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Pearson Item Type Book Section Book Title India and the Indian Ocean 1500-1800 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1987 Place Calcutta Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Oxford University Press Title A name given to the resource Introduction India https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1dc30a1edabb8f9d05a62934b8b7cb1f.mp4 5b16cb3efafc3a2af0ea63f1c6bbe674 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Proceedings of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Papers presented at the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Introduction to 2023 conference by Dr. Jenny Craig Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Asia-Pac 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/a82d0b29abb7d64fc85ecf6a3fb8e2c8.pdf 32c9ec6246f49812ff437c54cc53ca51 PDF Text Text Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh Rokonuzzaman S (Dept. of Conservation Laboratory, Bangladesh National Museum) smrokon.chem@gmail.com ABSTRACT A waterlogged wooden schooner was collected from Kuakata, a famous coastal region of Bangladesh, during the excavation period from 23rd December, 2012 to 27th February, 2013 under the Directorate of Archaeology. This schooner was measured 72 feet in length and weighed about 90 tons in wet conditions. A lot of valuable information regarding trade relations with other countries in ancient times, migration of people of certain communities, species of wood etc. can be obtained from this artifact. Unfortunately, the schooner has been kept under a canopy in the open for nearly 10 years after excavation without any consultation from conservation experts. The condition of this artifact was found to be extremely damaged and fragile when visited on 21st September, 2022. Attacks of various types of microorganisms and insects were observed in most of the woods. Different types of physical changes were also found in the wood of the schooner. Even the original shape of the artifact was disfigured by shrinkage, cracking, twisting and splitting of wood. It is known that the conservation treatment of waterlogged wood consists of four steps such as dehydration, substitution, consolidation and controlled drying processes. These are very expensive and lengthy processes. Now it is impossible to apply a conventional conservation treatment method on the wooden schooner, because the artifact has already lost all characteristics of waterlogged wood. There are three objectives of this study: (i) to investigate the causes of deterioration of wood, (ii) to revive the characteristics of waterlogged wood and (iii) to recommend an easy and appropriate conservation treatment strategy for this waterlogged wooden schooner. Recommendation of treatment strategy is the most important part of this study. Considering the capability, time duration and financial cost, the treatment strategy will be introduced. After the successful completion of this study, the countries like Bangladesh will protect their waterlogged wooden heritage using the new method. Keywords Waterlogged wood, Deterioration, Consolidation List of Abbreviations BNM : Bangladesh National Museum DoA : Directorate of Archaeology PEG : Poly Ethylene Glycol RH : Relative Humidity MC : Moisture Content ETP : Effluent Treatment Plant SS : Stainless Steel 1. INTRODUCTION Waterlogged wood refers to wood that has been under soil or water for a long time and whose internal pores, capillaries and micro capillaries are saturated with water. Besides, these places contain different types of harmful substances like mud, sand, microorganisms etc. along with the water. Waterlogged wood has special importance among the archaeological artifacts. Through scientific research, it is possible to uncover many exclusive information regarding ancient cultures and civilizations from the waterlogged wooden artifacts. Such as: (i) (ii) (iii) A clear understanding of the historical trade/other relations of one country with another country can be obtained. Information about the migration of a certain community or group of people in ancient times can be found. Important guidelines can also be derived from these artifacts in protecting ecological balance. Wood is an organic material which is composed of cellulose (40% - 60%), hemicellulose (15% 25%) and lignin (15% - 40%). Cellulose, hemicellulose both are polysaccharide polymer compounds and lignin is a phenolic polymer compound. Polysaccharides are high polymers of monosaccharides. 1 �Each polymer compound plays the different role in wood. Cellulose is responsible for giving the strength to the wooden structure, hemicellulose gives the flexibility of wood and lignin is responsible for stiffness of wood. These three polymers combined together give the remarkable physical and mechanical support to the wood. The molecular formula of cellulose is (C6H10O5) n. Cellulose participates in hydrolysis reaction with water in presence of acid, it gives D-glucose in 95-96 percent. As a result, cellulosic bonds are broken. If this type of reaction continues in waterlogged wood for hundreds of years, extensive decay occurs in the wooden artifacts. In addition, microorganisms and other harmful substances stay for a long time in the pore spaces, capillaries and micro capillaries inside the waterlogged wood and cause considerable damage to the internal structure of the wood. As a result, the wooden structure continues to weaken and eventually it is completely destroyed. Therefore, every step from excavation to conservation treatment period for any waterlogged wooden artifacts needs to be done with intensive care. Also the long-term management of waterlogged wood is a very important issue. On site inspection, the mentioned problems have been found in the different parts of the waterlogged wooden schooner. The water has removed freely from waterlogged wooden parts in uncontrolled drying. But there has not been any conservation measures of the schooner. As a result, the wood fibers have compressed and the whole structure has converted into a distorted shape (Figures 1.1). Figure 1.1: Disfigured structures of the schooner 2. CASE STUDY 2.1 Missing of Original Wood As mentioned earlier, the schooner was left for long periods in different environments such as soil or water, underwent extensive decay and its strength was severely reduced. The various parts of the schooner were closely observed during the onsite inspection. At that time the original wood was missing from some parts of the schooner. Figure 2. Excavation of shipwreck 2 �2.2 Adding New Wood New wood was added to the different parts of the schooner in order to facilitate its safe lifting and transport. Addition of new wood was the right decision during excavation period. Later, the new wood should have been removed and supports were used with the various parts of the schooner in the rehabilitation process to maintain its original shape. It is known that the stiffness of new wood is relatively higher than waterlogged wood. In this case, adding new wood of higher strength to the waterlogged wood of lower strength created additional stress on the waterlogged wood. But not removing new wood from the schooner caused various physical changes in it. The main structure of the schooner was not in its original shape. Many of the wooden parts have bent and distorted the structure. Though, there are many other reasons for distorting the schooner's main structure. Some new wood may be conditionally added to the missing parts when the schooner's conservation treatment is fully completed. According to the principles of restoration, the species, age and strength of the new wood must match the original wood. New wood should also be given a conservation treatment before being added. 2.3 Insects attack and Rotting During the inspection several parts of the waterlogged wooden schooner were observed to be rotting, infested with insects. This attack is quickly spreading to other parts of the wood. 2.4 Microscopic Analysis and Salinity A few places on the schooner, examined under a small microscope, showed extensive white coating on the surface of the wood (Figure 3). Despite several attempts with water, the white spots could not be completely removed. These appear to be salt deposits. It is possible to remove all these white coatings and other impurities by applying water to waterlogged wood for several years. Figure 3: Microscopic observations 2.5 Moisture Content The moisture content is an important part of wood. There are two types of moisture found in wood, one is ‘free water’ in the cell cavities and vessels, and other is ‘absorbed water’ bound in the cell walls. Free water evaporates up to the fiber saturation point, when the wood is air-dried. In this case the wood does not shrink. However, as waterlogged wood is very weak and its fiber loss is high. So, this rule is not applicable for waterlogged wood. At the fiber saturation point, wood contains only the ‘absorbed water’ from 20% to 36% of the total moisture content which varies the species of wood. If ‘absorbed water’ evaporates, then shrinkage starts in wood. Wood is a hygroscopic material whose moisture content fluctuates with the relative humidity of its environment (Table 2.1). Table 2.1: Moisture content fluctuates with the relative humidity SL No. Relative Humidity (%) Moisture Content (%) 1. 90 21-22 2. 70 13-14 3. 50 8-10 4. 30 6-7 5. 10 3-4 6. 0 0 3 �The moisture content is determined by the following equation: Here, U = Moisture Content (%) Gu = Weight of normal / waterlogged wood G0 = Weight of oven dried wood Physical observation confirmed that the schooner had lost the characteristics of waterlogged wood. Now reviving its waterlogged wooden nature is very uncertain. But by keeping the schooner in water long enough, it is possible to revive its few waterlogged wooden characteristics. This can be confirmed by measuring the moisture content. 3. RESOURCES Conservation treatment of waterlogged wood is very expensive and time consuming. Such treatments are usually initiated while the wood is still wet. There are many types of conservation treatment methods of waterlogged wood around the world. Five methods have been selected for this study, which are very much popular in conservation science. These are Poly ethylene glycol-4000 method, Poly ethylene glycol-2 steps method, Sucrose method, Cetyl alcohol method and Dammar method (Table 2.2). Implementation of these conservation treatments requires extensive technical capacity, which is not usually available in developing countries like Bangladesh. After analyzing the five methods, it was confirmed that the Dammar method can be modified and applied as suitable for Bangladesh. The modified dammar method must be applied to each part of the schooner separately. No. 1. 2. Table 2.2: The popular conservation treatment methods over the world Name of Dehydration Substitution Consolidation Step Treatment Step Step Method (alcohol in H2O) PEG-4000 Method Sucrose Method - - - (i) 20% PEG-4000 in H2O (ii) 40% PEG-4000 in H2O (iii) ) 60% PEG-4000 in H2O (iv) 80% PEG-4000 in H2O (v) 100% PEG-4000 in H2O (i) 20% Sucrose in H2O (ii) 40% Sucrose in H2O (iii) 60% Sucrose in H2O (iv) 80% Sucrose in H2O - 4 Controlled Air Drying (RH in Drying Chamber) (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% �3. Cetyl – alcohol Method (i) 20% Methyl - (ii) 40%Methyl (i) 20% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol (i) At 80% (ii) 40% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol1 (ii) At 60% (iii) 60%Methyl (iii) At 40% (iii) 60% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol1 (iv) 80% Methyl (v) 100%Methyl 4. PEG-2 Steps Method (i) 20% Ethyl (iv) 80% Cetyl-alcohol in methyl alcohol (i) 50% t-butyl in ethyl (ii) 40% Ethyl (iii) 60% Ethyl (ii) 100% tbutyl in ethyl (i) 20% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (i) At 80% (ii) 40% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (ii) At 60% (iii) 20% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (iii) At 40% (iv) 80% Ethyl (iv) 40% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (v) 100% Ethyl (v) 60% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol (vi) 80% PEG-4000 in t-butyl alcohol 5. 4. DammerMethod (i) 20% Ethyl (ii) 40% Ethyl (iii) 60% Ethyl (iv) 80% Ethyl (v) 100% Ethyl (i) 50% Xylene in ethyl alcohol (i) 20% Dammar in xylene (ii) 40% Dammar in xylene (iii) 60% Dammar in xylene (i) At 80% (ii) At 60% (iii) At 40% (ii) 100% Xylene in ethyl alcohol FRAMEWORK The pore spaces, capillaries and micro capillaries of waterlogged wood are filled with water and various kinds of contaminants when it is buried. All these impurities need to be compulsorily removed through the continuous cleaning process before conservation treatment. Cleanup can take up to several years depending on the thickness of the wooden parts. The wood must not be allowed to dry out in any way during the entire process. When the wood is completely ready for treatment, then the modified dammar method is applied (Table 2.3). After the conservation treatment, the wood is dried by vacuum-freeze-drying or a controlled air-drying process. In a controlled air-drying process, the wood is first dried at room temperature where the relative humidity is very high. Later the relative humidity is gradually reduced. On the other hand uncontrolled drying is fully prohibited for waterlogged wood to avoid any kind of deformation of wood like shrinking, twisting, cracking, splitting, warping etc. Table 2.3: The modified Dammar method Consolidation Step Naturally Drying Time Duration (i) 20% Dammar According to the climate Time duration of dehydration, solution in xylene of Bangladesh, RH substitution, consolidation and gradually decreases drying steps depends on the (ii) 60% Ethyl alcohol (ii) 40% Dammar from November to thickness of wood. solution in H2O (ii) 100% Xylene solution in xylene March. This is the solution in ethyl perfect time to let the (iii) 100% Ethyl alcohol (iii) 60% Dammar wood dry naturally. alcohol solution in solution in xylene However, the wood H2O should be kept under close observation. To ensure minimum use of chemicals, airtight SS containers and jute mats are used. Basically, the artifacts are wrapped with jute mats before being soaked in chemicals. Dehydration Step (i) 20% Ethyl alcohol solution in H2O Substitution Step (i) 50% Xylene solution in ethyl alcohol 5 �5. RESULTS The treatment of waterlogged wood is a very risky, expensive and difficult task. Most of the undeveloped or developing countries are not able to conserve their valuable artifacts of waterlogged wood through the conventional method. This is the main reason to modify the Dammar method so that every country can protect their valuable heritage. Modified Dammar method is comparatively easy and less expensive, but it is not the health and environment friendly method. Therefore, the appropriate precautions should be taken, when the modified Dammar method is applied for the conservation of waterlogged wood. BIBLIOGRAPHY Finar, I. L., Organic Chemistry (Volume Two), 3rd edn., (1964):224-225. Harman, Kuhn, Conservation and Restoration of Works of Art and Antiquities, 3 rd edn. 19, (1987): 176-179. Plenderleith, H.J., The conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, Reprinted 5, (1974): 124-126. Desch, H.E., Timber Its Structure and Properties, Macmillan, London, 3 rd edn., 1956. In Museum 8, no. 3, 1955:139. Museum and Monuments The Conservation of Cultural Property, The UNESCO Press, Reprinted (1975): 173. 6 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh Description An account of the resource A waterlogged wooden schooner was collected from Kuakata, a famous coastal region of Bangladesh, during the excavation period from 23rd December, 2012 to 27th February, 2013 under the Directorate of Archaeology. This schooner was measured 72 feet in length and weighed about 90 tons in wet conditions. A lot of valuable information regarding trade relations with other countries in ancient times, migration of people of certain communities, species of wood etc. can be obtained from this artifact. Unfortunately, the schooner has been kept under a canopy in the open for nearly 10 years after excavation without any consultation from conservation experts. The condition of this artifact was found to be extremely damaged and fragile when visited on 21st September, 2022. Attacks of various types of microorganisms and insects were observed in most of the woods. Different types of physical changes were also found in the wood of the schooner. Even the original shape of the artifact was disfigured by shrinkage, cracking, twisting and splitting of wood. It is known that the conservation treatment of waterlogged wood consists of four steps such as dehydration, substitution, consolidation and controlled drying processes. These are very expensive and lengthy processes. Now it is impossible to apply a conventional conservation treatment method on the wooden schooner, because the artifact has already lost all characteristics of waterlogged wood. There are three objectives of this study: (i) to investigate the causes of deterioration of wood, (ii) to revive the characteristics of waterlogged wood and (iii) to recommend an easy and appropriate conservation treatment strategy for this waterlogged wooden schooner. Recommendation of treatment strategy is the most important part of this study. Considering the capability, time duration and financial cost, the treatment strategy will be introduced. After the successful completion of this study, the countries like Bangladesh will protect their waterlogged wooden heritage using the new method. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Rokonuzzaman S Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Rokonuzzaman, S.. 2023. “Investigating the causes of deterioration and the appropriate conservation treatment method of an excavated wooden schooner found in coastal area of Bangladesh.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Arjun Rao. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2026 Asia-Pac Session 22 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/ace802d35273cc8b79f875336d87b8c9.pdf 1704c02740f1fd90915e5f1ca971d820 PDF Text Text Investigation of Abandoned WW II Wrecks in Palau Tomo Ishimura1 Abstract Over forty Japanese vessels were sunken in the water of Palau during WWII. Some wrecks sunk in the shallow water at a depth of 20 meters or less and were salvaged. Other wrecks at 30 meters depth or more still remain and are legally protected by the authority of Palau Government but are seriously threatened by illegal treasure hunters. Initial efforts to identify human remains of Japanese soldiers were made in 2005. As part of an archaeology advisory team for the Japanese Government I carried out underwater surveys of sunken WWII vessels in Palau. In 2010 and 2011, I conducted investigations of the WWII vessels again, together with on-shore research on sites and features associated with the Japanese occupation period, funded by the Takanashi Foundation for Arts and Archaeology (Japan). The research revealed that the most of the vessels sunken in Palau were not genuine military vessels of Japanese Imperial Navy or Army but converted vessels originally built for non-combat purposes. These vessels were slow in speed and not well-equipped for combat th activity. Most of them were destroyed by American aerial bombing on March 30 1944. The th evening before (March 29 ) the main force of the Japanese Combined Fleet, including its flagship Musashi, retreated from Palau. It is clear that the vessels left in Palau were abandoned as a “third wheel” of the Combined Fleet. These abandoned-converted vessels include cargo carriers, tankers, whaling boats and fishing boats. This implies that Japanese troops were experiencing a difficult and desperate campaign at that time. Introduction Over forty WWII Japanese vessels have been identified in the waters of the Republic of Palau (see Figures 1, Figure 2, Table 1). Most of them were destroyed on March 30th – 31st 1944 by the United States of America’s (USA) attack - Operation Desecrate One. This battle was a historical turning point for Japanese occupation in Micronesia because the Combined Fleet of the Japanese Imperial Navy lost their bases in the region, which further impacted on defeats in the Battle of the Mariana Islands on June 19th – 20th 1944 and the 1 Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Japan �Battle of Layte on October 23rd – 25th 1944. Therefore the shipwrecks of Palau offer important evidence for understanding the historical significance of the battle in Palau. The main aim of my research is to uncover the real situation of the battle in Palau and document the extent of this underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Palau for their future protection and management. Figure 1. Map around Palau (created by author). Figure 2. Map of Palau and distribution of Japanese WW II wrecks, insert is map of shipwrecks in Palau harbour (created by author). �Table 1. Details of numbered vessels on Figure 2 (made by author based upon the data from Bailey 1991, Tanaka 2007, and author's research) Historical background of the wrecks in Palau Since 1920 the Palau Islands had been a part of Japanese Mandated Territory, along with the Mariana Islands and the Western Caroline Islands. In the wake of the defeat over German occupation, the former colonial power over Palau, in the First World War. The Palau headquarters of Nanyocho are the administrative agency of the Nanyo Gunto (Micronesian islands of Japanese Mandated Territory). Located on Koror Island, it played the role of the administrative center for the Territory. In the wake of the Japanese walkout from the League of Nations in 1933, Palau was also regarded as a military site in the Territory and a number of military facilities were built on each island. The home base of the Combined Fleet, the main force of the Japanese Imperial Navy, was placed on the Truk Islands initially during WWII. However, after the defeat of the Battle of Midway on June 5 th 1942 the Japanese naval �power in the Pacific region declined. The 58th Task Force of the USA conducted the Operation Hailstone which included air strikes on the Truk Islands on February 17th – 18th 1944, and the Japanese forces lost two light cruisers (Agano and Naka) and many other vessels. A week earlier the flagship Musashi, and other major vessels of the Combined Fleet, had already retreated to Palau on the 10th of February in anticipation of the attack by the USA forces. The Combined Fleet regrouped their fleet in Palau. On February 29th a scout plane of the Japanese Navy sighted a USA task force approaching to the Caroline Islands. Shigeru Fukudome, the Chief of Staff of the Combine Fleet, considered that the U.S. forces would initiate a landing operation to Palau so he decided to withdraw major-force vessels of the Combined Fleet to the Philippines to set them apart for later use (Yoshimura 1976). In the late afternoon on February 29th the flagship Musashi, the light cruiser Taiyo, the destroyers Urakaze and Isokaze, and the other main vessels of the Combined Fleet set off from Palau Harbor. The rest of the vessels, such as the repair ship Akashi, the oil tankers Iro and Sata, and a number of cargo ships, were left behind. A two-day USA air strike named Operation Desecrate One initiated On February 30th. The remaining vessels were completely destroyed and sunk in the waters of Palau. Most of the wrecks of Palau are derived as a result of this one battle. Investigations of shipwrecks I carried out underwater archaeological survey at six selected sites in 2010 and 2011 (Ishimura 2010a; Ishimura 2010b). Short summaries of the results are shown as follows: Iro Location: West Urukthapel Anchorage Depth: The ship is resting upright at 40 meters. The deck is at 28 meters and the top of the forward tower is at 8 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): Southwest General Information: Type: Shiretoko Class Combined Fleet Tanker Length: 143.25 meters �Beam: 17.68 meters Tonnage: 14,050 tons Speed: 12 knots Built: 1922 by Osaka Tekkosho Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Iro was a fleet oiler and supply ship. On March 22 nd 1944 on her way from the Philippines to Palau a torpedo launched from the submarine USS Tunny hitting her bow forward of the bulkheads. On March 30th 1944 she came under fire and was bombed during the Operation Desecrate One. Heavy structural and fire damage to the ship’s engine room, boat deck, and stack appears to have resulted from the bomb(s). A survivor of the Iro attack witnessed a direct hit to the stroke engine room where approximately 30 engineers were killed (interviewed by author). An anchor chain extends from the hawsehole on the starboard side to the floor of the lagoon below. Following the anchor chain down along the side of the ship one can see the damage caused to the bow by torpedo. On top of the bow is a large gun mounted on a circular platform. The gun barrel diameter is 7 inches (17.8 centimeters) and the length is 4.26 meters. A gun identical to the one on the bow is mounted on a platform on the stern with its barrel pointing about 20 degrees towards the starboard. The survivor of Iro related that only one of the guns was able to fire against the aerial attack, due to lack of ammunition (interviewed by author). In reaction to the information provided by the survivor in 2005 the team of the Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare carried out an investigation in search of the human remains of Japanese soldiers at the Iro, especially in and around the engine room, however, they were not able to find any (Ishimura 2005). Akashi Location: North Urukthapel Anchorage Depth: Only debris are scattered at a depth of 12 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): North General Information: Type: Combined Fleet Repair Ship �Length: 158.5 meters Beam: 20.2 meters Tonnage: 9,000 tons Speed: 19.5 knots Built: 1937-39 by Sasebo Kaigun Kosho Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Akashi was the first Japanese Imperial Navy vessel to be designed as a repair ship. The ship was equipped with three large cranes and 144 German machine tools. She was stationed at Truk, where she had been engaged in making repairs on numerous vessels, anchored in the lagoon that had been damaged by USA submarines or air attacks at various island bases. After being damaged by carrier-based aircraft during the two-day Operation Hailstone air strikes on Truk on February 17th and 18th 1944, the Akashi managed to make her escape and limp to Palau. The Akashi could only manage about 12 knots with the damage she had sustained. When the USA planes initiated their attacks on the 30th March 1944 the Akashi was anchored offshore of the northern part of Urukthapel Island in Palau Harbor. The captain decided early to move the ship closer to shore into shallow water for more protection against the bombs and torpedoes of the attacking aircrafts (Bailey 1991:123). Even after the war, much of her upper foreship superstructure and masts were above water. It is said that the Akashi was scuttled to be a “grounding repair ship” in order to continue her duty even though the ship was totally crippled. The Akashi was completely dismantled by a salvage company in 1954 from which a total of 4,500 tons of scrap iron was recovered. At a depth of 12 meters many artifacts can be found lying on the sandy seabed amongst the debris field; some completely exposed and others with just pieces showing above the sand. The debris field spans around 150 meters in a north-south direction and 20 meters in an east-west direction, displaying the shape of the foregone vessel. A bomb crater can be seen alongside the debris field. Artifacts that have been found and identified include compressed gas cylinders, fire bricks, shoe soles, tires, beer bottles, ceramics and canteens. �Amatsu Maru Location: West Malakal Anchorage Depth: The ship is resting upright at 40 meters. The deck is at 30 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): Northeast General Information: Type: Tanker (converted) Length: 153 meters Beam: 20 meters Tonnage: 10,567 tons Speed: 15 knots Built: 1943 by Mitsubishi Owned by Nihon Kaiun Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Amatsu Maru was originally built for the private company Nihon Kaiun in 1943 as a part of the War Standard Construction Program. She was one of 15 vessels of her class that were built as Standard Type 1 TL 10,000-ton steam tanker. She was assigned to the Combined Fleet in January 1944. She is the largest shipwreck in Micronesia and the deepest Japanese wreck in Palau. She was hit directly by several 1000 pound (lb.) bombs. USA Navy archives of aerial photos taken during the attack clearly show heavy smoke rising from the engine compartment (Bailey 1991:79), but the remains exhibit little hull damage. The bridge was constructed of three decks. The upper-most was the navigational deck and some instruments can still be found there. The wooden walls and floor structures were destroyed by fire or have deteriorated over time. At the stern the twisted remains of a circular gun platform can be seen. The gun was a 12 cm Armstrong-type rapid firing gun but nothing remains of it. The Amatsu Maru was salvaged partially after the war. The Fujita Salvage Company originally sought to raise the ship but later decided to dismantle it instead. During an attempt to cut through the plates, it is believed the flame of a torch hit trapped gases and set off an explosion that killed two men. Then they abandoned the salvage attempt, believing the accident to be an omen of foreboding (Tanaka 2007:51). �Chuyo Maru Location: West Malakal Anchorage Depth: The ship is resting upright at 40 meters. The deck is at 30 meters and top of the forward tower is at 12 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): Southeast General Information: Type: Cargo ship (converted) Length: 89 meters Beam: 12.4 meters Tonnage: 1,941 tons Speed: 10 knots Built: 1943 by Namura Zosenjo Owned by Toyo Kisen Kaisha Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Chuyo Maru was built as a coastal freighter of the Amakasu No. 1 or Goei Maru class. The ship was completed for the private company Toyo Kisen Kaisha in 1943 and converted into an Army cargo ship soon after. The ship was reported to be initially attacked shortly after 1300 hour (h) on March 30th by a 500 lb. bomb, and on the following day an air attack hit the ship on the port side amidship with a single 500 lb. bomb. The ship was reported afterwards to have major fires aboard and then sank at 2000h on April 1st. The bridge structures were burned during the bombing and have since disintegrated, however, remains of the brass compass and ship’s telegraph can still be seen. The engine room and boiler room is raised above the main boat deck. Two separate sections of engine room hatches, with a cylindrical steam condenser apparatus between them, can be found above the engine room. A gun stands on a platform on the aft section of the boat deck. The gun is a 1.86-ton, 12 cm dual purpose “Short Gun”. This type of gun was typically placed on ships of under 5,000 tons for anti-submarine and anti-aircraft use. Although the exact location of this wreck was recorded, the wreck was not considered worth salvaging after the war. She was forgotten until April 1989 when wreck hunters Francis Toribiong and Klaus Lindemann rediscovered her. The ship’s identity was possible by the discovery of associated ceramics found �aboard the wreck bearing the logo of the ship’s commercial owner Toyo Kisen Kaisha (Bailey 1991:131). In May 2006 an English man illegally looted some artifacts from the Chuyo Maru and other shipwrecks in Palau and faced two months in jail and a fine of $ 40,000(USA) (Tanaka 2007:67). Helmet Wreck Location: Malakal Harbor Depth: The ship is resting upright, at the base of a hill, with bow lower than the stern. The bow is in 35 meters and the stern is in 15 meters. Orientation (from stern to bow): Southwest General Information: Type: Cargo ship (probably converted to a minelayer) Length: 58 meters Beam: 9.4 meters Tonnage: Unknown (less than 1,000 tons) Speed: Unknown Built: Unknown Owned by Unknown Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: The Helmet Wreck, formerly known as the Depth Charge Wreck, is a rare example of an intact shipwreck in Palau. Wreck hunter Dan E. Bailey discovered the ship on January 18th 1990. The true name of this ship is unknown and she was not documented in any of the navy archives. Potentially the ship was confiscated in Southeast Asia during the war (Tanaka 2007:89). On the aft starboard side of the ship a massive explosion tore open the hull revealing the ribs of the ship and scattering drum-like depth charges onto the sea floor. The exposed main-cargo-hold reveals stacks of depth charges neatly arranged on the port side and, due to a massive explosion, scattered around on the starboard side. Under the port upper deck stacks of helmets can be found, now cemented together by decades of underwater corrosion. In the starboard side of another cargo hold are stored two “Lewis-type” machine guns. These apparently were the guns that would normally be mounted on the bases positioned on each side of the bridge. These machine guns were not prepared �for use by the ship’s crewmembers. There is a round aft gun platform and the gun barrel is pointing to port amid the mangled steel of the collapsed gun mount (Figure 3). Aboard the wreck was found a ceramic wash-basin bearing the logo of Toyo Toki, a ceramic making company in Japan. This suggests that this ship was renovated to some extent by Japanese. A two-headed winch is mounted just forward on the bow. The anchor chain extends from the port hawsehole pipe, while the starboard anchor is in its stowed position. This suggests that the ship was anchored close to shore in a group of small coral islets in the south of Aurapushekaru Channel, for the protection against the bombs and torpedoes of the attacking aircraft. On an islet near the sinking point many bullet holes can be seen. Figure 3. Round aft gun platform of the Helmet Wreck (T.Ishimura). Buoy # 6 Wreck Location: Malakal Channel Depth: The wreck is resting upright near marker # 6 at 27 meters. Deck is 21 meters deep. The hull is perpendicular to southwest slope and the bow is �pointing to the northeast. Orientation (from stern to bow): Northeast General Information: Type: Bonito fishing boat (probably converted to a submarine chaser) Length: 30 meters Tonnage: Unknown Speed: Unknown Built: Unknown Owned by Unknown Destroyed on March 30th, 1944 Brief description: This small vessel known as Buoy #6 wreck was a bonito fishing boat converted to a submarine chaser. The original name of this ship is unknown, and she is not documented in any of the navy archives. A pair of outlet conduits can be seen on the portside, which is a feature of bonito fishing boats. A circular gun platform is mounted on the bow but the gun is missing. Two sections of superstructure can be seen amidships. A survivor of Iro related that he was rescued by a group of bonito fishing boats from Yaizu, Shizuoka Prefecture in Japan (Tanaka 2007:87). It is a known fact that, not only, commercial vessels but also many fishing boats were used for military purposes during the War. The ship of Bouy # 6 may have been a member of such a group. Interpretations and discussion The research on the wrecks revealed that most of the vessels sunken in Palau were not main-force vessels of Japanese forces but auxiliary vessels and converted vessels originally built for non-combat purposes. The Iro was not an original military vessel but an oil tanker and was not suited for direct combat. In addition, the ship was old and slow in speed. The Akashi was heavily damaged by the attack in Truk and hardly managed to escape with the other vessels of the fleet. The other vessels were not genuine military vessels but former commercial vessels such as cargo ships and bonito fishing boats. Some of them have not been documented in military records. This implies that the number of military �vessels were so insufficient that commercial vessels were used for military purpose in the later part of the War. These vessels were also “slow boats”. They were too slow to catch up with other members of the fleet such as battleships, cruisers and destroyers. They were left behind as a “third wheel” of the Combined Fleet. Moreover, the vessels were not well-equipped for combat activity. Most of them had only one or two gun turrets to fight against enemy aircrafts. Lack of ammunition forced them to be engaged more difficult battles. Nonetheless, much of the vessels anchored in the harbor and continued intercepting against aircrafts until they sunk. Due to these factors it is considered that this was a suicidal mission, as is the case with the “banzai” and “kamikaze” suicide bombing attacks in battles on Peleliu and other islands in the Pacific region. The evidence provided here demonstrates the difficulties and the desperate campaign of the Japanese forces in the later part of the WWII. Studies on shipwrecks and other war-associated sites will provide further evidence that are thus far not known to exist in documents. Underwater investigations on wrecks also indicate the importance of documentation by underwater archaeological methods and implementation of proper conservation management for the UCH in Palau. The vessels and artifacts have deteriorated due to the combined causes of bombing, aging and salvaging activities, therefore it is necessary to record the current state of conservation of these properties. The Akashi site also needs to be protected, for a number of artifacts are distributed in the debris field even though the vessel itself has been removed. The Palauan government has designated the WWII wrecks as cultural properties and protects them by law (UNESCO 2010:77); however, some of them are still under threat by illegal treasure hunters, like the case of the Chuyo Maru. Such looting activity is impermissible and must cease, since it harms not only the cultural property of Palau but also the dignity of the dead in the wrecks and the sentiments of the bereaved families in Japan. Bibliography Bailey, D. E., WW II Wrecks of Palau, North Valley Diver Publications, 1991 California. Fish ’n Fins, n.d. D-log Palau (CD-ROM). Koror: Fish ’n Fins. �Ishimura, T., 2005 “WW II archaeology and recovery of the remains: a case in Palau”, paper presented at Inter-Congress in 2005, World Archaeology Congress, World Archaeology Congress, Osaka. Ishimura, T., 2010a “Research on the WW II sites and the cultural heritages of the Japanese Mandate Territory period in Palau”, in Bulletin of Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties 2010, pp. 12-13. (in Japanese) Ishimura, T., 2010b “Memories and sites of the war in Palau: archaeology and recovery of Japanese soldier remains”, in Kindai Koko 66, pp. 1-3. (in Japanese) Tanaka, M., Palau: Underwater Spirits of the War Dead, Namiki Shobo, 2007 Tokyo.. (in Japanese) UNESCO, 2010 Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania (edited by Ulrike Guérin, Barbara Egger and Vidha Penalva). Paris: UNESCO. Yoshimura, A., 1976 Navy Otsu Incident. Tokyo: Bungei Shunju. (in Japanese) � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/86bec8c588b397aea0a56a7bade65e9a.jpg 06796f47a61e28670c727d4c2a6a506d Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Investigation of Abandoned WW II Wrecks in Palau Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource Over forty Japanese vessels were sunken in the water of Palau during WWII. Some wrecks sunk in the shallow water at a depth of 20 meters or less and were salvaged. Other wrecks at 30 meters depth or more still remain and are legally protected by the authority of Palau Government but are seriously threatened by illegal treasure hunters. Initial efforts to identify human remains of Japanese soldiers were made in 2005. As part of an archaeology advisory team for the Japanese Government I carried out underwater surveys of sunken WWII vessels in Palau. In 2010 and 2011, I conducted investigations of the WWII vessels again, together with on-shore research on sites and features associated with the Japanese occupation period, funded by the Takanashi Foundation for Arts and Archaeology (Japan). The research revealed that the most of the vessels sunken in Palau were not genuine military vessels of Japanese Imperial Navy or Army but converted vessels originally built for non-combat purposes. These vessels were slow in speed and not well-equipped for combat activity. Most of them were destroyed by American aerial bombing on March 30th 1944. The evening before (March 29th) the main force of the Japanese Combined Fleet, including its flagship Musashi, retreated from Palau. It is clear that the vessels left in Palau were abandoned as a “third wheel” of the Combined Fleet. These abandoned-converted vessels include cargo carriers, tankers, whaling boats and fishing boats. This implies that Japanese troops were experiencing a difficult and desperate campaign at that time. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tomo Ishimura Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/59b714b7769d5b68d211ae1e0078add8.pdf 243865b08413817e20dcee1496b1c728 PDF Text Text Iron materials from Shipwrecks―the iron as traded goods of Song-Yuan period in China ISHIGURO Hisako 石黒 ひさ子 Visiting Researcher for Research Institute of Ancient Japanese Studies, Meiji Univ. (明治大学日本古代学研究所客員研究員) ABSTRACT Iron is present in the traded goods of Song-Yuan period in China. In the shipwreck survey in China and Southeast Asia, iron bars and iron pots have been discovered as cargo on trade vessels. There are also iron bars in the Middle Ages of Japan, There are also iron bars being used during the Middle Ages of Japan, with some of these iron bars preserved in some archaeological sites. There is a view that these iron bars found in Japan are locally produced. But some researchers suggest it may have been imported from other places, such as China. Iron Bars also were discovered in Nanhai Ⅰ shipwreck (Chinese: 南海Ⅰ号), Huaguang Reef 1 shipwreck (Chinese: 華光 礁一号) and several other ones around the South China Sea. These iron bars found on the aforementioned shipwrecks are very similar to the Iron Bar found in Japan. The ironware found on the shipwreck (10th-13th Century) in Southeast Asia, especially in the Java region, was mainly iron bars as raw material and iron pots. Historical documents include descriptions of iron products exported from China. According to the description, there are two types of concrete shapes of iron products: "bar-shaped" and "pot-shaped". In Chunxi Sanshan-zhi (Chinese: 淳熙三山志), the local gazetteer of Southern Song Fuzhou (Chinese: 福州), there is a decree restricting the export of iron in the third year of Qingli (Chinese: 慶暦三年, 1043). This decree prohibited the export of ironware other than agricultural tools, pots and pans. Conversely, it can be interpreted that export is possible as long as it is in the shape of agricultural tools or pots and pans. Iron Bars are similar in shape to the "harrow teeth" of agricultural tools. This is the reason why the iron products from shipwrecks have "Iron Bars" and "Iron pots". In this paper, the iron materials of Nanhai I and the iron material of shipwrecks in Southeast Asia such as Cirebon Wreck, Intan Wreck, Pulau Buaya Wreck, Java Sea Wreck, are compared and examined. The purpose of such comparison is to recognize the significance in their similarities and differences, and to propose issues related to the sourcing and usage of iron materials found from the shipwrecks. KEYWORDS: Iron bars, Traded goods of Song-Yuan period, Iron, "Harrow teeth" LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Table 1. The iron artifacts from Nanhai Ⅰ. Table 2. Iron artifacts of select shipwrecks Figure 1. The iron bars from Nanhai Ⅰ Figure 2. Iron bars of Saida Site 1. INTRODUCITION Iron was traded in the South China Sea during the Song and Yuan dynasties. It was referred to in literature as "鐵" (iron), "鐵器" (ironware), "鐵塊" (iron ingots), as well as "鐵鼎" (iron cauldrons), " 鐵鍋" (iron pots), "鐵針" (iron needles), "鐵條" (iron bars), and "鐵線" (iron wires) in Chinese. From these references, it is understood that there were two types of iron traded in the South China Sea: ironware in the shape of pots, and ironware in the form of bars. In recent years, iron pots and bar-shaped iron have been found among the cargoes of sunken ships in China and Southeast Asia. Bar-shaped iron artifacts have also been found in medieval Japan. These are believed to be the form of iron collected as taxes in Japan during the 10th to 11th centuries（T.Fukuda 1983, 163-189）However, the similarity between these bar-shaped iron artifacts and those found in sunken ships suggests that there may have been imports of iron materials from China as well (Y. Momosaki 2008, 1-53). 1 �Details of ironware have been revealed through the report on the sunken ship Nanhai I, which dates back to the Southern Song Dynasty. The bar-shaped iron artifacts found there are about 20 centimeters in length and bear a striking resemblance to the "bar shaped ironware" found in Japan. During the Song Dynasty, there were laws prohibiting the export of iron, and the local gazetteer of Fuzhou, "Chunxi Sanshan Zhi"(Chinese: 淳熙三山志）, records a law that restricted iron exports in the third year of Qingli (Chinese: 慶暦三年, in year1043). The existence of such laws suggests that there were restrictions on the outflow of iron due to the high volume of iron exports. This law prohibited the export of ironware other than agricultural tools and pots. In other words, it can be interpreted that exports of iron in the form of agricultural tools or pots were allowed. The bar-shaped iron products found in sunken ships resemble the shape of the "teeth of a horse plow," which can be considered as an agricultural tool. This means that they can be considered as "agricultural tools." The presence of both bar-shaped iron and pots in the cargoes of sunken ships indicates that iron pots and bar-shaped iron were exported as materials, rather than finished products, which was in compliance with the law of the time. In this paper, we will start with analysing the iron artifacts found on Nanhai No.1 shipwreck. Then, we will proceed to comparing the iron artifacts with those found in other South East Asian shipwrecks such as Cirebon Wreck, Intan Wreck, Pulau Buaya Wreck and Java Sea Wreck. Several arguments will be proposed as the paper compare the similarities and differences of these iron materials. The paper will arrive at some tentative conclusion which deems further studies. 2. NANHAI Ⅰ AND ITS IRON ARTIFACTS Nanhai Ⅰ is a sunken ship from the Southern Song Dynasty that was discovered in the waters near the border of Taishan City（台山市）and Yangjiang City（陽江市） in Guangdong Province, China, in 1987. This ship was a trading vessel from the late 12th century. The remaining length of the ship's hull is 22.1 meters, with a width of 9.35 meters. It is categorized as a junk ship with 15 cargo holds confirmed vertically, and is deemed typical of Chinese trade ships (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2018, 110-159). Nanhai Ⅰ was loaded with a large amount of iron artifacts. It has been reported that as of December 2017, 80 tons of iron artifacts have been confirmed through excavations, and it is estimated that there may have been over 100 tons of iron artifacts on board, including the previously excavated concretions (T.Li 2018, 66-71). This is consistent with historical records of iron being an export commodity from China during the Song and Yuan dynasties. However, the quantity of iron artifacts, exceeding 100 tons per trading ship, requires a re-evaluation of the influence of Chinese iron trade on foreign trade, as it is even greater than previously imagined. Several data have already been reported on the iron artifacts from Nanhai Ⅰ. According to reports from 2014 to 2015, iron artifacts were found throughout the entire ship, and it has been confirmed that the iron artifacts were placed on top of ceramic artifacts (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2018, 496-502). The quantities of iron artifacts reported are as follows (Table 1). 2 �Table 1. The iron artifacts (iron bar and iron pot) from Nanhai Ⅰ. *Created with reference to (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2018, 157- 420). Iron Bar NO. weight (g/kg) length Thick (max) Thick(min) Sample 1 N28 402.87 g 30.6 cm 1.4 cm 1.1 cm Sample 2 N15－43 281.1 g 20 cm 1.9 cm 1.5 cm Iron bar-A Iron bar-B type-B-a \ Sample 1 N28 309.91 g 33.2 cm 2.5㎝ (top) Sample 2 N28 153.071 g 22.87cm 1.7 cm Sample 1 N15ｰ35 306.86 g 25.9 cm 3.8 cm (upper middle) Sample 2 N15-35 453.15 g 26.5 cm 3.3 cm (upper middle) Sample 1 N44 456.81 g 24.8 cm Sample 2 N44 660.76 g 23 cm Iron pot NO. weight caliber height thick Iron pot-A N28 3.56 kg (Total of 2 pots) 22 cm 7.3 cm 0.2 cm Iron pot-C N39 13.36 kg (Total of 14 pots) 28.5 cm 7.7 cm 0.2 cm Iron pot-B N58-29 71.86 kg (Total of 20 pots) 40 cm 14.3 cm 0.4 cm type-B-b Iron Bar-C Figure 1. The iron bars from Nanhai Ⅰ shipwreck. *image source: plate7-55 (p.498), plate7-58 (p.499), plate7-62 (p.500) from (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2018). The iron artifacts include "iron bars" and "iron pots". The iron bars from Nanhai Ⅰ is generally bundled with ropes made of bamboo or rattan, with 35 to 45 bars being the basic configuration, and some of them are wrapped in mat-like materials. The forms are classified into three categories: A-shaped bars, B-shaped curved bards, and C-shaped wedge-shaped bars (Figure 1). In addition, knife-shaped iron 3 �artifacts have also been confirmed. The iron pots are classified into three categories: A-handled pots, B handleless flat pots, and C-handleless deep pots. Data from chemical analysis of the iron indicate that the iron bars is wrought iron based on its carbon content, while the iron pots are cast iron based on their sulfur content, which indicates the possibility of iron smelting using coal (W.Liu 2011, 145- 146; J.Wan 2016, 46-51; T.Li 2018, 66-71). Some of the iron pots from Nanhai Ⅰ have sulfur contents exceeding 0.4%, indicating iron smelting using coal. On the other hand, some pots have sulfur contents of around 0.2% or less, and some have sulfur contents of less than 0.1%. The sulfur content of the iron bars is less than 0.1%. From this, it can be inferred that the iron artifacts on board Nanhai Ⅰ consist of both cast iron produced using coal and cast iron produced using wood charcoal. As for the ceramic artifacts, it is clear that the ceramic artifacts on board Nanhai Ⅰ were collected from multiple production sites of kilns such as Jingdezhen (Chinese:景徳鎮), Longquan (Chinese:龍泉), Dehua (Chinese: 徳化), Cizao (Chinese: 磁竈), Minqing-yiyao (Chinese: 閩清義 窯), etc, (National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage 2018, 157-420). It is also likely that the iron artifacts were collected from multiple sources, similar to the ceramic artifacts. In addition to Nanhai I, ironware has also been unearthed from South East Asian wrecks such as the Cirebon Wreck, Intan Wreck, Pulau Buaya Wreck, and Java Sea Wreck. We will consider these next. 3. SHIPWRECKS AND THEIR IRON ARTIFACTS There is no evidence of iron as a commodity from shipwrecks such as the Takashima (Japanese: 鷹島) Underwater Site in Japan or the Sinan (in Chinese Characters: 新安）Shipwreck in Korea (M.Osawa 1996, 97-103; J. Kimura 2010, 50-55). However, there are several instances of ships carrying large quantities of iron as cargo in the Southeast Asian region, particularly in the Java Sea area. According to Derek Heng's list, shipwrecks such as the Cirebon Wreck (late 10th century), Intan Wreck (late 10th century), Pulau Buaya Wreck (12-13th century), Java Sea Wreck (early 13th century), Brunei Wreck (15th-16th century), Vung Tau Wreck (1690s), and Ca Mau Wreck (1730s) are known to have contained iron items (Table.2, D.Heng 2018, 1-29). Although Derek Heng's list does not mention iron items as cargo, iron pots have been identified on the Tanjong Simpang Mangayau Wreck, a shipwreck dating to the Northern Song period (960-1127) (Y.Meng 2018, 11-26). Table 2. Iron Artifacts found on selected shipwrecks. Information retrieved from D. Heng, 2018. *Created with reference to (D.Heng 2018.1-29) Name of shipwreck Time Type of vessel Iron artifacts in freight Cirebon Wreck Late 10th century Southeast Asian (dowel and peg fasteners) Iron bars and iron pots Intan Wreck Late 11th century Southeast Asian (lashed-lug hull) Chinese iron rods and blades Pulau Buaya Wreck 12th-13th century Unknown iron bars and woks Java Sea Wreck early 13th century Southeast Asian 200 tons of Chinese iron (Bornean ironwood dowels; lashed-lug hull) Brunei Wreck Vung Tau Wreck 15th-early 16th century 1690s Southeast Asian Hybrid iron bars Chinese Lorcha cast iron pans and cauldrons (Chinese-European hybrid; built in China) Ca Mau Wreck 1730s possibly Southeast Asian Hybrid (hull constructed of Dipterocarpus timber) 4 iron pans �The age of the ships from the Cirebon Wreck, Intan Wreck, Pulau Buaya Wreck, and Java Sea Wreck is from the Song-Yuan period in China. Iron bars and iron pots were found in the Cirebon Wreck. The Cirebon Wreck contained iron bars that were packaged in a manner similar to the iron bars found on the South China Sea Shipwreck, with about 50 bars bundled together with plant fibers. The iron items were mostly located in the lower part of the ship, with Chinese ceramics placed on top of them (H.H. Liebner 2014, 203-206). The iron items from the Intan Wreck were believed to be of Chinese origin, and they included conical-shaped iron bars (about 30 cm long) that were packaged, as well as cylindrical-shaped iron bars and cast iron items such as a 21 cm diameter iron pot (F. Michael 2002, 85-86).The shape and packaging method of these iron items were similar to those found on the Nanhai I. The Pulau Buaya Wreck also contains iron objects believed to be of Indian origin, such as iron lamps, as well as cast iron pots with a diameter of 29 cm and iron bars packaged in bundles, which are also similar to the iron bars from the Nanhai I (R.Abu 1998, 84-87)． In the Java Sea Wreck, iron bars and iron pots were also found, believed to be of Chinese origin. The iron objects were mostly located in the lower part of the ship. The iron bars were packaged in woven materials such as rattan strings and hemp cloth, as well as in cone-shaped bundles about 40 centimeters long, which have the characteristic of being coated with white lime compound. The iron pots from the Java Sea Wreck come in three sizes with diameters of about 32 centimeters, 51 centimeters, and 70 centimeters. The iron pot is made of cast iron, and since China excels in the production of cast iron, these iron pots are considered to be Chinese products. In the cargo arrangement of the Java Sea Wreck, it was confirmed that the iron pots and iron bars were located below the ceramics (M.W.Matters 1997, 77-80, 95-102). Iron bars packaged in a conical shape have been found in common at both the Intan Wreck and Java Sea Wreck. Additionally, iron bars packaged in the same conical shape have also been found in the waters of the Paracel Islands at the Huaguang Reef 1 shipwreck. The Huaguang Reef 1 shipwreck is estimated to be from the early Southern Song Dynasty (first half of the 12th century) and is considered to be the earliest Chinese trade ship in the South China Sea (Y.Meng 2018, 11-26). What would have been the mounting position of the iron artifacts found on the sunken ship? In the case of the Nanhai I, the iron artifacts were located in the middle layer of the ship's cargo. Beneath the iron artifacts were ceramics. On the other hand, in the Cirebon Wreck and Java Sea Wreck, the iron artifacts were located in the lowest part of the ship. Chinese ceramics were placed above the iron artifacts. The Nanhai I was a type of Chinese junk ship, while the Cirebon Wreck and Java Sea Wreck were of Southeast Asian style. The positions of iron artifacts and ceramics differed between the Nanhai I and the Cirebon Wreck and Java Sea Wreck. This suggests the possibility that Chinese trade goods originating from China were transferred from Chinese ships to Southeast Asian-style ships in the Java Sea region. Nanhai I iron artifacts are exports from China. Chinese ironware has also been found in shipwrecks in Southeast Asia. Their form is iron bar or iron pot. Of these, rod-shaped iron will be examined next. 4. APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM OF "IRON BARS" It can be confirmed in historical documents that iron products were included in exports from China during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Using the descriptions from "Zhufan zhi" (Chinese : 諸蕃志) 5 �written around 1225, "Zhenla-fengtuji" (Chinese: 真臘風土記) written around 1296, and "Daoyi-zhilüe"（Chinese: 島夷誌略）written during the Yuan Dynasty (1341-1370), Shigemi Sasamoto （Japanese: 笹本重己）confirms that China during the Song-Yuan period was exporting ironware(S.Shigemoto1952,131- 144). Based on records by the Arabian scholar Edrisi from the 12th century and Dimashki from the 14th century, which stated that Chinese iron was being imported to the Arabian Peninsula, Ichisada Miyazaki (Japanese: 宮崎市定) inferred that iron had become an important export product in China. Using "Daoyi zhilüe," Miyazaki compiled a list of country and place names that imported iron products (I.Miyazaki 1957, 441-454). The list compiled by Miyazaki shows that the specific shapes of iron products for export mentioned in the literature were iron bars and iron pots. Iron objects found in sunken ships such as Nanhai I and those in Southeast Asia were produced in China and were in the form of iron bars and iron pots, which supports the descriptions in the literature. These physical objects serve as evidence supporting the written records. Iron products excavated from medieval Japanese ruins have a shape similar to "Iron bars," and Yoshiro Momozaki (Japanese: 桃﨑祐輔) suggests that these items were imported from China or Korea (Y.Momosaki 2008, 1-53). For example, at the Saida (Japanese: 才田site in Asakura (Japanese: 朝倉) City, Fukuoka (Japanese: 福岡) Prefecture, a total of 12 iron products were discovered, including a well-preserved 20cm iron bar (Figure 2), which is similar to the iron bars found in the Nanhai I and Huaguang Reef 1 (Y.Momosaki 2023, 1-24). Figure 2. Iron bars of Saida Site *image source: plates from (Y.Momosaki 2023,1-24). However, there is debate over how these "Iron bars" were used in Japan. Kazuyuki Matsui (Japanese:松 井和幸) argues that these iron bars could be the teeth of a "harrow" and that some harrow had iron teeth attached to wooden frames. In this discussion, viewing the iron bars as teeth of a horse plow is a very suggestive perspective (K.Matsui 2004, 76-93). There is information in the "Chunxi Sanshan-zhi," which is a local gazetteer of Southern Song Fuzhou (Chinese:福州), about the specific iron production situation in the Southern Song Dynasty. Sanshan is another name for Fuzhou, and "Chunxi Sanshan Zhi" is compiled during the Chunxi (Chinese: 淳熙) years of the Southern Song Dynasty (1174- 1189). The following description can be found in Volume 41, "Local Products and Iron": 「慶暦三年、発運使楊告乞下福建厳行禁法。除民間打造農器、鍋釜等外、不許私 販下海。」 In the third year of Qingli, the envoy Yang Gao proposed strict enforcement of iron prohibition in Fujian, prohibiting private sales and exportation of iron goods, except for agricultural implements, 6 �pots, and kettles made by the common people. This Qingli Third Year (1043) decree prohibits the circulation of iron goods, except for agricultural implements and cooking pots, which are daily necessities. The large number of "iron pots" confirmed in the iron products found in shipwrecks is consistent with this decree. Regarding "iron bars," as mentioned above, there is a debate that the iron bars excavated from Japan during the medieval period are the "teeth of a harrow." Iron bars found in Japan have a similar shape to those found in Nanhai I and Huaguang Reef 1. The decree of Qingli Third Year stated that ironware, including agricultural tools, could be traded. "The teeth of a harrow" refers to agricultural tools, meaning that iron bars were iron intended for circulation and export using the shape of harrow teeth. However, it is highly likely that they were actually made from raw materials of iron. In the decree of Qingli Third Year, the exclusion of agricultural tools and cooking utensils was actually important. The shape of the iron artifacts found in shipwrecks from the Song and Yuan dynasties, such as iron bars or iron pots, can be attributed to this decree. The large quantities of iron bars or iron pots found in sunken ships were in the shape intended to circumvent regulations that restricted the circulation and export of iron. These iron bars or iron pots were export products and were likely made from iron as raw material. 5. CONCLUSION Artifacts from shipwrecks related to the South China Sea trade, including Nanhai I, contain a large quantity of iron products. This indicates that iron production in China during the Song and Yuan dynasties had a wide export market through maritime trade. The forms of iron artifacts in wrecks are iron bars or iron pots. Its form is related to Chinese law. This was because the iron that could be exported from China was limited by law to pots and farm tools. Iron bars have the potential to be raw iron for export using the shape of agricultural tools. Similarities can also be observed between the iron artifacts found in Japan from the same period, such as iron bars, and those discovered in shipwrecks in the Java Sea region. These shipwrecks in the Java Sea are geographically linked to trade involving Java Island, which, like Japan, had limited iron ore resources but was known for its abundant sulfur production. It is believed that the Nanhai I alone contains around 100 tons of iron artifacts, although only a small portion of the findings has been publicly released. The data on iron bars in Japan and shipwrecks in Southeast Asia is still not sufficient. However, they make it possible to demonstrate that a large amount of iron was being produced in China for export purposes. To achieve this, more information will be added in the future and comparisons between regions will be conducted. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY R.Abu, and E. E. McKinnon. The Pulau Buaya Wreck: Finds from the Song Period. Jakarta: Ceramic Society of Indonesia, 1998. D. Heng"Ships, Shipwrecks and Archaeological Recoveries as Sources of Southeast Asian History."In David Ludden .ed. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History New York: Oxford University Press,Online Publication Date: 2018. H.Ishiguro(石 黒ひさ子) "Iron materials of Nanhai I Wreck"令 和 2～4 年度科学研究費助成事業（基 盤（C））「 日中 文 明 遺物 の 産地 探索 をめ ざす 中近 世 沈船 ・船 載遺 物と 自然 科 学の 融合 研究 」 ,福 岡 大学人文学部考古学研究 室 2023, 57-76． J. Kimura / 木 村淳"Iron nails recovered from the plank of the Shinan shipwreck." In J. Kimura.ed. Shipwreck ASIA:Thematic Studies in East Asian Maritime Archaeology, Maritime Archaeology Program Flinders University,2010: 50-55. T.Li/林唐欧"「南海Ⅰ号」船載鉄器初探. "遺産与保護研究 3, no. 8 (2018):66-71. T.Fukuda/福田豊彦"文献資料より見た古代の製鉄"古代日本の鉄と社会.東京鉱業大学製鉄史研究会,平凡社1982:163-189 H. H. Liebner “The Siren of Cirebon A Tenth-Century Trading Vessel Lost in the Java Sea” PhD dissertation, University of Leeds, 2014.W.Liu/劉薇,張治国,李秀輝,馬清林"中国南海三处 古代沉船 遗址出水 铁器 凝结 物分析. "中国国家博物 館 館刊 91, No.2 (2011) :145-156. M.W.Matters and M.Flecker.ed. Archaeological Recoveryof the JAVA SEA WRECK.Pacific Sea Resources.1997. F. Michael. The Archaeological Excavation of the 10th Century: Intan Shipwreck. Vol. 1047. British Archaeological Reports, 2002. K.Matsui/ 松井 和幸"馬鍬の起源と変遷"考古学研究 51, No.1 (2004). K.Matsui/松井和幸.鉄の日本史.Tokyo:筑摩書房,2022 Y.Meng/孟原召"華光礁一号沈船与宋代南海貿易"博物院 (2018-No.2) I.Miyazaki/ 宮崎 市定"支那の鉄について"史 林 40, No.6 (1957): 44-454. Y.Momosaki/桃﨑祐輔"中世棒状鉄素材に関する基礎的研究. "七隈史学 No.10(2008): 1- 53. Y.Mmosaki/桃 﨑祐 輔"Study on bar-shaped iron materials excavated from medieval ruins",令和 2～4 年 度科学研究費助 成事業(基盤(C）)「日中文明遺物の産地探索をめざす中近世沈船・船載遺物と自然科学の融合研究」,福岡大学人文学 部考古学研究室 2023,1－24． National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Guandong Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage ,Guangdong Museum, Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong,ed. Archaeological Report on Nanhai Ⅰ shipwreck Series Ⅱ:Excavation of 2014- 2015Beijing:Culturral Relics Press,2018.国 家文物局水下文化遺産保護中心、広東省文物考古研究 所、中国文化遺産研究院、広東省博物館、広東海上絲綢之路 博物館編著『 南海Ⅰ号沈船考古報告之二－2014～2015 年発掘』文物出版社、2018 M.Osawa/大澤正己"鷹島海底遺跡出土木製碇使用円形頭釘の金属学的調査",鷹島町教育委員会 ed. 鷹島海底遺跡 Ⅲ,1996:97-103. M.Sasaki 佐々木稔"中世 鉄研究の現状と課題"七隈史学 No.9(2008):127-150. S.Sasamoto/笹本重己"広東の鉄鍋について：明清代における内外販路"東洋史研究 12, No.2(1952):131- 144. J.Wan/万 鑫,毛志平,張治国,李秀輝"「南海 I 号」沈船出水鉄鍋、鉄釘分析研究. "中国文物科学研究 No.2 (2016):46-51. 8 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Iron materials from Shipwrecks―the iron as traded goods of Song-Yuan period in China Description An account of the resource Iron is present in the traded goods of Song-Yuan period in China. In the shipwreck survey in China and Southeast Asia, iron bars and iron pots have been discovered as cargo on trade vessels. There are also iron bars in the Middle Ages of Japan, There are also iron bars being used during the Middle Ages of Japan, with some of these iron bars preserved in some archaeological sites. There is a view that these iron bars found in Japan are locally produced. But some researchers suggest it may have been imported from other places, such as China. Iron Bars also were discovered in Nanhai Ⅰ shipwreck (Chinese: 南海Ⅰ号), Huaguang Reef 1 shipwreck (Chinese: 華光 礁一号) and several other ones around the South China Sea. These iron bars found on the aforementioned shipwrecks are very similar to the Iron Bar found in Japan. The ironware found on the shipwreck (10th-13th Century) in Southeast Asia, especially in the Java region, was mainly iron bars as raw material and iron pots. Historical documents include descriptions of iron products exported from China. According to the description, there are two types of concrete shapes of iron products: "bar-shaped" and "pot-shaped". In Chunxi Sanshan-zhi (Chinese: 淳熙三山志), the local gazetteer of Southern Song Fuzhou (Chinese: 福州), there is a decree restricting the export of iron in the third year of Qingli (Chinese: 慶暦三年, 1043). This decree prohibited the export of ironware other than agricultural tools, pots and pans. Conversely, it can be interpreted that export is possible as long as it is in the shape of agricultural tools or pots and pans. Iron Bars are similar in shape to the "harrow teeth" of agricultural tools. This is the reason why the iron products from shipwrecks have "Iron Bars" and "Iron pots". In this paper, the iron materials of Nanhai I and the iron material of shipwrecks in Southeast Asia such as Cirebon Wreck, Intan Wreck, Pulau Buaya Wreck, Java Sea Wreck, are compared and examined. The purpose of such comparison is to recognize the significance in their similarities and differences, and to propose issues related to the sourcing and usage of iron materials found from the shipwrecks. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ishiguro Hisako Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Hisako, Ishiguro. 2023. “Iron materials from Shipwrecks ― the iron as traded goods of Song-Yuan period in China.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, and T. Kurt Knoerl. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1982 Asia-Pac Session 7 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Islamic Maritime Law: An Introduction Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hassan S. Khalilieh Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brill Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Hassan S. Khalilieh Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1998 Place Leiden Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Brill Title A name given to the resource Islamic Maritime Law: An Introduction Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Japan and the Dutch, 1600-1853 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Grant Kohn Goodman Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Curzon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2000 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Grant Kohn Goodman Item Type Book ISBN 0700712208 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2000 Library Catalog OCLC WorldCat FirstSearch Num Pages 304 Place Richmond, Surrey Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Curzon Title A name given to the resource Japan and the Dutch, 1600-1853 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Japan's Foreign Relations 1200 to 1392 A.D.: A Translation from "Zenrin Kokuhōki" Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Zuikei Shuho Charlotte von Verschuer Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Winter, 2002 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author Zuikei Shuho Charlotte von Verschuer Item Type Journal Article ISSN 00270741 Access Date 2009-10-26 07:30:42 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Winter, 2002 Extra ArticleType: primary_article / Full publication date: Winter, 2002 / Copyright © 2002 Sophia University Issue 4 Library Catalog JSTOR Pages 413-445 Publication Title Monumenta Nipponica Short Title Japan's Foreign Relations 1200 to 1392 A.D. Title A name given to the resource Japan's Foreign Relations 1200 to 1392 A.D.: A Translation from "Zenrin Kokuhōki" URL http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/3096734 Volume 57 Japan Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Japan’s Treaty Ports and Foreign Settlements Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource J.E. Hoare Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Japan Library Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1994 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author J.E. Hoare Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1994 Place Kent, England Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Japan Library Title A name given to the resource Japan’s Treaty Ports and Foreign Settlements Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6b0323c609d242e6e801c2c49d7d72cc.pdf bb9991b6fa7e68cd9bbb12fbcbabfbff Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2021 Session 2: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Session 2 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 2 of the 2021 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Date Copyrighted Date of copyright. 2023 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Japanese Boatbuilding Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Douglas Brooks Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2021 Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Brooks, Douglas. 2021. “Japanese Boatbuilding.” Edited by Brian Fahy, Hans Van Tilburg, Bill Jeffery, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Riley Smith. In Proceedings of Fourth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Keelung,Taiwan, and Virtual, November 1-5, 2021. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology URL: https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/exhibits/show/apconf-muchproceedings/item/666 Description An account of the resource The craft of boatbuilding in Japan is in crisis. Nurtured by an ancient apprentice system, Japan’s rapid growth in the post-War years disrupted this tradition. The last century was a pivotal time for this craft: the devastation of World War II forced one more generation to assume the work of their fathers, but the rapid recovery and ascendance of the Japanese economy starting in the 1960’s pulled the children of these men into the corporate jobs of a new Japan. In a single generation the apprentices the craft depended on disappeared. Without a new generation of apprentices, craftspeople were unable to pass on their knowledge. Because this was largely an oral tradition, and infused with secrecy, it presents particular challenges for documentarians. It is critical now to document the work of Japan’s last generation of boatbuilders. Over the course of twenty-five visits to Japan spanning twenty-nine years I have apprenticed with seven boatbuilders from throughout Japan. In addition, I have traveled to all of Japan’s forty-seven prefectures, meeting and interviewing over fifty boatbuilders. My teachers were in their seventies or eighties at the time I studied with them, and I am the sole apprentice for six of my teachers. Most of my teachers used no drawings whatsoever, and worked entirely from memory. Drawings, where they did exist, were left intentionally incomplete. The goal of my work has been to document as much as I can - essentially writing the secrets down - in an effort to preserve the designs and techniques of boatbuilding. In this talk I will review the challenges, processes, and insights I have gleaned from this work. Asia-Pac Session 2 2021