monteiro transcribed two early 16th century documents relating to caravelões de Arguim that describe 3masted vessels with bowsprits, square sails on the fore and main masts, and a lateen sail on the mizzen (Monteiro et al., 2011). Both caravelões have hatch covers, so there is no doubt about the fact that they were decked, as it should be expected in ships that are engaged in oceanic trips. One of these caravelões had a crew (companha) of nine: pilot, six sailors, and two apprentices. This information gives us a hint of the ship’s dimension, if we are to believe Fernando Oliveira, who one generation later, in the mid-16th century, states that crews should be calculated as follows:  Up to 10 tonéis: 2 sailors, 1 apprentice;  10 to 20 tonéis: 3 sailors, 1 apprentice;  20 to 30 tonéis: 4 sailors, 2 apprentices; � Above 30 tonéis: add 1 sailor / 4 tonéis and 1 apprentice / 3 sailors. According to Oliveira, both the master and the pilot must be counted as sailors, thus suggesting a ship with a capacity around 42 tonéis (Oliveira, 1555). One of these documents (1508) is particularly interesting because it refers a bowsprit, fore and mainmasts, and a bonaventure mast with its yard. Although there is no mention of a mizzen mast and yard, there is one mizzen sail, and one mizzen halyard (ostaga). It is not clear whether this is a mistake, or there were caravelões with 4 masts (Fig. 2). Conclusion The sample of shipwrecks of probable Iberian origin is small and the preservation is often poor. Moreover, it is impossible to say for sure that these archaeological remains are even remotely related to caravels. The size, shape, structure, construction sequence, and rigging of the Iberian caravels of the 15th and 16th centuries are far from well-understood. In spite of the many excellent historical publications available for almost one century in certain cases, we have more doubts than certainties when it comes to reconstruct these mysterious ships. Most data on caravels and other small vessels dates to the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries, more than a century after the first voyages into the Atlantic. A small sample of measurements from contracts and technical texts suggests that all caravels, even the Portuguese caravelas de armada, were small vessels, that they all relied primarily on lateen rigs, and that by the 16th century they all had stern panels and central rudders, no forecastle, one to four masts with a minimum of two lateen rigged masts, a low sterncastle, and no topmasts. For the Iberian Peninsula all caravels had length to beam ratios between 3 and 4, tonnages between 50 and 150 toneles, corresponding to lengths overall between 15m and 25m. �The archaeological record suggests that vessels of this size had similar basic construction features and scantlings. In other words, that there was an ‘Iberian way’ of designing and building small ocean-going vessels, of which some were possibly caravels. However, only the full publication of a much larger sample of shipwrecks will help shed light on this subject. References Anonymous, c. 1590. O Livro Náutico (codex 2257). Secção de Reservados of the Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. Armas, Duarte de, 1507/1997. Livro das fortalezas (Facsimile w/ Introduction by Manuel Castelo Branco). Inapa, Lisbon. Barata, João da Gama Pimentel, 1972/1989. Estudos de Arqueologia Naval, 2 Vols. Imprensa Nacional Casa da Moeda, Lisbon. Basch, Lucien, 2000. Les navires et bateaux de la Vue de Venise de Jacopo Barbari (1500). Author’s Edition, Brussels. Bellabarba, Sergio, 1999. Note sull'origine della Nave a Tre Alberi. Archeologia delle Acque, Vol.1(2): 81-93. Binding, Paul, 2003. Imagined Corners. Headline Book Publishers, London. Carpentier, Pierre, 1766. Glossarium novum ad scriptores medii ævi, cum latinos tum gallicos, seu Supplementum ad auctiorem glossarii Cangiani editionem. Paris. Ciciliot, Furio, 2005. Le Superbe Navi: Cantieri e Tipologie Navali Liguri Medievali. Società Savonese di Storia Patria, Savona. Colón, Cristóbal, 1991. Los cuatro viajes del almirante y su testamento, 10th edn. Espasa-Calpe, Madrid. Domingues, Francisco Contente, 2004. Os navios do mar oceano. Centro de História dos Descobrimentos, Lisbon. Domingues, Francisco Contente, 1989. A Caravela Quatrocentista nas Fontes da Arqueologia Naval Portuguesa. In Comiss NCDP (Ed.), Actas do Congresso Internacional Bartolomeu Dias e a sua Época, Vol.2, Universidade do Porto, Porto: 515-538. �Elbl, Martin Malcolm, 1985. The Portuguese caravel and European shipbuilding: phases of development and diversity. Revista da Universidade de Coimbra, Vol. 33: 543-572. Etayo, Carlos, 1971. Naos y carabelas de los Descubrimientos y las naves de Colón. Libros con Historia, Urroz-Villa. Fernandez, Manoel, 1616/1995. Livro de Traças de Carpintaria (Facsimile). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Fernandez, Manoel ,1989. Livro de Traças de Carpintaria, Transcription and Translation into English. Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Fonseca, Henrique Quirino da, 1978. A Caravela Portuguesa e a Prioridade Técnica das Navegações Henriquinas, 2 Vols. Ministério da Marinha (1934, Imprensa da Universidade, Coimbra). Fonseca, Henrique Quirino da, 1935. Memórias e conferências sobre história e arqueologia. Serviços Industriais da C.M.L., Lisboa. Fulin, Rinaldo, 1888. Diarii e diaristi veneziani, Venice. Gorges, Sir Arthur, 1604. An Account of an Expedition under the Earl of Essex against the Western Islands. Conway Papers, Vol. 36. Hocker, Fred, and Dokkedal, Line, 2001. News from the Kolding cog. Maritime Archaeology Newsletter from Roskilde, Vol. 16: 16-17. Jal, Auguste, 1848. Glossaire nautique, répertoire polyglotte de termes de marine anciens et modernes. Firmin-Didot frères, Paris. Lane, Frederic C., 1964. Tonnages, medieval and modern. The Economic History Review, 2nd ser., Vol. 17(2): 213-233. Michel, Francisque, 1867-70. Histoire du commerce et de la navigation à de Bordeaux, 2 Vols. J. Delmas, Bordeaux. Monteiro, A., Castro, F. and Génio, M., 2011. Vida e morte do caravelão ‘que andava no Castelo e trato de Arguim’: autópsia de um navio dos Descobrimentos. In A. T. Matos and J. P. O. Costa (Eds.), A Herança do Infante, Câmara Municipal de Lagos/Centro de Estudos dos Povos e Culturas de Expressão Portuguesa, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Centro de História de Além Mar, UNL/UAç, Lisboa: 209-224. �Mota, A. Teixeira da Mota, 1971. D. João Bemoim e a expedição portuguesa ao Senegal em 1489. Junta de Investigações do Ultramar, Lisboa. Mott, Lawrence V., 1997. The Development of the Rudder: A Technological Tale. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. Paviot, Jacques, Rieth, Eric, 1988-1989. Un compte de construction de caravelles portugaises à Bruxelles en 1438-1439. O Arqueólogo Português, Vol. 4(6/7) : 307-331. Oliveira, Fernando, 1580/1991. O Liuro da Fabrica das Naos c (Facsimile, transcription and translation into English). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Oliveira, Fernando, 1555/1969. A Arte da Guerra no Mar. Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pico, Maria A. T. Carbonell, 1955. A terminologia naval portuguesa anterior a 1460. Sociedade de Lingua Portuguesa, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1980. Caravelas dos Descobrimentos. Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1985. As caravelas dos descobrimentos – II (A – Mareação de bolina). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1986. As caravelas dos descobrimentos – II (B – Uso da bolina). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1988. As caravelas dos descobrimentos – II (C – Bolina na costa portuguesa). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Pires, António Tengarrinha, 1990. As caravelas dos descobrimentos – II (D – Caravela de meados do séc. XV). Academia de Marinha, Lisboa. Ramusio, G. B., 1600. Navigatione et Viaggi, Vo. 1. Heredi di Lucantonio Giunti, Venice. Rotuli Litterarum Clausarum, 1916. Calendar of the Liberate Rolls Preserved in the Public record Office. Henry III, AD 1226-1240, Vol. 1. The Hereford Times Limited, London. Rotuli Litterarum Patentium, 1971, Patent Rolls of the Reign of Henry III (AD 1225-1232). Kraus Reprint, Nendeln. �Schwarz, G., 2008. The History and Development of Caravels. M.A. Thesis, Texas A&M University. Smith, Roger C., 1993. Vanguard of Empire. Oxford University Press, New York. Soto, José Luis Casado, 1991. Los barcos del Atlantico Iberico en el siglo de los descubrimientos. Aproximacion a la definición de su perfil tipológico, In B. T. Ramírez (Ed.), Andalucia, America y el mar: Actas de lsa IX Jornadas de Andalucia y America, Diputación de Huelva, Sevilla. Unger, Richard, 2010. Ships on Maps. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Biography Filipe Vieira de Castro is Professor of Anthropology, holds the Frederick R. Mayer II Fellowship of Nautical Archaeology, and is the Director of the Ship Reconstruction Laboratory at Texas A&M University. He has a degree in civil engineering from Lisbon’s Instituto Superior Técnico, a Master of Business Administration from the Catholic University of Lisbon, and a PhD in Anthropology from Texas A&M University. He has conducted field work in Portugal, Panama, Puerto Rico, Brazil, Italy, and Croatia, and his main interests are the history of wooden shipbuilding technology and European seafaring in the late medieval and early modern periods. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 6: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Description An account of the resource East Asia is extremely rich in underwater cultural heritage, such as conventional shipwrecks under the sea, submerged settlement sites on the bottoms of inland lakes and rivers, or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones. For instance, the medieval or post-medieval aged wrecks and their cargos have recently been discovered one after another in the waters, or the underwater cultural heritage or seascape of stone tidal weir is a common cultural trait to the Ryukyu archipelago, western Japan, southern Korea, mainland China, and Formosa, which surround the East China Sea or a northern part of the Asian Mediterranean. No East Asian nation has ratified the UNESCO 2001 Convention, partly because it does not exactly correspond with oriental philosophy, it does not properly resolve the controversial issues upon sovereign immunity of warship wrecks, and so forth. Occasionally, the principle of preservation in situ in the convention has not been the first choice as Asian waters have poor water clarity generally. Nevertheless, each country has already moved forward with its own underwater archaeological policies and projects both on governmental and grassroots levels. Some activities are in close cooperation with foreign institutions or universities. In East Asia, document-based historical study or terrestrial archaeology has a long tradition, which has had a noteworthy impact upon underwater archaeology and its methodology. Even in this region as well as in other Pacific areas, contrariwise, the technological advancement in underwater survey has remarkably been made recently; using remote-sensing with satellites, robotics for ROVs or AUVs, or 3D photogrammetry by computer software mitigates or cancels the limitations regarding accessibility and working time caused by underwater environment. The tie between such modern technologies and archaeology has minted new applications and perspectives of underwater cultural heritage study. The multi-disciplinary or holistic approaches are increasingly more and more necessary among Asian researchers. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Kotaro Yamafune APPARATUS, LLC, Japan Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource European Ships of Discovery Description An account of the resource The ships and boats of the 15th and early 16th century European voyages were the space shuttles of their time, and yet we don’t know much about them because most have been destroyed by looters and treasure hunters. This paper will focus on a particular type, the caravel, and presents an overview of the early European watercraft that crossed the Atlantic and sailed along the American coasts during the first decades of the 16th century. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Filipe Castro Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 11/24/2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Filipe Castro Asia-Pac Session 1 2017 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Ninth-Century AD Arab or Indian Shipwreck in Indonesia: First Evidence for Direct Trade with China Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Flecker, Michael Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Flecker, Michael Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Issue 3 Pages 335-54 Publication Title World Archaeology Title A name given to the resource A Ninth-Century AD Arab or Indian Shipwreck in Indonesia: First Evidence for Direct Trade with China Volume 32 India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c085551c63ed6f92f8329c5818c0bb72.pdf 30c4076157369abdd353d66986491ba5 PDF Text Text The Technique Record of Repairing Penghu Stone Tidal Weirs ―based on Angnata village Penghu, Taiwan― (澎湖石滬的場域修復與工法記錄) ( - 以澎湖紅羅村為例 - ) Fu-Tzu Yang (楊馥慈) 　　 Yu-Chi Tseng (曾宥輯) isle.travel (離島出走工作室) ABSTRACT Our project is based at the location “Xin Hu” in the Angnata village of Huxi township, Penghu. We invite the professional team of stone tidal weirs masters to guide the repair so that our team can practice, learn, do depth interviews, record audio dictations and systematically sort the sets of executable repair methods. Further, to develop the model of experiencing the repairmen for the public. By the experiment, we look forward to achieving the purpose of discussion of stone tidal weirs preservation, ecological preservation, and possibilities of the youth returning which leads to the targets- inherit local experience and sustainable community development. Chinese Abstract ( 摘要 ) 澎湖有90座島嶼，海洋資源豐富、季節風明顯、潮間帶廣闊，因此發展許多特殊的傳統漁法，其中最著名的為石 滬。但隨著科技的發展與社會的變遷，傳統漁村的人口逐漸外移，傳統漁法無人傳承，相關技藝漸漸瀕臨消失。 離島出走團隊發起「澎湖石滬復興計畫」，以「創新與實驗」的方式，選擇以澎湖紅羅村作為基地，並以「外港 口滬」為石滬實驗場域，進行傳統潮間帶漁法的體驗與石滬修復的實驗行動。本計畫邀請紅羅村石滬師傅組成的 工班進行指導，而離島出走團隊則透過施作學習、深度訪談、口述記錄，系統性的整理出一套具有規則可循的修 復石滬工法，並延伸發展出修復石滬的體驗模式。期望透過實際的測試行動，來探討石滬保存、生態復育與青年 返鄉的可能性，以達到在地經驗傳承、社區永續發展的目標。 Keywords: traditional fishing (傳統漁法) , depth interviews (深度訪談) , stone weir (石滬) List of Figures and Images Figure 1: Guidelines to stone weir restoration work. Figure 2: Experiential Learning for participants in the stone weirs restoration project. Figure 3: Experiential Models Designed for Different Types of Participants. 1. INTRODUCTION This study was conducted as part of the '106th-year College Student Rural Migration Second-Phase Action Plan' , under the project titled 'Experience of Tidal Fishing Method and Stone Weir Restoration Project.' The actual stone weir restoration activities took place in Hongluo Village, Huxi Township. The entire project was carried out by the 'Isle.travel' team, with Professor Mingru Li, a stone weir scholar, serving as the project advisor. Through Professor Li's recommendation, we collaborated with a master stone weir restorer from Hongluo Village for this project. Each master weir restorer possesses unique professional skills, including the handling and construction of heavy stones, with weights often reaching a hundred kilograms, as well as the ability to withstand ocean currents and trap fish. These skills represent intangible cultural assets within the context of this restoration technique and are one of the main research and documentation objectives of this study. Each stone weir is akin to a complex family ancestral home with multiple ownerships. In Penghu, a stone weir is usually collectively owned by several families. In the early days, ownership of a stone weir could even serve as a dowry for Penghu daughters, symbolizing a 'sea field.' Hence, the team encountered the first challenge at the beginning of the project. The initially designated ‘Gōa-káng-kháu Weir' in Hongluo faced opposition due to safety concerns and continued usage by a family. However, the weir owners recognized and approved of the team's intentions and offered an alternative option—the 'New Weir.' The 'New Weir' had been forgotten for a century by the residents of Hongluo and was in a severely damaged condition. After confirming with the Agriculture and Fisheries Bureau that there was no registered owner, the 'New Weir' became the team's first target for restoration. Situated in the Hongluo , the 'New Weir' is close to the shore, 1 �making it an ideal demonstration site for the team's initial stone weir restoration and methodology documentation. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Stone Weirs in Penghu Penghu, an island environment surrounded by the sea, possesses abundant intertidal marine resources, which have given rise to various unique local fishing methods. Among them, stone weirs are particularly remarkable as fishing traps in the sea. For centuries, the ancestors of Penghu observed water currents, constructed stone weirs, and utilized the ebb and flow patterns of the tides, combined with the distinctive structures of stone walls, to gather scattered fish catches in one place for easier capture, thereby providing sustenance for their families. (1) Uniqueness and Importance of Stone Weirs The primary materials used in Penghu's stone weirs are basalt and coral stone. Basalt, also known as black stone, has angular shapes that allow for interlocking arrangements of each stone without the need for cement or other artificial means of fixation. Furthermore, the porous nature and crevices of stone weirs provide hiding places for fish fry, as well as support the growth of shellfish and algae, exemplifying ecological sustainability. In different regions of Penghu, tidal basins, targeted fish species, and the utilization of local materials have led to diverse methods of constructing stone weirs, making the underlying fishing culture and values worthy of exploration, investigation, and preservation. (2) Conservation Crisis Faced by Stone Weirs Since the 1960s, with the rise of mechanized vessels and new fishing techniques, coupled with environmental changes and the depletion of marine resources, traditional stone weir fishing methods, which offer lower yields but are relatively environmentally friendly, have gradually become powerless. In recent years, they have been rarely used and left unrepaired. Currently, only about 20% of stone weirs in Penghu are still in use and possess complete fishing functionality, while most other stone weirs face the risk of collapse or burial. 2.2 Challenges in Restoring Stone Weirs Penghu's geographical environment is uniquely advantageous, with intertidal zones surrounding the islands. This has led to the presence of stone weirs throughout Penghu's coastal villages. The construction techniques of stone weirs were naturally acquired and passed down as essential skills by families who owned them in earlier times. However, in the present era of change, stone weirs that no longer yield fish gradually lose maintenance, rendering the subsequent generations unfamiliar with the techniques required to maintain them. The dwindling knowledge of restoring stone weirs has become an increasingly vanishing experiential wisdom, preserved only through oral accounts passed down by the elderly. (1) Fading Techniques The restoration techniques for stone weirs vary depending on factors such as the stone material, regional environment, water flow changes, targeted fish species, and the work habits of the master craftsmen. Currently, there are only around four organized stone weir restoration teams actively involved in Penghu, based on the accounts of local elderly individuals. Among them, there are fewer than five master craftsmen with specialized skills and leadership. In other words, when the older master craftsmen retire, there will likely be a crisis in the continuity of restoration techniques within this generation, creating a gap in the transmission of this knowledge related to marine culture. (2) Exclusivity of Stone Weirs The construction of stone weirs is time-consuming and labor-intensive, requiring the involvement of not just 2 �a few individuals. It often takes several years and requires the collective efforts of an entire family, village, or even different clans. Consequently, the ownership of a stone weir is a complex matter. It is closely related to the contributions of labor and resources from each family involved in its construction. The time and location of its usage need to be discussed and coordinated among the weir owners. Outsiders or those not assigned to a particular day are not permitted to use the stone weir, and unauthorized entry may lead to disputes. The traditional system of weir ownership, deeply ingrained in the culture, has evolved into established customs. Although it has diminished, it has not completely dissolved. Most stone weirs that still possess fishing functionality have intricate ownership arrangements, making it difficult for outsiders to approach or access them. 3. RESEARCH METHODS This study utilized the opportunity provided by the '106th-year Rural Migration Second-Phase Action Plan ' of the Water Resources Agency to investigate and document the "Experience of Tidal Fishing Method and Stone Weir Restoration." During the research process, collaboration was established with Master Hong Zhenkun and his stone weir restoration team from Hongluo Village in Huxi Township, Penghu. The research was conducted at the site of the "New Weir" in Hongluo Village, integrating traditional techniques with innovative experiential program design. The goals of the research included local knowledge transfer and community sustainable development, with the incorporation of an experiential operational model. Seven rounds of experiential activities were organized from July to August of the 106th year to assess the impact and benefits of the experimental operational model. The research project spanned from March of the 106th year to October of the 107th year and consisted of two phases: 3.1 Participant Observation The participant observation method involved the research team actively participating in the stone weir restoration operations. By becoming members of the observed group, the team played the role of both participant and observer. This method allowed for data collection through participation in group activities and provided direct and authentic information due to the team being seen as part of the group and eliciting natural responses from the observed group (Huang 2000). In this project, the team actively engaged in the restoration of stone weirs and experienced a twenty-day restoration project alongside the master craftsmen. The team both learned the techniques through participation and observed and recorded the process. 3.2 In-depth Interviewing The in-depth interview method is a qualitative research approach that involves face-to-face interviews. It emphasizes the collaborative construction of meaning between the interviewer and the interviewee to reveal explanations or data related to a specific question. Generally, it can be categorized into structured, unstructured, and semi-structured interviews (Guan 2010). This project utilized a semi-structured in-depth interview approach. Prior to interviewing the master craftsmen, data was compiled, and a set of predetermined questions was prepared to guide the craftsmen in providing more in-depth descriptions of stone weir restoration techniques. 4. RESULTS The stone weir that was restored in this project is located in Hongluo Village, Huxi Township, Penghu County, known as the "New Weir." According to local residents' oral accounts, the stone weir had collapsed over 40 to 50 years ago, with no identifiable weir owners or related historical records. Subsequently, through site inspections with Master Hong Zhenkun and his stone weir restoration team from Hongluo Village, it was found that the base stones of the stone weir were scattered but still showed signs of the original layout. Master Hong Zhenkun determined that the stone weir could be restored and initiated the restoration work. The restoration project lasted approximately three months and included the restoration of the weir structure, the pool ,dike and the weir tail. Although the restoration was not yet complete, during the restoration process, it was observed that each master craftsman had their own expertise and responsibilities in specific restoration 3 �areas and techniques. Therefore, the techniques, tools, target stones, and optimal tidal times for operation were recorded and documented based on the craftsmen's oral memories, and a systematic compilation of stone weir restoration techniques was created. This compilation became a concise and easily understandable set of guidelines, incorporating easy-to-follow steps. 4.1 Stone Weir Restoration Technique Guidelines Database Throughout this project, active participation in the stone weir restoration work was undertaken, employing participant observation and in-depth interviews. The documentation focused on Master Hong Zhenkun and his team from Hongluo Village, Penghu County, as the subjects of the record. However, the documentation had to proceed in sync with the restoration work, and the current database represents only the initial stage of the project. The guidelines are presented in a simple and understandable manner as an initial integration of the information gathered. There are plans to continue the documentation and expand the results obtained in the current stage in the future. Figure 1: Guidelines to stone weir restoration work. In addition to serving as a reference for research on stone weir techniques, the guidelines can also provide a basic understanding for individuals or participants who are interested in the topic of stone weirs but lack prior knowledge. In the past, the lack of systematically organized samples often led to difficulties in explanations provided by the master craftsmen and resulted in misconceptions. It also failed to demonstrate the various variations and complexities of stone weir techniques. With the establishment of the guidelines database, it can serve as a support tool for the development of subsequent experiential models, training materials for stone weir restoration teams, and even promotional materials or cultural products. Through these means, stone weir techniques can be promoted, and awareness on marine conservation and ecological environment issues can be raised. 4.2 Experiential Model for Stone Weir Restoration Under the existing fisheries management plans of the Agriculture and Fisheries Bureau, the operation of stone weirs still requires the weir owners to submit applications every five years. As a result, stone weirs are conceptually classified as private properties with exclusivity. Weir owners may have concerns about the potential damage to the weirs and the depletion of fishery resources. This requires coordination and communication with individual weir owners. In practical terms, it may be challenging to enter and 4 �experience the stone weir sites due to the presence of weir owners or restrictions on access. Taking all these factors into consideration, this project prioritizes sustainable management. It first sought out stone weirs that had long been in a state of disrepair and had no identifiable owners to assess their restoration feasibility. Subsequently, restoration work was initiated. Once the restoration is completed, an application will be submitted to the Agriculture and Fisheries Bureau to certify the restored stone weir as a registered fishery, and it will be jointly owned and maintained by the community. If successful, this case can serve as a model that other areas in Penghu can follow, creating a replicable pattern implemented in different regions. By cultivating community talents through experiential programs and creating a mutually beneficial feedback loop, the government should also take a supportive stance in encouraging the preservation of local culture by providing relevant guidance and subsidies. (1) Experiential Content Figure 2: Experiential Learning for participants in the stone weirs restoration project. The techniques for restoring stone weirs vary depending on the local conditions and the expertise accumulated by the master craftsmen over the years. The techniques involve specific skills and challenges. Therefore, in order to develop an experiential program, the initial focus is on areas with lower technical requirements. In this project, the main experiential activities revolve around the techniques of "delivery", "knotting" and "stuffing" as outlined in the methodology guidelines. "Delivery" and "knotting" both allow participants to experience the difference in difficulty between ancient and modern methods of moving stones and gain an understanding of the immense time and manpower required to construct a stone weir. "Filling" primarily aims to familiarize participants with the internal and external structure of the stone weir and the impact of ocean currents on the weir. Unlike the Double-Heart Stone Weir in Qimei, which mainly serves as a tourist attraction, actively involving participants in the stone weir site allows them to directly experience the function and composition of stone weirs and gain a deeper understanding and record of the restoration techniques. 5 �Figure 3: Experiential Models Designed for Different Types of Participants 5. CONCLUSION The restoration of stone weirs is not solely about reviving their functional aspects but primarily aims to preserve a cultural heritage that is on the verge of extinction and promote its significance. However, during the two-month restoration period of this project, with the collective efforts of the master craftsmen, the Isle.travel team, and the experiential participants, fishing yields gradually appeared from August 5th, demonstrating the original fish aggregating function of the stone weir. In light of this, the project initiated the development of a preliminary sustainable management model, allocating a portion of the fees collected from the experiential activities as a sustainable fund for stone weir restoration. It is hoped that through this process, the active involvement and attention of local residents can be successfully stimulated. Subsequently, by utilizing the recorded data and systematically organizing and visualizing it through research methods, the project contributes to the preservation of the historical and cultural significance of Penghu stone weirs. It also facilitates coordination with weir owners and communities to establish a symbiotic model and provides a reference for the restoration of other dilapidated stone weirs in different areas of Penghu. The restoration and transformation project of stone weirs not only holds experimental significance in the development of experiential tourism related to stone weir restoration, but also contributes to the win-win strategy of enhancing the visibility of in-depth tourism in the Hongluo community. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hong, K. H. Stone Weirs of Penghu. Penghu: Penghu County Cultural Center. (1999). Lin, W. Z. The Past and Present of Stone Weirs. Proceedings of the 5th Academic Conference on Penghu Studies. Penghu: Penghu County Cultural Affairs Bureau. (2005). Chen, C. Z. Research on Indigenous Stonemasonry Techniques in Penghu. Proceedings of the 5th Academic Conference on Penghu Studies. (2005). Lee, M. R. The Origin and Distribution of Fish Trap Culture: An International Perspective. Penghu: Penghu County Cultural Affairs Bureau. (2009). Huang, K. Y. Dictionary of Education. National Academy for Educational Research. Wenjing Publishing. (2000). Guan, X. S. Research Methods in Design: 3rd Edition. Global Publishing Co., Ltd. (2010). 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Technique Record of Repairing Penghu Stone Tidal Weirs ―based on Angnata village Penghu, Taiwan― Description An account of the resource Our project is based at the location “Xin Hu” in the Angnata village of Huxi township, Penghu. We invite the professional team of stone tidal weirs masters to guide the repair so that our team can practice, learn, do depth interviews, record audio dictations and systematically sort the sets of executable repair methods. Further, to develop the model of experiencing the repairmen for the public. By the experiment, we look forward to achieving the purpose of discussion of stone tidal weirs preservation, ecological preservation, and possibilities of the youth returning which leads to the targets- inherit local experience and sustainable community development. 澎湖有90座島嶼，海洋資源豐富、季節風明顯、潮間帶廣闊，因此發展許多特殊的傳統漁法，其中最著名的為石 滬。但隨著科技的發展與社會的變遷，傳統漁村的人口逐漸外移，傳統漁法無人傳承，相關技藝漸漸瀕臨消失。 離島出走團隊發起「澎湖石滬復興計畫」，以「創新與實驗」的方式，選擇以澎湖紅羅村作為基地，並以「外港 口滬」為石滬實驗場域，進行傳統潮間帶漁法的體驗與石滬修復的實驗行動。本計畫邀請紅羅村石滬師傅組成的 工班進行指導，而離島出走團隊則透過施作學習、深度訪談、口述記錄，系統性的整理出一套具有規則可循的修 復石滬工法，並延伸發展出修復石滬的體驗模式。期望透過實際的測試行動，來探討石滬保存、生態復育與青年 返鄉的可能性，以達到在地經驗傳承、社區永續發展的目標。 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Fu-Tzu Yang Yu-Chi Tseng Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Fu-Tzu Yang; Yu-Chi Tseng. 2023. “The Technique Record of Repairing Penghu Stone Tidal Weirs Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurl Knoerl, Paul Montgomery and Bill Jeffrey. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2009 Asia-Pac Session 11 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Description of the Province of Fars in Persia at the Beginning of the Fourteenth Century A.D. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ibn al-Balkhi G. Le Strange Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Royal Asiatic Society Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1912 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Ibn al-Balkhi Translator G. Le Strange Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1912 Place London Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Royal Asiatic Society Title A name given to the resource Description of the Province of Fars in Persia at the Beginning of the Fourteenth Century A.D. URL http://Persian.Packhum.Org/Persian/ Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Early Muslim Traders in Southeast Asia Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource G.R. Tibbetts Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1957 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author G.R. Tibbetts Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1957 Issue 1 Pages 1-45 Publication Title Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Title A name given to the resource Early Muslim Traders in Southeast Asia Volume 30 Southeast Asia