26 10 700 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource India’s Contribution to World Thought and Culture Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chandra, Lokesh Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Vivekananda Rock Memorial Committee Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1970 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Chandra, Lokesh Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1970 Place Madras Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Vivekananda Rock Memorial Committee Title A name given to the resource India’s Contribution to World Thought and Culture India Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Indonesian Influence on East African Culture Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource James Hornell Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1934 Type The nature or genre of the resource Journal Article Zotero Author James Hornell Item Type Journal Article Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1934 Pages 305-32 Publication Title Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Title A name given to the resource Indonesian Influence on East African Culture Volume 64 Southeast Asia https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/2963bb29b78f7c5b7fcaf9a015fe093e.pdf 4fb38873c315e1d2814cfd3e3aec8b8f PDF Text Text Influencing the contemporary narrative on whaling heritage Bradley W. Barr National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, 175 Edward Foster Road, Scituate, MA 02066, USA Email: Brad.Barr@noaa.gov Abstract Whaling heritage is a significant part of the world’s maritime history, and its landscape footprint is global. In the 19th Century, the Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters were the epicenter of whaling, where both many of the most productive whaling grounds were located as well as the primary ports that serviced this industry. The most compelling stories of whaling heritage occurred in these waters, and the names of the storied whaling ships, and the perils they encountered, are well known. These are stories that not only illuminate significant events in our collective maritime past, but contain lessons learned that can inform and offer knowledge relevant to current, yet similar, problems we face today. The contemporary whaling narrative is dominated by the more recent history of whaling, and the divisive atmosphere created by the controversy surrounding the few countries that continue to have active commercial whaling industries. Efforts need to be directed at changing this contemporary narrative, perceptions of the public that whaling heritage is more than killing these giants of the sea. Increasing awareness of the many influences, positive and negative, that whaling, throughout its history, has had on shaping our geo-political system, societies, cultures, economies, and even expanding our knowledge of the oceans and their resources is essential. Through this expanded awareness and appreciation of how whaling helped shape the world we know, we can acquire some needed support for continued historical research and documentation of this part of our maritime heritage. Changing this narrative may also help in preserving the significant places in our global whaling heritage landscape, and hopefully inform wiser decisions about contemporary issues through learning from the past. Key words: Whaling Heritage, Global Whaling Heritage Landscape, Contemporary Narrative, Public Acceptance, Lessons Learned Introduction: Blood in the Water The predominant perception of whaling in modern society is all about killing whales, animals viewed as intelligent and social creatures that are brutally murdered for no particularly good reason. Except for a dwindling number of cultures, we no longer kill whales for meat, have little contemporary use of the oil rendered from their blubber, and have persisted in pursuing leviathan largely for political reasons related to preserving 1 �nationalistic prerogatives and traditional subsistence. This perception of whaling is a surprisingly recent phenomenon (Epstein, 2008), arising quite rapidly from a confluence of ideas, and a well-crafted campaign by environmental non-governmental organizations, related to the worldwide emergence of an ecological ethic in the mid1960’s. Epstein (2008) suggests that “Save the Whales” became a syllogism for the idea of saving the environment more generally, which led to this rapid and paradigmatic shift in the prevailing perception of whaling, and its nearly universal adoption by both society and particularly countries that had previously been very active advocates for the whaling industry throughout its history. When we think of whaling, what some see in their mind’s eye is the blood in the water. However, the whaling industry has, historically, contributed much to society and our collective well being. It has given us products that have illuminated our cities at a time when urban crime was epidemic (Starbuck, 1878), made the machines of the industrial age run smoothly and efficiently, and significantly influenced the global geo-political landscape. It was one of the first truly global industries, was a driver for opening up international trade and diplomatic relations, and was an economic engine for the global economy throughout most of the 19th Century. Whalers, somewhat like the Internet today, connected the world, and made it seem a bit smaller. The public learned about the world vicariously through the whalers’ experiences, covered extensively in the newspapers and magazines of the time. The whaling ships brought with them goods from their home countries and infusions of money to ports around the world to supply their operations and service their ships. They took away from these ports both local products and information about these places and their life ways. Popcorn, for example, is likely one of those products brought back to America by the whalers (Smith, 1999). They helped to increase our understanding of not just whales, but the oceans they live in and the other creatures that share these waters, illuminating a deeper knowledge of ocean currents and winds, weather and climate. They were, as described by Rozwadowski (2005), the first blue-water oceanographers. Not all the historical contributions of the global whaling industry were positive. In many far-off ports and places whalers put ashore to resupply, they introduced diseases to aboriginal cultures and often the deleterious effects of alcohol on 2 �these societies were exacerbated by visits from whaling ships. For example, it is believed that, quite unintentionally, the American whaling ship Wellington introduced mosquitos to Hawaii while restocking their water supplies during a visit to the islands in 1827 (Sedgwick, 1901). The introduction and influence of alcohol in Hawaii, after the first whalers began to arrive in Hawaii in 1819, was identified as a increasingly significant problem in Hawaii’s whaling ports through the latter part of the 19th Century, and has been attributed, beyond simply the intoxication of both Hawaiians and sailors, as a contributory factor in colonialism and its effects on Native Hawaiian society in this period (Brown, 2011). And, indeed, whale populations were decimated in many places around the world, leaving a legacy of impacts that remain on still recovering populations, which now face other challenges. In their wake, whalers undeniably left a host of environmental and societal impacts that often had severe and long-term deleterious effects. However, this was balanced, to one degree or another, by the economic benefits and geopolitical implications of their activities in these places. The dominant and powerful contemporary discourse surrounding whaling is quite definitively negative, as Epstein (2008) has observed. Notwithstanding whether the whaling industry is deserving of this widely-held public perception or not, one of the challenges this creates is that it makes raising public awareness about the positive aspects of whaling heritage far more challenging. To achieve some success in effectively reaching contemporary audiences with this more expansive, comprehensive and balanced view of whaling heritage, to help them be more open to receiving information that conflicts, perhaps deeply and with moral and ethical implications, with this prevailing discourse, offering some historical context is essential. To understand and appreciate the past, and to learn the important lessons this history offers, we need to find a way to overcome this contemporary perception of whaling as simply “blood in the water”. Whaling heritage and places Maury’s 1851 map whaling grounds and the more recent map of whaling voyages and species observed by Smith et al., (2012), taken from 19th logbooks and other documents, clearly demonstrate the global geographic reach of whaling in the 19th Century. While the extent of whaling during this period may have been global, it is the 3 �particular places in this landscape that help to tell the story of whaling heritage. The whaling grounds, such as the Japan Grounds, the Sea of Okhotsk, and the Western Arctic, were the places the whalers travelled to in search of whales, and spent time at sea catching and processing their quarry. These are places visited when the whales were plentiful and the profits were favorable, and inextricably linked with the storied whaling ports like Honolulu and Lahaina in Hawaii. Such port cities served the industry, offered provisioning supplies, ship repair and maintenance facilities and skilled craftsmen, often men to supplement whaling crews, and other less socially acceptable amenities, like grog-shops and prostitution (Daws, 1967). These ports, and all the whaling grounds, are places where whaling is a part of their history and heritage. As Barr and Delgado (in press) have suggested: ...we live in a world of places, created in the perceptions of people who are often deeply attached to these places and imbue them with special meaning. The landscape of whaling heritage and the significant places that are part of that landscape therefore also warrants some consideration in our collective efforts to interpret and inform, to educate and excite the imaginations of the public, as well as to increase and expand the awareness and appreciation of the importance of whaling heritage in our collective history. To effectively preserve and protect these places, we will need to be aware of and address the prevailing contemporary perception of whaling. Hawaii’s Whaling Heritage: What whaling contributed...... It has been suggested that whaling had a profound effect on the economic, cultural and social history of Hawaii (Barr and Delgado, In Press; Lebo, 2010; Raupp and Gleason, 2010). In the late 18th Century, as whaling began its global expansion, larger whaling ships began to be built that we capable of multi-year trips to new whaling grounds. With the discovery of the “Offshore Grounds” off Peru, the Sperm whaling grounds off Japan (LaCroix, 2002), the “Kodiak Grounds”, off Southeast Alaska (Burcin, 2005), and ultimately the Western Arctic whaling grounds North of the Bering Strait (Bockstoce, 1986), trips from the New England home ports to the Pacific were routinely three to four years by the mid-1800’s (Davis et al., 1987). Given such long voyages to the Pacific, 4 �the Hawaiian Islands were strategically located to provide ports to service this growing fleet. By 1822, approximately 60 whaling ships were routinely visiting Hawaiian ports, and by 1846, almost 600 ships were arriving each year (Juvik et al., 1998). While this impact gradually diminished over the next fifty years (Raupp and Gleason, 2010) it left a legacy of change in Hawaii. During the 1820’s to the 1830’s, the population of Honolulu tripled, from 3000 to 9000, and with this came the building of roads, housing, and other needed infrastructure (Daws, 1967). The waterfront area of Honolulu harbor also expanded: “The harbor made the town...by the middle of the 19th century Honolulu had grown from a tiny village to a busy Pacific port of call, the metropolis of the islands and the capital of the kingdom” (Daws, 1967). Given the substantial quantities of fresh water needed by ships, the first water supply system in Hawaii was installed in Honolulu harbor (Nellist, 1951). The existing water supply in Honolulu had become “impoverished and polluted” (Daws, 1967) and this new water system offered not only potable water to the ships, but to the residents of the harbor area. Whaling became an economic engine for Honolulu and the Islands (Daws, 1968; cf Raupp and Gleason, 2010). One of the most important interactions between the whalers and the Native Hawaiians was their service as crew on these ships. Lebo (2010) reports that by 1860, Native Hawaiians comprised upwards of one half of such crews in the Pacific and Arctic. As the influence of the expressed needs of the whalers for resupply of types of foods familiar to Yankee crews increased, the agriculture of the islands also began to change. The Hawaiian economy of the 1820’s was transformed from a trade-based to cashbased system. While not an uncommon occurrence in colonial systems (Feyrer and Sacerdote, 2006; Settles, 1996), this transition to the cultivation of foods to supply the whaling fleets visiting Hawaii changed the face of Hawaii’s agricultural landscape. One interesting example, offered by Daws (1967), of the impact of changing cultivation practices related to the increase in use, for a period of time in the 1840’s, of the port of Lahaina. Maui had begun to grow white potatoes, which were favored by the whaling crews over the native sweet potato. While there were other factors that contributed to the enhanced use of the port Lahaina, particularly the more liberal nature of the port with regard to prostitution and grog-shops, now that “Lahaina sported both the potato 5 �and the prostitute...the combination was all but irresistible” (Daws, 1967). Daws concludes, “In the mid-50’s, the potato boom ended but the prostitutes remained. Other things being equal, Honolulu's better shipping facilities prevailed again”. Finally, a speculative argument could be made that this change in Hawaii’s agricultural practices may have set in motion later changes, like the rise of the sugar, pineapple, and coffee cultivation that brought even greater political influence of non-Hawaiian interests that ultimately contributed to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893. Daws (1967) discusses the sociological phenomenon of the perception of the working and personal habits of Native Hawaiians, and how this prevailing western perception was used to influence the actions of the American government with regard to Hawaii and its economic future. While clearly there were many other contributory social, cultural, and economic factors that may have had considerably more impact (Kuykendall, 1967), this fundamental change in the political power structure in Hawaii may have been facilitated not only by this change in the agricultural landscape of the Islands to accommodate the visiting whaling fleet, but also the subjugation of the Native Hawaiians that resulted as part of the colonial occupation of Hawaii. There is little doubt that Hawaii, and its essential ports of call, is a critically important place in the global whaling landscape. Not all these stories of the interaction between the whalers and the people of Hawaii may have represented particularly positive contributions, but they undoubtedly had a significant influence on Hawaii and its history. Whaling and Diplomacy The 19th Century was a period in American history that saw the emergence of this new country on a potential trajectory toward becoming a world power, foretelling the political hegemony of the United States in the 20th Century. The diplomacy of this fledgling country at the end of the 1700’s, right after its war of independence with England, was just beginning to develop. However, the American whalers had already been traveling to far off lands, making port calls with their ships, and forging commercial relationships with their counterparts in these countries for many years. As Fredrick Jackson Turner (1920) has suggested, it is the trader, what he called the “pathfinder of civilization”, that most often is earliest at the threshold of the frontier, and in this whaling was no exception. According to Starbuck (1878), the first ships sailing under the new American 6 �flag to enter a British port after the revolutionary war, in 1787, were the whalers Bedford, Industry, and Speedwell, all out of Nantucket. They had gone to England to try and recommence trade in whale oil and bone with the British. Starbuck (1878) also makes mention of another event where whaling was driving American diplomacy (and war). During War of 1812, Peruvian privateers, as allies of England in this war, were seizing US whalers. The US deployed a “diplomatic” envoy to address this issue, but securing the support of the Chilean army, the envoy led the fight to free captured whalers from their captivity in Peru. The history of whaling is rife with stories of first encounters with remote civilizations, sailing into unknown and uncharted waters, forging commercial relationships with ports where no American ship had visited previously. They were, indeed, Turner’s “pathfinders of civilization”. One particularly important event that was largely driven by the need for the whaling fleets to have ports in the North Pacific readily available was the opening of Japan by Admiral Perry in 1853. Burcin (2005) summarizes the event, and the intimate connection between Perry’s mission and the whaling fleets, which ultimately compelled the Japanese to permit vessels from other countries to enter their ports. Burcin (2005) recounts that the contemporary reports of the mission did indeed emphasize the importance of that mission in meeting the pressing needs of the whaling industry, but in subsequent historical analyses of the mission, the connection is often not mentioned or mentioned only in passing. By the mid-1800’s, America had a virtual monopoly on whaling in the Pacific, and with the Russians openly hostile to American whalers in their territorial waters, access to the ports in Japan was strategically essential. Indeed, as Burcin (2005) concludes “Commodore Perry’s expedition relied upon whalers’ experience in Japan not only for information about a little understood society but also as a political justification to sail into Edo Bay in July 1853”. Not only was whaling considered a justification for Perry’s expedition, but also for two previous Naval missions to Japan in 1846 and 1849, and a key justification for the American Exploration Expedition in 1836 commanded by Charles Wilkes (Burcin, 2005). There is little doubt that America’s whaling interests were driving diplomacy in the Pacific region. If American “whaling hegemony” in the 19th Century (Basberg, 2006) did serve an important role in the 7 �development of the American political hegemony in the 20th Century, this is an important story to tell. Conclusion Rudyard Kipling (1941) said, “If history were taught in the form of stories, it would never be forgotten”. Therefore, telling the compelling stories of 19th Century whaling should be an effective way to not only expand the awareness and appreciation of this influential human activity that has helped to shape the modern world, but perhaps assist in empowering the protection and preservation of the essential places in that history for future generations. However, storytelling requires both a good story to tell, and a willing and appreciative audience. There is little doubt that whaling can provide many suitable stories, but finding a willing audience may present a more significant challenge. This may be a bit of an overstatement, as places like the New Bedford Whaling Museum, New Bedford Whaling Historic Park, and Mystic Seaport seem to attract many visitors. Recent books on whaling, such as Dolan’s (2008) Leviathan, have received multiple awards and are bestsellers, while readers young and old continue to be drawn toward Melville’s (2001) story of Ahab and Ismael in Moby Dick. Certainly, the discovery of the Two Brothers near French Frigate Shoals in the Papahānoumokuākea Marine National Monument attracted an extraordinary amount of press coverage and generated considerable public interest. However, while it is one thing to attract visitors, read a bestseller, or follow a news story, its quite another to recognize and act on supporting the preservation of our collective whaling heritage, particularly to actively support protecting the particularly important places in the global whaling landscape. Perhaps encouraging public appreciation that whaling has helped to shape what the world is today, and the many contributions this industry has made to society, our economic well being, and to our rich maritime heritage, is the greatest challenge. There are many things that have happened throughout history, viewed through the lens of today that may not seem something about which we should be very proud. Through these experiences, however, we have learned a great deal and should not dismiss these lessons of history because contemporary perspectives diminish their perceived importance. We, as the conservators of this heritage, should not just tell the stories, but offer some sense of the historic context of the stories we are telling, helping the listener 8 �not only understand and interpret the implications of this powerful contemporary antiwhaling discourse on that history, but to suggest the need for acting to support and encourage the preservation of the global whaling heritage landscape so that what remains is not lost. Time is a powerful enough opponent in the efforts to preserve heritage resources, as they are ephemeral, degrading through natural process in the environment. However, the places in this global whaling heritage landscape, the stories they tell and the lessons they provide, are enduring. They are also worthy of preserving for future generations. Acknowledgements Thanks to Jim Delgado and Hans van Tilburg for helpful comments and advice regarding the ideas presented in this paper. Disclaimer: The opinions expressed here are solely the author’s, and do not reflect the views of the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, NOAA, or the US Government. References Barr, B. W., and Delgado, J. P., (In Press). Preserving whaling heritage: The role of marine protected areas as “museums of the sea”. Presented at the 4th Symposium on Whaling and History, Commander Chr. Christensen’s Whaling Museum, Sandefjord, Norway, 18-21 June, 2013. Basberg, B. L., 2006. Two Hegemonies – Two technological regimes: American and Norwegian whaling in the 19th and 20th century. Presented at the XIV International Economic History Congress, Helsinki, August 2006, retrieval November 29, 2013, from http://www.helsinki.fi/iehc2006/papers3/Basberg.pdf Bockstoce, J. R., 1986. Whales, Ice, and Men: The History of Whaling in the Western Arctic. University of Washington Press, Seattle WA. Brown, M., 2011. ‘Äina Under the Influence: The Criminalization of Alcohol in 19th century Hawai’i. lili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being, Vol. 7: 311339. Burcin, T., 2005. Commodore Perry’s 1853 Japanese Expedition: How whaling influenced the event that revolutionized Japan. Master’s Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, retrieval October 13, 2013, from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05132005 131722/unrestricted/MAThesis.pdf. Davis, L. E., Gallman, R. E., and Hutchins, T., 1987. Productivity in American Whaling: The New Bedford Fleet in the 19th century. Working Paper No. 2477, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA, retrieval April 13, 2012, from http://www.nber.org/papers/w2477.pdf 9 �Daws, G., 1967. Honolulu in the 19th Century: Notes on the Emergence of Urban Society in Hawaii. Journal of Pacific History, Vol. 2: 77-96. Daws, G., 1968. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. Dolan, E.J., 2008. Leviathan: The History of Whaling in America. W. W. Norton and Company, New York, NY. Epstein, C., 2008. The Power of Words in International Relations: The Birth of an AntiWhaling Discourse. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Feyrer, J., and Sacerdote, B., 2006. Colonialism and modern income – islands as natural experiments. Working Paper No. 12546, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. http://www.nber.org/papers/w12546 Juvik, S. P., Juvik, J. O., and Paradise, T. R., (Eds.), 1998. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Hilo, HI. Kipling, R., 1941. The Collected Works of Rudyard Kipling. Ams Press, Brooklyn, NY. Kuykendall, R. S., 1967. The Hawaiian Kingdom: 1874-1893: the Kalakaua Dynasty. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. HI. Lacroix, S. J., 2002. The economic history of Hawai’i: A short introduction. Working Paper No. 02-3, East-West Center, Department of Economics, University of Hawaii at Manoa, retrieval October 10, 2013, from http://ideas.repec.org/p/hai/wpaper/200203.html Lebo, S. A., 2010. Local Perspective of Hawaii's Whaling Economy: Whale Traditions and Government Regulation of the Kingdom's Native Seamen and Whale Fishery. Coriolis, Vol. 1: 3-37. Melville, H., 2001. Moby Dick: or The Whale. Penguin Classics 150th Anniversary Edition, Penguin Putnam, Inc., New York, NY. Nellist, G. F., 1951. An Early istory of onolulu’s Water System. Board of Water Supply, City and County of Honolulu, retrieval February 26, 2014, from https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10524/11867/1951-NellistEarly-History-of-Honolulu.pdf?sequence=1. Raupp, J. T., and Gleason, K., 2010. Submerged whaling heritage in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 34: 66–74. Rozwadowski, H. M., 2005. Fathoming the Ocean: The Discovery and Exploration of the Deep Sea. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Sedgwick, T. F., 1901. Chickens and their Diseases in Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 1, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, retrieval February 26, 2014, from http://books.google.com/books?id=bfJFAQAAIAAJ. Settles, J. D., 1996. The Impact of Colonialism on African Economic Development. University of Tennessee Honors Thesis Projects, retrieval December 12, 2013, from http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_chanhonoproj/182 10 �Smith, S. F., 1999. Popped culture: A social history of popcorn in America. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC. Starbuck, A., 1878. History of the American whale fishery from its earliest inception to the year 1876. (Reprinted 1989), Castle Books, Secaucus, NJ. Smith, T. D., Reeves, R. R., Josephson, E. A., and Lund, J. N., 2012. Spatial and seasonal distribution of American whaling and whales in the age of sail. PLoS ONE, Vol. 7 (4): e34905. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034905, retrieval October 22, 2013, from http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjourn al.pone.0034905&representation=PDF Turner, F. J., 1920. The Frontier in American History. Henry Holt and Co., New York. Biography Brad Barr received a BS from the University of Maine, a MS from the University of Massachusetts, and PhD at the University of Alaska. He is currently a Senior Policy Advisor in the NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Adjunct Professor at the School of Marine Sciences and Ocean Engineering at the University of New Hampshire, and a Visiting Professor at the University Center of the Westfjords in Iceland. He is a member of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas, the International Committee on Marine Mammal Protected Areas, and IUCN Marine Mammal Protected Areas Task Force. 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 4 chair Akatsuki Takahashi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The Pacific Ocean contains a wealth of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater sites in Oceania span human history from the Stone Age to the Atomic Age. Due to the cultural richness of underwater heritage in the region and its complex history, the protection of these sites is of high importance for the region. Moreover, the potential for sustainable tourism in partnership with diving industry has been attracting a growing attention. The first UNESCO regional workshop on the Pacific underwater cultural heritage took place in December 2009 in Honiara, Solomon Islands. As possible steps towards building a capacity for managing UCH, participants at the workshop identified the following needs; systematic recording and maintenance of a database of submerged and underwater sites; exploring licensing activities directed at underwater sites; and developing a training and education programme for managers. The papers presented by experts at the workshop were compiled, edited and published as "Underwater Cultural Heritage in Oceania" in 2010. Based on the recommendations made at the Honiara workshop, a Feasibility Study on Pacific Capacity Building Programme was prepared by Flinders University with UNESCO support. The Study recommends a possible capacity building programme to be hosted by the University of the South Pacific (USP) in Fiji. The launching of the Pacific Heritage Hub (PHH), a regional facility for knowledge management, capacity building and partnership building, at USP in 2013 presents an opportunity for the actual implementation of the capacity building programme. UNESCO is also exploring the possibility of organising regional and national consultations in the Pacific focusing on cultural policy development. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of characteristics of UCH in the Pacific. • Identify priority actions. • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akatsuki Takahashi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Influencing the contemporary narrative on whaling heritage Description An account of the resource Whaling heritage is a significant part of the world’s maritime history, and its landscape footprint is global. In the 19th Century, the Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters were the epicenter of whaling, where both many of the most productive whaling grounds were located as well as the primary ports that serviced this industry. The most compelling stories of whaling heritage occurred in these waters, and the names of the storied whaling ships, and the perils they encountered, are well known. These are stories that not only illuminate significant events in our collective maritime past, but contain lessons learned that can inform and offer knowledge relevant to current, yet similar, problems we face today. The contemporary whaling narrative is dominated by the more recent history of whaling, and the divisive atmosphere created by the controversy surrounding the few countries that continue to have active commercial whaling industries. Efforts need to be directed at changing this contemporary narrative, perceptions of the public that whaling heritage is more than killing these giants of the sea. Increasing awareness of the many influences, positive and negative, that whaling, throughout its history, has had on shaping our geo-political system, societies, cultures, economies, and even expanding our knowledge of the oceans and their resources is essential. Through this expanded awareness and appreciation of how whaling helped shape the world we know, we can acquire some needed support for continued historical research and documentation of this part of our maritime heritage. Changing this narrative may also help in preserving the significant places in our global whaling heritage landscape, and hopefully inform wiser decisions about contemporary issues through learning from the past. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Bradley W. Barr, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 4 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/037e9dc1dc71edc16c2a7236b1eb78c2.pdf 93470beb85bb48c855b9ebe16eb43edc PDF Text Text Intangible Heritage Approach of Safeguarding Underwater Heritage: A Trans-disciplinary Perspective Montakarn Suvanatap 38 Navatanee, Serithai Road, Kannayao, Bangkok, Thailand Email: m.suvanatap@dunelm.org.uk Abstract This paper presents the advantages of incorporating Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) disciplines in the protection of underwater sites. The integrated safeguarding approaches can enhance professional capacity and can lead to a knowledge pool that involves more peoples and gives greater meanings to underwater heritage. The paper critically investigates contemporary policies that redefine “cultural heritage” and raises examples of local and international initiatives that link traditional knowledge to the conservation of heritage sites. Good case studies exist not only in the Pacific and the Mediterranean, but also in the continents. These successful examples imply that intangible aspects of heritage can provide more profound interpretations of value and integrity of tangible heritage, including maritime sites. Despite that, there have been very few works directly addressing intangible heritage among UCH professionals. Main works on underwater heritage protection today are still archaeology-heavy and technology-heavy, as the concern has been to keep pace with looters, environmental change and industrial threats. Managerial professionals have overlooked that understanding the existing community’s cultures can gain them stronger supports for conservation against exploitation. It is time that underwater heritage professionals explore more seriously cross-disciplinary efforts to upscale safeguarding capacity by involving bigger, grassroots communities of heritage stakeholders. Key words: Interdisciplinary approach, Intangible cultural heritage, Underwater Cultural Heritage, Community participation, Public awareness Introduction Public negligence has been determined as one of the main factors to the very real threat of deterioration of heritage sites worldwide. Working with communities is an essential praxis included in capacity-building trainings for underwater archaeologists. There is no doubt of its importance; however, it has not been prioritised in practice. Site conservation that lacks the community involvement can become inefficient and problematic. In the developing world, with the scarcity of public funds for site maintenance, and grassroots communities being prone to commercial exploitation, it is 1 �vital to ensure that public understanding of archaeological works will lead to the better protection of non-renewable cultural resources. It is incumbent on the heritage workers to not only protect the findings, but also to make their intellectual value accessible to average locals. This is indeed easier said than done. It has been perceived that maritime archaeology is a distant realm of the academia only, with little benefit filtering down to the public sector (UNESCO Bangkok, 2009). Information of archaeological projects has been limitedly shared to the public, in fear that they would be “incapable of understanding archaeological principles” (UNESCO, 2013). Low public awareness seems to lie simply within a lack of interest in benefits of conservation. For instance, while experts agree that in situ preservation is the first option to protect underwater sites for future investigations, the public view this as a loss of opportunities to enjoy the site’s legacy. Among various stakeholders concerned, local communities are affected firsthand by activities directed at heritage sites, yet rarely profited from protection schemes. On many occasions, the protection of heritage sites is considered more effective if local inhabitants are involved from the beginning of the project (UNESCO, 2013). Sites are often discovered by fishermen or offshore operators, who may also view authorities and professionals as obstacles to their benefits. By enabling these local communities to be an active part of the site’s protection, they could help monitor risks to the site, which eases the demand of professional human resource. Involving community’s local customs and culture in the communication of heritage value can relay a strong sense of stewardship to the site. This is where Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) principles come into the picture, as a tool to approach and empower communities, whilst expanding the potential to advance heritage protection. This paper explores an approach that may change the perspective of heritage professionals and managers, and enhance their capacity to work with communities. Such approach should not only contribute to better site conservation, but is also in line with the ever-expanding concept of heritage. Paradigm Shifts: From Preservation to Safeguarding, from Teaching to Exchanging Intangible Cultural Heritage encompasses oral traditions, performing arts, norms, rituals, festivals, craftsmanship and beliefs. It is what community group or, in some cases, individual, recognises as a part of their culture. In other words, these activities give them 2 �a sense of identity and continuity, thus have been transmitted for generations, continuously recreated in response to the changing socio-cultural environment (UNESCO, 2003). Seen as ‘living heritage’, ICH forms a closer relationship with the community, more so than other types of heritage. Indeed, the community can also be referred to as a landscape, in which ICH holds an important place within every individual’s life, instilling in their daily routines and influencing their rites of passage. Therefore, it is believed that by valorising the role of local knowledge holders to represent communication, the heritage professionals stand more chance to convince the community to be more open to foreign ideas (Rai, 2013). This also means local people’s perception of heritage must first be recognised. A case study in American Samoa posts an interesting question of whether “cultural properties” by the definition of indigenous people – which extends to some animal species and natural locations associated to local myths – be included in the inventory of their Underwater Cultural Heritage (Van Tilburg, 2011). Presenting animals and places as integral components that constitute and maintain cultural heritage is not a new idea. The mountainous range of Ifugao in the Philippines is seen as a cultural landscape not only for the fact that it cradles the Rice Terraces of the Cordilleras World Heritage site, but also because it keeps alive the episodic Hudhud chants of Ifugao farmers. Falconry has been inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage element, in which a falconer’s way of life and the raptor species have been given high status in society. In protecting cultural places and animals, we can perpetuate valuable arts and traditions, and vice versa. Since the start of the millennium, international discourses have been moving towards a direction that expands the scope of heritage. This was substantiated in forums that resulted in regionally-specific procedural documents. At the ICOMOS 14th General Assembly and Scientific Symposium titled “Place - Memory - Meaning: Preserving Intangible Values in Monuments and Sites”, in Zimbabwe, 2003, Mounir Bouchenaki, UNESCO Assistant Director-General for Culture at the time, said that traditional legal frameworks and administrative measures for heritage protection were no longer appropriate to safeguard the heritage in the contemporary context. Many countries had long realised this, and revised related laws to recognise the intangible heritage. The fact that there are separate UNESCO Conventions to deal with tangible and intangible 3 �heritage may give an outward impression that heritage is divided into clear-cut subcategories with self-ruling principles to protect them. However, through fieldwork there has been a proven and consistent reflection that the archaeological conservation principles alone cannot ensure the protection of all aspects of human’s culture. Integrity and authenticity, in the context of World Heritage, do not guarantee the survival of cultural expressions that always change. Likewise, the procedures of intangible heritage usually require the preservation of instruments and places of activities in order to conduct the practices in their original socio-cultural contexts. Despite criticism that the Conventions’ impacts are heavily State-centric (Cheng, 2010), these international mechanisms at least validate that the heritage is not an evidence of a past civilisation, but a civilisation itself. Heritage protection cannot simply end with preservation of physical state of objects or places; it must involve the provision of a conducive environment for people to continue their cultural activities, despite the change of time (Lenzerini, 2011). This process has been coined “safeguarding”, as different from “preservation”. It also means that present works on heritage involve not only specialists in social and human sciences, but also the actual cultural bearers and practitioners. Bringing these stakeholders together, Shanghai Charter, convened at ICOM’s 7th AsiaPacific Regional Assembly in 2002, emboldens “interdisciplinary and cross-sectoral approaches that incorporate movable and immovable, tangible and intangible, natural and cultural heritage” (Bouchenaki, 2003). The Charter called for the activities that support transmission of traditional knowledge, as well as the translation of ICH elements into referential forms, such as records, inventories, museums, to maintain safeguarding capacity. This implies that the human resource lies within the community. Cultural practitioners, not scholars and professionals, are to determine how the heritage should be perceived, valued and used. This changes the role of the local people from the ignorant to the experts whose experiences are lifelong. Public archaeology has become much more than simply exposing the public to products of archaeological research. The management, communication and decisions should respect and benefit the locals. The core safeguarding approach is to present community-based value of cultural properties. It promotes a rights-based approach, encouraging the documentation of cultural 4 �elements from “multidimensional perspectives” (O’Brien and Marakas, 2009) of varying groups of peoples concerned. A relevant example is the use of narratives from witnesses of historical events, or possessors of traditional skills. Until 2001, exhibitions by the New Jersey Historical Society presented native dances, jargons, jokes, culinary practices, folklores, songs and memories along with artefacts to a wide range of crowds. They altered conventional presentation of history, diversified the audiences, as well as changed collection and staffing structures. More importantly, this method helped create an “identity repository” that does not simply inform distinctiveness of an ethnic group, but also fits the individuality of the New Jerseyan to the United States’ collective history (Yerkovich, 2006). Narratives and demonstration of cultural activities and skills have become effective ways to learning, and have been applied substantially by many museums. It underscores the credence that peoples do not need permission from authorities to speak about their heritage; they fundamentally have the right and expertise to do so. The inclusion of related intangible components of a heritage increases the capacity for peoples to exercise this right. Nara Document on Authenticity (2007) addresses the need for a broader understanding of community’s role. It advances that custodianship of heritage sites should, so far as possible, stay in the hands of the community who has generated it, and whom should be empowered to carry out conservation. The document underscores the importance of respect for other cultures, other values, and tangible and intangible dimensions that form the heritage. There are, as a result, no fixed criteria to judge value and authenticity of a cultural property; rather it must be evaluated within the cultural context(s) to which it belongs. Developed at the regional workshops in Australia and French Polynesia (200809), Pacific World Heritage Action Plan (2005-15) affirms that the interconnection of tangible and intangible heritage must be realised to achieve true heritage protection. The schemes for protection “must be based on respect, understanding and maintenance of the traditional cultural practices, indigenous knowledge and systems of land and sea tenure”(UNESCO, 2009). Before the start of their permanent settlements, for example, Pacific migrants survived long inter-island journey by canoes and navigating sagacity. The pride and knowledge have been transmitted to young native 5 �generations who share ambition of their ancestors in sailing the world with simple canoes (Gardner, 1999; UNESCO, 2004; Genzand Finney, 2006). The action plan also points out a common attribute of the Pacific sub-region that their marine biodiversity and cultural heritage wealth have been managed with traditional practices. It illustrates that there is an inseparable relationship between communities, cultures and environment that underpins sustainable livelihood in these islands. Bearing in mind the community’s original capacity and mechanism to safeguard their heritage, UNESCO developed the community-based inventorying workshop that aims to bring local people into the working group to create national ICH inventories. Local people, together with governmental staffs, are trained to use recording technology, to be knowledgeable of the viability and significance of ICH in different areas and to gain consents from cultural custodians. The workshop’s focus is not simply to teach how to document cultures, but essentially to establish a platform for people of different backgrounds to exchange their experiences and devise locally appropriate approaches to assist in the identification of cultural elements to the inventory. Enforcing this working environment at the national stage will ensure that the ICH elements safeguarded and promoted by international instruments will always reflect the priorities of a civilization. This workshop has also been implemented since 2012 in various countries, in both mainlands and islands, where the issue is discussed under notion of cultural diversity. UCH beyond a Site: Adding Value through Cultural Revitalisation On many occasions, archaeologists are faced with the problem of possessing limited relevant information about a site. The criteria used for determining significance, such as physical conditions, types of found artefacts and their social or historical importance, usually remains partial, hence the reason why most professionals choose to keep it preserved in situ. Meanwhile, many archaeologists turn their attention to the relationship between cultural properties and local traditions of immediate communities, when assessing intrinsic significance, and considering the site’s interpretative value against the present cultures. The Annexes of the 2001 Convention do not specify how to integrate living cultures to underwater heritage protection. The Hoi An Protocols for Best Conservation Practice in Asia, written a few years later, does mention this particular point, suggesting a possible interconnection between approaches under ICH disciplines 6 �and the attempt to extend safeguarding ability for underwater sites. Adopted in 2005 at the ICOMOS General Assembly as an Asia-Oceania regional guideline for public, the protocol pinpoints that artifacts from underwater sites often have significant intangible aspects which should be taken into account in the conservation and interpretation. Cultural and historical values, especially in sites associated with important events, can add layers of meaning to these physical objects, and may also convey a sense of identity or continuity with current seafaring and maritime practices. Studying in situ sites that are connected to a community’s living culture or records of cultural practices can also give strong cultural interpretation and presentation of the heritage, and in doing so, can reduce the need for excavation (Engelhardt and Rogers, 2009). In other words, ICH can add dimensions to the understanding of material culture. By studying living traditions with ethnographic data collection, researchers can better understand boats and artifacts, and reveal unfamiliar aspects of the community under study (Wylie, 1985; Pham, 2012). For thousands of years, the ancient art of manufacturing traditional Iranian vessel, called Lenj, has remained relatively unchanged in terms of techniques. The wooden Lenjes were once known as the fastest ships to sail the seas, and even now can still compete with contemporary rivals. Historically used by Iranian sailors, the vessels are used today in the northern coasts of the Persian Gulf for trading, fishing and pearl diving. The sailing knowledge has traditionally been passed on from father to son. Before the arrivals of compasses, Iranian helmsmen could locate ships according to water depth and positions of the sun, the moon and the stars, using special formulae to figure latitudes and longitudes. Winds, tones of water and heights of waves could forecast weather. Music, rhythms, games and seaside New Year festival are inseparable to the Lenj sailors’ communities. However, these wisdoms and rituals are unfortunately dying away with the disappearance of the Lenjes and their builders. Due to the downtrend of long distance travelling, the need for fast, big ships is a declining truth. Moreover, the wooden materials are continually being replaced by fiberglass substitutes, proving to be cheaper and faster to work with. This has resulted in a mass reduction of wooden Lenj workshops, which can only be found on the island of Qeshm. Few skilled wooden Lenj builders mainly consist of elderly people. 7 �In 2011, the skills of Lenj building and sailing was inscribed in UNESCO List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding. To fulfill the requirements to be an inscribed element, a national-level safeguarding plan was developed. Financial supports from multinational sources were secured to assist in sustaining all the contributors to the ingenuity of the tradition, including the continuation of the shipcrafting community, the protection of surviving Lenjes and profound documentation of related knowledge. The safeguarding of the Iranian Lenj craft is an example of the positive State’s commitment to international ministration guarantees. But in the wider reality, what must be achieved to gain the recognition of the State and other nations to realize the heritage’s importance? An even more complicated case study presents an attempt that aims to save both the rebuilding of ancient boats and the religious worship that destroyed them. In the coastal town of Komiža, on the Croatian island of Vis, the craft skills and incineration rituals of the ancient wooden sailboats were once under threat of extinction. Komiža people have a long-standing tradition of burning dilapidated traditional boats as an annual offering to St. Nicholas, the protector of seamen. After the burning, the boat owners build new boats to replace the old ones. Nevertheless, when development came to Komiža, the demand for commercially viable boats increased. Modern-designed plastic boats have become a new replacement of the ones burnt in the ceremony, and due to their material, they cannot be practically burnt. It took a long time for people to realize that a Croatian cultural heritage was being sacrificed in vain, confirmed by the cease of new wooden boats (Božanić and Buljubašić, 2012). Soon after Cicibela, the last falkuša boat, was sunk in 1986, local enthusiasts set up a non-profit foundation called ArsHalieutica, dedicated to multidisciplinary research of Croatian boats. The foundation also raised awareness to local people, showing that protecting the old traditions could contribute to the community’s economics. The young Cicibela wreck was excavated for study. Different types of Komiža’s fishing and trading boats were recorded. Historians, ethnographers and linguists were brought in to enhance various aspects of the tradition, including the ancient fishing culture; the relation of Komiža’s incineration ritual to those of Ancient Egypt, Vikings and Portugal; and the interpretative value of the anthropomorphic life 8 �cycle of boats to the social identity of the fisherman. 10 years later, a sacrificial falkušawas set on fire at the Expo in Lisbon on St. Nicholas’ Day. It was called the success of ArsHalieutica in reviving both the material and nonmaterial aspects of this heritage. These examples prove that folk traditions, which are not by meaning the underwater heritage, should nonetheless be included in the safeguarding plan. This approach can reduce dependence on scientific investigations and lower the strain on financial and human resources. It enables the locals to share their experience with the professionals, and possibly result in the revitalization of practices that sustain the heritage in long term. Conclusion When registering the concept of interconnection between tangible and intangible heritage safeguarding principles in the context of underwater heritage, let us think outside the box of the Conventions and their Operational Guidelines. In actual practice, especially when a line separating science from culture is lacking, there is no limitation to indicate that the link between a cultural expression and a site is only physical. A site can bear social and spiritual influence to the deep-rooted worldview of a society, while sunk a thousand miles from its origin. A site may not exist in its original state at all, but instead a precise remake that possesses the emotional, spiritual or intellectual value of its predecessor. The effort in Croatia to safeguard both historical boat-building and the town’s quintessential ritual and livelihood is an obvious example. One may ask why these approaches have not been recognised well enough to form a discipline. Were the results of past undertakings not worth future investments? Or, has it simply been the lack of organisational awareness to create inter-sectoral programmes? The salutation of being included in the UNESCO Lists happens after the safeguarding has already been achieved, or once it has been under the politics-induced attention of the concerned governments. Thus, the actual start point is that the locals and the professionals agree in what is important to their society and take actions. Underwater cultural sites, from island settlers’ canoes to submerged settlements were born from the needs – religious or utilitarian – of the founding peoples. Thus, they bear socio-cultural values before they became historical or archaeological. Archaeological investigation, therefore, should not end at revealing its past functions or filling the gap in history, but should show how its 9 �presence today still answers to the current community’s needs. While we can celebrate discoveries of large imperial vessels that hold expensive masterpieces, we should not forget that there are still ‘treasures’ that exist yet have been neglected – treasures of bigger group of peoples, which can earn one not only a knowledge of the past but also how we can progress our world sustainably. Acknowledgement I would like to thank Dr Tim Curtis and Mr Ricardo Favis who inspired this research, Dr Martijn Manders and Dr Hans Van Tilburg for opportunities to publish my works. My forever gratefulness to my family and my friends for their unceasing supports. References Božanić, J., and Buljubašić, E., 2012. The Ritual of Boat Incineration in the Island of Vis, Croatia: an Interpretation. International Journal for Intangible Heritage, Vol. 7: 15-30. Bouchenaki, M., 2003. The Interdependency of the Tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritage. In The 14th ICOMOS General Assembly and International Symposium ‘Place, memory, meaning: preserving intangible values in monuments and sites’, 27-31 Oct 2003, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. ICOMOS, Paris: 3-7. Cheng, A. C., 2010. All in the Same Boat? Indigenous Property Rights in Underwater Cultural Heritage. Houston Journal of International Law, Vol. 32 (3): 695-732. Engelhardt, R. A., and Rogers, P. R., (Eds.), 2009. Hoi An Protocols for Best Conservation Practice in Asia: Professional Guidelines for Assuring and Preserving the Authenticity of Heritage Sites in the Context of the Cultures of Asia. UNESCO, Bangkok. Gardner, D. F., 1999. Conversations with Papa Tom, Pa TuterangiAriki, Sir Thomas Davis, KBE, MD. The Construction and Voyages of the Two Replica (Pahi, Pai) Canoes of the Southern Cook Islands, Rarotonga: The Takitumu and the Te Au o Tonga (MA thesis). University of Auckland, Auckland. Genz, J. H., and Finney, B. R., 2006. Preservation and Revitalization of Intangible Cultural Heritage: A Perspective from Cultural Anthropological Research on Indigenous Navigation in the Republic of the Marshal Islands. Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 5 (1-2): 306-313. 10 �Lenzerini, F., 2011. Intangible Cultural Heritage: The Living Culture of Peoples. Oxford Journal, Vol. 22 (1): 101-120. Manders, M. R., 2012. Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage. In M. R. Manders, and C. J. Underwood (Eds.), Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific, UNESCO, Bangkok: 64-82. O’Brien, J. A., and Marakas, G. M., 2009. Management information systems (9th edition), McGraw-Hill/Irwin, Boston. Pham, C. M. L., 2012. Asian Shipbuilding Technology. In M. R. Manders and C. J. Underwood (Eds.), Training Manual for the UNESCO Foundation Course on the Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Asia and the Pacific, UNESCO, Bangkok: 349-400. Rai, G. S., 2013. Community Empowerment: Heritage Conservation for All. In UNESCO, Asia Conserved II: Lessons Learnt from the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Awards for Cultural Heritage Conservation. iGroup Publisher, Seoul: 66-70. UNESCO, 1972. The Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2001. The Convention for the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2003. The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2004. The Canoe is the People. [Compact Disc]. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2012. Traditional skills of building and sailing Iranian Lenj boats in the Persian Gulf. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2013. UNESCO Manual for activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage. UNESCO, Paris. –––––, 2009. Pacific World Heritage Action Plan 2010-2015. UNESCO, Apia. UNESCO Bangkok and EIIHCAP, 2008. Safeguarding Intangible Heritage and Sustainable Cultural Tourism: Opportunities and Challenges. UNESCO, Bangkok. Van Tilburg, H., 2011. A Place to Learn: the Underwater Cultural Heritage in American Samoa. The MUA Collection. 11 �World Heritage Committee, 2007. Nara Document on Authenticity. UNESCO, Paris. Wylie, A., 1985. The Reaction against Analogy. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 8: 63-111. Biography Montakarn Suvanatap is a communication and programme assistant for Culture Unit, UNESCO Bangkok. She has been involving in capacity-building projects for Underwater Cultural Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage. Her works also include planning and promoting UNESCO’s visibility at regional level. Montakarn was awarded a three-year scholarship to research on Asian arts and cultures while completing a Bachelor Degree in English Literature at Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. She received a Master Degree in Museum and Artifact Studies from Durham University, UK, in 2011. Her research concerns intangible heritage, ethnographic museology and community based media designing. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 3: Underwater Cultural Heritage, Museums, and Sustainable Development Subject The topic of the resource Video Interview with Dr. Bill Jeffery on Sessions 3 and 11 with links to the papers presented in Session 3. Description An account of the resource Underwater cultural heritage holds a vast potential for sustainable development. It is a very interesting and attractive form of heritage, appreciated by the public. Underwater cultural heritage opens tourism opportunities. Worldwide, national authorities create dive trails to foster diving tourism economies. This is of special importance for States bordering the ocean, in particular Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which can greatly enhance their tourist attractiveness through the valorization of submerged archaeological sites. The investment in museums on underwater archaeology, dive trails and other forms of access for the public promise a beneficial and lasting return. Studies show that every USD invested in heritage increases the economic activity around the site by a factor between 1.2 to 8, depending on the significance of the site and the form of its valorization by museums and individual access. This is in particular to be noted as raise in employment and gain (hotels, food sales, transport benefit, guides), raise of cultural and educational levels in a region and improved consideration of heritage and local pride. Concerned forms of tourism in the case of underwater cultural heritage are cultural, dive and cruise tourism. New approaches and valid alternatives to commercial exploitation of sites are under consideration in order to finance underwater archaeological research and sustainable management of underwater cultural heritage sites, which include; i) dive club guardianship sites, ii) paid and controlled public visits of archaeological work, iii) evaluation of cultural development needs, iv) tour and exhibition opportunities, v) film and book rights in planning archaeological excavations. The objectives of the session are to: • Enhance understanding of the contribution of underwater cultural heritage to sustainable development; • Identify and promote good practice; • Foster partnership for regional and international cooperation. Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Intangible Heritage Approach of Safeguarding Underwater Heritage: A Trans-disciplinary Perspective Description An account of the resource This paper presents the advantages of incorporating Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) disciplines in the protection of underwater sites. The integrated safeguarding approaches can enhance professional capacity and can lead to a knowledge pool that involves more peoples and gives greater meanings to underwater heritage. The paper critically investigates contemporary policies that redefine “cultural heritage” and raises examples of local and international initiatives that link traditional knowledge to the conservation of heritage sites. Good case studies exist not only in the Pacific and the Mediterranean, but also in the continents. These successful examples imply that intangible aspects of heritage can provide more profound interpretations of value and integrity of tangible heritage, including maritime sites. Despite that, there have been very few works directly addressing intangible heritage among UCH professionals. Main works on underwater heritage protection today are still archaeology-heavy and technology-heavy, as the concern has been to keep pace with looters, environmental change and industrial threats. Managerial professionals have overlooked that understanding the existing community’s cultures can gain them stronger supports for conservation against exploitation. It is time that underwater heritage professionals explore more seriously cross-disciplinary efforts to upscale safeguarding capacity by involving bigger, grassroots communities of heritage stakeholders. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Montakarn Suvanatap, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/13/2014 Asia-Pac Session 3 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/c89d81bc94bac080ac7ed1ff7c8f4474.pdf 5a408496be760e975e7b7f34cc3b1d20 PDF Text Text Integrating Marine Cultural Heritage into Marine Spatial Planning for SIDS: an Indian Ocean case focused on Mauritius. Krish Seetah,1,2 Stefania Manfio,2 Yann von Armin,3 Hemanaden Runghen,4 Rezah Badal,4 1 Environmental Behavioral Science & Oceans, Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability, USA. Department of Anthropology, Stanford, USA. 3 Mauritius Museums Council, Mauritius. 4 Department for Continental Shelf, Maritime Zones Administration & Exploration, Prime Minister’s Office, Mauritius. 2 ABSTRACT This paper deals with the utility, valorization, and sustainable development of underwater cultural heritage in the Indian Ocean region. We outline how the process of valorizing underwater cultural heritage has been undertaken in this specific context, and how this important resource is being integrated into the Marine Spatial Plan of the island. The case study under consideration focuses on Mauritius, located in the Southwestern Indian Ocean, with a rich maritime heritage and associated repository of wrecks. The resources available to conduct the work include human capacity both locally and internationally, built through local partnerships. Financial, logistical, and equipment needs have also been sourced locally and internationally, all of which is outlined in the presentation. The research presented tackles the question of how to sympathetically integrate a sustainable program to capitalize and protect a nation’s maritime legacy, a subject often complicated by the needs for growth and development. The [expected] results focus on the applicability for other AIMS SIDS, and perhaps SIDS more broadly, illustrating ways to use maritime heritage as a route for building resilience at the local level for communities heavily dependent on coastal lagoon waters. ***This paper summaries from Seetah. K., (In press). Maritime cultural landscapes as a framework to bridge terrestrial and marine heritage in Mauritius. In, Seetah. K., &, Leidwanger. J. Across the Shore: Integrating Perspectives on Heritage. Springer Science + Business Media: ‘When the Land Meets the Sea’ Series.*** INTRODUCTION: THE PATH TO VALORIZING MARITIME HERITAGE IN MAURITIUS The relative infancy of maritime archaeology as a subject, and more generally, the paucity of archaeology in much of the African continent and her islands (Mitchell 2004), has meant that the impressive maritime legacy of the region remains largely unknown (Sharfman et al. 2012; von Armin & La Hausse, in press). Similarly, writing two decades ago on maritime archaeology in Southeast Asia, Michael Flecker noted that “It is unfortunate that even in these times of increasing cultural awareness, there is little public recognition of the historical role played by ships, their makers, their sailors, and the sea” (Flecker 2002, 12). For Mauritius, situated geographically and culturally between Asia and Africa, these words, unfortunately, still resonate today. The process of acknowledging and developing local maritime archaeology bears testament to this lack of recognition. In 2008, with the start of the Mauritian Archaeology and Cultural Heritage (MACH) project, there was an explicit and ambitious aim to implement a ‘total archaeology’ approach to the island (Seetah 2015a). Several sites were quickly integrated into a program of excavation driven by local stakeholders (Seetah 2015b; 2016; see summaries in Seetah et al. 2022). However, there was an evident and massive lacuna matched only by the size and magnitude of the resource itself: maritime heritage. This lacuna was present not only in knowledge of the wrecks, and knowledge of what had been studied, but it was also evident in the way local legislation was enacted to protect maritime sites. Regulations focused almost entirely on the terrestrial context and concentrated on vestiges of colonial elites. From 2008, meetings were held with the Mauritius Oceanographic Institute to integrate maritime heritage into the work of MACH; in 2010, maritime archaeologist Helen Farr, Southampton 1 �University, UK, joined the team to undertake coastal surveys and provide guidance on potential future directions for local maritime heritage research; throughout the period from 2009-2016, meetings were held with a host of stakeholders, including the National Heritage Fund, and University of Mauritius (UoM), all to no avail. What was remarkable about this situation, and unlike many other islands in the region, was that maritime archaeology was well established in Mauritius. Yann von Armin had directed or been involved in the investigation of some 10 wreck excavations (see Table 2 and references, von Armin & la Hausse, in press). This extensive body of work had gone almost entirely unrecognized. Mauritians appeared unreceptive to the value of our heritage. Two important developments took place in 2016 and 2017 that helped turn the tide. Coming from Stanford University, Rob Dunbar, Neil Tangri, and I were all invited to a two-day workshop on ‘Capacity Building for a Sustainable Development of the Ocean Economy’, and ‘Ocean Acidification’, 29th and 30th June 2016, at the UoM. During this meeting, we collectively sought to integrate and align natural science research on corals, with social science research on cultural heritage, around the broad topic of disease (Seetah 2018). The workshops and small group meetings with students and faculty emphasized the social dimensions of the Blue Economy (see below), and the need for capacity building, points which resonated with local colleagues. In 2017, Carlo Beltrame and Stefania Manfio (Ca’ Foscari University, Venice, Italy) and I were invited to a follow up workshop at the UoM, focused specifically on ‘Sustainability and the Blue Economy’. Beltrame provided a much-needed agenda for local maritime archaeology, employing the Mercurio (1812) shipwreck project as a usable case study (Beltrame 2019). Subsequent meetings that year with Rezah Badal and the team of the Department for Continental Shelf, Maritime Zones Administration and Exploration (CSMZAE), Yann von Armin, and a broad assembly of local stakeholders, ultimately catalyzed proper recognition of the existing maritime archaeology, and led to a concerted effort to establish a systematic inventory of local wrecks to promote the scientific study, valorisation, and protection. CASE STUDIES: BRIDGING THE DIVIDE Here I outline three case studies aligning maritime and terrestrial contexts. Case Study 1: Defensive Sea and Landscape Elements of the fortification landscape unite a group of archaeological sites that draw together different components of the island’s military past. The Dutch built the first fortification on the island, Fort Frederik Hendrik, which was itself constructed on the demolished remnants of what is now Vieux Grand Port, the site of the first Dutch settlement (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 30). This is well testified from historical accounts described by Van der Kerkhoven, a survivor of the Arnhem, which wrecked in 1662, close to present day Mahébourg (Moree 1998, 35). This site remains one of the best studied on the island. Initial research was undertaken by van Vliet (1973) but remained preliminary. An extensive program of excavation directed by Pieter Floore started in 1997, with subsequent seasons in 1999, 2000, and 2003-05 (Floore & Jayasena 2010). Results from this site already form the basis for regional comparisons of fortifications (Jayasena & Floore 2010). In addition to this major coastal defensive settlement, sites such as Batterie de la Pointe du Diable monitored access to Mahébourg, Fort George overlooking the northern entrance to the capital of Port Louis, and Batterie de la Pointe aux Canonniers, which surveyed the northern most coast of Mauritius, formed part of a ring of surveillance around the island. To these sites encircling the perimeter, fortifications were established on islets such as Île de la Passe to further reinforce strategic defenses. To the fortifications themselves, one can add other elements associated with military landscapes. Principal amongst these is Moulin à Poudre, Pamplemousses. Mauritius was the only colony of France to produce gunpowder, and the site was finally closed when the British took over in 1810. Systematic excavations started in 2015, revealing much about the site, and the people who worked there (Munghur-Medi in press). 2 �Case Study 2: Heritage Tourism For a small island where one of the main economic pillars is tourism, it is surprising that Mauritius hasn't fully developed the heritage tourism sector. Establishing a viable and sustainable program of wreck dives has been a major effort of work under the MoU between MACH at Stanford, and the CSMZAE working with Yann von Armin in Mauritius. Efforts have concentrated on: 1) identifying, and then rationalizing into a database, all the known historical wrecks; 2) working with community partners to identify and engage all local stakeholders; 3) undertaking preliminary workshops and training sessions to share capacity and build knowledge of maritime archaeological approaches and methods. The regulation, management, and protection of this resource is discussed in Badel et al. (in press), and Manfio (in press), with a state of the art presented by von Armin and la Hausse (in press). Here, suffice to mention that dive tourism is already an important, though underdeveloped, component of existing dive operations. There is impressive potential for growth, given the number of known wrecks and the potential for sustainable development along the lines of ‘underwater living museums’, for example. To exploit this specific sector more effectively, an immediate and obvious path would be to form tours that enriched the dive experience, and which could also have broader appeal. This could take the form of taking divers (as well as other tourists) around the defensive structures of the island, incorporating some of the key emplacements briefly outlined above. Selecting from the more than 60 coastal sites, clear narratives could be developed that integrate evidence from the historical, archaeological, and architectural records to relate how the ships and coastal sites functioned within the colonial machine, and as part of the process of birthing the nation. Case Study 3: Grand historical narratives In addition to developing storytelling accounts around historically significant wrecks that are already in the process of study, such as the Sirius, Mauritius could also develop narratives that centralize its role within key thematic topics that were radically reshaped with the onset of colonialism. These include trade and exchange, migration, and extinction, biodiversity, and conservation, all of which have clear relationships or dependencies on maritime contexts, and which can be fruitfully explored as part of cultural and natural heritage tourism. The island would serve as an ideal location to develop narratives on labor diaspora. Similar initiatives are already in place to describe the story of sugar, a notable example being ‘L’Aventure du Sucre’, which incorporates detailed accounts of the history and process of sugar production within a museum setting, a restaurant highlighting local cuisine, and a tour of the former sugar estate itself, allowing for a cultural tourism experience that draws on architecture and landscape, the historical record, as well as local cuisine. For a parallel case study focused on labor, a large number of vessels carrying laboring peoples are well attested and a number have been well studied. These wrecks would provide the first link in a chain exploring how and why the island’s population arrived. With the wrecks serving as a cornerstone, which can either be visited by divers or described to non-divers from artefacts within a museum setting, one can integrate disembarkation sites, both formal and informal, into the narrative. Aapravasi Ghat is an ideal example, with a groundbreaking interpretation center that explores many aspects of how laboring peoples were administered and treated as they commenced a new life on the island. Sites like Bassin des Esclave, a location in the Pamplemousse region that was apparently used as a place to wash enslaved peoples, add to our understanding of how laboring peoples were treated. Some debate exists as to the functioning of the site and its relationships to enslavement; however, it is a site of major significance in local memory, particularly for the Creole community. Within the public domain, a relative silence exists to this day regarding the role of enslaved and indentured workers on sugar estates themselves, and on their lifeways more generally. Aapravasi Ghat is indeed a trailblazer in this regard. By using historical, archaeological, architectural, and anthropological research to enrich the story described in the Beekrumsing Ramlallah Interpretation Centre, visitors can better understand the experience of indentured laborers while also gaining a better understanding of how indenture shaped Mauritius, and the role of the island within the larger indentured experiment. 3 �RESOURCES: MARITIME CONTEXTS IN MAURITIUS Maritime routes around Mauritius served as a nautical thoroughfare for many of the major seafaring nations during the period of colonialism. All settlers, commodities, commensals, and ideas arrived by sea. Thus, while the archaeology of Mauritius has overwhelmingly, and understandably, emphasized terrestrial sites, research towards a unified land and sea framework would more accurately reflect the archaeological past of the island and her inhabitants. The following briefly outlines those lines of evidence and sites that could promote and support the integration of maritime and terrestrial contexts into a cohesive framework. Historical contextualization Extensive local collections of historical records are held in the Mauritius Archives in Coromandel, housing over 2 million documents, e.g., Renseignements commerciaux sur l’île Maurice (Commercial information on Mauritius), Series: 1803/1863, the Carnegie Library in Curepipe, and the National Library of Mauritius. These are supplemented by other local government archival repositories, held by the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Lands and Housing, and the Ministry of the Environment. In addition, overseas bodies such as the British Library, London, and National Archives, Kew, in Britain, and Le Centre de Archive d’Outre Mer, Aix-en-Provence, France, all retain archival resources that amount to a rich and accessible repository of historical evidence. Numerous of these have already been extensively mined to develop databases on the wrecks located around the island (See, for example, Toussaint, 1967 for an early case). Fortification and defense One of the more obvious and direct connections between maritime and terrestrial contexts are the structural remnants of forts, which form a network across the island linking coastal and inland defense emplacements. The systems of fortification and mechanisms for strategic defense pay testament to the multifaceted historical context that underscores Mauritius’s past. They are a specific form of material legacy providing insight into the complex geopolitical landscape of the colonial period. The sites and material vestiges of the forts also serve as a link across oceanic spaces, offering not only a way to record the changing strategies and priorities of fortification interregional, but to compare and contrast how these strategies varied across the Indian Ocean World and beyond, and between imperial groups. The three colonial powers that settled the island used it in part to survey and protect regional interests. Unsurprisingly, the rivalry between imperial forces made monitoring of the region ever more important. Particularly for Britain, maintaining a free route to India was paramount; moreover, the British were conscious of the costs associated with losing the island and having to recapture it (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 12). Coastal defenses served two ideological functions: not only were they used to strengthen one’s own position, but also to weaken the authority and presence of rivals. This was undoubtedly well recognized from early in the colonial history of the island and reflected in the strategy for defense, which changed little from the first permanent settlement in 1638 to 1945 ce at the end of the Second World War (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 12-13). Philippe la Hausse de Lalouvière’s extensive work on coastal fortifications offers a comprehensive inventory of some 60 major sites (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 12-35); however, this work – as the author observes – signals the extensive gaps we have in research, and therefore knowledge, of the fortifications of the island (la Hausse de Lalouvière 1998, 32). Technology of mobility There are more than 1200 shipwrecks recorded from historical research, representing a huge resource for this field of enquiry. With such an impressive collection of wrecks and a dearth of other underwater heritage such as submerged settlements, it is little wonder that local maritime archaeology has been overwhelmingly focused on this specific form of maritime cultural heritage (von Armin & la Hausse in press). Similarly, von Armin and la Hausse signal to the overemphasis on the island of Mauritius itself, 4 �to the relative exclusion of research on those vessels now lying around the many islets that constitute the Republic of Mauritius, such as Rodrigues, and the Chagos Archipelago. Exhaustive work by the colleagues mentioned above is now harnessing this important archaeology for the local community, both as a cultural legacy worthy of protection and as a sustainable economic resource. Much research is still necessary and given the admonitions regarding an overemphasis on the wrecks themselves, the time is ripe to integrate this valuable and extensive resource into the broader conceptual framework of maritime cultural landscapes. One particular lacuna exists in that we have little if any material evidence on local shipbuilding. We are certain that shipwrights did operate locally, as we know the Coureur, for example, was built in Mahébourg based on a French vessel by the same name. Routes of labor diaspora Mauritius’s role in the region’s labor migrations was a prominent one. The definitive work of historians such as Richard Allen (1999; 2008; 2012; 2015), situate the island’s position as a major thoroughfare through which laboring peoples were conveyed to locations in the Indian Ocean, and further afield. Mauritius absorbed large numbers of enslaved and indentured peoples to fulfill the needs of the local plantation economy. The island’s two WHS commemorate this significant role; they also both represent ideal case studies that fit within the concept of maritime cultural landscapes. While the Aapravasi Ghat is a well-constructed formal depot within a network of mobility moving laborers from India, China, and East Africa, Le Morne represents the fate of enslaved peoples once free, who migrated to the coast and adopted a lifestyle dependent on coastal resources. Behind this oversimplification is a vast and as yet unconnected, largely overlooked, program of research that could knit together formal and informal locations for disembarking enslaved people around the island, during and after enslavement. The transition to a designated formal location, Aapravasi Ghat, for indentured laborers, well managed and controlled on a scale previously unseen on the island, allows for the deep integration of maritime and terrestrial contexts drawing in factors such as legality, trade, technology, and communication, all of which shaped each laboring context. FRAMEWORK: CONCEPTUALIZING A MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE FOR MAURITIUS The concept of a ‘maritime cultural landscape’ offers an ideal epistemological framework within which the relationships between land and sea, viewed through cultural heritage, can be aligned. Christer Westerdhal championed the concept in a series of publications with the aim of understanding and communicating the utility of maritime heritage (Westerdhal 1992; 1994); the idea has been adopted widely (e.g., see Freire 2014 for Portugal). Within the broader framework, the concept of a maritime cultural landscape draws together the infrastructures that exist in coastal and terrestrial contexts, with the sailing routes that form their own distinct network, as well as the vestiges of human activity from both land and sea (Westherdahl 2008, 212). These distinct but interrelated parameters can be situated within two viewpoints, topographical or cultural (Westerdhal 2006, 334). Other authors developed the concept further; Tuddenham put forward the idea of ‘maritimity’, noting that a division between land and seas was at times artificial (Tuddenham 2010, 8-14). Thus, these ideas lead us to view maritime heritage resources within their global context, and perhaps implicitly, move away from characterizing the entirety of ‘maritime and marine archaeology’ (Blue & Breen 2019) based primarily on the evidence from shipwrecks and their associated artefacts (Freire 2014; Tuddenham 2010, 6). RESULTS Through dedicated workshops facilitated by the CSMZAE, we are closer to building capacity within a range of stakeholder groups. In the future, we anticipate applicability to other AIMS SIDS, and perhaps SIDS more broadly, illustrating ways to use maritime heritage as a route for building resilience at the local level for communities heavily dependent on coastal lagoon waters. 5 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, R. B. (1999). Slaves, freedmen and indentured laborers in colonial Mauritius. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Allen, R. B. (2008). Capital, illegal slaves, indentured labourers and the creation of a sugar plantation economy in Mauritius, 1810–60. J. Imper. Commonwealth Hist. 36, 151–170. doi: 10.1080/03086530802180569 Allen, R. B. (2012). European slave trading, abolitionism, and “New Systems of Slavery” in the Indian Ocean. Portal J. Multidiscipl. Int. Stud. 9:1. Allen, R. B. (2015). European slave trading in the Indian Ocean. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1500–1850. Badal. R., Runghen. H., Runghen, M., Mamode. S., &., Munnaroo. S. In press. Underwater Cultural Heritage in Mauritius – A glimpse into its Management Perspective. In, Seetah. K., &, Leidwanger. J. 2021. Across the Shore: Integrating Perspectives on Heritage. Springer Science + Business Media: ‘When the Land Meets the Sea’ Series. Beltrame, Carlo. The Mercurio: Archaeology of a Brig of the Regno Italico Sunk During the Battle of Grado, 1812. 1° edizione. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols Pub, 2019. Blue, L., & Breen, C. (2019). Maritime archaeology and capacity development in the Global South. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 14(3), 321-332. Flecker, M. (2002). The ethics, politics, and realities of maritime archaeology in Southeast Asia. The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 31(1), 12-24. Floore, P. M., & Jayasena, R. M. (2010). In want of everything? Archaeological perceptions of a Dutch outstation on Mauritius (1638–1710). Post-medieval archaeology, 44(2), 320-340. Freire, J. V. (2014). Maritime cultural landscape: a new approach to the Cascais coastline. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 9, 143-157. la Hausse de Lalouvière, P. (1998). Coastal fortifications of Mauritius. In " Coastal fortifications/Proceedings of an International Conference on Coastal Fortifications held in Mauritius, 18th to 21st June 1996" (pp. p-12). Manfio, S. In press. Protection and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) in Mauritius. In, Seetah. K., &, Leidwanger. J. 2021. Across the Shore: Integrating Perspectives on Heritage. Springer Science + Business Media: ‘When the Land Meets the Sea’ Series. Mitchell, P. (2004). Towards a comparative archaeology of Africa’s islands. Journal of African Archaeology 2(2): 229-250. Moree, P. J. (1998). A concise history of Dutch Mauritius, 1598-1710: A fruitful and healthy land. Routledge. Mungar-Medi., J. In press. Archaeological evidence of the landscape and environmental adaptations due to iron and gunpowder production at Powder Mills, Pamplemousses Mauritius. International Journal of Historical Archaeology. Special Vol. Environmental Archaeology in Mauritius. Seetah. K. 2015a. The archaeology of Mauritius. Antiquity. Vol. 89: 346., pg. 922-39. DOI:10.15184/aqy.2015.75. Seetah. K. 2015b. Objects past: objects present: materials, resistance and memory from the Le Morne Old Cemetery, Mauritius. Journal of Social Archaeology. Vol. 15:2., pg. 233-53. DOI: 10.1177/1469605315575124. Seetah. K. 2016. Contextualising complex social contact: Mauritius, a microcosm of global diaspora. Cambridge Archaeological Journal. Vol. 26: 2., pg. 265-83. DOI: 10.1017/S0959774315000414. Seetah, K., Manfio, S., Balbo, A., Farr, H., & Florens, V. (2022). Colonization during colonialism: developing a framework to assess the rapid ecological transformation of Mauritius’s pristine ecosystem. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 10. Sharfman, J., Boshoff, J., & Parthesius, R. (2012). Maritime and underwater cultural heritage in South Africa: the development of relevant management strategies in the historical maritime context of the Toussaint, A. (1967). La route des îles: Contribution à l'histoire des Mascareignes. SEVPEN. southern tip of Africa. Journal of Maritime Archaeology, 7, 87-109. Tuddenham DB (2010) Maritime cultural landscapes, maritimity and quasi objects. J Marit Archaeol 5(1):5–16. 6 �Van Vliet, P. 1973. Mauritius, een onderzoek naar eventuele overblijfselen van Nederlandse monumenten op Mauritius. Hilversum: CNO Rep. von Amin, Y. &., la Hausse. P. In press. Maritime archaeology and shipwrecks in Mauritius. Past, present, and future. In, Seetah. K., &, Leidwanger. J. 2021. Across the Shore: Integrating Perspectives on Heritage. Springer Science + Business Media: ‘When the Land Meets the Sea’ Series. Westerdahl C (1992) The maritime cultural landscape. Int J Naut Archaeol 21(1):5–14. Westerdahl C (1994) Maritime cultures and ship types: brief comments on the significance of maritime archaeology. Int J Naut Archaeol 23(4):265–270. Westerdahl C (2006) From river to sea catching the monsoon, concepts of the maritime landscapes. In: Varadarajan L (ed) Indo-Portuguese encounters, journeys in science, technology and culture. Indian National Science, New Delhi and Centro de Historia de Alem-Mar, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon and Aryan Books International, New Delhi vol. 1, pp 334–350. Westerdahl C (2008) Fish and ships. Towards a theory of maritime culture. Deutches Schiffahrtsarchiv Wissenschaftliches Jahrbuch des Deutchen Schiffahrtsmuseums 30:191–236. https://web.archive.org/web/20070310222657/http://pages.intnet.mu/mmcs/archeo/sirius.htm 7 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Integrating Marine Cultural Heritage into Marine Spatial Planning for SIDS: an Indian Ocean case focused on Mauritius. Description An account of the resource This paper deals with the utility, valorization, and sustainable development of underwater cultural heritage in the Indian Ocean region. We outline how the process of valorizing underwater cultural heritage has been undertaken in this specific context, and how this important resource is being integrated into the Marine Spatial Plan of the island. The case study under consideration focuses on Mauritius, located in the Southwestern Indian Ocean, with a rich maritime heritage and associated repository of wrecks. The resources available to conduct the work include human capacity both locally and internationally, built through local partnerships. Financial, logistical, and equipment needs have also been sourced locally and internationally, all of which is outlined in the presentation. The research presented tackles the question of how to sympathetically integrate a sustainable program to capitalize and protect a nation’s maritime legacy, a subject often complicated by the needs for growth and development. The [expected] results focus on the applicability for other AIMS SIDS, and perhaps SIDS more broadly, illustrating ways to use maritime heritage as a route for building resilience at the local level for communities heavily dependent on coastal lagoon waters. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Krish Seetah Stefania Manfio Yann von Armin Hemanaden Runghen Rezah Badal Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Seetah, Krish, Stefania Manfio, Yann von Armin, Hemanaden Runghen, Rezah Bada. 2023. “Integrating Marine Cultural Heritage into Marine Spatial Planning for SIDS: an Indian Ocean case focused on Mauritius.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Brian Fahy. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1990 Asia-Pac Session 9 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/619fe2418e86ea65a168eee139661716.pdf 29441aae6f7b4b5112edae0d68b00115 PDF Text Text Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific 1 Jennifer F. McKinnon (East Carolina University, Professor; Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research Inc., Research Associate) 2 David Benavente (Tasi Research and Consulting, Owner/Operator) 3 Toni L. Carrell (Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research Inc., Vice President) 4 Erin Field (East Carolina University, Associate Professor) 5 Vicki Richards (Western Australian Museum, Manager Materials Conservation) 6 Della Scott-Ireton (University of West Florida, Interim Associate Dean) 7 Mark Stephens (Task Force Dagger Special Operations Foundation, Chair of the Board) 8 Aleck Tan (Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc., Research Associate) 9 Kota Yamafune (APPARATUS, Owner/Operator) ABSTRACT There are many opportunities, challenges, and competing interests related to the development of research on and preservation of submerged WWII heritage in the Pacific. This paper outlines an interdisciplinary, community inclusive project which brings together historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, GIS specialists, veterans and Micronesians to focus on the archaeological and biological research of WWII underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Mariana Islands, specifically Saipan. It is a continuation of research that has been underway since 2008 on WWII sites related to the battle for Saipan and includes a third set of data collection spanning 15 years. At the time of writing, the project is currently underway, and results will be reported at the conference. As such, this paper is an overview of the work being conducted with adjustments made as the field project progresses. KEY WORDS: WWII, Lidar, Photogrammetry, eDNA LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Project area indicating targets to be tested and sites to be investigated (Map by Aleck Tan). Figure 2. 3D model of Japanese auxiliary submarine chaser in Saipan Lagoon (Model by Kota Yamafune). Figure 3. Mariana Islands Nature Alliance rangers extracting eDNA samples on the project (Photo by Mike Thomin). Figure 4. Veterans preparing for dive inspection on a Japanese Daihatsu landing craft (Photo by Mike Thomin). INTRODUCTION Saipan is one of 15 islands in the Mariana Islands chain situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It is the capital of the U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The battle for Saipan in the Mariana Islands, code-named Operation TEARAWAY, was the largest U.S. amphibious invasion in the Pacific Theatre by June/July 1944. The operation involved thousands of troops from all branches of the military and an imposing number of vessels, vehicles, and weapons. In the lead up to D-Day, 15 June 1944, U.S. fleet commanders conducted staging operations approximately 1,000 yards off the western coast of Saipan. These operations included battleships, cruisers, destroyers, carriers, support craft, amphibious vehicles, and the very first offshore seadrome (a floating airdrome serving as an intermediate or emergency landing place for airplanes) in the Pacific theatre. The battle for Saipan marked the end of the drive through the Western Pacific and allowed the U.S. to access mainland Japan directly through a controlled airspace. After nearly a month of conflict, almost the entire Japanese garrison of over 29,000 soldiers were killed. Of the roughly 67,000 U.S. troops that landed, nearly 3,500 lost their lives with nearly 10,000 wounded. Hundreds of Japanese civilians were killed in crossfire or by suicide, and nearly 933 non-combatant Pacific Islanders of Chamorro and Carolinian heritage were killed (Cabrera 2015). The battle for Saipan is considered of such significance that large portions of the island including the World War II (WWII) landing beaches were listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places and designated a U.S. National Historical Landmark (NHL) in 1985. The NHL, designated based on 1 �the history of the area and the integrity of the landing beaches, encompasses 1,366 acres of land and water (Thompson 1984). Dozens of publications, official histories, biographies, memoirs, documentaries, films, and reports focus on the conflict on land, but there has been less focus on the offshore naval, amphibious, and aerial operations and the losses incurred. To date, no Pacific War offshore staging area or seadrome has been investigated archaeologically. Furthermore, no comprehensive, systematic geophysical or remote sensing survey for associated submerged heritage in the offshore staging areas and seadrome of the Saipan battlefield has been conducted. The staging and aerial invasions were critical areas of activities during the battle. The location and investigation of these areas is essential to holistically identifying, analysing, managing, and preserving the full battlefield. As such, a project was conceived to utilize emerging technologies to explore, locate, and characterize the UCH of the offshore deepwater battlefield including the first Pacific war seadrome, invasion staging area, and potential environmental hazards from post-war dumping. Shoreline development and reef clean-up have already altered the amount and type of WWII sites preserved in the shallow lagoon areas of Saipan. Additionally, a long-term research investigation and monitoring program has been focussed on the lagoon sites (McKinnon et al. 2011, 2014, 2018). The deeper areas offshore, however, remain relatively untouched by development and disturbance and no research has been conducted in this area (Figure 1). 2 �Figure 1. Project area indicating targets to be tested and sites to be investigated (Map by Aleck Tan). The project is an interdisciplinary collaboration between historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, and GIS specialists that focuses on the archaeological and biological aspects of WWII UCH. It contributes to the study of the naval, amphibious, and aerial staging in the offshore battlefield through the location, identification, and characterization of sites, as well as their function as artificial reefs and contributors to the local Blue Economy. Blue Economy is a term introduced by the United Nations and used by many world organizations to describe the ocean in economic terms with a particular focus on sustainable use. LIDAR, MACHINE LEARNING, AND Artificial Intelligence (AI) Funded by a NOAA Ocean Exploration Grant, the project leverages biophysical data products from a bathymetric and benthic mapping effort (FY20-22) that has been coordinated across multiple NOAA offices and has direct spatial and temporal overlap with the development of high-resolution benthic 3 �habitat maps for Saipan through Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center and National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science. This survey covers the land and nearshore waters (depths < 50 meters). Bathymetric data meet, and in some cases, exceed USGS Lidar base specifications for quality level two data, which supports the gridding of a one-meter resolution three-dimensional bathymetric model. Additionally, post-processing of the Lidar point clouds has included classes 43 (Submerged objects) and 44 (International Hydrographic Organization S-57 Objects). For this project the bathymetric data was reprocessed in ArcGIS Pro utilizing a machine learning approach by training a deep learning model to identify and predict UCH site locations based on known sites in Saipan. The output, however, did not successfully identify potential UCH sites as the model appeared to select natural features. Unknown wreckage may be partially buried under sand or may contain coral growth, making it difficult for the model to detect remains. Potential ways to improve the model include increasing the training sample size or utilizing a different machine learning model outside of ArcGIS Pro. In another visual analysis method, the bathymetry imagery was processed using the Relief Visualization Toolbox in order to obtain a visualization for archaeological topography, highlighting archaeological characteristics (Kokalj and Somrak 2019; Zakšek et al. 2011). By visual analysis of the archaeological topography for potential non-natural features, target anomalies were identified. Target anomalies were ranked based on discovery potential, and testing was conducted via veteran and archaeological divers on SCUBA and closed-circuit rebreather and through remote operated vehicles (ROV) investigations. While most targets appeared natural, cultural remains were still identified during target testing. When successful, the exploration and identification of WWII UCH sites using emerging technologies such as machine learning, AI, and Lidar can help develop a concept of operations (ConOps) for future cultural heritage surveys with the potential to decrease costs through reduction of in-field survey and increase accuracy in discovery and identification. The scientific impact of discovery of underwater cultural resources from new and re-processed bathymetric mapping has significant relevance for future location and management of such heritage in other areas where similar surveys have been conducted. Additionally, both sets of biophysical data and heritage data can contribute a better understanding of the scientific value of UCH more broadly. ROV AND PHOTOGRAMMETRY Once sites were confirmed to be cultural, further survey and characterization proceeded using 3D structure-from-motion photogrammetric diver survey consisting of underwater still and video cameras to capture 100+% coverage of sites and surroundings. Ground control points and scale markers were used to ensure accurate spatial reconstruction of the sites at the millimetre (mm)-scale. Wrecks located deeper than 40 m were recorded utilizing a Chasing Gladius ROV. Data is being processed with Agisoft Metashape modelling software to create a 3D reconstruction of each site. The resulting 3D models will be rendered with the original imagery to create the final digital surface model that provides high-resolution textured 3D models of the study sites. High-resolution ROV photogrammetric surveys are used in the exploration of sites and provide ground validation data that can be georeferenced for benthic environment and habitat models, archaeological site models that provide the first record of a site, as well as site formation data and public outreach materials. Few studies have been conducted utilizing high-resolution ROV photogrammetric surveys on underwater cultural heritage sites for understanding benthic environment and habitat models. The Mega Lab at University of Hawaii, Hilo has conducted some SCUBA photogrammetric survey of underwater cultural heritage in the Pacific, but the use of a ROV provides additional scientific methodologies that can be used in deep-water environments on underwater cultural heritage. These models also contribute to historical and archaeological research and understanding of the battle and resulting UCH resources (Figure 2). Models can be studied and reviewed in detail without having 4 �the limitations of diving at depths. They are analysed for cultural and natural features, modifications, battle scars, identifying marks, and any other details that may aid in the interpretation of the sites. These models can then be used to create traditional line drawing site plans. Models can also be used as longitudinal data for preservation initiatives using deviation analysis which can provide physical decay trajectories. Finally, photogrammetric recording is a permanent record that allows for the raw data of UCH to be stored for future use by archaeologists and biologists. Figure 2. 3D model of Japanese auxiliary submarine chaser in Saipan Lagoon (Model by Kota Yamafune). BLUE ECONOMY AND EDNA The project focusses on wrecks as habitat and Blue Economy in local and regional commercial and recreational fisheries and ecotourism industries. Sunken WWII shipwrecks, tanks, amphibious vehicles, and aircraft represent significant cultural remains in the Pacific for the US and Japan. They also have substantial socioeconomic value for local small Pacific Island communities. WWII UCH provides Blue Economy opportunities in diving and marine tourism and fisheries, significantly bolstering island economies. The use of eDNA sample collection and analyses allows for assessing biodiversity in an aquatic environment on UCH (Figure 3). The organisms associated with these wreck environments such as microorganisms, fish, and corals leave DNA traces (i.e., eDNA) through their attachment to wrecks, release in the nearby water column from skin cell shedding, release of waste products, and the persistence of this DNA in the nearby sediment over time. As each organism has a unique DNA signature, the same sample can be used to detect thousands of different organisms ultimately providing a snapshot of which organisms live in the current environment and where (Rees et al. 2014). Studies have shown that increased biodiversity led to a more productive environment (Lehman and Tilman 2000; Liang et al. 2016), which is important for monitoring the success of artificial reefs for supporting fisheries and other economic resources. Researchers can compare the biodiversity indices between locations to better understand which areas may be more productive as there is a direct correlation between biodiversity and ecosystem health. In addition to assessing overall biodiversity the project also focusses on specific taxa of importance to the wreck environment and Blue Economy of the region. This data combined can be leveraged with the other physical, biological, and biogeochemical data collected to begin answering questions about how we can better manage these environments long-term. 5 �Figure 3. Mariana Islands Nature Alliance rangers extracting eDNA samples on the project (Photo by Mike Thomin). Samples for eDNA were collected through biofilm surface sampling of the wrecks, filtration of nearby water, and sediment collection across the entire site. For each wreck environment, 10 biofilm surface samples were collected spaced evenly across the wreck for even coverage. Water column (surface and benthic) and sediment samples were collected. Samples will be processed to evaluate relative abundance and calculate diversity indices of the entire biological communities to assess overall biodiversity and health of the wreck ecosystem. The indices directly correlate to and can be used to visualize community differences and identify taxonomic members responsible for differences across the environments. These data will be compared within niche environments (i.e., across one wreck), as well as between areas, to identify areas that have high diversity vs. low diversity, as well as to compare the community structures (i.e., who’s there) in order to identify the organisms responsible for this diversity. Ultimately, this can be used to assess the ecosystem health of each sample area and develop recommendations for monitoring and preservation of these areas. The eDNA data will be leveraged to take a targeted organismal approach of those taxa that may play a particularly important role in the wreck environment and its connection to Blue Economy. Researchers will identify and quantify corrosion-causing microorganisms including known sulfatereducing bacteria (e.g. Deltaproteobacteria) and iron-oxidizing bacteria (e.g. Zetaproteobacteria), as well as waterborne pathogens such as Vibrio and Prevotella spp. which may have negative effects on fisheries, ecosystem health, and ultimately the productivity of these artificial reefs. Lastly, researchers will look for evidence of terrestrial or human-associated species that may represent contaminant species that have been brought in through boating, tourism, or other human activities. The relative abundances of any specific targeted taxonomic group such as those mentioned above can be identified. Researchers will also use the whole community extracted DNA to conduct quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies and quantifies taxa of interest as well as functional genes from the whole community extracted DNA involved in sulfate reduction (e.g. dsrAB) and iron oxidation (e.g. cyc2). The research will help capture taxonomic groups that may be rare but still play an important functional role, or taxa that are not currently associated with known sulfate reduction or iron oxidation functions. The data will also be analysed for contaminants (both biological and chemical) to identify the human impacts on wreck sites and the impacts of these wrecks on the nearby natural environments looking for taxonomic groups, such as freshwater or human-associated taxa, not typically found in the nearby environment and may have been carried in through human-based processes. Combined with archaeological integrity results, this approach allows for assessing the 6 �ecosystem health and current status of the wreck areas and for developing recommendations for improved monitoring and preservation methods. Difficult issues related to WWII UCH involve human remains and repatriation; unexploded ordnance; pollution through oil, metals, and ammunition; lack of legal protection; unintentional damage through anchoring and fishing; and looting and souveniring. eDNA sampling and analysis of biocorrosioncausing microbes, human health hazard and invasive species, and overall microbial and eukaryotic biodiversity indices using universal microbial and eukaryotic primers contributes more broadly to the difficult issues that plague WWII UCH. IN SITU CORROSION SURVEYS In situ corrosion surveys provide the decay mechanisms and rates of deterioration for in situ management and preservation with an eye towards sustainability. In situ corrosion surveys are critical to small island Pacific nations with limited funding and resources to conduct recovery and conservation of cultural heritage; management happens in situ, rather than the recovery and conservation that larger nations may undertake. As such, understanding the condition of the resources is an important step in this management process. Corrosion surveys explore sites for identification of decay mechanisms and corrosion rates that help managers make informed decisions about their management and preservation. Understanding corrosion status and rates contributes to broader scientific questions about climate change, as ferrous and non-ferrous metals are excellent materials for testing the impacts of acid acidification, temperature changes, and differences in oxygen levels that can be related to deterioration rates of all UCH. Conservation surveys primarily include the collection of data related to the environment (chemical and physical) that allows for a better understanding of the degradative forces affecting sites and artifacts and specific cultural information including data on material composition of objects, as well as modern cultural impacts to sites (MacLeod and Richards 2011, 2014). This data is vital to understanding the longevity of sites with relation to the material composition of metals and organics, how they react to and survive within the environment, and their overall structural integrity. Further, they record the modern cultural impacts on a site and produce a scientific, systematic record that can be used for managing sites. Conservation surveys will obtain a clearer understanding of the nature of the degradation forces operating on selected sites, determine the extent of degradation of materials onsite, and determine the overall stability of a site. This data adds to an existing set of baseline data for future measuring and monitoring of the sites whereby they can be assessed quantitatively (in contrast to qualitative visual surveys) for passive or active corrosion. As a result, this information can help to prioritize sites with regards to future loss and retention of historical information and to develop an appropriate monitoring and management program. COMMUNITY COLLABORATION, ENGAGEMENT AND CITIZEN SCIENCE Collaboration and engagement with the community is central to the project. It incorporates Micronesian researchers with local knowledge of the waters who contribute ideas to the development of the project, are involved in collecting data, and promote sustainable management programs after the project has ended. The project provides materials for an immersive learning activity for local schoolchildren who cannot otherwise access submerged shipwrecks. The activity involves the storytelling of science, technologies, and careers in science of discovery and utilizes 3D animations. 3D models also provide opportunities for sharing important ocean discoveries with a wider audience via webpages such as Sketchfab and on the existing WWII Maritime Heritage Trail website so that it is accessible after the project ends. 7 �Finally, partnerships and meetings with the local Historic Preservation Office, Division of Fish and Wildlife, Department of Coastal Resource Management, on island non-profit organizations, and Micronesian researchers provide opportunities for co-production of knowledge and hands-on training. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands agencies and researchers have been involved in all phases of project development and data collection to ensure that outputs are geared towards local management needs. Furthermore, engaging local heritage and natural resource practitioners and managers in developing techniques for identifying and recording UCH sites helps increase interdisciplinary management programs on island. This project takes a public archaeology and citizen science approach to community engagement. A citizen science veteran rehabilitative program and event was developed and involves Special Operation Forces and local veterans who are injured or have illnesses and are reintegrating into civilian society (Figure 4). The combination of citizen science and rehabilitative therapy in underwater archaeology is a recent development and suggests that there are psychological and physiological benefits of participation in outdoor activities, scuba diving, and connection with peer support groups for veterans. Participation in science projects allows veterans to use many of their professional skills and experiences, which also advanced overall goals of the research. This project utilizes veteran citizen scientists in all aspects of planning, data collection, and processing. Surveys of participants and the efficacy of the citizen science experience will be administered by archaeological trainers. Figure 4. Veterans preparing for dive inspection on a Japanese Daihatsu landing craft (Photo by Mike Thomin). CONCLUSION While the project is still underway at the time of writing, this paper has outlined the overall plan for an interdisciplinary, community inclusive, exploratory research agenda utilizing emerging technologies. The project leverages existing biophysical data products from bathymetric Lidar to conduct machine learning and AI to identify submerged sites in deeper waters up to 50 m below the surface. Archaeological and biological surveys of the sites include a focus on the wrecks as habitats and part of the Blue Economy in local and regional commercial and recreational fisheries and ecotourism industries. Samples of eDNA and corrosion data as well as 3D models using ROV will contribute to questions about the health of these sites, potential contamination, and their long-term preservation. Collaboration with veterans for an adaptive rehabilitative event trains off- and on-island veterans in citizen science archaeology and biology skills. Finally, engagement with local agencies, 8 �non-profits, and schools provide opportunities for knowledge creation and exchange. Results from the project will be presented in further detail at the conference. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cabrera, G. “A Historical Overview of the Battle for Saipan.” In Underwater Archaeology of Pacific Battlefield: The Battle of Saipan, edited by J. McKinnon and T. Carrell, 15-25. New York: Springer Press, 2015. Kokalj, Ž., Somrak, M. "Why Not a Single Image? Combining Visualizations to Facilitate Fieldwork and On-Screen Mapping." Remote Sensing 11, no. 7 (2019): 747. Lehman, C. L. and Tilman, D. “Biodiversity, stability, and productivity in competitive communities.” The American Naturalis 156, no. 5 (2000): 534-552. Liang, J., Crowther, T.W., Picard, N., Wiser, S., Zhou, M., Alberti, G., Schulze, E.D., McGuire, A.D., Bozzato, F., Pretzsch, H. and De-Miguel, S. “Positive biodiversity-productivity relationship predominant in global forests.” Science 354, (2016): 6309. MacLeod, I.D. and Richards, V.L. “In-situ corrosion studies of wrecked WWII aircraft in Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.” In ICOM-CC 17th Triennial Conference Preprints, Melbourne, 15–19 September 2014, ed. J. Bridgland, International Council of Museums, Paris, art. 0902, 2014. MacLeod, I.D. and Richards, V. “In-situ conservation surveys of iron shipwrecks in Chuuk Lagoon and the impact of human intervention” Australian Institute for the Conservation of Cultural Material Bulletin, 32 (2011): 106-122. McKinnon, J. F. and T. Carrell. “Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2011. McKinnon, J. F. and T. Carrell. “Management Plan and Public Outreach for WWII Submerged Resources in Saipan.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2014. McKinnon, J. F., T. Carrell and M. Roth. “Expanding Documentation and Research of WWII Maritime Heritage.” Report submitted to American Battlefield Protection Program, National Park Service, Washington DC. Santa Fe: Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, 2018. Rees, H.C., Maddison, B.C., Middleditch, D.J., Patmore, J.R. and Gough, K.C. “The detection of aquatic animal species using environmental DNA–a review of eDNA as a survey tool in ecology.” Journal of Applied Ecology 51, no. 5 (2014): 1450-1459. Thompson, E. N. National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. Landing Beaches, Aslito/Isley Field, and Marpi Point, Saipan Island. National Park Service Denver Service Center, Lakewood, CO, 1984. Zakšek, K., Oštir, K., Kokalj, Ž. "Sky-View Factor as a Relief Visualization Technique”. Remote Sensing 3, no. 2 (2011): 398-415. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 4: Underwater Cultural Heritage of World War II in the Asia-Pacific Region: Discoveries, Opportunities & Challenges Subject The topic of the resource Session 4 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 4 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific Description An account of the resource There are many opportunities, challenges, and competing interests related to the development of research on and preservation of submerged WWII heritage in the Pacific. This paper outlines an interdisciplinary, community inclusive project which brings together historians, archaeologists, biologists, conservation scientists, photogrammetry specialists, GIS specialists, veterans and Micronesians to focus on the archaeological and biological research of WWII underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the Mariana Islands, specifically Saipan. It is a continuation of research that has been underway since 2008 on WWII sites related to the battle for Saipan and includes a third set of data collection spanning 15 years. At the time of writing, the project is currently underway, and results will be reported at the conference. As such, this paper is an overview of the work being conducted with adjustments made as the field project progresses. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon David Benavente Toni L. Carrell Erin Field Vicki Richards Della Scott-Ireton Mark Stephens Aleck Tan Kota Yamafune Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. McKinnon, Jennifer F.. 2023. “Interdisciplinary and Community Inclusive Approaches to Submerged WWII Heritage Research in the Pacific.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Alexis Catsambis. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1899 Asia-Pac Session 4 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/dbf7c68a6543fba165355956fa03dbd2.jpg 71509665c2887d7a60e91fff2b77df2c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Poster Session 2014 Description An account of the resource Posters presented at the Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Still Image A static visual representation. Examples of still images are: paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type "text" to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interdisciplinary approaches to the study of Angkorian ships Description An account of the resource Poster presented at the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 7/9/2014 Asia-Pac Poster 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/92d31d0b842b7defd22c8258f4a2c4df.mp4 5af8066f7b0f08ccd33336ecd96a5588 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 6: Iberian Global Interactions: the Manila Galleon and the Roteiro Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interview with Session 6 co-chair Veronica Walker Vadillo. Description An account of the resource The arrival of Spain and Portugal in Asia-Pacific in the 1500s marked a turning point in the history of the region. New foreign actors came into play: priests, merchants and mercenaries looking to save souls and profit from trade in exotic Asian goods. Far from their Iberian homeland, their deeds and actions, violent or not, resulted in a myriad of interactions that altered the life of the people who lived around their areas of influence, including that of the newcomers. This flow of people and goods circumnavigated the world by well established maritime routes. In 1565, the Spanish established the Manila galleon trade route, which linked Asia with the Americas, and from there to Europe. From the early 1500s, the Portuguese dominated the route that linked Asia with Africa, Brazil and Europe in what is known as the Roteiro. The most visible archaeological evidence of these trade routes is the ships in which the goods were transported around the globe, and also the interaction with different cultures that were located in trading posts along these routes. But through contact also came knowledge exchange and other subtle changes including the migration of people, flora, and fauna. In this session we want to discuss archaeological, historical, and ethnographic evidence that remains of this global enterprise that connected Europe to Asia through maritime trade, and all the entrepôts that stood along the way. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Veronica Walker Vadillo and Brian Fahy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 6 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0db38065a79da7a7775cd9bd20808d9e.pdf 89409eca6338d1458e02f3fb125cd6db PDF Text Text Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia An interview with Session Chair, Akifumi Iwabuchi, 1. Why did you choose to organize this session? In 2011 Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, to which Session 9 organizers belong, organized an independent session by the same title as session 9 (“History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia”) at the first Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage in Manila. At that time, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology had the session, together with the Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology in Fukuoka, Japan. However, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology has decided to organize one session by itself alone in Hawaii. I am extremely happy to have eleven presenters at Session 9, not only from Japan, but also from China, Korea, and the U.S. 2. What did you hope to gain from it? Since the 1950’s, the Mediterranean Sea in Europe has been, in a sense, the centre of underwater archaeology. Because of some political reasons, indeed, underwater archaeology in Asian region has been underdeveloped, but in terms of maritime history, as we all know, Asian waters are as important as the Mediterranean Sea. Recently some scholars have named Asian waters between East and Southeast Asia the “Asian Mediterranean.” In the very near future, presumably, this area also will be another world-centre of underwater archaeology. I hope that this Session 9 will trigger off the new era of maritime archaeology in Asia. 3. How does your session fit into the overall theme of the conference? As far as I understand, this conference treats the management and protection strategies of underwater cultural heritage, the regional cooperation, and the technical and ethical issues related to underwater archaeology in the Asia-Pacific region. As we see, papers and presentations at Session 9 well succeeded in widely covering these themes concerning East Asia. �4. What do you hope to see accomplished in your research area (as represented by the papers in this session) over the next ten or more years? Because of some political reasons, as I told, underwater archaeology has been underdeveloped in East Asia. Perhaps even still it is so owing to territorial disputes over the sea in Asian waters. On the other hand, however, to study underwater cultural heritage has no national boundaries. Fortunately in Japan, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology has just become a member university of UNESCO Underwater Archaeology Unitwin Network. It is the only one member university from the Asian region. For example, if the National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage in Korea, the National Center of Underwater Cultural Heritage in China, and my university in Japan could work together in the field of underwater archaeology, the famous quote “the pen is mightier than the sword” will be materialized in this region. 5. What are some of the greatest challenges that your research area (as represented by the papers in this session) faces at this time? Among East Asian and Southeast Asian countries, still only Cambodia has ratified the UNESCO 2001 convention. In contrast, nearly 50 other nations worldwide have already ratified this convention. Even in Asia, including Japan, underwater archaeologists cannot work without referring to the UNESCO convention. I am not a politician, but hopefully every Asian government will start considering ratification for future international cooperation. 6. Are there any areas (geographic, thematic, or otherwise) within your topic (as represented by the papers in this session) that you feel are underrepresented? In Japan, we have just started to discuss how to deal with Japanese shipwrecks during the First and the Second World Wars and human remains therein. According to the UNESCO convention, all shipwrecks from World War II are not considered underwater cultural heritage until 2045, but many underwater archaeologists have already worked �them in the Pacific region. I think it is high time that underwater archaeologists in countries concerned including Japan could establish an international research body or organization for studying the shipwrecks as underwater cultural heritage. 7. What do you suggest to draw more attention to those areas? In particular, at such an international gathering we will have to discuss how to treat human remains from war shipwrecks. different from Japanese philosophy. As for them, Christianity is completely According to the traditional Japanese belief, human remains will never become underwater cultural heritage. 8. Any other comments you would like to make. Although this conference is titled “Asia-Pacific Regional Conference”, unfortunately, there are no Chinese, Koreans, or Japanese belonging to their home academic institutions on the organizing committee of APCONF 2014. Furthermore, Pacific island nations such as Federated States of Micronesia or Tonga are also underrepresented. Hopefully, the organizing committee of APCONF 2017 will have some East Asian or Pacific representation within the structure. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 9: History and Current Trends of Underwater Archaeology around East Asia Subject The topic of the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Dr. Akifumi Iwabuchi Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interview with Session 9 chair Akifumi Iwabuchi. Description An account of the resource East Asia is rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage. Not only conventional shipwrecks or submerged archaeological sites but also stone tidal weirs or prehistoric shell mounds along coastal zones have extensively been identified by many researchers. Most countries have just started in directing the heritage management in order to preserve them well, but the process of trial and error is still going on. In addition, no Asian nation, except for Cambodia and Iran, has ratified the UNESCO’s 2001 convention yet, partly because of territorial disputes over the sea among several East and Southeast Asian governments. It would be foolish to rule out political considerations when we study maritime or underwater archaeology in Asia. This session showcases papers about the history and current trends of maritime or underwater archaeology around East Asia. It may includes papers focusing upon historical backgrounds or wakeup calls of underwater cultural studies, ongoing excavations, grass roots movements, legislation efforts, contemporary political matters, and so forth. In 1890 an Ottoman frigate sunk within Japanese territorial waters; her wreck has lately been salvaged by foreign hunters who disregard its domestic law for the protection of cultural properties, while Japanese academic institutions or underwater archaeological organizations have been kept away from the excavation activities. Papers on points raised from such case studies will also be welcomed. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Akifumi Iwabuchi and Tatsuya Nakada Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 6/11/2014 Asia-Pac Session 9 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/17291874e7ef263dbc64101b93659651.mp4 cf349fe3df869eaeabcd2eb606730b42 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 15: The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters Subject The topic of the resource Session 15 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 15 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Moving Image A series of visual representations that, when shown in succession, impart an impression of motion. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Interview with Shinatria Adhityatama - Chair of Session 15: The Archaeology of Submerged Landscapes and Inland Waters Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Shinatria Adhityatama Michelle Damian Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource MP4 Asia-Pac Session 15 2023