25 10 700 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/fac8d9e7b4c36736c1fbc7414db4c723.pdf 896e782881c861489ec3a72f1b9da7b9 PDF Text Text Identifying ‘Islamic Motif’ on Chinese blue and white Porcelain recovered from the 15th century shipwrecks in the Philippines Andrea Natasha E. Kintanar Archaeological Studies Program, University of the Philippines, Diliman Philippines Eamil: andreakintanar@gmail.com Abstract This research is based on the raw data of a Master’s thesis that aims to identify Islamic motifs on Chinese blue-and-white porcelains recovered from the 15th century archaeological sites in the Philippines. A stylistic analysis of Chinese porcelains recovered from both underwater and terrestrial sites will be conducted so that the main aims of the thesis will be attained. The Master’s thesis aims to answer questions that concern: a) the participation of the Philippines during the 15th century maritime trade; and b) determine the possible indications of the presence and/or absence of the porcelains. Large amounts of Chinese ceramics have been found in Philippine sites dating from the late 9th to the early 12th centuries, and the 14th-18th centuries. Some Chinese blue-and-white porcelains recovered from Philippine archaeological sites were preliminarily identified to have Islamic motifs, however these were only initial descriptions. The Master’s thesis aims to verify the preliminary analyses. The main objective of this paper is analysis the blueandwhite porcelains recovered from following shipwrecks of the 15th century: Lena Shoal shipwreck, Española underwater site, and Pandanan shipwreck in Palawan, Philippines as well as Santa Cruz shipwreck in Zambales, Philippines. Using the collated motifs from already established ‘Islamic’ art a criteria and checklist was formulated to illustrate the presence of the motifs in Chinese blueandwhite porcelain from the abovementioned underwater sites. The initial results of this research will reveal that porcelains recovered in the Philippines are comparable to those found in West Asia, contrary to some past studies. Key words: Maritime Silk Road, Maritime trade, Islamic, Porcelain, Shipwreck Introduction The Philippines is an archipelago located near the South China Sea, suitable for ancient and present maritime trade. In consequence, the region is home to noteworthy underwater cultural heritage (Orillaneda, 2011). Evidenced by historical and archaeological data, such as the discovery of plank-built and edge-pegged wooden boats and shipwrecks dated from the 14th to the 18th century (Dizon and Ronquillo, 1 �2010; Orillaneda, 2013), the Philippine islands is known to have been involved in the Southeast Asian maritime trade and shipping network beginning the 9th century throughout the following centuries (Goddio, 2002; Guy, 1980). Chinese annals documented during the Song period (950-1279), that the Philippines engaged in long distance trade of porcelain and other goods (Beyer, 1947; Wu, 1959), where the South China Sea and Malacca Straits played a big role in this maritime interaction (Guy, 1980; Junker, 2000; Wu, 1959). Trade route diversion occurred due to the ‘inoperable’ state of the Silk Road caused by the “disintegration of overland commercial networks” (Orillaneda, 2013: 1). From then, a Maritime Silk Road was born, which connected the Mediterranean and South China seas (Hall, 2011; Orillaneda, 2013). Centers of Southeast Asian complex societies which progressed during the 12th-15th centuries became the heart and core of trade in the Maritime Silk Road (Hall, 1992; Orillaneda, 2013; Wade and Sun, 2010). Scholars claim that the Philippine Islands were merely a crossroad and only acted as a peripheral destination between Asia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (Dizon and Ronquillo, 2010; Guy, 1980; Medley, 1976). With recent archaeological research, it may be argued that the Philippines participated more closely to this Maritime Silk Road than past studies would allow. In the most recent research on this matter, Orillaneda (2013) presented that Philippine society during the 15th-17th centuries utilized traded items and in turn played roles in their cultural fabric. The maritime polities in Manila, Maguindanao, Sulu, and Cebu, for example (Junker, 2000), were competitive when it came to raiding and trading internally, and the goods of this interisland trade also came from overseas or maritime trading elsewhere (Junker,2000; Orillaneda, 2013). One of the major components of this trade is Chinese porcelain. However, Medley (1976) and Macintosh (1994) observed that porcelains bound to Southeast Asia and the Philippines, during the 13th-15th centuries, were simpler compared to those sent to bigger kingdoms (so to speak) or what they would call Islamic nations in West Asia. Medley (1976) pointed out that pieces in the Philippines were more modest in design and smaller - jarlets or small plates - based on her research on the Topkapi Saray and Ardebil Shrine museum collections. Macintosh (1994: 18) stated that when the inhabitants of the Philippines came to like the blue-and-white porcelain, “they therefore 2 �ordered a quantity of small, sturdily potted wares that could be used in the export trade to the southern seas”. Such pieces were produced without care and decorated only in “a sketchily drawn style” as compared to those found in West Asia or Islamic sultanates (Macintosh, 1994: 18). This paper investigates Chinese blue and white porcelains recovered from selected underwater sites in the Philippines as it is possible that those ceramics also depict the same designs seen on porcelains brought to West Asia or Islamic lands. Contrary to accounts of Macintosh (1994) and Medley (1976), the Philippines served more than just an area for cheap trade materials and porcelains recovered from the shipwrecks bare comparable motifs to those found in the Islamic Sultanates of the West Asia. Objectives This paper is the raw data of the author’s thesis. It discusses the initial results gathered from artifact analysis of four underwater sites in the Philippines. The main objective of this paper is to conduct a stylistic analysis on the blue and white porcelains recovered from the following 15th century underwater sites (Fig. 1): Lena Shoal shipwreck, Española underwater site, Pandanan shipwreck, and the Santa Cruz shipwreck, Philippines. Using the collated motifs from already established ‘Islamic’ art (e. g. ceramics, bronze wares, and architecture), this paper presence of illustrates the the on motifs Chinese blue-and-white porcelains from abovementioned concretize author the the sites. To analysis, the formulated a criteria based on earlier studies done on Islamic motifs and Chinese porcelains. The four underwater sites were selected for their time period, i.e. the 15th century. This is a relevant period related to the proposed ‘Age of Commerce’ by Reid (1990) and part of the time when new maritime patterns and ship 3 �technology was being developed in Southeast Asia (Hall, 2011). Sites in the Philippines were mentioned by scholars to have been part of the maritime trade network during the 15th century CE (Junker, 2000; Hall, 2011). Stylistic analysis of Chinese blue and white porcelains will enlighten us on this maritime trade. Exploring the presence of ‘Islamic’ motifs on the recovered Chinese blue and white porcelains will also give an explanation of the term that scholars used in the past Fig. 2a Large dishes with Arabesque Scroll, Lena Shoal Shipwreck. (A. N. for describing Kintanar) decorations Fig. 2b Large dishes with Cloud Collar, Lena Shoal Shipwreck. (A. N. found in porcelain which were Kintanar) from the 15th century (Aga-Oglu, 1951; Crick, 2002; Krahl, 1986; Medley, 1973-1976; Orillaneda, 2008). The Master’s thesis of the researcher will answer more inferences. Discussion of method and criteria The criteria formulated serves as a checklist (Fig. 1) to inspect for indicative design elements considered as ‘Islamic’. This is based on features Medley (1975), Krahl (1986) and other art historians identified as Islamic. Two major characteristics being studied specifically are design elements and forms. When dissected, these may be divided to: a) arabesque; b) cloud collar; c) symmetry or pattern; d) heavy or dense decorations on space; and e.) form or size of wares. Design Elements Islamic decoration had a keenness to elaborate surfaces, where there were layers of decoration, as opposed to the adherence of Chinese potters to simplicity (Bloom and 4 �Blair, 1997; Medley, 1975). The main design elements considered as Islamic are the arabesque (Burckhardt, 1976) and cloud collar (which is still questionable). The arabesque (Fig. 2a) is “an ornament in stylized plant forms, strictly geometrical”, like a vine with leaf-scrolls and branches (Burckhardt, 1976: 56). The arabesque began as a sprawling plant ornament which was characteristic of Sassanian art forms strictly calibrated into lines of grapevine shoots with stylized images of fruits, animals, or people (Piotrvskii, 2006). After the 11th century, the arabesque became a stable characteristic of Islamic art (Piotrovskii, 2006). It became “integral in every Islamic work of art, which evolved to different patterns. In later periods it came to dominate decorative arts around the world”, including some blue and white porcelains (Bloom and Blair, 1997: 283). The cloud collar (Fig. 2b) is considered questionable because opposing sources say its origin is either Mongol or Persian (Orogo 1, 2011; Orinllaneda, 2006; Esguerra, 2004). The cloud collar is “a decorative form possibly derived from the Fungus or Ling Chih as the ‘Plate of Long Life and Immortality’ [But], this decorative motif may also have a Persian or Mongolian origin” (Orogo, 2011). However, Gray (1963) mentioned that the cloud collar could be Mongolian since the same design can be seen in both Persian and Chinese clothing about the same period the Mongols were in control of Central Asia. This design was literally used as a collar in most royal clothing in the Mongolian court and then adapted by the Chinese and the Persian in most of their art (Gray, 1963). Nevertheless, this design was rendered in Persian, Mongolian and Chinese art; ceramics included. It seemed to be more prevalent in ceramics that were produced during the Yuan (1279-1368 AD) and Ming (1368-1644 AD) Dynasties, as seen in the porcelains recovered from underwater sites in the Philippines. Other features under design are pattern and heavy decoration. Scholars like Carswell (2000), Macintosh (1994), and Medley (1973-1976) out that obvious influence pointed the most Islamic seen in Yuan and Ming wares 5 Fig. 3 Collated photographs of ‘Concentric Bands’. (Medley, 1975) �is the heavy and elaborate way the white porcelain was painted. Medley (1975-1976) discovered a pattern most Islamic ceramics display in Yuan and Ming wares. Since scholars mentioned that numerous ceramics found in Islamic nations portray geometric designs (Curatola, 2006; Philon, 1980), it should follow that even the pattern of decorations is geometric, a.k.a. ‘concentric pattern’ (Medley, 1975).Chinese potters made sure there was harmony in porcelain decoration (e.g. bigger feasting plates had to be decorated with organized balanced). Early Islamic metalwork was brought to China as reference for new forms of porcelain (Bennett, 2005; Carswell, 2000; Crick, 2002; Curatola, 2006; Gray, 1963; Medley, 1973-1976; Soucek, 1999). In these references the Chinese potters discovered a systematic way to decorate wares that were new to them. The solution to the Chinese potters’ problem was to render the same concentric pattern in bands or strips (Fig. 3) which Medley (1975) pointed out by showing a picture of one of the collections from the Ardabil Shrine. Form Examples of forms copied from early Islamic metal work are the ewer or crescentshaped kendi (Bennett, 2005). Different forms are dishes, kendis, ewers, and boxes. Large dishes “appear to be derived from a metal prototype possibly of Islamic origin,” (Macintosh, 1994: 13) since West Asians normally used large dishes (diameter 30-46 cm) for feasting or communal eating (Bennett, 2005; Casrwell, 2000; Medley, 1975; Park, 2012). The introduction of large saucers was in the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) marked by a better relationship between China and the West being the “largest continuous land empire ever existed” (Park, 2012: 91). Before this, Chinese dining style was to serve in individual plates. The crescent-shaped kendi’s form is obviously Islamic. “The elegant shape of this pouring vessel imitates the bronze water containers of Persia and Mughal India, Indian metal versions originally derived from animal hide drinking flasks” (National Art Gallery of Australia website, 2010). The purpose of the kendi in Islamic rituals is for ablution - the ritual washing of a priest's hands or of sacred vessels (Foo and Teo, 2007).Another form is the pen/covered box. Muslim metalworkers are known to have produced large numbers of pen boxes decorated with inlays of gold and silver (Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011). In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), numerous pen boxes similar to a typical medieval Islamic calligrapher's pen box were created. 6 �Site information and Presentation of Data Pandanan Shipwreck Pandanan shipwreck is in the southernmost tip of the mainland of Palawan, 250 m from shore, with a depth of 40-42 m (Alba, 1996; Dizon, 1996). It is a Chinese junk due to the use of iron nails connecting the keel to the hull (Dizon, 1996). Total artifacts count is 4,722, consisted of metals, beads, and ceramics. One of the Chinese coins showed that it was from the reign of Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty (1402-1424) and 70% of ceramics is Vietnamese (Dizon, 1996). In this site, 21 blueandwhite porcelains were examined as these were the ones available for research. Only one could be considered as Definitely Islamic, but 9 pieces have Islamic design elements. A summary of the findings of all the four sites will be seen at the end of this section. Española Site This site is located in Sofronio, Española, southeast Palawan, about 166 km south of the capital, Puerto Princesa. Although there were fragments of wood found in the site, this was not enough to qualify for a keel (Dizon et al., 2000). No parts of a ship were found. The total number of artifacts is 652, majority identified as Thai stoneware jars with only 7 blue and white porcelains detailed in Table 2 (Dizon et al., 2000). Lena Shoal Shipwreck Located off the island of Busuanga, northwest Palawan, the shipwreck at Lena Shoal was found 48 m deep, where excavations revealed a part of the bottom of the ship’s hull (Goddio, 2002). The total number of artifacts is 4,789, where 2,084 are blue and white porcelains, the rest are celadon, earthenware, and Sawankhalok wares (National Museum of the Philippines, 1997). Analysis of the ceramics places the shipwreck during the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor (1488-1505) (Crick, 2002). Contrary to the Pandanan shipwreck, the Lena Shoal shipwreck was identified as part of the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition - fusion of Southeast Asian and Chinese shipbuilding techniques (Orillaneda, 2013). With the time and availability of the wares, 62 pieces were closely examined. Santa Cruz Shipwreck The shipwreck was 32 m below sea level, in Santa Cruz, Zambales, North Luzon. The artifact count in this shipwreck is marginally larger with 14,965 pieces, 97% high-fired 7 �ceramics (Orillaneda, 2008). Most numbered ceramics are celadon with 2,512, followed by 1,769 blue and white porcelains (Orillaneda, 2008). The ship is estimated to be from the South China Sea shipbuilding tradition, most probably from Thailand (Orillaneda, 2008). Discussion The Española Report dates the site to 15th century; however, Brown (2004) suggested it could be 16th century. Given that there was no sign of a ship, the artifacts are assumed to be jettisoned cargo (Brown, 2004; Dizon et al., 2000). The bulk of this is large stoneware jars, proposed to be Sawankhalok Fig. 4 Two pieces from the Española site with Arabesque Scrolls. (National Museum of the (National Museum of the Philippines) Philippines, 2000). Both Pandanan and Española sites offer us with more brown glazed wares and Southeast Asian ceramics, while more blue and white wares or Chinese ceramics were recovered from Lena Shoal and Santa Cruz. This may be approached with the factor of time since the Pandanan site is dated mid-15th century (Brown, 2004; Diem, 1996; Dizon, 1996), while both the Santa Cruz and Lena Shoal junks are proposed to have sunk late 15th century (Brown, 2004; Goddio et al., 2002). No other interpretations of Española will be made since the whole assemblage is not present and it is possible that the period is outside the paper’s scope. But it is interesting to note that there are two pieces decorated with an Islamic design element (Fig. 4), however the form and other decoration of these two wares do not make it ‘Definitely’ nor ‘Quasi Islamic’ since the pieces look more Sawankhalok than Chinese. Pandanan reveals that only one ware can be considered as ‘Definitely Islamic’, with 9 pieces with Islamic motifs. Since Lena Shoal and Santa Cruz have more blue-and-white porcelain, more samples were studied. Both wrecks from the late 15th century, tell us of change in traded goods, or a new trend of Chinese ceramic production - a change in how Chinese ceramics 8 �were decorated over time - since 50% of Lena Shoal porcelains can be considered as ‘Definitely Islamic’ while Santa Cruz has almost 40%. Examples of these are heavily decorated, large dishes (Fig. 2a and 2b), crescent-shaped kendi (Fig. 5a), ewer (Fig. 5b), and covered boxes (Figs. 5c and 5d). The growing polities in the Philippine archipelago during the 15th century were most probably the intended market of these shipwrecks; however this could be proven more surely with a comparative analysis of underwater and terrestrial artifacts. These underwater sites were excavated more recently than studies by Medley (1973-1976) and Macintosh (1994), examples of scholars who wrote that Chinese ceramics recovered in Southeast Asia were scantily designed and lower in quality compared to those sent to West Asia. Naturally, earlier claims of scholars could be updated with more recent research. As evidenced by the cargo of Lena Shoal and Santa Cruz, these are comparable to export porcelain described by Medley (1975) West Asia. The area or population does not necessarily have to be a marginally Islamic kingdom for wares with Islamic motifs to be sent or sold. It would be well to update initial claims that the Philippines was not a recipient of elaborately designed export porcelains (Macintosh, 1994; Medley, 1976). 9 �Fig. 5a Crescent-shaped Kendi, Santa Cruz Shipwreck. (National Museum of the Philippines) Fig. 5b Ewer, Santa Cruz Shipwreck. (National Museum of the Philippines) Fig. 5c Pen box, Santa Cruz Shipwreck. (National Museum of the Philippines) Fig. 5d Covered Box, Santa Cruz Shipwreck. (National Museum of the Philippines) Conclusion Since the data is raw, examining more specimens will definitely allow more interpretation. But so far, the objectives of this paper have been met. The different cargoes of the shipwrecks reveal the different time when these sailed and got wrecked. They also reveal a change in supply and demand of trade goods. The Philippine archipelago was also a recipient of porcelains decorated with Islamic motifs and it did not have to be a largely Islamic population. The Lena Shoal and Santa Cruz sites are effective for testing the checklist formulated, which can explore more closely what others reported regarding the ceramics found in these shipwrecks (Crick, 2002; Orillaneda, 2008).Research is in session for the main thesis where a comparison of porcelain from underwater and terrestrial site is being conducted to further prove that wares with Islamic motifs indeed reached Philippine shores. 10 �Table 1. Criteria/Checklist of characteristics formulated for the purpose of identifying Islamic designs motifs on porcelain. (A.N. Kintanar) Table 2. Summary of findings based on the checklist. (A.N. Kintanar) Acknowledgements Special thanks to Bobby Orillaneda, Emil Bersamira, Vergil San Mateo, Allan Quinto, Clyde Jago-on, Paolo Tabirao, Larry Alba, Amelia Alhambra, Louise Bolunia, and E. Z. Dizon of the National Museum of the Philippines for their assistance and encouragements and Dr. Grace Barretto-Tesoro, Kate Lim, Anna Pineda, EnaLuga and especially Derek Sta Ana for the advice and support. Endnote 1A diagram and list of symbols on Chinese porcelain was presented to me by Mr. Fred Orogo from the Archaeology Division of the National Museum of the Philippines. It is a photocopy of an index of terms from a book which Mr.Orogo has forgotten, for this reason, I am citing him as my source. References Aga-Oglu, K., 1951. Blue-and-white Porcelain Plates made for Moslem Patrons. Far Eastern Bulletin, Vol. 3 (3): 12-16. Alba, L. A., 1996. Pandanan Underwater Archaeological Report, Pandanan Island, Balabak, Palawan: The Third Preliminary Report. Manila: UWA Division, National Museum of the Philippines, (Unpublished). 11 �Bennett, J., 2005. Crescent Moon: Islamic art and civilization in Southeast Asia. National Art Gallery of Australia, Australia. Beyer, H. Otley., 1947. Early History of Philippine Relations with Foreign Countries Especially China. National Print Co., Manila. Bloom, J., and Blair, S., 1997. Islamic Arts. Phaidon Press Ltd., London. Brown, R. M., 2004. The Ming Gap and Shipwreck Ceramics in Southeast Asia. (PhD Dissertation), University of California, Los Angeles. Burckhardt, T., 1976. Art of Islam: Language and Meaning. World Islam Festival Publishing Company, London. Carswell, J., 2000. Blue and white Chinese Porcelain around the World. British Museum Press, London. Crick, M., 2002. “Traditions and Transitions: Chinese Ceramics at the end of the 15th Century” in Lost at Sea: The Strange Route of the Lena Shoal Junk. Periplus Publishing London Ltd., London. Curatola, G., 2006. Persian ceramics: From the 9th to the 14th Century. Skira, Milan. Dizon, E. Z., 1996. Anatomy of a Shipwreck: Archaeology of the 15th century Pandanan Shipwreck. In The Pearl Road, Asiatype, Inc., Philippines. Dizon, E. Z., Conese, E., Cuevas, M., and Jago-on, S. C., (2000). Caranasan Underwater Archaeological Excavation Project, site Report. UWA Division, National Museum of the Philippines, Unpublished, Manila. Dizon, E. Z., and Ronquillo, W. P., 2010. Maritime and underwater archaeology in the Philippines. In A Passage to Asia, Exhibition “A Passage to Asia”: 25 Centuries of Exchange between Asia and Europe, Brussels: 201-213. Esguerra, Arnulfo N., 2004. Analyses of the painting styles and decorative motifs on Ming blue and white ware with references to ceramic cargoes of Lena and other shipwrecks. Archaeological Studies Program, University of the Philippines, Quezon City. Foo, Check-Teck., and Teo Khay-Chuan., 2007. Contextualizing the design mind of an ancient potter: a case study of the religious context of Islam and Ming Kendi. Leinden Journal of Pottery Studies, Vol. 23: 178-188. Goddio F., M., Crick, P. K. Lam., Pierson, S., and Scott, R., 2002. Lost at Sea: The Strange Route of the Lena Shoal Junk. Periplus Publishing London Ltd, London. 12 �Gray, B., 1963. Persian Influence on Chinese Art from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries. Iran, Vol. 1: 13-18. Guy, J., 1980. Oriental Trade Ceramics in Southeast Asia 10th to 16h century. National Gallery of Victoria, Australia. Hall, K. R., 1992. The Economic History of Southeast Asia. In N. Tarling (Ed.), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol.1: From Early Times to 1800 AD. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hall, K. R. 2011. A History of Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100-1500. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., UK. Junker, L. L., 2000. Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms. Ateneo de Manila University Press, Philippines. Krahl, R., 1986. Export Porcelain Fit for the Chinese Emperor: Early Chinese Blue-andWhite in the Topkapǐ Saray Museum, Istanbul. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No. 1: 68-92. Macintosh, D., 1994. Chinese Blue-and-white Porcelain. Book Marketing, Hong-Kong. Medley, M., 1973. The Yuan-Ming Transformation in the Blue and Red Decorated Porcelains of China. Ars Orientalis, Vol. 9, (Freer Gallery of Art Fiftieth Anniversary Volume): 89-101. Medley, M., 1975. Islam, Chinese Porcelain and Ardabil. Iran, Vol.13: 31-37. Medley, M.. 1976. The Chinese Potter: a practical history of Chinese ceramics. C. Scribner, New York. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, retrieved March 11, 2013 from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/51.53 National Art Gallery of Australia., 2011. Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Provence, China found in Bukittingi, West Sumatra, Indonesia, retrieved 17 March 2011 from, http://nga.gov.au/CrescentMoon/details/kendi.cfm. National Museum of the Philippines., 1997. Specimen Inventory Record of the Lena Shoal Underwater Archaeological Project. Underwater Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines, Manila. National Museum of the Philippines., 2000. Specimen Inventory Record of the Caranasan Underwater Archaeological Project. Underwater Archaeology Division, 13 �National Museum of the Philippines, Manila. Orillaneda, B. C., 2008. The Santa Cruz, Zambales Shipwreck Ceramics: Understanding Southeast Asian Ceramic Trade during the Late 15th Century CE. Archaeological Studies Program, University of the Philippines, Quezon City. Orillaneda, B. C., 2011. Protecting and Preserving the Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Philippines. In Mark Staniforth, Jennifer Craig, Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, Ligaya Lacsina (Eds.), Proceedings on the ASIA-PACIFIC regional conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, National Museum of the Philippines, Manila: 86-102. Orillaneda, B. C., 2013. Maritime Trade in the Philippines during the 15th century CE, paper presented in the 2013 SEAMEO SPAFA International Conference on Southeast Asian Archaeology, Bangkok. Park, H., 2012. Mapping the Chinese and Islamic Worlds: Cross-Cultural Exchange in Premodern Asia. Cambridge University Press, New York City. Philon, H., 1980. Early Islamic ceramics: ninth to late twelfth centuries. Islamic Art Publications, London. Piotrovskii, M. B., 2006. ‘Introduction’ to Beyond Palace Walls: Islamic Art from the State Hermitage Museum, Islamic art in a world context. In M. B. Piotrovskii and Anton D. Pritula (Eds.), National Museums of Scotland Publishing, Edinburgh. Reid, A., 1990. An ‘Age of Commerce’ in Southeast Asian History. Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 24 (1): 1‐30. Soucek, P., 1999. Ceramic Production as Exemplar of Yuan-Ilkhanid Relations. Anthropology and Aesthetics, No. 35: 125-141. Wu, Ching-Hong., 1959. References to the Philippines in Chinese Sources. Philippines Social Science and Humanities Review, Vol. 24 (January-June): 1-181. Biography Andrea Natasha Kintanar is a Master of Arts in Archaeology student in the University of the Philippines-Archaeological Studies Program. Currently, she is in the process of completing her Master's thesis while working as a part-time lecturer in two progressive colleges in Manila. She received her Bachelor of Arts degree in History from the University of the Philippines. Her research interests are maritime trade, ceramics, historical archaeology and Islamic art. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Session 8: Ceramics from Shipwrecks, Harbours, Ports and Related Archaeological Sites Subject The topic of the resource Video interview with Session 8 chair Atthasit Sukkham and links to the papers presented in the session. Description An account of the resource Trade ceramics have usually been found together with other evidence in many ancient shipwrecks, harbours, ports, trade centers, hinterlands and burials around the world which were linked to international maritime trade routes. These were specifically Chinese, Indian, Southeast Asian, Middle East and European trade routes over a long period of history. Trade ceramics are virtually indestructible. They are also one of the most important sources of information for maritime archaeological studies concerning the dating of ceramics and shipwrecks, origins of ceramics, points of departure and destinations of ships and shipments, for instance. This session aims to provide an opportunity for specialists to contribute their knowledge on trade ceramics in multi-disciplinary approaches and foster international collaboration for ceramic studies from the shipwrecks, harbours, ports and related archaeological sites in near future. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Atthasit Sukkham Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Identifying 'Islamic Motif' on Chinese blue and white Porcelain recovered from the 15th century shipwrecks in the Philippines Description An account of the resource This research is based on the raw data of a Master’s thesis that aims to identify Islamic motifs on Chinese blue-and-white porcelains recovered from the 15th century archaeological sites in the Philippines. A stylistic analysis of Chinese porcelains recovered from both underwater and terrestrial sites will be conducted so that the main aims of the thesis will be attained. The Master’s thesis aims to answer questions that concern: a) the participation of the Philippines during the 15th century maritime trade; and b) determine the possible indications of the presence and/or absence of the porcelains. Large amounts of Chinese ceramics have been found in Philippine sites dating from the late 9th to the early 12th centuries, and the 14th-18th centuries. Some Chinese blue-and-white porcelains recovered from Philippine archaeological sites were preliminarily identified to have Islamic motifs, however these were only initial descriptions. The Master’s thesis aims to verify the preliminary analyses. The main objective of this paper is analysis the blueandwhite porcelains recovered from following shipwrecks of the 15th century: Lena Shoal shipwreck, Española underwater site, and Pandanan shipwreck in Palawan, Philippines as well as Santa Cruz shipwreck in Zambales, Philippines. Using the collated motifs from already established ‘Islamic’ art a criteria and checklist was formulated to illustrate the presence of the motifs in Chinese blueandwhite porcelain from the abovementioned underwater sites. The initial results of this research will reveal that porcelains recovered in the Philippines are comparable to those found in West Asia, contrary to some past studies. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Andrea Natasha E. Kintanar, in Van Tilburg, H., Tripati, S., Walker Vadillo, V., Fahy, B., and Kimura, J. (eds.) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 5/15/2014 Asia-Pac Session 8 2014 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/449e938f723f1fdf12a871ab1622bc42.pdf 80c8b127784156126aa8898c662a6d79 PDF Text Text Identifying Singapore’s Maritime Cultural Landscape Michael Ng Jian Cheng (Archaeology Unit, Tamasek History Research Centre, ISEAS Yusof Ishak Institute [formerly Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]) ABSTRACT The paper proposes to build upon existing approaches in the study of Singapore's past narrative by incorporating the study of the maritime cultural landscape (MCL) to observe the micro connections and provide a closer examination of the maritime activities around Singapore. This paper highlights Singapore's maritime cultural landscapes within the premise of the MCL approach proposed by Christer Westerdahl. The case studies under consideration include historical, archaeological and anthropological sources on maritime activity around Singapore, the current historical narrative on Singapore, and recent maritime cultural landscape studies. The expected results are to take on a different perspective in considering Singapore's maritime past as an island and coastal settlement. It hopes to further the understanding of the island’s maritime past beyond the predominant trade narrative. Ultimately, this allows stakeholders in Singapore to recognise the various types of maritime cultural heritage that may reside around Singapore’s coast and waters. Consequently, the paper will highlight how using the maritime cultural landscape approach could help with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and further our thinking on the interactions between humans and seas. INTRODUCTION Singapore's past is deeply connected to the waters surrounding its islands and is situated close to several major waterways in Southeast Asia. Present maritime borders and traffic separation schemes separate the various nation-states along these waterways; however, they were not divided in the past. On the contrary, they were an interconnected network and a platform providing maritime polities in the region access to the world around them and beyond, and vice versa (Borschberg 2012, 193). To fully appreciate the past connections between the people of Singapore from various periods and the surrounding maritime space, it is essential to identify a suitable approach that could encourage further research. Christer Westerdahl's maritime cultural landscape (MCL) approach could be an appropriate model to explore these past connections. This paper assesses the potential of Christer Westerdahl’s approach to better understanding Singapore's maritime past by preliminarily identifying Singapore’s maritime cultural landscapes based on available maritime-related historical, anthropological and archaeological data. Hopefully, it will encourage future research on Singapore's past through the MCL approach and perhaps highlight how the approach could contribute to greater ocean literacy. Evaluation of the Current Approaches to Singapore’s Past Narrative Historical and archaeological research has highlighted Singapore’s existence as an entrepôt since the fourteenth century and further understand the island’s role in the global and regional context throughout its 700 years of history (Flecker 2022a; Flecker 2022b; Kwa 2004; Kwa et al. 2019; Low 2004; Miksic 2013). In the book 1819 & Before, Singapore's Pasts, Chong (2021, vii–ix) summarised the historical and archaeological research conducted to examine the island’s past narrative. He highlighted that the scholars had revealed the networks and linkages connecting Singapore to the region over the centuries before 1819. Both recent publications, 1819 & Before, and Seven Hundred Years: A History of Singapore, emphasise the island’s pre-modern connectivity to the region by including the economic activities of the communities living on and around the island long before colonialism arrived on this island (Kwa et al. 2019, 6–11; Heng 2017, 42; Heng 2021, 31). A critical 1 �examination of recent academic pursuits of Singapore scholars indicates a considerable emphasis on the connectivity, trade and exchange between Singapore and the region. These approaches are essential because small nation-states are more susceptible to exogenous factors; however, viewing Singapore's past narrative through a macro lens cannot account for the other varieties of past human activity on the island. As an island coastal settlement, connectivity to the region would only represent one of the many pursuits in the daily lives of the common folk. The "who we are?" and "what we are?" questions of these individuals have yet to be thoroughly understood. Miksic (2021, 19–21) mentioned expanding current arguments on Singapore's past to include artefact provenance and relationships between human activity and the natural environment. In addition, research on Singapore’s prehistoric past and the lives of ordinary individuals during Singapore’s colonial period has not been emphasised. These added questions and challenges seemed like isolated areas of studies that are not in line with the current approaches to Singapore's past narrative. However, by introducing and perhaps integrating an approach which acknowledges the diversity in maritime activities, it is possible to connect these approaches and provide a more wholesome way to study Singapore's macro and micro maritime past. Thus, the MCL approach could be a viable option to combine these approaches. MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MCL can be defined as the human utilisation of maritime space by boat: settlement, fishing, hunting, shipping, and, in historical times, its attendant subcultures, such as pilotage and lighthouse and seamark maintenance (Westerdahl 1992, 5). Westerdahl (2011, 13–14; 2020, 6780) highlighted seven types of maritime cultural landscapes. It includes the economic landscape, the landscape of transport and communications, the power landscape, the outer resource landscape, the inner resource landscape, the cognitive landscape and the recreative landscape. The basis of this concept is the study of past cultures which exist at the edges of different varieties of water bodies, such as seas and oceans (Westerdahl 2020, 6780). It utilises the physical elements of landscape and seascape to analyse maritime cultures within an environment (Ford 2011, 4). Singapore, an island nation-state where most of the past and, at times, present settlements lived along the water's edge, is a good candidate for further maritime cultural landscape studies. Although the current usage of the concept is heavily associated with maritime archaeology, the critical premise concerns the understanding of landscapes created by the material culture left behind by people who lived and interacted with the physical environment in which they were situated (Ford 2011, 4). Thus, studying maritime cultures will require an examination of all aspects of the maritime past and a multi-disciplinary approach, including and beyond maritime archaeology (Ford 2011, 1–4). Some coastal site studies used the MCL approach to successfully connect the heritage deposits that reside on the shores with its underwater sites. In addition, accounting for the range of human activities throughout the various technological, economic, and geopolitical changes in their respective area (Fitzhugh 2011; Lusardi 2011). Identifying Singapore’s Maritime Cultural Landscape This section identifies Singapore’s maritime cultural landscapes from historical, anthropological, and archaeological records. Economic Landscape 2 �The fishing traps and methods, mollusc gathering, the Orang Laut community, and Kelong settlements are some identified features of sustenance and coastal agriculture within Singapore's economic landscape. Evidence of traditional fishing traps and methods was highlighted in studies by Gibson-Hill and Burdon. During the 1950s, Gibson-Hill (1950b) covered the types of fishing boats that operated from Singapore, while Burdon (1954) examined the fishing methods of Singapore. These were ethnographic studies that documented the fishing activities around Singapore Island. Although they were recorded barely seventy years ago, these fishing methods could likely have been practised before the 1950s or even before the arrival of the British in 1819. Evidence of mollusc gathering can be identified from two historical sources. The earliest pre-colonial historical source indicating shellfish collection was the Sejarah Melayu or the Malay Annals. The book, written in the 16th century, recounted a specific event of mollusc gathering during the early days of Singapore's history. It described Sang Nila Utama, a Sumatran prince who landed on the shores of Temasek or ancient Singapore with his entourage and started gathering shellfish immediately after arriving on the island. “…Sri Tri Buana went ashore with all the ship’s company and amused themselves with collecting shellfish…” (Brown 1953, 30) There were no further descriptions of what they do with the seashells, but as they have arrived from the sea through a storm, the mollusc likely forms part of their diet. During the colonial period, the gathering of molluscs continued. However, the purpose of mollusc gathering is no longer restricted to dietary but also for other uses such as the production of lime. During the colonial period, lime was obtained from mollusc remains. Lime kilns were set up along the coasts of Singapore to process these remains into lime. Lime serves an essential function as a disinfectant due to its bacteria-killing properties, and it is often used to disinfect lavatories. Coastal archaeological sites like the National Gallery Singapore, Victoria Memorial Hall and Empress Place contained sizable mollusc ecofacts alongside large quantities of ceramic artefacts in various stratigraphic and temporal layers (Lim 2017; Lim 2019). It suggests that humans were consuming these molluscs and further research can be conducted on how people interacted with the environment. The Orang Laut is a Malay term for “Sea People” or “People of the sea”. They are nomadic people who settle around the maritime zone within Southeast Asia. Based on ethnographic studies, three identified groups are within this community (Andaya 2008, 173). The Orang Laut that resides around the southern tip of the Straits of Melaka and the Riau-Lingga Archipelago was called the Orang Suku Laut (Chou 2021: 142). In Singapore, they primarily resided along the coasts and at river mouths (Gibson-Hill 1952b, 161). The history of the Orang Laut stretches since the Srivijayan/Malayu period (Andaya 2008, 191). Records mentioned them as necessary in the various polities surrounding the Singapore Straits (Andaya 2008, 173–201). When the British arrived in Singapore in 1819, eyewitness accounts described their settlements and lifestyle (Gibson-Hill 1952b, 161). Other academics attempting to preserve the legacy of the Orang Laut through research included Cynthia Chou and the authors of Beyond Bicentennial: Perspective on Malays publication (Chou 2021; Rasheed et al. 2020). Unfortunately, due to the ever-growing development and current geopolitical boundaries, many Orang Laut abandoned their way of life. On the other hand, there are non-academic attempts to preserve the Orang Laut way of life. Orang Laut Sg is a local community of Orang Laut originally residing on Pulau Semakau, an offshore island in Singapore. They started an initiative to share their stories about the island and their way of life 3 �through traditional Orang Laut cuisines and stories.1. Another local blog called " We came from the sea" was set up to share projects that study Singapore as an island or as islands.2. These attempts show the need for continued historical and ethnographic studies to preserve this community's knowledge. Future maritime archaeological research will also have to share the responsibility to protect sites that could highlight the Orang Laut's lives from a material culture and landscape perspective. Landscape of Transport and Communications (Communicative Landscape) Research on Singapore's landscape of transport and communications, or communicative landscape, has been highlighted in evaluating the current approaches to Singapore’s past narrative section. The island’s past narrative is dominated by its economic and network-related history. While records provide the documentation illustrating the ongoing trade Singapore was involved in, archaeological research provides the material culture to inform on the trade's nature and contents. These significant networks have profoundly impacted Singapore since the fourteenth century, thus the emphasis. On the other hand, the history of the minor networks has yet to be thoroughly explored compared to the study of the major networks. Singapore's geographical location is strategic not only because it lies along one of the most crucial trade networks but because it is also surrounded by a cluster of islands and land masses where different polities resided in the past. Regardless of how Singapore's settlement history oscillates between autonomous society or part of a larger polity, the people in Singapore are always in contact with their neighbours from Johor, Bintan, Batam and even the Karimun Islands (Miksic 2013). A perfect example of how intense the connection of Singapore with its neighbouring polities can be gleaned from the boat traffic between Singapore and Johor during the early colonial period. Before constructing the causeway between Singapore and Johor, goods and people had to move between these two locations by boat. The boat traffic was reported to be so intense that it operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week.3. Thus, historians and archaeologists need to start examining these micro or minor networks that have sustained the settlement in Singapore throughout history. That will require an examination of the artefacts found in Singapore that could indicate the trade and exchange between Singapore and its neighbouring polities, identify the boats and shed light on their importance in this micro landscape of transport and communication. Power Landscape One of the most overt examples of a power landscape that could still be observed in Singapore is the coastal defences erected during the colonial period of Singapore from 1819 to 1942. During the early period of colonial Singapore, several forts, including some of the offshore islands, were constructed around the south of the island to protect it from seaward or water-borne threats. This defensive doctrine continued till World War II, and some of these fortifications were expanded and improved to stay current with the latest military trends (Murfett et al. 2011). In 2008, and 2017, there were 1 Sani, Firdaus. 2020. “Orang Laut SG: Our Story.” Accessed May 3, 2023. https://oranglaut.sg/ 2 We came from the sea. n.d. “About us.” Accessed May 3, 2023. https://wecamefromthesea.wordpress.com/about/ 3 Yap, Yok Foo. 2001. “The wild days of the Causeway” TODAY, January 8, 2001. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/today20010108-1.2.19.3 4 �archaeological attempts to document some of the remaining coastal fortification structures at Fort Serapong Sentosa.4 and Pulau Ubin5 respectively. Outer Resource Landscape Records from the colonial period have indicated ship or boat construction and repair facilities along Boat Quay.6, Beach road, Tanjong Rhu and Kallang river. These records come in archival drawings and even photographs of these locations. Further research is required in this area as these records are scattered throughout the archives. Only a handful of academics covered topics related to boats of Singapore, such as Gibson-Hill and Eric Alfred. Gibson-Hill (1952a) provided brief descriptions of the Tongkang vessels and their functions as lighter. Alfred (1987) documented a list of boat types found in Singapore and provided some details about them. However, very little construction information could be gleaned from his documentation. Inner Resource Landscape (145) Miksic (2013, 266) indicated that during the fourteenth century, Singapore provided raw natural products, a collection and distribution centre for goods found in its immediate vicinity, mainly in the Riau Archipelago and as a transhipment point for commodities. Archaeological evidence shows that past Singaporeans processed raw materials to make finished products (Miksic 2013, 266). These products include earthenware pottery, copper, bronze and gold implements manufactured from imported raw materials (Miksic 2013, 266–285). In addition, according to historical records, perishable goods, including Lakawood, hornbill casques, and sea turtle shells, were retrieved from one of the archaeological sites close to the Singapore River (Miksic 2013, 285–286). During the 19th century, Singapore continued to be a transhipment point for commodities obtained from Peninsular Malaya, such as tin, rubber, pepper and gambier7. Cognitive Landscape There is some research which examines the cognitive maritime landscapes of Singapore. Tai (2021) looked into Zheng He’s navigation methods and delved deeper into his visit to Singapore. Zheng He a Ming dynasty eunuch who led a Chinese fleet on several voyages to Southeast Asia and onwards to the West. Tai (2021) examined the place names listed on the Chinese navigational charts with other Chinese records. His examination accounted for linguistic nuances between the various Chinese languages. Sinclair (2021) also examined the etymology of Singapore’s previous names, such as Temasek, Singapura, and some Singapore landmarks' names. He examined predominantly local Malay sources but made comparisons with other non-local sources and identified the linguistic distinctions between the languages and scripts. 4 Lim, Chen Sian. 2009. “Colonial Singapore: Archaeological vs Historical Records The Fort Serapong Case Study.” ScholarBank@NUS Repository. 5 Kao, Aaron. “Pulau Ubin Anti-Motor Torpedo Boat Battery: The Gun That Never Was.” In NSC Highlights (8). Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2018. 6 Vernon Cornelius-Takahama. 2004. ‘Bumboats’. Singapore Infopedia, Singapore: National Library Board. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_956_2004-12-15.html . 7 Chua, Alvin. 2004. “The Causeway.” Singapore Infopedia, Singapore: National Library Board. https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_99_2004-12-30.html 5 �Jong racing could be an example of both a cognitive and recreative landscape. Jong is a lightweight sailing model that was made for racing. Jong racing was a sport played by the people in Singapore, as well as from the neighbouring islands to the south to the Lingga islands and the Straits of Johor (Gibson-Hill 1950a, 144–145; Alfred 1986, 133). A larger version of the sport, Kolek (a traditional local sailboat) racing, was carried out along the coasts of Singapore. Today, the local blog "We Came from the Sea" continues to preserve the stories from this tradition, highlighting local efforts to revive these traditions, like Mazlan Mohammed Nasir, who once was a resident on one of the offshore islands in Singapore. A Possible Approach for Sustainable Development Goals? Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) is a United Nations initiative to address today's global challenges, such as poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice. Ongoing discussions are looking into how underwater cultural heritage and interdisciplinary maritime activities can be incorporated into this initiative to help achieve goal 14, which represents life below water (Trakadas et al., 2019). SDG calls for diversity in relating maritime cultural heritage to existing environmental issues. A suitable approach is required to provide an outline for practitioners to quickly identify areas for further research, conservation, and, most importantly, collaborations with other disciplines. These areas must be diverse enough that they could correlate with different fields to achieve a fuller understanding of our surrounding water environment. Incidentally, this issue mirrors an ongoing discussion in public archaeology on how to get society to appreciate archaeology better. One of the key takeaways from this discussion is that we should not just focus on bringing archaeology to the community, but we have to consider how archaeology could meet society's educational, social, and cultural needs (Smardz, 1997, p. 103; Copeland, 2004, p. 142; White, 2019; Erdman, 2019). Perhaps, the key is to highlight archaeology’s multi and interdisciplinary nature and identify areas which can be incorporated into the needs of society. Westerdahl’s landscape concept accounts for diverse human interactions with water bodies. As demonstrated by the above examples, applying landscape studies allows for a more wholesome understanding of human interaction with water bodies. Most importantly, it was able to create the connection between the heritage deposits that reside on the shores and its immediate maritime environment. The MCL approach resonates with the societal objectives identified during the first Global Planning Meeting organised by the National Museum of Denmark (Trakadas et al., 2019). The diverse nature of the objectives calls for a diverse research approach to address the inclusion of maritime cultural heritage into SDG. Thus, using Singapore as an example, this paper highlights the possibility of adopting the maritime cultural landscape approach to achieve the SDG objectives locally in the island state. CONCLUSION In conclusion, this paper evaluates the current approaches to studying Singapore's maritime past and proposes integrating the MCL approach to examine Singapore’s past narrative thoroughly. The paper attempts to identify examples from Singapore's historical, archaeological and anthropological research that could fit into the seven iterations of the MCL. Admittedly, this paper did not manage to provide an exhaustive investigation of all the existing research materials; however, with its meagre examples, it hopes to highlight the potential of this approach and encourage future studies on Singapore's past 6 �narrative by viewing it as a maritime cultural landscape. Applying this approach also raises awareness amongst Singapore's stakeholders that maritime cultural heritage should not be fixated on the geographical and economic past. Still, it should illuminate the social–cultural interactions between people and their natural environment. Although the approach is applied within a local or micro context in this paper, it could also be used in other areas and on a macro scale. Suppose every coastal community in the Asia-Pacific region identifies its maritime cultural landscapes and realises its connectedness with adjacent landscapes and their collective impact on the ocean. In that case, it is possible to create a deeper awareness and greater sense of stewardship to improve ocean health. BIBLIOGRAPHY Alfred, Eric R. “Boats of Singapore.” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 60, no. 2 (253) (1987): 99–114. Alfred, Eric R. “The Pulau Brani Jong.” Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 59, no. 2 (251) (1986): 133–138. Andaya, Leonard Y. Leaves of the Same Tree : Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824863319. Andaya, Leonard. “The Orang Laut and the Negara Selat (Realm of the Straits).” In 1819 & Before: Singapore’s Pasts, edited by Chong Guan Kwa, 45–53. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. Borschberg, Peter. “The Singapore Straits in the Later Middle Ages and Early Modern Period (c. 13th to 17th Centuries): facts, fancy and historiographical challenges.” Journal of Asian History 46(2) (2012):193–224. Burdon, T. W. “ The Fishing Methods of Singapore.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 27, no. 2 (1954): 5–76. Brown, C.C. “The Malay Annals.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 25, no. 2/3 (159) (1952): 5–276. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41502950. Chong, Terence. “Foreword.” In 1819 & Before: Singapore’s Pasts, edited by Chong Guan Kwa, vii–xi. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. Chou, Cynthia. “The Orang Suku Laut: Movement, Maps and Mapping.” In Sea Nomads of Southeast Asia: From the Past to the Present, edited by Bérénice Bellina, Roger Blench and Jean-Christophe Galipaud, 142–156. Singapore: NUS Press, 2021. Copeland, Tim. “Presenting archaeology to the public: constructing insights.” In Public Archaeology, edited by Nick Merriman, 132–145. Routledge, 2004. Erdman, Katherine. M. “Introduction - Opening a Dialog: Bringing Archaeology to the Public Chapter.” In Public Engagement and Education: Developing and Fostering Stewardship for an Archaeological Future, edited by Katherine M. Erdman, 1 –17. Berghahn Books, 2019. Fitzhugh, William. W., Anja Herzog, Sophia Perdikaris, and Brenna McLeod. “Ship to Shore: Inuit, Early Europeans, and Maritime Landscapes.” In The Archaeology of maritime landscapes, edited by Ben Ford, 99–128. New York: Springer, 2011. Flecker, Michael. The wreck of the Shah Muncher (1796) Singapore: preliminary report, Temasek Working Paper Series 3. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2022a. Retrieved 17 June 2022 from <https://www.iseas.edu.sg/wpcontent/uploads/2022/01/Flecker_TWPS03-_Final-FINAL-revised28Jan2022.pdf> 7 �Flecker, Michael. The Temasek wreck (mid-14th century) Singapore: preliminary report, Temasek Working Paper Series 4. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2022b. Retrieved 17 June 2022 from <https://www.iseas.edu.sg/wcontent/uploads/2022/03/Flecker_TWPS04_Final_r.pdf> Ford, Ben. “Introduction.” In The Archaeology of maritime landscapes, edited by Ben Ford, 1–9. New York: Springer, 2011. Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander. “The Racing Jong.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 23, no. 1 (151) (1950a): 144–148. Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander. “The Fishing Boats Operated from Singapore Island.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 23, no. 3 (153) (1950b): 148–70. Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander. “Tongkang and Lighter Matters.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 25, no. 1 (158) (1952a): 84–110. Gibson-Hill, Carl Alexander. “The Orang Laut of the Singapore River and the Sampan Panjang.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 25, no. 1 (158) (1952b): 161–74. Heng, Derek. “Historical Research in Singapore and The Place of Archaeology.” In Archiving Archaeological Materials. Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Archaeology Unit Archaeology Report Series No 7, edited by Chen Sian Lim, Duncan H. Brown, Derek Heng, Frank M. Maddens and John N. Miksic. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2017. Heng, Derek. “Regional Influences, International Geopolitics and Environmental Factors in the Rise and Demise of Temasek.” In 1819 & Before: Singapore’s Pasts, edited by Chong Guan Kwa, 23–34. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. Kwa, Chong Guan. “Sailing past Singapore.” In Early Singapore, 1300s–1819: evidence in maps, text and artefacts, edited by John N. Miksic, Cheryl-Ann Mei Gek Low and Singapore History Museum, 95–105. Singapore: Singapore History Museum, 2004. Kwa, Chong Guan. Locating Singapore on the Maritime Silk Road: Evidence from Maritime Archaeology, Ninth to Early Nineteenth Centuries, Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Working Paper No.10. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2012. Kwa, Chong Guan. The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea, Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Working Paper No.23. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2016. Kwa, Chong Guan, Derek Heng, Peter Borschberg and Tai Yong Tan. Seven Hundred Years: A History of Singapore. Singapore: National Library Board, Singapore, 2019. Lim, Chen Sian. “Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Investigations at the National Gallery Singapore.” In Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Archaeology Report Series no.5. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2017. Lim, Chen Sian. “Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Investigations at the National Gallery Singapore.” In Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre Archaeology Report Series no.7. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2019. Low, Cheryl-Ann Mei Gek. “Singapore from the 14th to the 19th century.” In Early Singapore, 1300s– 1819: Evidence in Maps, Text and Artefacts, edited by John N. Miksic, Cheryl-Ann Mei Gek Low and Singapore History Museum, 14–40. Singapore: Singapore History Museum, 2004. Lusardi, Wayne R. “Rock, Paper, Shipwreck! The Maritime Cultural Landscape of Thunder Bay.” In The Archaeology of maritime landscapes, edited by Ben Ford, 81–97. New York: Springer, 2011. Miksic, John N. Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800. Singapore: NUS Press, 2013. Miksic, John N. “Issues and Approaches to Singapore’s Past before 1819.” In 1819 & Before: Singapore’s Pasts, edited by Chong Guan Kwa, 11–22. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. 8 �Murfett, Malcolm H., John N. Miksic, Brian P. Farrell and Ming Shun, Chiang. Between Two Oceans : a Military History of Singapore from 1275 to 1971. 2nd ed. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Editions, 2011. Rasheed, Zainul Abidin, Wan Hussin Zoohri, and Norshahril Saat, ed. Beyond Bicentennial: Perspectives on Malays. Singapore: World Scientific, 2020. Sinclair, Ian. "The Inception of Lion City." In 1819 & Before: Singapore’s Pasts, edited by Chong Guan Kwa, 65–76. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. Smardz, Karolyn. E. “The past through tomorrow: interpreting Toronto’s heritage to a multicultural public.” In Presenting Archaeology to the Public: Digging for Truths, edited by John H. Jameson, 101–113. Walnut Creek, California: Altamira Press, 1997. Tai, Yew Seng. “Zheng He’s Navigational Methods and His Visit to Longyamen, Singapore.” In 1819 & Before: Singapore’s Pasts, edited by Chong Guan Kwa, 101–114. Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2021. Trakadas, Athena, Antony Firth, David Gregory, Dolores Elkin, Ulrike Guerin, Jon Henderson, Jun Kimura, et al. “The Ocean Decade Heritage Network: Integrating Cultural Heritage Within the UN Decade of Ocean Science 2021-2030.”  Journal of Maritime Archaeology 14, no. 2 (2019): 153–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-019-09241-0. Westerdahl, Christer. “The maritime cultural landscape.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21(1) (1992): 5–14. Westerdahl, Christer. “The Maritime Cultural Landscape.” In The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology 1st ed., edited by Ben Ford, Donny L. Hamilton, and Alexis Catsambis, 1–32. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Westerdahl, Christer. “Maritime Landscapes.” In Encyclopaedia of Global Archaeology, [Online], 6780–6782. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. White, Charles. S. “Schools and Public Archaeology: Igniting a Commitment to Heritage Preservation.” In Public Engagement and Education: Developing and Fostering Stewardship for an Archaeological Future, edited by Katherine M. Erdman, 21–44. Berghahn Books, 2019. 9 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Identifying Singapore’s Maritime Cultural Landscape Description An account of the resource The paper proposes to build upon existing approaches in the study of Singapore's past narrative by incorporating the study of the maritime cultural landscape (MCL) to observe the micro connections and provide a closer examination of the maritime activities around Singapore. This paper highlights Singapore's maritime cultural landscapes within the premise of the MCL approach proposed by Christer Westerdahl. The case studies under consideration include historical, archaeological and anthropological sources on maritime activity around Singapore, the current historical narrative on Singapore, and recent maritime cultural landscape studies. The expected results are to take on a different perspective in considering Singapore's maritime past as an island and coastal settlement. It hopes to further the understanding of the island’s maritime past beyond the predominant trade narrative. Ultimately, this allows stakeholders in Singapore to recognise the various types of maritime cultural heritage that may reside around Singapore’s coast and waters. Consequently, the paper will highlight how using the maritime cultural landscape approach could help with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and further our thinking on the interactions between humans and seas. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ng Jian Cheng Michael Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Cheng, Michael Ng Jian. 2023. “Identifying Singapore’s Maritime Cultural Landscape.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Abhirada Komoot. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1933 Asia-Pac Session 3 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/6f710367be2dd8879f532536b8b11c33.pdf 8b5454b707b65a9555e4cbfe91a12faf PDF Text Text Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia Ulung J. Wisha1,2, Wisnu A. Gemilang3, & Nia N. H. Ridwan3 1 Department of Physics and Earth Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara-Japan 2 Research Center for Oceanography, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jakarta-Indonesia 3 Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV), Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Padang-Indonesia ABSTRACT Despite the indirect impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological sites, identifying future conditions is imperative to support conservation planning to minimise the possible effects that may occur. This study aims to identify the sea level trends in several important archaeological sites in Indonesia and estimate the future change due to sea level rises. Altimetry satellite data were employed to determine the sea level anomaly (SLA) of three chosen sites: Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore, where significant historical objects were recently discovered. Hydrodynamic-based modelling was also used to estimate the water properties alteration in 2100 as predicted by IPCC AR6, with a projection of about 0.68-0.70 meters (m) sea level increase. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current magnitude will increase significantly by about 33-35per cent in 2100. It is followed by an increase in sediment transport of 18 – 37 per cent. As sedimentation is the primary issue in these three sites, sea level rises will induce sufficiently high sedimentation on archaeological remains, and artefact shifting position is also possible due to the more robust current regimes. Therefore, regular monitoring is an effort to protect the archaeological remains. If possible, excavations are also recommended to conserve the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Indonesia since it faces an upward sea level trend. Keywords: UCH, shipwreck, artefacts, sea level trends, sea level projections INTRODUCTION Sea level rise has become a growing concern in recent years as it threatens coastal areas and poses a significant threat to the preservation of underwater archaeological sites (Wetsley et al. 2023, 251-253). Indonesia with its vast coastline and rich cultural history is no exception to this issue. The rising sea level in Indonesia is gradually eroding coastal areas and threatening to submerge many ancient underwater archaeological sites, which are essential for scientific research but also for the cultural heritage of the country (Adhityatama and Yarista 2019, 55-56). Understanding the relationship between sea level rise and underwater archaeological sites in Indonesia is crucial for preserving the country's cultural heritage and preventing the loss of valuable historical information. Several shipwrecks and underwater archaeological sites in Indonesia are threatened by sea level rise, including those in the waters of Java and Sumatra. These sites would be a significant loss for scientific research and destroy Indonesia's cultural heritage. Therefore, preserving these sites and preventing them from being lost to the sea is essential. Historical shipwrecks are diving sites and the object of research in Indonesia (Dillenia et al. 2021, 2-3; Ridwan 2011, 5-6). To date, no studies assess the relationship of sea level trends with archaeological remains in the coastal and terrestrial zones. Some examples of well-known archaeological remains that may be threatened by sea level rise are: MV Boelongan Nederland, Gosong Nambi Shiwreck, and Ceramic findings in Sungai Nyalo, situated in the West Sumatra, USS Houston and HMAS Perth in 1 �Banten Bay, and Tonguwai and Soasio archaeological sites in Tidore Island, North Moluccas Province. This study will compare the status of sea level trends in these sites and their possible influence on the UCH. Estimating the future state concerning sea level projection established by The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) can be approached using hydrodynamic modelling and statistical-based analysis. Therefore, this study describes the possible impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological remains in Indonesia. This study is expected to become a basis for future decision-making regarding UCH preservation for local and central authorities. CASE STUDIES As mentioned earlier, this study will assess the possible impact of sea level rise on UCH in Indonesia. Therefore, in this section, we want to introduce several essential sites threatened by sea level rise. There are many significant archaeological sites in the West Sumatra Province. However, in this stage, we will introduce the latest identified sites surrounding Mandeh Bay, namely MV Boelongan Nederland and Gosong Nambi Shipwreck underwater sites and Sungai Nyalo terrestrial site. In 2017, RICRV discovered plenty of artefacts in the terrestrial area of Mandeh Bay called Sunyai Nyalo Village, close to the MV Boelongan Nederland shipwreck. Of 654 fragments were conserved, consisting of ceramic pieces, green-glass bottles, and earthenware bottles with European, East Asian, and Southeast Asian motifs (Figure 1a and b). This finding is an example of the incredible impact of sea level rise since the upward trend of sea level induces significant erosion in the coastal area. Therefore, these artefacts could be discovered at a one-meter depth. Thus, analysing sea level anomalies in the West Sumatra region, particularly in the surrounding Mandeh Bay, is significant in understanding its impact on shipwreck future conditions and the faith of undiscovered terrestrial remains that may still exist in the West Sumatra Province. Figure 1. The documentation of archaeological remains in the Indonesia waters; Sungai Nyalo artifact (a and b); Gosong Nambi wreck (c and d); MV Boelongan Nederland (e and f); HMAS Perth (g and h); USS Houston (i and j); Artefact findings in Tidore (k and l) A shipwreck discovered by local fishers in 2015 and initially established in 2020 is the Gosong Nambi wreck (Wisha et al. 2020, 63-65). Despite the lack of historical context for these remains, the shipwreck is the centre of biodiversity since it is trapped within an atoll formation (Figure 1c and d). Recently, locals reported that the position of this wreck is lowered due to the rubble avalanches induced by extreme weather and tides. Therefore, since the remains are vulnerable, the long-term sea 2 �level rise could cause a more lowering position of this wreck and even be buried by rubble and sediment. On the other hand, MV Boelongan Nederland was a cargo ship built in the 1920s by the Dutch shipping company Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij (KPM). The ship was used for transporting goods and passengers in and around Indonesia and Southeast Asia. During WWII, the ship was taken over by the Dutch and used to aid the war effort. However, in 1942, the Dutch scuttled the ship to prevent it from falling into the hands of the advancing Japanese forces (Ridwan et al. 2015, 84-87). The remains of MV Boelongan Nederland now lie in the waters off Mandeh Bay, West Sumatra, Indonesia, and have become a popular recreation dive site. The shipwreck is also of historical significance as it provides insights into the maritime history of Indonesia and the role played by shipping companies like KPM in the region. This site is threatened by massive sedimentation, which frequently hampers the diving activity due to the high sediment supply from the Mandeh Estuary right in front of the shipwreck position (Figures 1e and f). The shipwreck lies at a depth of about 20 m, and under the scenario of sea level rises, it is hypothesised that the sediment issue will get worse with increasing sea levels. The other case studies considered in this study are USS Houston and HMAS Perth shipwreck sites. The USS Houston and HMAS Perth were two naval warships that were heavily damaged during the battle and eventually sank during WWII in the Battle of Sunda Strait, which took place on 28 February 1942. Today, the USS Houston and HMAS Perth wrecks are popular dive sites in Indonesia and are located near the island of Java. The wrecks are historically and culturally significant and essential for scientific research and a reminder of the sacrifices made by those who fought in WWII. Efforts have been made to preserve and protect the wrecks, including establishing a protected zone around the sites and conducting ongoing monitoring and research to document changes in the condition of the wrecks over time (Figure 1g−j) (Shaw 2017, 2-7). Based on the recent documentation and field identification conducted by RICRV in 2018, HMAS Perth is positioned at 19-34 m depth, while the USS Houston is at a depth of 16-30 m, both located in the northern Panjang Island. The main problem in these sites is high sedimentation, with almost zero visibility (Ridwan 2019, 1626-1627). Moreover, the shipwrecks are surrounded by mining and industrial activities; they are located in the fishing zone; and are degraded by marine debris pollution (Wisha et al. 2022a, 106009). Therefore, the increase in sea level could worsen the shipwreck conditions in terms of greater sedimentation and degradation. In east Indonesia Tidore Island, was the location to witness the first circumnavigation of the Earth by Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastian Elcano. There are many remains on Tidore Island as evidence of Portuguese and Spanish colonialism over spice resources in this area. The most reachable sites are Tongwai and Soasio, where many artefact fragments, such as cannon, ceramics, earthenware, and metals, are scattered on the surrounding coral reef ecosystem, increasing the attractiveness of these sites to recreation (Figure 1k and l) (Rahmawan et al. 2021, 173-174). Since it is directly connected to the Pacific Ocean, the sea level rise may deteriorate the site conditions. RESOURCES To review the sea level trend in the study sites, we used the ~27-year sea level data (1992-2019) from altimetry satellites, The Sea Level Explorer established by the University of Colorado Boulder, the University of Hawaii Sea Level Center, and NASA Jet Propulsion Lab, (see https://ccar.colorado.edu/altimetry/ ). The altimetry data were sourced from the Propulsion Lab’s Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PODAAC). The sampled altimetry coordinates (Table 1) are in Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore Island. On the other hand, to estimate the possible future alteration due to sea level rises, we employed a sea level projection data provided by the NASA Sea Level Projection Tool allowing users to visualize and 3 �download the sea level projection data from the IPCC 6th Assessment Report (AR6) (see https://sealevel.nasa.gov/ipcc-ar6-sea-level-projection-tool). It is estimated that in 2100 CE the sea level will increase by 0.68 m for Mandeh and Banten Bay and 0.70 m for Tidore Island. The archaeological and environmental data were obtained from RICRV reports of field surveys in Mandeh and Banten Bay in 2018 and in Tidore in 2019. The field survey consisted of diving activity to the shipwreck sites, mini excavation, oceanographic parameters measurements, sediment sampling, local social-economy, interviews, acoustic-based measurements, and many others. Table 1. Coordinates of the sampled sea level data Location Mandeh Bay Banten Bay Southern Tidore Island Longitude 100.2500oE 106.0833oE 127.4167oE Latitude 1.2500oS 5.9167oS 0.5833oN FRAMEWORK The sea level anomaly (SLA) data was gained from yielded deviation between sea level at a specific time and the mean sea level. Then, a future linear trend was used to calculate the sea level trend, the annual amplitude, and the semi-annual amplitudes of each archaeological site. As for estimating the future changes based on sea level projection, we employed a coupled model of MIKE21 with flexible mesh to simulate the mutual interaction between waves and currents using a dynamic coupling between the hydrodynamic and spectral wave models (Wisha et al. 2022b, 78). We sampled the result from the coupled model developed according to site locations. The sediment transport model is based on the hydrodynamic models previously simulated (Wisha et al. 2022b, 78). The following equation defines the correlation between the wave energy flux component and the sediment transport: 𝑊𝑒𝑓 = 𝜌𝑔 8 𝐻𝑏2 𝐶𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑏 (1) Where: 𝑊𝑒𝑓 = Wave energy flux component along the coast at the time of wave breaking kilogram-meter per second (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚. 𝑠 −1 ) 𝜌 = Specific gravity (seawater) kilogram per cubic meter (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 ) 𝑔 = Gravity acceleration (9.81 meter per second squared(𝑚. 𝑠 −2 ) 𝐻𝑏 = Wave Height at the time of breaking (𝑚) 𝐶𝑏 = Breaking wave celerity meters per second (𝑚. 𝑠 −1 ) 𝛼𝑏 = Breaking wave angle A formula established by Triatmodjo (2012) was used to estimate the annum sediment transport. The formula is defined as follows: 𝑄𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑊 (𝜌𝑠 −𝜌)𝑔(1−𝑛) 𝑒𝑓 (2) Where: 𝑄𝑠 = Sediment transport along the coast cubic meter per second (𝑚3 . 𝑠 −1 ) 𝐾 = 0.39 𝜌𝑠 = Specific gravity (sand) (𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 ) 𝑛 = Porosity (𝑛 ≈ 0.4) 4 �RESULT Sea Level Trend Over the Archaeological Sites in Indonesia The altimetry data show upward trends of sea level over the sampled sites, at 0.39 centimetres per year (cm/year), 0.40 cm/year, and 0.52 cm/year for Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore (Figure 2 and Table 2). Over 27 years of observed data (1992-2019), different patterns were observed in the three parts of the Indonesian region. In Mandeh Bay, the sea level has increased since 2004 and peaked in 2017 with an SLA magnitude of about 38 cm. Similar to Mandeh Bay, the SLA in Banten Bay rose significantly in 2007, where the lowest sea level was observed in the next year, reaching -30 cm. The maximum sea level over 27 years was identified in 2018, reaching 26 cm. Figure 2. Sea level trend over Indonesia region (a) derived from Altimetry data; (b) SLA in southern Tidore island; (c) SLA in Mandeh Bay; (d) SLA in Banten Bay In Tidore Island, the recorded sea level is arbitrarily erratic (Figure 2b). The sufficiently high sea level trend in this area is due to the influence and circulation of the Pacific Ocean, where El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) plays a significant role in shaping sea level (Moon et al. 2015, 8229). The lowest sea level ever recorded was observed in 1998, reaching -28 cm, while the peak levels were observed several times, such as in 2012 and 2018, reaching 25 cm. Overall, all those sampled archaeological sites face an upward trend in sea level (Table 2), so future estimation of coastal dynamics due to sea level rises is imperative. Table 2. Sea level trend over 27 years of observation Parameter Mandeh Bay Banten Bay Southern Tidore Island Trend (cm/year) Annual Amplitude (cm) Semi-Annual Amplitude (cm) 0.39 1.66 4.56 0.40 3.03 3.21 0.52 3.63 0.53 5 �The Possible Impact of Sea-Level Rises on Archaeological Remains Sea level rises significantly impact shipwreck sites, particularly those located in coastal regions or underwater. As sea levels rise it can lead to increased erosion, flooding, and sedimentation causing damage to shipwrecks and their associated artefacts. Additionally, changes in ocean currents and weather patterns can contribute to shipwreck deterioration. One of the primary concerns with rising sea levels is the potential for loss of archaeological information. As shipwrecks are exposed to increased water pressure and changing environmental conditions, they can be subject to accelerated decay and destruction. This can result in losing valuable historical and cultural information these sites contain. Moreover, sea level rise can make it difficult for archaeologists and researchers to access shipwreck sites. As water levels increase, locating and exploring these sites, particularly submerged ones, can become more challenging. This can limit the ability of researchers to conduct surveys and excavations and potentially delay or prevent the recovery of artefacts and other historical evidence. Overall, sea level rise significantly threatens shipwrecks and their associated cultural heritage. Archaeologists and policymakers must work together to mitigate the impact of rising sea levels and ensure the preservation of these valuable historical resources for future generations. Future Projection of SLR and its Influence on Coastal and Underwater Cultural Heritages In 2100 CE the IPCC sea level projection, with a scenario of high gas emission (SSP3-7.0) is that it will increase by ~0.68 m for Mandeh and Baten Bay, while in Tidore, the sea level is projected to increase by ~0.70 m (Figure 3). From these values, we simulated a model predicting the changes in water properties in the three sampled archaeological sites that have been validated using fieldmeasured data provided by RICRV. Overall, the increase in sea level contributes to higher sedimentation (Figure 4). Figure 3. Sea level projection estimated by IPCC AR6 in 2100 CE in Indonesia: Mandeh Bay (a); Banten Bay (b); and Tidore Island (c) In Banten Bay, the strongest current magnitude was approximately 0.66 m/s observed in August, and the lowest was in April with a magnitude of 0.54 m/s. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current 6 �magnitude will increase by about 33.52 per cent ranging from 0.08 to 0.096 m/s (Figure 4a). A weaker current profile was identified in Mandeh Bay, ranging from 0.042 to 0.059 m/s. With the estimated sea level rise of 0.68 m in 2100, the current magnitude will increase by approximately 34.78 per cent, reaching 0.079 m/s (Figure 4b). In Tidore, the current profile ranged from 0.047 to 0.062 m/s, and the value will increase by about 35.73per cent in 2100 CE, ranging from 0.079 to 0.09 m/s (Figure 4c). Similar to the current features, sediment transport will also increase under sea level rise. Percentagewise, the increase in sediment transport in Banten Bay, Mandeh Bay and Tidore was approximately 34.86, 18.54, and 37.07 per cent, respectively. Generally, the highest sediment transport was observed during the southwest monsoon and vice versa for the northeast monsoon (Figure 4d-f). Figure 4. Monthly average of current magnitude in the surrounding site; Banten Bay (a); Mandeh Bay (b); Tidore Island (c); and the estimated sediment transport sediment in the Banten Bay (d); Mandeh Bay (e); and Tidore Island (f). The negative values denote the left-ward transport, and the positive values denote the right-ward transport. Overall, the sea level rise potentially changes the water properties of the three sampled archaeological sites. The increase in current velocity relates to the potency of coastal erosion and sedimentation. Since sedimentation is the most crucial issue in these sites, the sea level rise will significantly impact the archaeological remains by inducing higher suspended sediment and sedimentation. In some cases, aside from making the remains more submerged, the shifting in the position of the shipwreck and artefacts due to the robust current profile is possible. Therefore, regular monitoring is required to protect the remains from the impact of sea level rise. However, archaeological excavation is also recommended if possible. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank Research Institute for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability (RICRV) for the basis data provided. Gratitude is also given to University Colorado Boulder for providing the sea level data and to those who have helped in the completion of this study. 7 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Westley, K., Andreou, G., El Safadi, C., Huigens, H. O., Nikolaus, J., Ortiz-Vazquez, R., Ray, N., Smith, A., Tews, S., Blue, L., Breen, C. “Climate change and coastal archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa: assessing past impacts and future threats”. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 18, no. 2 (2023): 251-283. Adhityatama, S., & Yarista, A. S. “Potential of submerged landscape archaeology in Indonesia.” KALPATARU 28, no.1 (2019): 55–71. Dillenia, I., Troa, R. A., Triarso, E., Johan, O., Widati, N. A. R. S., Kusuma, L. P. A. S. C. H., Rustam, A., Pranowo, W. S., Heriati, A. & Adhityatama, S. “Study of the Historic Shipwreck Sites Area Development for Marine Ecotourism in Thousand Islands.” In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 925, No. 1, p. 012028). IOP Publishing, 2021. Moon, J. H., Song, Y. T., & Lee, H. “PDO and ENSO modulations intensified decadal sea level variability in the tropical Pacific.” Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans 120, no.12(2015): 8229-8237. Rahmawan, G. A., Ridwan, N. N. H., Wisha, U. J., Ilham, I., Gemilang, W. A., Andriani, F. W., Sudaryadi, A. & Irwansyah, I. “Ekowisata Terintegrasi Situs Kapal Tenggelam di Tidore Kepulauan, Maluku Utara.” Jurnal Kelautan Nasional 16, no.3 (2021): 169-184. (In Indonesian). Ridwan, N. N. H. “The Importance of Empowering Local Community in Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Indonesia: Case Study in Tulamben, Bali and in Taka Kappala, Selayar-South Sulawesi.” In Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage, Manila, The Philippines, 2011. Ridwan, N. N. H., Kusumah, G., Husrin, S., & Kepel, T. L. “Kapal Karam MV. Boelongan di Kawasan Mandeh, Lingkungan Laut Sekitarnya, dan Kemungkinan Pengembangannya.” Karakteristik Sumber daya Laut dan Pesisir (2015): 84-133. (In Indoensian). Ridwan, N. N. H. “Vulnerability of shipwreck sites in Indonesian waters.” Current Science 117, no.10 (2019): 1623-1628. Shaw, L. “Guardians of Sunda Strait: remembering HMAS Perth and USS Houston.” Signals, no.119(2017): 2-7. Wisha, U. J., Ridwan, N. N. H., Dhiauddin, R., Rahmawan, G. A., & Kusumah, G. “Upaya Konservasi Kapal Karam Gosong Nambi Sebagai Bukti Adanya Jalur Perdangan Maritim Masa Lalu Di Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan, Sumatra Barat.” AMERTA 38, no.1 (2020): 63-76. (In Indonesian). Wisha, U. J., Gemilang, W. A., Wijaya, Y. J., & Purwanto, A. D. “Model-based estimation of plastic debris accumulation in Banten Bay, Indonesia, using particle tracking-Flow model hydrodynamics approach.” Ocean & Coastal Management, 217 (2022a): 106009. Wisha, U. J., Dhiauddin, R., Ondara, K., Gemilang, W. A., & Rahmawan, G. A. “Assessing Urban Development Impacts in the Padang Coastline City, West Sumatra Indonesia; Coastline Changes and Coastal Vulnerability.” Geoplanning: Journal of Geomatics and Planning 9, no.2 (2022b): 73-88. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 13: Major Threats to Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Papers presented at Session 13 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Description An account of the resource Session 13 papers Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia Description An account of the resource Despite the indirect impact of sea level rises on underwater archaeological sites, identifying future conditions is imperative to support conservation planning to minimise the possible effects that may occur. This study aims to identify the sea level trends in several important archaeological sites in Indonesia and estimate the future change due to sea level rises. Altimetry satellite data were employed to determine the sea level anomaly (SLA) of three chosen sites: Mandeh Bay, Banten Bay, and southern Tidore, where significant historical objects were recently discovered. Hydrodynamic-based modelling was also used to estimate the water properties alteration in 2100 as predicted by IPCC AR6, with a projection of about 0.68-0.70 meters (m) sea level increase. Under the sea level rise scenario, the current magnitude will increase significantly by about 33-35per cent in 2100. It is followed by an increase in sediment transport of 18 – 37 per cent. As sedimentation is the primary issue in these three sites, sea level rises will induce sufficiently high sedimentation on archaeological remains, and artefact shifting position is also possible due to the more robust current regimes. Therefore, regular monitoring is an effort to protect the archaeological remains. If possible, excavations are also recommended to conserve the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Indonesia since it faces an upward sea level trend. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ulung J. Wisha Wisnu A. Gemilang Nia N. H. Ridwan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Wisha, Ulung J., Wisnu A. Gemilang, and Nia N. H. Ridwan. 2023. “Impact Assessment of Current and Future Sea-Level Rises on Coastal and Underwater Archaeological Sites in Indonesia.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Perez-Alvaro. In Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/1907 Asia-Pac Session 13 2023 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Imperial China: 900-1800 Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource F.W. Mote Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author F.W. Mote Item Type Book Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1999 Place Cambridge Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Harvard University Press Title A name given to the resource Imperial China: 900-1800 China Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In Little Need of Divine Intervention: Takezaki Suenaga's Scrolls Mongol Invasions of Japan Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Thomas Conlan Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available East Asia Program, Cornell University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book Zotero Author Thomas Conlan Item Type Book ISBN 188544544X Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2001 Library Catalog 128.125.253.52 Library Catalog Num Pages 302 Place Ithaca, N.Y Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available East Asia Program, Cornell University Series Cornell East Asia series Short Title In Little Need of Divine Intervention Title A name given to the resource In Little Need of Divine Intervention: Takezaki Suenaga's Scrolls Mongol Invasions of Japan Japan https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/7b54e17076654610d62193fb40ffd1f9.pdf 5f378906707f18454f7a94125912455a PDF Text Text In Search of the Larpent’s Survivors – Hazards and Securities of Sailing about Taiwan Kuo-tung Chen Institute of History and Philology Academia Sinica Taipei, Taiwan e-mail: kchen@asihp.net Abstract The British bark Larpent left Liverpool for the Far East in May 1850, and was lost in the China seas the year next. Three of its survivors were rescued, and both Great Britain and the United States sent agents to search other possible survivors in Taiwan. The efforts of the British and the Americans have produced a bundle of information about the sailing issues near the island. The paper will explore these materials, and in the meantime, trace the few earlier European observations about the sailing conditions by or around the island, such as the records Lord’s Anson’s and De la Perous’s voyages. The Larpent event, in fact, has something to do with the overture of lighthouse building in and around Taiwan Straits in the second half of the 19th century. By studying the sailing facilities in the Taiwan area before the mid-nineteenth century, the paper will also trace back the pagodas and old-style lighthouses used by the Chinese to guide navigators in the 16-18th centuries. Key words: Taiwan, sailing, structures Introduction In 1883, the Eluanbi (South Cape) lighthouse started to work. It greatly helped improve the safety of navigation in the vicinity of that area. Most researches on the causes of its construction emphasize the effects of two events. They believe that the shipwreck of American bark The Rover brought up the issue of the necessity of building a lighthouse in South Cape of Taiwan, and then, another event happened in 1874 created the �conditions of so doing. Such reasoning is, in fact, not quite in accordance with historical facts. The reason of appealing for a lighthouse lies prominently in the frequent shipwrecks occurring in the neighborhood of Southern Taiwan about 1850 and thereafter. The reasons of incessant shipwrecks were like these: (1) Exportation of Chinese laborers to America. Great Britain abolished slavery in 1833 produced a vacuum of working force, and Chinese laborers were sought to fill the gap. From 1845 onwards, the British firm Tait & Co., basing on Amoy, commenced to ship out coolies to South America. A few years later, gold mines were discovered in California, and the need of laborers was enhanced. In consequence, shipping between China and America grew phenomenally.1 (2) Another reason is, even before the opening of treaty ports in Taiwan, foreigners eagerly sought commercial opportunities down there. Even it was not legal at all, more and more foreign vessels came to Taiwan for trade, and even tacitly permitted by local officials.2 (3) A third reason is that in Northern Taiwan, in the area of Keelung, coal was abundant. Foreign steamers came to refill their tanks or just ship off coals for profit. While shipping increased, number of shipwrecks naturally grew up. It is the reason of navigational disaster that made the necessity of some sorts of navigational aids apparent. Thus the captain of the Science, an illegal trading ship operating in the harbor of Takao (nowadays Kaohsiung), went into an agreement with the Circuit Intendant (Taotae) of Taiwan in written document. In that agreement, the Intendant “permits him to place lights at the entrance of the port on a flag-staff erected for such a purpose, and station buoys on the bar.”3 This is the earliest instance of erecting lights in a Taiwan port at the urge of foreigners. In addition to the “lights”, “station buoys” were also �consented to set up. However, such kinds of port facility to render aids to shipping vessels were not entirely new to Taiwan. Therefore, the Intendant was not reluctant to give his permission. Before the first modern lighthouse (the Xiyu Pagoda Light or the Fishermen’s Island Lighthouse) was built up in Taiwan region, there were already two predecessors: one stood in the very site of the Xiyu Pagoda Light, and the other in the estuary of Tamsui River on Northern Taiwan.4 As for buoys, probably due to the influence of the Dutch occupation in the period of 1624-1662, the harbor of Taiwanfu (Tainan) was provided with lines of spar buoys to guide the operators of vessels. The buoys were called “dangying 盪纓,” and recorded in many sources. “Dangying” means “swinging tassel,” describing the motion of spar buoys in the waters.5 Anyway, in the second half of the 19th century, records of shipwrecks were plenty. Giving some examples, there are the wrecks of the Kelpie (1848), Sarah Trottman (1849), the Larpent (1850), Lady Evelyn (1853), The Rover (1867), and so on. A detailed list can be made with the data provided by James W. Davidson (1872-1933).6 According to this authority, between 1850 and 1894, some 90 ships encountered bad lucks, two on average each year. During this period, Taiwan was bestowed an embarrassing name – the “Inhospitable Shores (Coast).”7 In the unfortunate The Kelpie, there was Thomas Nye on board. His cousin Gideon Nye (1812-1888) was a famous (or infamous) China trader of those days. Gideon pressed very hard to the Chinese authorities for rescuing his relative, but to no avail. In fact, none of the survivors of the Kelpie was found, and the whereabouts of Thomas Nye was uncertain. It had to wait for a few years when three survivors of the Larpent made their appearance in Shanghai that aroused a general concern among the westerners. �The Larpent Event and Aftermath The Larpent event has been quite well told in James W. David’s book about half a century after the tragedy.8 However, supporting by more complete sources, we are now enabled to enquire into much more details. The new data come from different corners. First, the survivor’s testimony reported in the Treaty Ports newspapers, including the Hong Kong Register and the North China Herald, etc. Second, the men sent to Taiwan to distribute rewards to those who had helped the wreckers and to get information about any other detained foreigners. The British bark Salamander took them to Taiwan. Among the people involved, Mr. (later Sir) Harry Smith Parkes (1828-1885) was present as the interpreter. Although he did not publish his own observations, the Salamander’s officers did have their reports. In the meantime, the American envoy to China, the Rev. Peter Parker, also caused a Chinese agent to be sent to Taiwan for information gathering, and this man’s report was translated into English and available to concerned parties. A couple of years later, when the British vessel the Inflexible was ordered to go to Taiwan for conducting a coastal survey, Robert Swinhoe (1836-1877) was on board to interpret. He and Inflexible’s captain, as well as the assistant surveyor, all had their reports. Adding to that, we will also make use of the U.S. government papers for documentation. Here follows is a concise summary of the Larpent’s story. The Larpent was built in Moulmein, Myanmar, owned by a Mr. Thomas Ripley. It left from Liverpool on May 18, 1850, commanded by Captain Gilson. News of its anticipated arrival at Shanghai appeared times and again in the North China Herald. But ultimately it failed. After a voyage of 116 days, it came to the waters off Island Botel Tobago near Taiwan. The waves and surfs were not heavy, and the sky was somewhat clear. Unexpectedly, it ran �aground on the edge of Southeastern Taiwan coast. The captain and seven others took the gig, while the 23 rest crews took the long-boat to escape. Later on, the gig was lost. The long-boat, after many hazards, reached a Sugar-loaf Rock in the southern tip of Taiwan. The men on board started to land, but were shot by the natives with matchlocks. Some of them died on the spot, and the rest were forced to disperse. They were not heard for about eight months. Then, in the beginning of May, 1851, three survivors were rescued by an American vessel, the Antelope, and brought to Shanghai via Hong Kong. The British consul at Shanghai, Sir Rutherford Alcock (1809-1897) took the matters into his own hands. In the meantime, the Shanghai foreign community also took some steps to help the survivors.9 The story of the unfortunate Larpent was duly taken down and published, not only in the North China Herald based on Shanghai, but also in the Canton-based The Chinese Repository. In consequence the news was widely circulated in the treaty ports along the China coast.10 Therefore, when Charles Shaw11 stood out to raise funds on behalf of the crew of the Larpent, many people came forward. In a few days, a sum of 865 dollars was collected. A list of the contributors is available from the pages of the North China Herald. The British decided to dispatch the steam boat Salamander to Taiwan, with part of the money raised for distributing to the good-hearted Taiwanese. Apart from Harry Parkes, there were Captain Ellman and Lieutenant Lambert on board. Surprisingly, an unnamed employee of the Tait & Co. also went along together. His purpose is obscure. As for the rescued survivors of the Larpent, two (Alexander Berries and William Blake) also joined the mission. The last one, James Hill, being indisposed, was absent. With some difficulty, the Salamander got a pilot en route in the Pescadores and dropped anchors between �Xiaoliuqiu Island (the Lamay Is.) and Taiwan mainland. Some of the members successfully landed on the coast of Fangliao (“Pongle” as appears in the source materials) by a bamboo raft. They were informed by local people: it is most advisable to pay a visit to a person by the name Lin Wanzhang (Wancheang, or Bancheong). He lived not far from the landing place, and he wielded strong influence upon the aborigines in the neighboring area. An appointment was duly made and the two parties met in Lin’s residential compound in Neiliao (or Lailiao), just a few kilometers away. From the conversation, it is confirmed that Lin Wanzhang did know the case quite well. Lin admitted that he had seen Blake and Hill in person in March of the same year (1851). He said he would have helped the two to get free but their master wanted them to stay a bit longer, arguing that if they stayed longer they would learn that his villagers were different from those who attacked them and killed their companions. Blake and Hill escaped later with the assistance of Berries and his master. Lin pointed out straightforwardly that the tribe who had committed the crime was Koalut. It was a small tribe of about 200 people. Out of them, only 60 or so could fight. Had it not been there were in want of consensus among other villagers in the area, it would have been crashed. He added that if the British party wanted to attack the Koalut, he could provide at least 400 matchlock-men. Thereafter, Lin Wanzhang sent a subordinate to accompany them to Langjiao for giving out the rewards. Lin also wrote a letter for them to be delivered to a “towkay” (headman) in a village near Langjiao. �Fig. 1: The Location of Koalut. The Salamander’s men arrived at Langjiao on August 17, 1851. On the next day, rewards were distributed through the hands of Berries and Blake. A man by the name Kewah or Kenah received a large share ($225), because he was the very person who made the final stage of their liberation and escape possible. Kewah’s relative Chako received $50. He was quite handsomely rewarded because his wife gave Kewah the information of Berries’s detention. Chako’s wife was an aborigine woman whose village had detained Alexander Berries before Kenwah ransomed him. Some others had also given hands to the Larpent’s survivors and were duly rewarded. The village head of Sheliao (near Langjiao), who Lin Wanzhang wrote to, was given some money, too. He was said to have some influence on “the wilder tribes”.12 As for the information about any other shipwrecks and possible survivors, the Salamander team was not able to get solid information. The Salamander then went to the South Cape for surveying the Koalut area, and finally returned to Shanghai. �More than one decade later, Sir Harry Parkes made a statement in the meeting of the Royal Geographic Society. Though his memory is not completely sound, he did give a short account about the mission: “The South Cape was about the very worst point for a vessel to get on shore; for on that extreme point of the island there was a particular aboriginal tribe, numbering 200 or 300 individuals, who had an unfortunate passion for human heads, and it was a habit with them to murder any foreigner that came in their way. He had occasion to make the acquaintance of these people about twelve years ago, when one of our vessels were lost on that point, and he was sent over by Her Majesty’s Government to make some inquiries respecting the missing crew. They succeeded in rescuing two of the men, who were in the hands of another tribe on the western point, the wreck having taken place on the eastern point of the said Cape. These two men had been bought by the Chinese at 6 dollars a head, and had been in captivity with them six months.” 13 As Harry Parkes was the interpreter, he was responsible for transmitting the information. However, probably time weakened his memory, he made the mistake to say only two men were rescued. Probably he was confused by the fact that only two out of the three were accompanying the Salamander to visit Taiwan. The money paid for ransoming those men was seven dollars each for Hill and Blake, although Berries was six. Blake and Hill were detained by aborigines for 4 months (not 6 months) and then purchased by a Chinese, who kept them with him for another four months until they escaped to Berries’s place. Berries’s master (Kewah) then arranged them to reach the Antelope and leave Taiwan. In the beginning, the Americans also tempted to send a gunboat to Taiwan, but after learning of the commission of the Salamander arranged by the British, they dispatched a Chinese agent, by the name Oo-sian, �instead. This Oo-sian took a Chinese junk on August 8 in Amoy and arrived at Donggang, Taiwan, in the evening of the 11th. When still in the harbor, he encountered a typhoon and lost almost all his belongings. He spent a couple of days in Donggang and then went to Neiliao (Lai-liao) to pay Lin Wanzhang a visit. There he learned that the men of the Salamander had already been to. Oo-sian and Lin Wanzhang met on the 17th of August. The latter ascertained that there were no more Western fugitives. He himself knew the whole southernmost area well. And, he added, if there were any more Westerners in captivity, they must have been found out for rewards owing to the Salamander men had given such a promise. Before going to see Lin Wanzhang, Oo-sian had also collected information from local folks. It was said Lin Wanzhang owned a watch, a spyglass, and a sextant, apparently from certain wrecks. Oo-sian mentioned this to Lin Wanzhang for clarification. Lin Wanzhang replied that they were brought to him by some aborigines about four years ago for sale, so he exchanged some goods for them. Sometimes later, a mandarin shew his interest in these objects and Lin Wanzhang just gave them away. Lin Wanzhang expressed that he did not know anything more about the origin of those objects. According to Oo-sian’s report, he visited the South Bay where the attackers of the unfortunate sailors lived, then he went to some hillside places, several harbors in the southwestern coast of Taiwan, and even the Pescadores, but no more important information was gathered.14 Time elapsed for a couple of years, then, in 1858 another British steam ship the Inflexible, came to Taiwan for surveying the coast of that island. Robert Swinhoe, who later became the first vice-consul to Taiwan and �was renowned for his discovery of several endemic species of flora and fauna, was on board to render interpretive service. Swinhoe, as well as the commander of the Inflexible and an assistant surveyor all reported this visit. The Inflexible left Amoy on June 7, 1858 for Taiwan via the Pescadores. After visiting a few harbors to distribute proclamations in search of surviving ship wreckers and seeing some dignitaries, it arrived at the road of Fangliao on June 14, 1858. The men took bamboo raft to land, and went directly to see Lin Wanzhang (spelt as Bancheang in Swinhoe’s paper). On the way to Neiliao, Swinhoe found that Fangliao was at odd then with Neiliao, but they were not molested, anyway. Upon arrival, he found there were two Chinese characters written on the door lintel, reading as “wan ke”.15 Douglas Fix thinks the original words for “wan ke” must be “wanji萬記”16 – some sort of house name –, but I would like to put it as “Fange 番割” – broker with the aborigines –, which we will dwell upon a little bit more later in this paper. As the group of men from the Inflexible had read Oo-sian’s (spelt as Urian) report beforehand, they also asked about the instruments Lin Wanzhang once in possession, and he gave the same answer as what to Oo-sian. Lin Wanzhang added that he did not hear any news about shipwreck after the event of the Larpent. Lin Wanzhang: In the Vacuum of Government Power The men of the Salamander, Oo-sian, and the officers of the Inflexible all paid Lin Wanzhang visits when they came to Taiwan for finding out information about Western ship-wreckers. Then, who is Lin Wan Zhang? And, why should they do so? Swinhoe describes his impression of Lin Wanzhang: “The Hero in his house we found, not as we expected to meet him, a dashing Robin Hood, �but a thin stooping elderly man, with bad teeth.” He also records that Lin Wanzhang was married to an aborigine woman, and guesses that Lin Wanzhang might have learned tribal language from her.17 In another publication, he has more about this man: “……When circumnavigating the island in 185718, I had the pleasure of seeing a few women, who were married to Chinese at Pongle and Langkeaou. They were much browner than ordinary Chinese, and had their hair plaited and entwined with red cotton after the manner of their people, but they were otherwise dressed like Chinawomen. At Laileaou a Chinaman named Bancheang, of large landed property, traded with the Kalees of the hills, and was on very friendly terms with them. He was constantly at variance with the Chinese authorities who had outlawed him, but could not touch him, as he was so well defended by his numerous Chinese dependents and the large body of Aborigines at his beck. This man was wedded to a Kalee, but she was shy and would not show during our visit. He evidently considered himself vastly superior to Europeans, for he evinced to us none of that formal civility characteristic of a Chinese gentleman.”19 Again, as we see before, Lin Wanzhang was married to an aborigine woman, and here Swinhoe describes here of the Kalee tribe. The family records of Lian Wanzhang’s descendants disclose that this woman (named Talimaraw Sauniyaw) belongs to the Paiwan ethnic group living not far from Neiliao where Lin Wanzhang resides. This is an important clue to ascertain that the words written on the lintel of his house should be “fange” instead of “wanji”. In fact, an Intendant of Taiwan, by the name Xü Zonggan, once wrote “Lin Wanzhang (is) a fange 番格 (Those who married to aborigine woman is called a fange). His family serves as Yimin 義民 for generations.”20 Fange was the kind of person who stood between Chinese and aborigines as liaison person, but mainly for the purposing of �exchanging materials. A fange was usually a Chinese, or a man descended from a Chinese father and an aborigine mother. In the latter case, he is called a tushezai or tushenan, meaning a “mestizo”.21 The commander of the Inflexible, G. A. C. Brooker, was not failing to mention Lin Wanzhang’s involvement in trading with the aborigines: “Mancheong (Lin Wanzhang) is in the habit of trading with some of the aborigines through some of his people; and he assures me, from what he knew of their fierce, savage disposition and thirst for blood, no European’s life would be spared if one fell into their hands. He says, they are more savage in some parts of the island than in others, especially in the South. I left several proclamations with Mancheong, who would have them conveyed and explained to the savages, whose language is quite distinct to the Chinese, and totally different in sound. I heard there were many Chinese settled among these wild inhabitants of the woods, and had great influence with them, because they were the means of procuring articles from the Chinese which the aborigines themselves could not obtain.”22 Lin Wanzhang had proficiency in aboriginal language, traded with the aborigines, and wielded influence upon the latter, hence was a suitable person to contact. This explains why everybody directed the Westerners to visit Lin Wanzhang when they came to Taiwan for shipwreck issues. One thing also merits mentioning. Swinhoe noticed the forces possessed by Lin Wanzhang, and could commandeer aborigines to fight for his cause. G. A. C. Brooker also observed: “This Mancheong has upwards of five thousand men under his control, whom he employs tilling the land, of which he possesses a large extent in the neighbourhood of the hills where he resides. Consequently he commands great influence with the people, and at times sets the authority of the Mandarins at defiance, and presents so formidable an appearance that the latter have more than once retired from an attack they have made on Mancheong for the purpose of extorting money from him.”23 �Robert Swinhoe told a much vivid story in his report. After seeing Lin Wanzahng, they left Neiliao and passed the village of Fangliao where they called upon the tiny military officer stationed there. Swinhoe found the Chinese officer and soldiers were much afraid of Lin Wanzhang, because they were defeated by him not long times ago. According to Swinhoe, the Chinese authorities sent an army of a thousand men to invade the area under Lin’s control. When they came near, “Bancheang himself loaded a gun and discharged it at the invaders, knocking over eighteen men at one discharge. The Imperialists were bewildered and immediately made good their retreat…”24 The event described by Swinhoe happened in 1855. Why the authorities had taken troubles to attack Lin Wanzhang? It is not clear, but we can guess. In the previous passages, we cite Xü Zonggang’s description about this man. Xü Zonggang wrote in his diary that the family of Lin Wanzhang “serves as Yimin 義民for generations.”“Yimin” (literally “righteous person”) were those men who stood on the government’s side to fight against rebels. Lin Wanzhang did help the government in quelling some social unrest. However, he was implicated in a rebellion occurred in 1853 which his relatives got involved. He was not indicted after the 1853 event was over. Probably the authorities postponed taking action until 1855 for a better timing, although still failed. Anyway, all these facts reflect that Lin Wanzhang was too strong to be controlled. To sum up the observations of British visitors about the person Lin Wanzhang, we have no doubt that he is an influential local bully. He wielded power over the local people in the neighborhood of Fangliao, both the Chinese and the aborigines through his role as a fange. As he owned his own force, he was also daring to offend the authorities, even fought �and defeated their armies. Why the Qing government performed so badly then? It is because that the southernmost past of Taiwan was declared “Forbidden Land” (jindi 禁地) after a fierce rebellion occurred in 1721 and the government force withdrew from the territory south of Fangliao. Fangliao became the last point with a very small army (no more twenty soldiers) and in fact, the southernmost region was left uncontrolled by the government. Several ethnic groups of aborigines occupied that region. Although the Qing government prohibited and dissuaded Chinese to enter into that region, it was not successful at all. As a result, besides the aborigines, there were other ethnic groups consisting of Fujianese Chinese, the Hakkas, and identifiable mestizos. They also took on their own hands to protect their own interests. Lin Wanzhang was one of such ethnic leaders, and probably the strongest. This explained why he was named to visit by local informants to western visitors. Shipwrecks and the Safety of Survivors However, it is still quite a distance from Fangliao to the very end of the Island. On the area near the southeast tip of Taiwan lived the Koalut tribe who was accused by Lin Wanzhang and others as the bloodthirst killers of the wreck survivors. Although Lin Wanzhang boasted that if the British wanted to attack that tribe, he would be happy to provide more than 400 men with matchlocks, no party was interested so to do at that moment. Later on, in 1867, due to the incident of the wreck of the American bark the Rover, Le Gendre – U.S. consul at Amoy – came to Taiwan. He was successful to reach an agreement with the common leader of the league of aborigines in the southernmost region, Tok-e-tok. Killing or harassment against ship wreckers did not happen again, at least in the area under Tok-e-tok’s sway. But there was still another issue waiting to be solved. It is the improvement of sailing security. �The most dangerous threat to navigation is the Vele Rete Rocks. The group of rocks and shoals lie about 10 kilometers south of the South Cape (the southeast corner of Taiwan). Citing the result of Capian Ross’s investigation, James Horsburgh has the following description about the Vele Rete Rocks: “This is a mass of rocks, several of them a little detached from each other, and even with the surface; some of them are above water, and may be seen 9 or 10miles. The channel betwixt this danger and the South end of Formosa, is about 4 leagues wide, and very safe. But very turbulent ripplings are often experienced in this, and the neighbouring channels, which Capt. Ross observed to extend in a N. E. and S. W. direction, and running so high, that the breakers resembled the sea beating furiously over a dangerous shoal.”25 It is confirmed that the Rover broke up on the Vele Rete Rocks and the unfortunate survivors were murdered by the Koalut.26 The landing place of the survivors was in Dawan (now the famous resort of Kenting) within the sphere of the Koalut. In the time of Le Gendre, what occupied his thought was the safety of the survivor, not the navigational security. In consequence he pressed hard to the Chinese authorities to build up a fort in the southwestern tip of the southern end of Taiwan (now called Maobitou). Although the idea of a lighthouse to guide the sailors existed in his mind, he did not emphasize the importance and the urgent need of such a construction.27 Although Robert Hart, in cooperation with the Qing government, started to launch lighthouse-building along the China coast in 1867, a lighthouse in the neighborhood of the Vele Rete Rocks was not in his plan.28 �Fig. 2: The Location of Dawan in Kualut Sphere. The construction of a lighthouse in the southern tip of Taiwan still had to wait for decades. In 1874, the Japanese invaded Taiwan in excuse for revenging on behalf of the Ryukyuans, whose compatriots were killed after a shipwreck in 1871 by the tribes a bit north of the former league under Tok-e-tok. In the negotiation between China and Japan, the question of navigation safety was raised, and setting up a lighthouse was brought forward.29 One year after, it started. In January 1875 the engineerin-chief of the Customs, David Marr Henderson, trekked to the Southeast tip for a survey.30 Thereafter, Michael Beazeley, an assistant engineer of the Customs in Takao (Kao-hsiung), went to the South Cape to purchase a piece of land for the use of erecting a lighthouse with local chieftain. The place he acquired, he pronounced, is Wo-lan-pi, now styled as Eluanbi.31 A temporary screw-pile lighthouse was erected soon after, but the permanent one took a long time to come out. When the lighthouse was first lighted in 1883, it turned out to be an unusual, fortified lighthouse. 32 �Its chief engineer John Reginald Harding had in fact called it a “fightinglighting machine”. Navigation security and personal safe were all taken into consideration in designing and building the lighthouse. What can do better? Endnotes Robert Nield, China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Port Era, 1840-1943 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 20150, pp. 17 and 27;Tan Chee-Beng ed., Routledge Handbook of the Chinese Diaspora (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon. And New York: Routledge, 2013), p. 76. Cf. Elizabeth Sinn, Pacific Crossing: California Gold, Chinese Migration, and the Making of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2013). 1 2 James W. Davidson, The Island of Formosa, Past and Present: History, People, Resources, and Commercial Prospects (London, New York: Macmillan; Yokohama: Kelly & Walsh, 1903), p. 172. 3 Jules Davids ed., American Diplomatic and Public Papers: The United States and China, Series 1: The Treaty System and the Taiping Rebellion, 1842-1860 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1973), vol. 12, p. 218, Document no. 26, “Agreement entered into between the Intendant of Formosa and George A. Potter on Carrying on Trade in the Island.” Please see Stephen Davies’s wonderful paper for this conference:“China’s first purpose designed and built lighthouse: findings from the analysis of a long lost but recently rediscovered photograph of the Xiyu Pagoda Light (李西山塔晚燈, Lixishanta Wangdeng)”. 4 5 Cf. Wang Bichang 王必昌, Xüxiu Taiwanxian Zhi 續修臺灣縣志 (Taipei: Bank of Taiwan, 1961), pp. 35-36. 6 James W. Davidson, The Island of Formosa: Past and Present (London and New York: Macmillan , 1903), pp. 180-182 and 216-218. 7 For example, the commander of the American fleet in China, Captain W. S. Walker, wrote to U.S. chargé d’affaires Peter Parker, reporting the British motion after hearing the case of the Larpent on July 14, 1851. In that letter, Captain Walker writes: “any of the missing vessels (of whatever nation) having been wrecked on this inhospitable coast….” See Jules Davids ed., American Diplomatic and Public Papers: The United States �and China, Series 1: The Treaty System and the Taiping Rebellion, 18421860 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1973), vol. 12, p. 56. 8 James W. Davidson, The Island of Formosa: Past and Present, pp. 110112. 9 North China Herald, May 17, 1851. Cf. The Chinese Repository, vol. 20 (1851), pp. 490-492. 10 For the influence of newspapers published in the treaty ports, please refer to Marlon Zhu, “Diplomatic Intelligence and Inter-port Journalism: The News of Japanese and Chinese Troop Steamers during the Formosa Incident of 1874,” Bulletin of the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, no. 93 (September 2016), pp. 1-39. 11 Mr. Shaw is one of the proprietors of the Shaw, Bland and Co. Cf. The Chinese Repository, vol. 15, p. 8. 12 The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, October 1851, pp. 520525, “Salamander’s Visit to Formosa.” 13 Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. VIII (25th Feb., 1864), p. 27. Oo-sian’s report was translated and published in the July 1851 issue of The Chinese Repository, pp. 490-492. It seems available to many interested persons. In G. A. C. Brooker, “Journal of H.M.S. Inflexible on a Visit to Formosa in Search of Shipwrecked Seamen,” in The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, vol. XXXVIII, no. 1 (January 1859), pp. 911, a “Translation of a Report by Urian, who was sent to Formosa by the United States Consul at Amoy, to search for missing Europeans”is also included. The content is almost the same with a little variance only. However, for unknown reason, Oo-sian was spelt as Urian. 14 Robert Swinhoe, “Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. I, no. ii (May 1859), pp. 149-150. 15 16 費德廉(Douglas Fix)、羅效德編譯，《看見十九世紀臺灣――十四位西 方旅行者的福爾摩沙故事》（臺北：如果出版，2006）, pp. 21-22. Robert Swinhoe, “Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. I, no. ii (May 1859), p. 150. 17 �18 Swinhoe makes the mistake to record it in 1857, in fact, it was taken place in 1858. Robert Swinhoe, “Notes on the Island of Formosa,” in Henrietta Harrison ed., Natives of Formosa: British Reports of the Taiwan Indigenous People, 1650-1950 (Taipei: Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines; SMC Publishing, 2001), pp. 66 and 74. 19 “林萬掌，番格也（娶番婦為室，謂之番格），世為義民。” See Xü Zonggan’s “Diary of 1853” in his Suweixinzhai zalu 斯未信齋雜錄 (Taipei: Bank of Taiwan, 1960), pp. 84-85. 20 See Kuo-tung Ch’en, “Chinese Frontiersmen and Taiwanese Tushengnan in the Local Economy of Taiwan before 1900,” in Wang Gungwu and Ng Chin-keong, eds., Maritime China in Transition, 17501850 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2004), pp. 139-149. 21 G. A. C. Brooker, “Journal of H.M.S. Inflexible on a Visit to Formosa in Search of Shipwrecked Seamen,” The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, vol. XXXVIII, no. 1 (January 1859), pp. 4-5. 22 G. A. C. Brooker, “Journal of H.M.S. Inflexible on a Visit to Formosa in Search of Shipwrecked Seamen,” The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, vol. XXXVIII, no. 1 (January 1859), p. 4-5. 23 Robert Swinhoe, “Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. I, no. ii (May 1859), p. 150. 24 25 James Horsburgh, India Directory, or Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies, China, New Holland … , vol. ii (London, 1827 third edition), p.384. 26 James W. Davidson, Formosa Past and Present (London and New York: Macmillan, 1903), p. 115. In the letter from Anson Burlingame to William H. Seward, Secretary of State, U.S.A. (Peking to Washington, April 23, 1867), it is clearly stated that the place of tragedy is “evidently the Vele Rete rocks.” See, United States Department of State, Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives, during the second session of the fortieth Congress, 1867-’68, China, pp. 477 and 499. �27 Douglas L. Fix and John Shufelt eds., translation of Charles Willian Le Gendre’s Notes of Travel in Formosa (Tainan: National Museum of Taiwan History, 2013) , pp. 314-318. 28 United States Department of State, Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives, during the third session of the fortieth Congress, 1868-69, Vol. I (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1868-1869), pp. 467-470. 29 Edward Howard House, The Japanese Expedition to Formosa (Tokyo: 1875). 30 Robert Bickers, The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914 (London: Penguin Books, 2011), p. 266. M. Beazeley, “Notes of an Overland Journey through the southern part of Formosa, from Takow to the South Cape, in 1875, with an Introductory Sketch of the Island,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, no. 7 (January 1885), p. 5. 31 32 John King Fairbank, Katherine Frost Bruner, Elizabeth MacLeod Matheson eds., The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868-1907 (Cambridge, Mass. : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975), pp. 355-356. References “林萬掌，番格也（娶番婦為室，謂之番格），世為義民。Suweixinzhai zalu 斯未信齋雜錄, 1960. Taipei: Bank of Taiwan. Beazeley, M., 1885. “Notes of an Overland Journey through the southern part of Formosa, from Takow to the South Cape, in 1875, with an Introductory Sketch of the Island,” Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, No. 7 January 1885. Bichang, W., 王必昌, Xüxiu Taiwanxian Zhi 續修臺灣縣志, 1961, Taipei: Bank of Taiwan, pp. 35-36. Bickers, R., 2011. The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832-1914, London, Penguin Books. �Brooker, G. A. C., 1859. “Journal of H.M.S. Inflexible on a Visit to Formosa in Search of Shipwrecked Seamen,” in The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, January 1859, Vol. XXXVIII (1): 9-11. Ch’en, K., 2004. “Chinese Frontiersmen and Taiwanese Tushengnan in the Local Economy of Taiwan before 1900,” in Wang Gungwu and Ng Chin-keong, eds., Maritime China in Transition, 1750-1850, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, pp. 139-149. Chee-Beng, T., ed., 2013. Routledge Handbook of the Chinese Diaspora (Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon. And New York: Routledge. Davids, J., ed., 1973. American Diplomatic and Public Papers: The United States and China, Series 1: The Treaty System and the Taiping Rebellion, 1842-1860. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, Vol. 12: 218. Davidson, J.W., 1903. The Island of Formosa, Past and Present: History, People, Resources, and Commercial Prospects. London, New York: Macmillan; Yokohama: Kelly & Walsh. Davies, S. “China’s first purpose designed and built lighthouse: findings from the analysis of a long lost but recently rediscovered photograph of the Xiyu Pagoda Light (李西山塔晚燈, Lixishanta Wangdeng)”. Document no. 26, “Agreement entered into between the Intendant of Formosa and George A. Potter on Carrying on Trade in the Island.” Edward Howard House, 1857. The Japanese Expedition to Formosa, Tokyo. Fairbank, J. K., Bruner, K. F., Matheson, E.M., eds., 1975. The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868-1907, Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Fix, D.L., and Shufelt J., eds., 2013. Translation of Charles Willian Le Gendre’s Notes of Travel in Formosa, Taiwan, National Museum of Taiwan History. �Horsburgh, J., 1827. India Directory, or Directions for Sailing to and from the East Indies, China, New Holland… , Vol. ii, third edition, London. Nield, R., 2015. China’s Foreign Places: The Foreign Presence in China in the Treaty Port Era, 1840-1943. Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press. North China Herald, May 17, 1851. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1864. Vol. VIII, 25 February 1864, p. 27. Sinn, E., 2013. Pacific Crossing: California Gold, Chinese Migration, and the Making of Hong Kong. Hong Kong, Hong Kong University Press. Swinhoe, R., 1859. “Narrative of a Visit to the Island of Formosa,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. I(ii): 149-150. Swinhoe, R., 2001. “Notes on the Island of Formosa,” in Henrietta Harrison ed., Natives of Formosa: British Reports of the Taiwan Indigenous People, 1650-1950, Taipei, Shung Ye Museum of Formosan Aborigines; SMC Publishing. The Chinese Repository, 1851. Vol. 15: 8. The Chinese Repository, 1851. Vol. 20: 490-492. The Nautical Magazine and Naval Chronicle, “Salamander’s Visit to Formosa.” pp. 520-525, October 1851, United States Department of State, Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives, during the second session of the fortieth Congress, 1867-’68, China. United States Department of State, Executive documents printed by order of the House of Representatives, during the third session of the fortieth �Congress, 1868-69, Vol. I, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1868-1869). Zhu, M., 2016. “Diplomatic Intelligence and Inter-port Journalism: The News of Japanese and Chinese Troop Steamers during the Formosa Incident of 1874,” Bulletin of the Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, No. 93 September 2016: 1-39. 費德廉(Douglas Fix)、羅效德編譯，《看見十九世紀臺灣――十四位西方 旅行者的福爾摩沙故事》（臺北：如果出版，2006. pp. 21-22. Biography Kuo-tung CH’EN received his Ph.D. degree from Yale University in 1990, is now affiliated with the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica. His previous publications in English, among others, include: The Insolvency of the Chinese Hong Merchants, 1760-1843 (Taipei: The Institute of Economics, Academia Sinica, 1990), etc. His works in Chinese language are three books, in addition to several papers on the Chinese practice of bottomry loan (marine insurance), Chinese adoption of Vietnamese terms for sandbars, sea routers and landscape guide for Chinese mariners, observations on underwater archaeology, and so on. He is at present working with Paola Calanca of EFEO in a Taiwan-France joint project: “Maritime knowledge for China Seas”. The main themes include: Nautical and navigation knowledge, Port governance and infrastructure, and Seafaring language. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2017 Session 9: Maritime/Underwater Cultural Heritage in Southeast Asia Description An account of the resource Southeast Asia (SEA) has been rich in maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) over a long period, from ancient pre-history, through the age of commerce, into the World War II era. Recently, UCH research, survey, and mapping activities; preservation and management efforts; as well as human capacity building programs show the promising progress in SEA countries. However, various threats to UCH preservation and some shortcomings still can be found in many SEA countries, for instance, lack of funds, inadequate technology, limited human resources, and also lack of public and government attention to UCH legal protection and its long-term preservation. This session will highlight some topics, including current status of UCH preservation; current research or investigation on maritime heritage or UCH in SEA countries; maritime history in SEA; current legislations; recent human and natural threats to UCH in SEA countries; raising awareness and public education programs; in-situ preservation of UCH; sustainable shipwreck tourism development and balancing preservation efforts with economic benefit; community and general public engagement in UCH management plan; regional capacity building in Southeast Asia; as well as collaboration opportunities among stakeholders and SEA countries in researching, protecting, preserving, and managing UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jenny Craig, Mc Gill University Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In Search of the Larpent’s Survivors –Hazards and Securities of Sailing about Taiwan Description An account of the resource The British bark Larpent left Liverpool for the Far East in May 1850, and was lost in the China seas the year next. Three of its survivors were rescued, and both Great Britain and the United States sent agents to search other possible survivors in Taiwan. The efforts of the British and the Americans have produced a bundle of information about the sailing issues near the island. The paper will explore these materials, and in the meantime, trace the few earlier European observations about the sailing conditions by or around the island, such as the records Lord’s Anson’s and De la Perous’s voyages. The Larpent event, in fact, has something to do with the overture of lighthouse building in and around Taiwan Straits in the second half of the 19th century. By studying the sailing facilities in the Taiwan area before the mid-nineteenth century, the paper will also trace back the pagodas and old-style lighthouses used by the Chinese to guide navigators in the 16-18th centuries. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Kuo-tung Chen Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Kuo-tung Chen Language A language of the resource English Asia-Pac Session 9 2017 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/d4100cb1385a1b2a506484fd4a32f2f9.pdf e2721cdf259ec65199999370d26d4d91 PDF Text Text In Situ Preservation – Application of a Process-Based Approach to the Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Vicki Richards1 Abstract Over the past few decades, the archaeological community has been moving away from the more traditional methods of excavation and recovery of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) towards a less intrusive management approach, essentially involving the preservation of sites in situ. Over the years, different remediation strategies have been utilised in order to protect these sites in situ and most of the techniques involve reburial of sites. Reburial may be an appropriate means of stabilising and decreasing the deterioration rate of a site, however, there needs to be a holistic approach to the study of the environment, before and after reburial to gain a full understanding of the changes that are occurring on the site and determine the effectiveness of the technique. This paper outlines a process-based approach to the development of appropriate long-term management strategies for UCH sites. Introduction Over the past 50 years, technology has advanced at such a rate that the development and exploitation of the seabed has increased exponentially, which has, in turn, led to the discovery of increasing numbers of UCH sites. Conditions often exist in these underwater environments that favour the long-term preservation of archaeological remains and valuable information regarding our past can be gained through comprehensive archaeological investigation of these submerged sites. In more recent times however the archaeological community has moved away from the more traditional excavation and recovery methods and further towards on-site examination and in situ preservation of UCH sites. This trend has been politically galvanised in the recently ratified United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2001: Article 2), that states as a fundamental principle, ‘the preservation of underwater cultural heritage in situ should be considered as a first option’. However, this does not preclude partial or even total excavation and recovery of sites if they are considered under threat. Nonetheless, concerns have been raised regarding the application of in situ preservation techniques as a management tool for UCH sites. Those opposing in situ preservation often argue that the sites are ‘out of sight and out of mind’. This is probably true to some extent and under certain circumstances, however increasingly, post stabilisation site monitoring is becoming an integral part of any on-site management programme (Caple 2004; Hogan et al. 2002; Nyström Godfrey et al. 2011; Richards et al. 2009). Others claim that the ability to preserve sites in situ has not currently been proven and that more scientific investigation is required (The Institute of Field Archaeologists 2008). Although this may be an accurate statement if the suitability of such practices are to be properly evaluated it is essential that more, not less, in situ preservation projects are initiated in order to provide information that will ultimately lead to a better understanding of this technique. Reburial of an archaeological site following exposure either by natural causes, industrial interference or archaeological excavation may be an appropriate means of stabilizing and decreasing the overall deterioration rate of our underwater cultural resource 1 Department of Materials Conservation, Western Australian Museum, Shipwreck Galleries, 45-47 Cliff St, Fremantle, WA 6160, Australia, TEL: +61 8 9431 8472: FAX: +61 8 9431 8489: email: vicki.richards@museum.wa.gov.au �by limiting dissolved oxygen, nutrients, etc and minimising the effects of water movement. This should ultimately decrease physical, chemical and biological degradation of the site. Unfortunately in the recent past, when sites were reburied there was often little, if any subsequent monitoring to determine the effectiveness of the technique (Gregory 1999). It is imperative that there be a holistic approach to the study of the environment, pre and post burial to gain a full understanding of the changes occurring in the reburial environment and the associated deterioration of the archaeological material (Caple 1994; Hogan, et al. 2002). This, in turn will allow an accurate assessment of the success or failure of the adopted remediation strategy on the long-term preservation of the site (Godfrey, et al. 2004; Godfrey, et al. 2005). In order for any in situ preservation strategy to be successful the following points must be addressed in the overall management plan: 1. Ascertain the extent of the site. 2. Assess the most significant physical, chemical and biological deterioration processes occurring on the site. 3. Assess the pre-disturbed local burial environment and the major factors affecting the long-term stability of the site. 4. Identify the major material types present on the site and their extents of deterioration. 5. Implement an appropriate in situ preservation strategy to mitigate continued deterioration and stabilize the site long-term. 6. Implement a long-term monitoring programme to evaluate the efficacy of the implemented in situ preservation strategy. 7. Provide alternative plans and procedures if the implemented in situ preservation strategies are unsuccessful. 8. Provide resources for the conservation and storage of any recovered artefacts. Each of these points will be discussed in more detail below and are integral to a process-based approach when assessing UCH sites and establishing successful long-term management plans. Point 1 The first point to be addressed in preparing any in situ preservation plan is the extent of the site that is to be stabilised. Many wreck sites are not conveniently contained within the confines of the remaining hull structure and are often spread over a wider area. These problems become even more apparent when parts of the wreck assemblage lie buried in the sediment. Simple mechanical probing with long stainless steel rods and dredging of test trenches can be used to define the area of a site, however these techniques are time consuming and would not be suitable for sites dispersed over a large area or deeply buried. In addition, excavated areas must be adequately reburied post investigation. More commonly, marine geophysical instrumental techniques, such as side-scan sonar, magnetometers and multi-beam sonar, which can be deployed over large areas, are used to detect sites exposed above the seabed. However, the use of sub-bottom profilers in conjunction with side-scan sonar has enabled the detection of both exposed and buried wreck material (Quinn, et al. 1998). These techniques can also provide invaluable information regarding the broader-scale sedimentary processes occurring onsite (Quinn 2006). Consideration of this type of information is vitally important when designing an appropriate long-term in situ preservation strategy for a site. Point 2 The synergistic physico-chemical and biological processes that naturally occur underwater can significantly threaten the integrity of archaeological sites. For example, many sites are at risk of physical damage by exposure through dredging or sediment erosion. The �exposed material is subjected to increased wave movement and elevated levels of dissolved oxygen, which lead to increased physical, chemical and biological deterioration. Biological attack of organic materials is primarily dependent on the concentration of oxygen in the surrounding environment. When a site is disturbed, the increase in oxygen, water and nutrient contents will almost certainly lead to a more aggressive environment. Importantly, this also applies to the recent reburial environment. Under these conditions, marine borers will be excluded due to the limited supply of dissolved oxygen within the recently deposited sediment however, degradation would continue through fungal and bacterial attack, that are able to tolerate much lower oxygen levels (Björdal and Nilsson 2002). If the reburial sediment remains stable and is not subjected to continued or seasonal erosion then microbial processes will eventually consume the oxygen and near anaerobic conditions will prevail where organics will only be subjected to the relatively slow action of erosion bacteria (Nilsson 1999). Due to the manner of this microbial attack the strength of the organic structure is reduced but little archaeological information is lost. Mary-Lou Florian (1987) reported that anaerobic bacteria only survive to a depth of approximately 60 centimetres (cm) in undisturbed sediments and other authors have shown that the extent of biological degradation of organic materials decreases significantly with burial depths greater than 50 cm (Björdal and Nilsson 2002; Gregory 1999; Nilsson 1999). This is directly related to the decrease in oxygen levels with increasing sediment depth. Lower oxygen levels adversely affect the activity of aerobic and facultative microorganisms that cause significantly more damage than anaerobic bacteria that are more prominent at greater sediment depths. Chemical processes can also affect the integrity of archaeological metal objects. One of the most common is the corrosion of iron and other metals. While it is generally accepted that the corrosion rates of most metals are significantly reduced under anaerobic conditions microbially induced corrosion of ferrous alloys can still be an issue in anoxic environments. It is important to understand the natural deterioration processes occurring on underwater archaeological sites in order to reduce these effects and obviously the depth of burial and the stability of the local environment are two of the most important factors to consider when developing appropriate remediation strategies. Point 3 The physico-chemical and biological characteristics of the pre-disturbed local environment should be assessed prior to excavation and/or reburial to assist in determining the inherent stability of the site, the major degradation mechanisms occurring on-site and the effect the local environment will have on buried materials. In addition, this pre-disturbance information will be used as baseline data to determine if and when the reburial environment returns to its original pre-burial state and the rate at which this occurs following the changes that necessarily accompany reburial. For example, during reburial via dredging, previously anaerobic sediments will be exposed to increased oxygen concentrations and an influx of nutrients when the sediments are initially deposited. This will lead to increased chemical and microbiological deterioration of the reburied materials before the sediment attains conditions that are conducive to long-term preservation again. The critical parameters to measure include the chemistry of the seawater, pore water and sediments [pH; redox potential (Eredox); dissolved oxygen, total iron and organic contents; sulphide, sulphate and carbon dioxide concentrations; nutrient levels], the type and nature of the sediments (loss on ignition; particles size distribution; porosity) and the level and type of microbiological activity within the sediment (Nyström Godfrey and Berstrand 2007; Richards, et al. 2009). It is also strongly recommended that the broad scale and localised sediment and water movement is monitored at regular intervals over an extended period of time. As �mentioned previously while some of this information may be obtained via marine geophysical techniques it is imperative that the current strength and direction, turbidity, tidal period, etc are also monitored. Extensive assessment of these site-related coastal processes and the physico-chemical and biological microenvironments present on the site will provide information regarding the major factors governing the stability of the site so that successful site specific in situ preservation strategies may be developed. Point 4 It is important to obtain a full understanding of the extent of deterioration of the major material types present on a site when considering in situ preservation. For instance, if the remaining hull structure, whether constructed of wood, iron or a combination of both, is extensively degraded it may not be able to withstand the weight of large quantities of sediment required for reburial in order to minimise further deterioration. Similarly, totally corroded iron is not amenable to in situ preservation by cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. Moreover, it is essential to collect this baseline data for long-term comparative analysis to quantify the effect the mitigation strategy has on the reburied materials. Knowing the state of preservation will also enable conservators to choose the optimal treatment regimes in those cases where the recovery of material is necessary. In order to assess the extent of deterioration of the major material types a comprehensive on-site pre-disturbance conservation survey should be conducted. The range of measurements and analyses that are recommended is summarised below. Metals In Situ Measurements corrosion potential (Ecorr), pH, total depth of concretion and corrosion (dtotal), total depth of corrosion (dc), water depth and temperature at the measurement point. Organic Materials In Situ Measurements Visual inspection, simple probing, pH profiles, pilodyn measurements, sample collection for ex-situ analysis. Ex-situ Analyses Maximum water content (Umax) – measure general extent of deterioration. Microscopic analysis - wood species identification, measure extent and identify the type of microbiological attack. Point 5 If the initial assessment of the pre-disturbed environment indicates that the site is unstable, the archaeological remains are severely degraded and at risk of exposure and further damage resulting in significant loss of the submerged archaeological record then different mitigation strategies need to be considered in order to ameliorate these problems. It is at this planning stage that an overall evaluation of whether it is both practically and economically feasible to leave the site in situ should be discussed. In situ preservation of a site in its original position is only one option. Dependent on the nature of the local environment, the effects of residential or industrial developments and the archaeological significance of a site, the entire site or parts thereof, may need to be excavated, recovered and possibly conserved or re-deposited in another area under similar or preferably �improved environmental conditions. In the end the measures taken are always a compromise between the archaeological value of the site, the expected effects of the in situ preservation strategy, the time span over which it has to be effective, the effect on the local environment and the resources required. There are a number of different in situ preservation techniques, or more commonly, combinations thereof, that may be used to protect underwater archaeological sites. • Stabilization by land reclamation • Reburial/backfilling by dredging surrounding sediment • Sandbags – canvas, polymeric • Deposition of rock, gravel, sediment • Stabilisation after sediment deposition (e.g. using geotextile fabrics, shade cloth, rubber matting) • Sediment encapsulation (e.g. cofferdams of wood, sheet metal, polymeric crash barriers filled with sediment) • Sediment trapping (e.g. geotextile fabrics, shade cloth, debris netting and artificial seagrass used to trap suspended sediment through natural water movement) • Cathodic protection of ferrous elements (sacrificial anodes, impressed current) Obviously, simple reburial options are preferred but often they are fraught with postdeployment problems. For example, one potential problem with the sediment drop option is lateral dispersion of the sediment on dumping, which will significantly reduce the overall depth of coverage leading to a reburial area considerably larger than the actual wreck itself. Another issue with this option is, unless the physical environment on-site is relatively benign, that even short periods of increased water movement can cause significant loss of deposited sediment unless the reburial mound is stabilised by layers of geotextile or rubber matting (Manders, et al. 2008; Richards, et al. 2009). Sand bags are often used to stabilise underwater archaeological sites, however the choice of materials (e.g. cotton versus ultra-violet (UV) stabilised polymeric sand bags) and the method of deployment are very important. Therefore, under most circumstances the use of sand bags is not recommended for the medium to long-term preservation of a wreck site (Gregory 2010; Manders, et al. 2008; Richards, et al. 2009). The more complicated techniques include sediment trapping methods, which rely on trapping suspended sediment in the water column resulting in the formation of an artificial sediment mound or sediment encapsulation methods where a cofferdam, usually made from wood, steel sheet or polymers, is filled with sediment to the required depth and covered with geotextile to minimise sediment loss during periods of high water movement. Notable examples of the sediment trapping techniques are the use of artificial seagrass on wrecks, such as the William Salthouse (Figure 1) (Harvey 1996; Hosty 1988), the James Matthews (Figure 2) (Richards, et al. 2009) and the Hårbølle wreck (Gregory, et al. 2008) and different types of netting (shade cloth, debris netting, wind netting) used on several wrecks in the Netherlands (Manders 2004), Sri Lanka (Manders, et al. 2004) and also trialled on the James Matthews (Figure 3) (Richards, et al. 2009) and the Hårbølle wreck (Gregory, et al. 2008). The use of sediment encapsulation techniques utilising cofferdams is not common as their deployment is complicated, labour intensive and usually expensive. In addition, cofferdams constructed of timber or steel sheet can deteriorate rapidly and adversely affect the delicate balance of the wreck ecosystem. However, Trevor Winton and Vicki Richards (2005) proposed the use of environmentally inert polymeric ‘crash barriers’ that interlock into a ring-like arrangement that can be placed around the periphery of a site and filled with sediment to the required depth. It is currently being trialled on the James Matthews site (Figure 4) (Richards, et al. 2009). This negates the need to increase the reburial area which is common with the sediment drop method and toe scouring problems that can arise with the other sediment trapping techniques. �Formatted: Centered Figure 1. Successful application of artificial Cegrass® on the William Salthouse, six weeks after installation. Photo: Heritage Victoria Formatted: Centered Figure 2. Unsuccessful application of artificial seagrass on the James Matthews, five years after deployment. Photo: Western Australian Museum �Formatted: Centered Figure 3. Successful application of a sediment trapping mat on the James Matthews, five years after deployment. Photo: Western Australian Museum Formatted: Centered Figure 4. Polymeric ‘crash barrier’ cofferdam trialled on the James Matthews, three years after installation. Photo: Western Australian Museum Alternatively, if the local on-site environment is not conducive to in situ stabilisation of a site then excavation and reburial in another more suitable area may be necessary. Notable examples of this procedure are the San Juan in Red Bay, Canada (Stewart, et al. 1995; Waddell 2007), the Day Dawn in Cockburn Sound, Western Australia (Moran 1997) and the reburial of artefacts recovered from the Fredricus in Marstrand Harbour, Sweden (Berstrand, et al. 2005), which was the catalyst for the collaborative reburial research project, “Reburial and Analyses of Archaeological Remains” (RAAR) (Nyström Godfrey and Berstrand 2007; Nyström Godfrey, et al. 2011). Finally, the corrosion rates of iron hulled vessels or structural features can be significantly lowered through cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes. The anodes, usually zinc or aluminium alloy, corrode in preference to the iron, effectively protecting the ferrous alloys from rapid decay. This technique has been used widely on many iron shipwrecks, with Australia being one of the world leaders in its application (MacLeod 1986; 2010; Heldtberg, et al. 2004). Point 6 Good organic and metal preservation depends on the maintenance of a stable chemical environment characterised by an anoxic, reducing environment, with near neutral pH, low porosity, organic content and bacterial activity. Hence, long-term monitoring of a reburied site is a critical component of the overall management plan. The sediment levels and the biological and physico-chemical environment of the reburial mound should be monitored at regular intervals. Ideally, the same suite of analyses should be performed on these post reburial sediments as was previously described in point 3 for the pre-disturbed environment. As destructive sampling of reburied archaeological materials is contrary to the aims of reburial, it is recommended that sacrificial modern wood and metal samples be included in the reburial mound and retrieved and analysed (see point 4) at regular intervals (Gregory 1999; Richards, et al. 2009). The results of the biological and physico-chemical analyses can then be correlated to the extents of deterioration of the sacrificial samples and extrapolated to the condition of the reburied archaeological material thereby allowing �the effectiveness of the adopted mitigation strategy on the long-term preservation of the wreck site to be properly assessed. Point 7 An alternative and fully costed contingency plan must be developed in the event that the adopted in situ preservation strategy is unsuccessful. Point 8 A provisional budget must be allocated for the conservation of any recovered artefacts that are deemed unsuitable for reburial. Conclusion Application of this process-based approach should hopefully provide a better understanding of the major deterioration processes occurring on-site and assist in the application of the most appropriate in situ preservation strategies customised to accommodate the unique qualities of each site. Long-term monitoring feeds back into this system, quantitatively evaluating the effectiveness of the remediation strategy and providing evidence for alternative measures to be sought if the chosen technique is unsuccessful. In this way, the current uncertainties surrounding in situ preservation as a management tool for UCH sites can be addressed and ultimately lead to a better understanding of this technique in the future. Bibliography The Institute of Field Archaeologists, 2008 The Institute of Field Archaeologists, Maritime Affairs Group Bulletin. Winter 2008, United Kingdom. Available at: <http://ifamag.wordpress.com/mag-bulletins/> Bergstrand, T., Björdal, C.G., Bohm, C., Christenssen, E., Gregory, D., MacLeod, I.D., Nilsson, T., Nyström, I., Peacock, E., Richards, V.L., Turner, G., 2005 Björdal, C., Nilsson, T., 2002 “Reburial as a method of preserving archaeological remains. A presentation of the Marstrand Project”, in Proceedings of the 9th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Copenhagen, 7-11 June 2004, Per Hoffmann, Kristiane Strætkvern, James Spriggs and David Gregory (eds), The International Council of Museums, Committee for Conservation Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 9-39. Caple, C., 1994 “Decomposition of waterlogged archaeological wood”, in Proceedings of the 8th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Stockholm 11-15 June 2001, Per Hoffmann, James Spriggs, Tara Grant, Cliff Cook and Andrea Recht (eds), International Council of Museums (ICOM), Committee for Conservation, Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 235-244. “Defining a reburial environment: Research problems characterising waterlogged anoxic environments”, in Proceedings �Florian, M-L.E., 1987 Godfrey, I.M., Gregory, D., Nyström, I., Richards, V., 2004 Godfrey, I.M., Reed, E., Richards, V.L., West, N.F., Winton, T., 2005 of the 5th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Portland, Maine 16-20 August 1993, Per Hoffmann, Thomas Daley and Tara Grant (eds), The International Council of Museums (ICOM), Committee for Conservation, Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 407-421. “The underwater environment”, in Colin Pearson (ed.), Conservation of Marine Archaeological Objects, Butterworths, London, pp. 1-20. “In situ preservation of archaeological materials and sites underwater”, in Mediterraneum, Fabio Maniscalco (ed.), Massa Editore, Italy, pp. 343-351. “The James Matthews shipwreck – Conservation survey and in situ stabilisation” in Proceedings of the 9th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Copenhagen, 2004, Per Hoffmann, Kristiane Strætkvern, James Spriggs and David Gregory (eds), The International Council of Museums, Committee for Conservation Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 40-76. Gregory, D., “Reburial of ship timbers in the marine environment as a method of 1999 in situ preservation”, in Proceedings of the 7th ICOM-CC Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Grenoble, France 1998, Céline Bonnet-Diconne, Xavier Hiron, Qhoc Khoi Tran and Per Hoffmann (eds), The International Council of Museums (ICOM), Committee for Conservation, Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, France, pp. 78-83. Gregory, D., “In situ preservation of marine archaeological sites: Out of sight 2010 but not out of mind”, in In situ Conservation of Cultural Heritage: Public, Professionals, and Preservation, Vicki Richards and Jennifer McKinnon (eds), PAST Foundation Publications, pp. 1-16. Gregory, D., Jensen, “The correlation between bulk density and shock resistance of P., Matthiesen, H., waterlogged archaeological wood using the pilodyn”, in Studies in Strætkvern, K., Conservation, Vol. 52, pp. 289-298. 2007 Gregory, D., “From a grain of sand a mountain appears. Sediment transport Ringgaard, R., and entrapment to facilitate the in situ stabilisation of exposed Dencker, J., wreck sites”, Maritime Newsletter from Denmark, Thijs Maarleveld 2008 (ed.), Syddansk Universitet, Vol. 23, pp. 15-23. Harvey, P., “A review of stabilisation works on the wreck of the William 1996 Salthouse in Port Phillip Bay”, in Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 1-8. Heldtberg, M., “Corrosion and cathodic protection of iron in seawater: A case MacLeod, I., study of the James Matthews (1841)”, in Metal 04: Proceedings of Richards, V., the International Conference on Metals Conservation, Canberra, 42004 8 October 2004, John Ashton and David Hallam (eds), National Museum of Australia, Canberra, pp. 75-87. Hogan, D.V., “Development of a protocol for the reburial of organic archaeological Simpson, P., Jones, remains”, in Proceedings of the 8th ICOM Group on Wet Organic A.M., Maltby, E., Archaeological Materials Conference, Stockholm 11-15 June 2002 2001, Per Hoffmann, James Spriggs, Tara Grant, Cliff Cook and Andrea Recht (eds), International Council of Museums (ICOM), �Hosty, K., 1988 Committee for Conservation, Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 187-212. “Bagging the William Salthouse: Site stabilization work on the William Salthouse”, in Bulletin of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 13-16. MacLeod, I.D., 1986 MacLeod, I.D., 2010 “Conservation of the steam ship Xantho”, in AICCM Bulletin, Vol. 12, Nos. 3 & 4, pp. 67-94. “Assessment of the impact of scallop dredging, site clearance and cathodic protection on the City of Launceston (1865) in Port Phillip Bay”, in Final Report on SS City of Launceston (1863-1865) excavation and conservation 1997-2009, Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, Special Publication, Ross Anderson (ed.), pp. 94-103. Manders, M.R., 2004 “Protecting common maritime heritage. The Netherlands involved in two EU-projects: MoSS and BACPOLES”, in Mediterraneum, Fabio Maniscalco (ed.), Massa Editore, Italy, pp. 279-292. “The physical protection of a 17th century VOC shipwreck in Sri Lanka”, in Current Science, Vol. 86, No. 9, pp. 101-107. Manders, M.R., Chandraratne, W.M., Dayananda, A.M.A., Muthucumarana, R., Weerasena, K.B.C., Weerasingha, K.D.P., 2004 Manders, M., Gregory, D., Richards, V., 2008 Moran, V., 1997 Nilsson, T., 1999 Nyström Godfrey, I., Bergstrand, T., (eds), 2007 Nyström Godfrey, I., Berstrand, T., Gjelstrup Björdal, “The in situ preservation of archaeological sites underwater. An evaluation of some techniques”, in Proceedings of the 2nd Heritage, Microbiology and Science Conference, 28 June – 1 July 2005, Portsmouth, Eric May, Mark Jones and Julian Mitchell (eds), RSC Publishing, pp. 179-203. “Some management options for the perched hull, Day Dawn”, in Bulletin for the Australasian Institute of Maritime Archaeology, Vol. 21, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 129-132. “Microbial degradation of wood – An overview with special emphasis on waterlogged wood”, in Proceedings of the 7th ICOM-CC Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Grenoble, France 1998, Céline Bonnet-Diconne, Xavier Hiron, Qhoc Khoi Tran and Per Hoffmann (eds), The International Council of Museums (ICOM), Committee for Conservation, Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, France, pp. 65-70. Reburial and Analyses of Archaeological Remains – Studies on the effect of reburial on archaeological materials performed in Marstrand, Sweden 2003-2005. The RAAR project, Bohusläns Museum and Studio VästSvensk Konservering, Udevalla, Sweden. Available at: <http://www9.vgregion.se/vastarvet/svk/reburial/index.htm> “Reburial and analysis of archaeological remains – The RAAR project. Project status and cultural heritage management implications based on the first preliminary results”, in Proceedings �C., Nilsson, T., Bohm, C., Christenssen, E., Gregory, D., Peacock, E. E., Richards, V., MacLeod, I. D., 2009 Nyström Godfrey, I., Bergstrand, T., Petersson, H., (eds), 2011 Quinn, R., 2006 Quinn, R., Adams, J.R., Dix, J.K., Bull, J.M., 1998 Richards, V., Godfrey, I., Blanchette, R., Held, B., Gregory, D., Reed, E., 2009 Stewart, J., Murdock, L.D., Waddell, P., 1995 UNESCO, 2001 Waddell, P.J.A., 2007 Winton, T., Richards, V., 2005 of the 10th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Amsterdam, 10-15 September 2007, Kristiane Straetkvern and Hans (D.J.) Huisman (eds), Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten (RACM), Amersfoot, pp. 169-196. Reburial and Analyses of Archaeological Remains – Phase II results from the 4th retrieval in 2009 from Marstrand, Sweden. The RAAR project, Bohusläns Museum and Studio VästSvensk Konservering, Udevalla, Sweden. Available at: <http://www9.vgregion.se/vastarvet/svk/reburial/index.htm> “The role of scour in shipwreck site formation processes and the preservation of wreck-associated scour signatures in the sedimentary record”, in Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 33, No. 10, pp. 1419-1432. “The Invincible (1758) site – An integrated geophysical assessment”, in International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 126-138. “In situ monitoring and stabilisation of the James Matthews site”, in Proceedings of the 10th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Amsterdam, 10-15 September 2007, Kristiane. Straetkvern and Hans (D.J.) Huisman (eds), Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten (RACM), Amersfoot, pp. 113-160. “Reburial of the Red Bay Wreck as a form of preservation and protection of the historic resource”, in Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology IV, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 1994, Mexico, Vol. 352, pp. 791-805. Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Paris. “Timber reburial”, in The Underwater Archaeology of Red Bay. Basque Shipbuilding and Whaling in the 16th Century, Volume I Archaeology Underwater: The Project, Robert Grenier, MarcAndré Bernier and Willis Stevens (eds), Parks Canada, pp. 149152. “In situ containment of sediment for shipwreck reburial projects”, in Proceedings of the 9th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Copenhagen, 7-11 June 2004, Per Hoffmann, Kristiane Strætkvern, James Spriggs and David Gregory (eds), The International Council of Museums, Committee for Conservation Working Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials, Bremerhaven, pp. 77-89. � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In Situ Preservation - Application of a Process-Based Approach to the Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource Over the past few decades, the archaeological community has been moving away from the more traditional methods of excavation and recovery of underwater cultural heritage (UCH) towards a less intrusive management approach, essentially involving the preservation of sites in situ. Over the years, different remediation strategies have been utilised in order to protect these sites in situ and most of the techniques involve reburial of sites. Reburial may be an appropriate means of stabilising and decreasing the deterioration rate of a site, however, there needs to be a holistic approach to the study of the environment, before and after reburial to gain a full understanding of the changes that are occurring on the site and determine the effectiveness of the technique. This paper outlines a process-based approach to the development of appropriate long-term management strategies for UCH sites. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Vicki Richards Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/77710d6077603fe8957d2fc6dab9a195.pdf 5c710db27a5bc588c9f61d14659dc159 PDF Text Text In-situ preservation In Tropical Seas: Case Study on the Avondster Shipwreck Chandraratne Wijamunige Abstract The VOC ship Avondster sunk on 2nd July 1659 when anchoring near the beach in Galle Bay, geographically located in the southern part of Sri Lanka. She was re-discovered in 1993 and subjected to a series of research projects including excavation in the bow, stern and mid-ship areas. Due to construction work in Galle Harbour it was important to protect the shipwreck in situ. The environment in the Galle Bay badly affected the wreck site and it was a big challenge to overcome all the harmful factors that were likely to damage the remains of Avondster. In order to preserve Avondster a plastic net was introduced as a protective layer over the wreck site. This was monitored constantly throughout and after the research period. The protective layer was used over the fragile timbers for nearly 8 years before a violent tsunami hit Galle Bay in December 2004. Despite the serious damage caused on the land by the tsunami, it had less effect on the site and the covering-plastic net was still intact. From that time on monitoring has continued every two months. This paper discusses in detail the present condition of the in situ protection and its validity as a preservation technique in the conditions found in tropical seas. Introduction The requirements to preserve the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) are now emphasized in the maritime archaeological field more now than previously. Due to new technology and well developed equipment diver numbers have increased. Some divers are engaged in various tasks and functions that can be harmful to the UCH in many ways. Submerged archaeological remains are regularly found all over the world day-by-day due to increased diving activities. The idea of preserving in-situ as seen in parts of the European continent and other economically developed countries prior to the year 2000. This trend is seen in the Asian region after the year 2000. For example, in Sri Lanka there were more than 30 maritime archaeological sites reported in the Southern coastal belt, of which 26 are in Galle Bay harbour. Despite the scarcity in human and technological resources, funds and minimal political involvement; the Maritime Archaeology Unit (MAU) team was able to record and do research on most of these sites during the last decade. In a developing country, such as Sri Lanka, the new trend to conduct insitu preservation and analysis is a better option than to excavate. It is an efficient way to scientifically identify the deterioration threats on recorded UCH sites which are being continuously discovered, and to rebury them and/or utilize other protection methods. Excavation costs huge amounts of money. In both the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) 1996 Charter and Article 01 of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2001 Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001 Convention) emphasis is placed on, “in-situ protection should be the first option” (Prott 2003:xxiii). �One of the pioneer countries to have undertaken in-situ conservation methods on UCH is the Netherlands. Since the early 1980s they have identified the needs of in-situ preservation and practiced it with their projects. One of these was a project to conserve more than 30 sites in-situ in Zuiderzee - bed in the flevopolders area. Further in 1988 the BZN3 shipwreck site, which was owned by Dutch East India company (VOC), was protected physically and by the law (Manders, et al. 2004:1251-1252). In the same manner several shipwrecks were preserved in-situ in Europe, Australia and Canada: the wooden shipwreck in Red Bay, Canada (Manders, et al. 2008:179-194); the German 14th century merchant vessel Darssar Cog (Manders, et al. 2008:189); the 4th century Roman quay in the Netherlands (Manders, et al. 2008:190); and in Australia, the William Salthouse (1841) in Victoria and the James Matthews wreck (1841) in Fremantle (Manders, et al. 2008:192). Different methods were followed to preserve these sites considering the following facts: location, deterioration threats, environment, utility to the public and the technological improvements during that period. For example, sacrificial anode (see Godfrey, Richards and Cha this volume) treatment was used to preserve the metal parts of the James Matthews wreck in Fremantle, Western Australia (see Carpenter and Richards this volume). Thus far, Sri Lanka has only one example regarding in-situ conservation, the Avondster shipwreck situated in Galle Bay harbour. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the process of in-situ protection implemented on the Avondster shipwreck and its necessity, success or failure. History of Avondster Shipwreck The Avondster was originally a British ship (30-40 meters in length), captured and modified by the Dutch (http:cf.hum.uva.nl/galle/). The vessel was constructed with two decks and the capacity was 250-260 tonnage. After a long life span of long distance trans-oceanic voyages it was assigned to short-haul coastal runs. It was wrecked on July 2nd 1659 while anchored in the Galle Bay harbour (Parthesius, et al. 2005:220). After the ship was discovered in 1993 the site was monitored; it became clear that the wreck was increasingly exposed through changes in the dynamics of the seabed, and it was considered important to implement a rescue archaeology project on the site to safeguard this important collection (Manders, et al. 2004:1253). The wreck lies close to the shore, in 6 metres of murky waters (Figure 1). From the year 2001 until the end of 2004 important sections of the ship have been excavated and conserved in-situ. Explorations revealed in-situ wooden parts of the hull, brick construction of the galley, six iron cannons and one of the ship’s anchor. At the time when the yacht sunk the rudder was separated from the stern section because it struck the sandy sea bed (http:cf.hum.uva.nl/galle/). The rudder now lies 18 meters away from the main shipwreck. �Figure 1. Location of the Avondster/Site L. (Photo – WA museum) Reasons for Preservation in situ Even before the official discovery of the Avondster shipwreck, looters collected artefacts from the surrounding zone. With the monsoon activities every year the sea bed become rough with high waves and exposed to erosion. It had become a common practice of the local divers to collect exposed artefacts and things moving on the sea bed after the monsoon season (Carpenter 1996:44-50) The marine drive, built by the Road Development Authority of Sri Lanka in the late 1960’s, reduced the distance between the seashore and the wreck to 90 meters (previously it was about 150 meters); and in 2002, with the second stage of this development, reduced it to 70 meters. These developments and the construction of the stone barrier to stop sea erosion caused rapid changes to the coastal seabed. The natural sand and sediments which existed for hundreds of years shifted every year (Parthesius, et al. 2007:159). The high slope of the stone barrier directly impacted the seabed adjacent the beach, where the Avondster shipwreck lies. The waves from the open ocean struck the stone barrier with more force than the natural shore. This rolling wave pattern moved the sand from side by side causing erosion on the wooden wreck parts. The explorations made during the years 1997, 1998 and 1999 emphasized that the movable artefacts should be excavated and undergo sustainable conservation to prevent further erosion. This was included in the aims for the Avondster 2001 field season project (Parthesius, et al. 2005:221-222). In both theory and practice in-situ conservation is an acceptable method for Sri Lanka. I will explain why, first, through the legalities. This country’s legislature has the capacity to provide what is needed to protect the UCH. Under the Sri Lankan law conservation of both maritime heritage and UCH is included (Antiquity Ordinance No.19 of 1940 and it’s Amendment No.24 of 1998). �Avondster is one of the well preserved oldest wooden yachts found in Sri Lanka. As such there is a responsibility to keep it protected from damaging physical factors. At the time that three excavation trenches were initiated at the site there were neither maritime archaeologists armed with enough technological and scientific knowledge available in the country nor the infra-structural facilities needed with the MAU. The necessity of conserving this type of heritage for further scientific method study by future generations influenced the direction for its preservation. Though the legal protection bans treasure hunters, looters and fishermen, it isn’t enough to protect against the natural physical, chemical and biological processes. Avondster is situated in a place facing direct impact from tidal movement and/or changes in water circulation and sediment erosion (Manders, et al. 2004:1253), these actions cause an aerobic environment within which more oxygen enters the exposed wreckage creating good conditions for wood-borers and many bacteria (Bonke, et al. 2007:133). Also the fresh water flowing from two networks of gutters coming from the city increased this situation and brought more bacteria. It was a common scene to see the waste and garbage coming from the city floating in the water over the Avondster. During the first archaeological excavation on Avondster, on its front bow section, we were able to identify and observe the quick deterioration on the wooden parts after they were exposed. Due to above circumstances we had to cover the Avondster site. In February 2003 we decided to do a test project. A 4 x 4 meter area on the Avondster bow section was selected for the purpose. The highest parts of the hull's timber were coming out from the sea bed up to one and a half feet. A black plastic net (100% polypropylene and 60% density) was used for this purpose (Parthesius, et al. 2007:162). In order to prevent the net moving with the swell old iron chains were placed on it using plastic zip-ties/ty-raps (small plastic straps use to tie things). After covering it was monitored twice a week for one month. During the first month success was observed. At the end of the first month tears were seen in a number of points on the net. A sand deposit 10-15 cm thick was found under the net. As the marine growth has covered the small holes of the net any further deposit of sand could not be identified. The marine growth on the net helps to gather sand on the net and keep it stable (Weerasinghe and Manders 2003:10). Although it was believed for some period that the test programme would be a success and that we can use this system for the rest of the wreck, when we checked the situation a few month later (the diving was stopped for nearly four months due to the monsoon rain) the whole plastic covering was destroyed by the high waves. It was not strong enough to resist it. This helped us to understand the situation in this area and to select a more suitable net of greater strength and to better secure it. �Covering the shipwreck In implementing the main in-situ project after the failure of the first test our challenge was to select a more suitable and stronger net. We had to check many samples for the strength and for the density (strength by checking the material and try to tear it and density by checking the size of the holes of the net). Finally the 100% polypropylene and 40% - 50% density manufactured in Israel was selected as the most suitable net. The area needed for coverage on the Avondster shipwreck was estimated to 400 square meters. Fourteen pieces of 25 x 4 meter size nets were purchased. The specialty of this net was that it is stronger and wider than the previous one. With less density the holes in the net will help sand to permeate and deposit under it. The covering was placed in November 2003 from the bow section. Before taking the strip of net to the sea it was rolled from both sides to the middle. After placing it on the wreck the rolled strip was unrolled to the each side covering the wreck. In order to prevent the net from swinging some bags of sand were placed on both ends. The second net was placed overlapping the first one and the ends tied with plastic threads (zip-ties/ty-raps). In total four strips of net covered the ship from bow to mid-ship. Sand bags were put on some sharp wooden edges to prevent the damage caused to the net by swells (Weerasighe and Manders 2003:9). On some points we covered the wreck with some sand by using a water dredge in reverse, especially on the excavated areas. Monitoring and stabilization We placed sand bags on the net to prevent movement and damage but it did not stop it completely. The movement of the net helps sand and silt go though the net. Fine sand and silt deposits are quite suitable for the creation of a stable anaerobic environment (Richards 2007: 119-120). As such, the swinging motion of the net is similar to a filter (sieve) used for removal of gravel and pebbles from the sand used in construction (Author’s personal experience). In the preliminary monitoring and maintenance programme the team of divers always paid attention in the prevention of damages to the net and measured the sediment deposition. Monitoring by way of visual observation, was made four times within one week after the process of conservation. Thereafter monitoring was made in the aforesaid manner once every two weeks. Monitoring revealed within the first week that sand deposits under the net ranged from 5-15cm. Our MAU Avondster in-situ Data Sheets from fieldseasons 2005-2009 recorded minimum deposition was observed on the starboard side and the maximum was deposited towards the port side. We did not expect to see sand deposits on every part equally. We noticed the port side gained more sand than the starboard. Minimum deposition was observed towards the west corner of the bow section. The mid-ship area was not covered because there was an ongoing excavation on that area. In April 2004 two strips of nets were used to cover the 4 meter space towards the stern section from the galley. After placing the net it was covered with sand immediately because the monsoon season was beginning and there was no time to let the net �fill naturally. We did not try to cover the galley because it stands nearly 5 feet above the sea bed. After the excavation of the mid-ship area, the decision was made to cover the trench through the same system. After the excavation the trench was filled with sand using the water dredge in reverse, and again after the net was laid. Also two strips of net were placed on the trench. During the diving in May to September we noticed the nets were damaged in several places due to the high waves. The nets were loosened and moving from side to side. The nets on the excavation trench were in bad shape. The hull was exposed in this area and the net was torn badly in some places. Especially the places near the wooden parts of the hull. But we were not able to do anything about these issues due to the rough sea conditions. Our MAU Dive Report for October 2004 recorded that this work resumed and the tears were covered with sand bags. The sand is resting on the nets again and the net at the stern area is in good shape. Up to December 23rd 2004 these visual monitoring activities were conducted, together with the excavation, on the end of the stern section. During a period of three months, from October to December, we noted a sedimentation pattern had formed that was conducive to an anaerobic environment. Three days after the end of the Avondster project on December 26th 2004 a strong tsunami wave hit Sri Lanka destroying many coastal areas. The city of Galle was also badly affected and the MAU laboratory and the diving unit were completely destroyed. Luckily no one was hurt because it was a Sunday and the unit was closed. It took more than three months to get-back on to our feet and start work. The MAU building was partly reconstructed and most of the artefacts and equipment that were left were brought to a new building inside the Galle fort. In March 2006 we did our first dive on the Avondster to find out its situation. We were expecting to see more damage on the galley, which was in an unstable situation even before the tsunami and to examine the damage to the nets. The site was completely covered with sand. We were not able to see any wooden parts at the bow section. It was covered with a thick layer of sand, including the edges of the nets. The upper part of the galley was located and the brick structure was well intact. Two cannons and some wooden hull parts were detected at the stern section. The condition of the galley gave us hope for the rest of the wreck. The whole seabed was destroyed with waste and debris that came with the tsunami. A lot of fibreglass (from boats) hung all over the Avondster site. We also noticed few large tree logs on the site that we worried were harmful to the galley. �Figure 2. Location of the covering nets and the control points for monitoring (Drawn by R. Muthucumarana). The day we had our fist dive we had very bad visibility. During the following months we did more diving on Avondster and found out the wreck survived without further damage. The sand layers deposited under and on the net withheld against the tsunami wave firmly and protected the wreck. Forming a system for monitoring As there was no sufficient equipment to do the biological and chemical analysis of the shipwreck we decided to monitor the sediments on the wreck. The sedimentation level was measured manually. In November 2005 four aluminum poles were hammered and fixed vertically around the wreck near the net. Each was 3.5 meters long and had a 2 inch diameter. They were secured at 1.5 meters depth and each pole stood 2 meters above the seabed. Two were fixed near the bow section and two near the stern. Rods were not placed in the center of the shipwreck because it was thought that it would damage the artifacts attached to the vessel. The poles were marked using plastic tape and zip-ties/ty-raps. Zipties/Ty-raps were used to mark 5cm intervals. In order to find the poles more easily during occasions of low visibility, the rods were inter-connected with nylon rope. A diving data sheet was prepared to record the measurements. The monitoring work was begun in November 2005 and is planned to continue through the coming years (once every two months). During the monsoon season this is expected to be difficult and also when the team going on the field work out of the Galle region. �Result Analysis Generally inside the Galle bay there are no seasonable and noticeable deferences in pH level (see Godfrey, Richards and Cha this volume), salinity, water temperature and Oxygen percentage. Also we didn’t have the sophisticated and necessary equipments to measure these things regally. The only topic given attention is sedimentation or its fluctuations. Most of the time anaerobic biological situations are formed due to the thickness of the protective sand layer or direct impacts caused by this. It is generally accepted that an anaerobic biological situation is formed under a sand layer with a minimum of 15 cm coverage (Richards 2007: 116-117). However, this is based on the type of protective layer. For example, a protective layer made of core sand or pebbles, of somewhat large size, is not as stable as a protective layer made of silt or fine sand. The spaces among the large particles circulate oxygen creating a welcoming environment for organisms. As such, not only the thickness of the protective layer but the composition and the steadiness were also considered. Table 1.Sedimentation levels taken from the measuring poles from 2005- 2009 (MAU Avondster In-situ Data Sheets 2005/2009) Pole Pole Pole Pole Date B C D A 2005/12/04 2006/04/26 2006/10/27 2007/03/30 2007/11/04 2008/04/30 2008/12/16 2009/04/08 2009/10/12 9cm 17cm 11cm 15cm 13cm 18cm 4cm 20cm 26cm 13cm 22cm 16cm 23cm 19cm 28cm 14cm 24cm 32cm 15cm 28cm 24cm 33cm 36cm 46cm 42cm 55cm 63cm 23cm 34cm 32cm 41cm 48cm 56cm 44cm 71cm 92cm �Chart 1Sedimentation levels taken from the measuring poles from 2005- 2009 (MAU Avondster In-situ Data Sheets 2005/2009). At the time when the monitoring system was established in November 2005; a considerable level of erosion had occurred towards the starboard side of the shipwreck. At the time, we start the monitoring a 40-50 cm sand mound was observed on the net along the port side hull. This sand mound was recorded as established up to December 2009 when monitoring work ceased. Data extracted from the aforementioned diving data sheets are given below. The sediment level on the net or on the middle of the wreck was taken between A-C and B-D poles with a bubble-level which was attached to a string. Table 1 summarizes the data collected. �Chart 2a and b. Measurements taken from the poles and from the sand mound near the port side hull 2005- 2009 (Dive reports from 2005/2009) Conclusion Preserving organic wreckage in tropical and shallow seas with high oxygen concentration and temperature is a challenge. In these conditions the wrecks can vanish without any trace (Manders, et al. 2004:1253). There is no 100% reliability with regard to the success of the in-situ preservation even after 8 years of process. The wreck is still open to the risk of natural, biological and human factors. To some extent the wreck is protected from looters and fishermen. Before covering the wreck, after the monsoon activities, there were a lot of loose artefacts moving on the seabed around the wreck. Now that situation is fully controlled. Deep in the mid-ship area within an excavation trench we found a thick layer of steady protective silt with well protected wooden/organic remains. The trench is now fully filled with sand and may have a stable anaerobic environment. The effectiveness of the polypropylene net covering was quite successful. The edges that can be found in some places are still in good strength, so we recommended this type of net we used in other tropical regions attempting in-situ preservation projects. By using the 2 meter wide stripes to cover the wreck the advantage is ease of access to excavate or re-open the wreck site, or a part of a site. We can easily remove the sand by a water dredge and uncover the exact area we seek by removing the associated strip. There is no need to cut or remove the whole net. �Overall we can report that the port site of the wreck’s hull is relatively safe and some parts of the starboard side is exposed, especially during the monsoon season. Bibliography Amendment No. 24 1998 Bonke, H., Parthesius, R., Ketel, C.V.D.P., 2007 Carpenter, J., Richards, V., 1996 Green, J., Parthesius, R., 1997 Law No. 19 1940 Manders, M.R., Chandraratne, W.M., Dayananda, A.M.A., Muthucumarana, R., Weerasena, K.B.C., Weerasinghe, K.D.P., 2004 Manders, M.R., Gregory, D.J., Rechards, V., 2008 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Devendra, S., Green, J., 2003 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Devendra, S., 2004 Parthesius, R., Millar, K., Jeffery, B., 2005 Prott, L.V., 2003 Amendment No.24 of Antiquity Ordinance No.19 1998. Artifacts Catalogue Avondster Site, 1998-2004, Centre For International Heritage Activities, The Netherlands. Conservation in Galle, interim report of the Galle Harbour Project. "Galle - A Port City In History", in Papers from the seminar Australian Centre For Excellence in Maritime Archaeology. Antiquity Ordinance No.19 of 1940. “The Physical Protection of a 17th century VOC shipwreck in Sri Lanka”, in Current Science, Volume, 86. No.09. India. In-situ Preservation of Archaeological Sites Underwater An Evaluation of Some Techniques, The Netherlands. Avondster Project Report 2001-2002, Amstradam Historisch Museum, The Netherlands The Mutual Heritage centre, Sri Lanka. Avondster Project. Galle 2001-2004, Mutual Heritage Cooperation Sri Lanka, The Netherlands, Australia. "Preliminary Report on the excavation of the 17th century Anglo - Dutch East- Indiaman Avondster in bay of Galle Sri Lanka", in The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. "Finishing The Interrupted Voyage", in Papers of the UNESCO Asia Pacific workshop on the 2001 convention on the protection on the underwater cultural heritage, Institute of �Richards, V., Carpenter, J., Parthesius, R,. 2007 Art and Low, UNESCO. Avondster conservation survey report, Department of Materials Conservation, Western Australian Maritime Museum, Excavation report of the VOC ship Avondster, Special Publication No.1, Centre For International Heritage Activities, The Netherlands. "In-situ Monitoring and Stabilisation of the James Mathews Shipwreck site", in Proceeding of the 10th ICOM Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials Conference, Amsterdam. Richards, V., Godfrey, I., Blanchette, R., Held, B., Gregory, D., Reed, E., 2007 Weerasinghe, K.D.P., The Physical Protection of The Avondster Wreck Site, Manders, M., Attachment 02, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Sri Lanka. 2003 Dive reports, 2005 to Dive reports, Maritime Archaeology Unit, Fort, Galle. 2009 � Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In-situ preservation In Tropical Seas: Case Study on the Avondster Shipwreck Subject The topic of the resource Session 7 Preservation and conservation of wet archaeological materials and site management Description An account of the resource The VOC ship Avondster sunk on 2nd July 1659 when anchoring near the beach in Galle Bay, geographically located in the southern part of Sri Lanka. She was re-discovered in 1993 and subjected to a series of research projects including excavation in the bow, stern and mid-ship areas. Due to construction work in Galle Harbour it was important to protect the shipwreck in situ. The environment in the Galle Bay badly affected the wreck site and it was a big challenge to overcome all the harmful factors that were likely to damage the remains of Avondster. In order to preserve Avondster a plastic net was introduced as a protective layer over the wreck site. This was monitored constantly throughout and after the research period. The protective layer was used over the fragile timbers for nearly 8 years before a violent tsunami hit Galle Bay in December 2004. Despite the serious damage caused on the land by the tsunami, it had less effect on the site and the covering-plastic net was still intact. From that time on monitoring has continued every two months. This paper discusses in detail the present condition of the in situ protection and its validity as a preservation technique in the conditions found in tropical seas. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Chandraratne Wijamunige Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 7 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0a1c7897fd6217d79d7f781987e9fb1b.pdf 08910e429db9ef6fa044c51d36d31139 PDF Text Text In-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan and related issues TSANG Cheng-Hwa and HUANG Han-chang (National Tsing Hua University) ABSTRACT The preservation of underwater cultural heritage is a nascent matter in Taiwan, and it is necessary to accumulate experience from trial and error in order to establish appropriate and feasible practice. As far as the in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage is concerned, in accordance with the ‘UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage’, the domestic ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ stipulates that ‘underwater cultural heritage should be preserved in-situ as a principle’, and thus the competent authority imposes strict restrictions on the practices of preservation and excavation of underwater cultural heritage. But such actions have caused debates, such as: ‘Is in-situ preservation reasonable in theory or feasible in practice?’ In Taiwan, since 2006, the underwater archeology team of Academia Sinica commissioned by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture has officially launched the archaeological investigation of underwater cultural heritage. It has so far collected more than 700 pieces of documentary records of shipwrecks and underwater cultural relics in the surrounding waters of Taiwan, and 500 of them have been preliminarily investigated and verified as significant underwater targets. Among the 500 targets, 97 were confirmed as the remains of shipwrecks and cultural relics, and 6 of them have already been listed by the competent authority as special underwater cultural heritage in accordance with the ‘Act’ by now. Many more underwater cultural heritages are being prepared for listing. The problem currently arising is that are all listed underwater cultural assets required to be preserved in situ? How can we appropriately preserve them in-situ? Undoubtedly, this is a subject that needs to be carefully evaluated and planned. Keywords：underwater cultural heritage, in-situ preservation, underwater archaeology, protection zone of underwater cultural heritage THE DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY IN TAIWAN Taiwan has a vast sea area. Due to the factors of human history and natural environment, there are rich and diverse underwater cultural heritage, including the remains of human activities in the Paleolithic Age more than 10,000 years ago, the submerged coastal settlement sites, as well as various material remains of human navigation activities from the Neolithic Age to modern times, are an extremely important historical and cultural treasure trove, which not only contains scientific research materials and evidence, but also precious cultural heritage. Underwater archaeological investigations are certainly needed. In the past, the National Museum of History firstly conducted archaeological investigations on the ancient shipwreck of the ‘Jiangjun No. 1’ in the waters of Penghu in 1996, 1999, and 2001 (Luo Shengzong 2011). However, after the completion of this work, the underwater archaeological work in Taiwan died down, and there was no further development. It was not until the end of 1995 when the Council for Cultural Affairs entrusted the underwater archaeological team of Academia Sinica to carry out a research project on ‘the Investigation and Excavation of Ancient Shipwrecks in Magong Port, Penghu, and the Talents Cultivation Program for Underwater Cultural Heritage and Conservation Science ‘, and underwater archeology in Taiwan has sprouted again since then. Afterwards, the work of underwater archaeology, including carrying out general underwater archaeological surveys and doing research on ancient documents, archives and oral history relevant to underwater cultural heritage have been persisting until now. The Underwater Archeology Team has so far collected more than 700 pieces of information about shipwrecks and underwater cultural relics in the surrounding waters of Taiwan, and about 500 of them have been preliminarily investigated and confirmed as underwater targets with significance. Currently, 97 of these underwater targets have been verified as cultural relics and 20 of them have been identified as historical shipwrecks. Currently, the competent authority has listed 6 shipwrecks as special underwater cultural heritage for management in accordance with the ‘ Underwater Cultural Heritage 1 �Protection Act’ (hereafter as ‘Act’) (Cheng-hwa Tsang 2003, (Cheng-hwa Tsang et al 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020). LEGISLATIONS AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR THE PROTECTION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN TAIWAN The ‘ Act ‘ is the main law for the protection of underwater cultural heritage in my country. Article 1 of the ‘Act’ states that ‘In order to preserve, protect and manage underwater cultural heritage, to establish the link between nationals and history, to promote the characteristics of this ocean Nation, and to value the spirit of the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage of the United Nations and relevant international agreements, this Act is hereby enacted.’ The competent authority of the ‘Act’ is the Ministry of Culture. Following the coming into effect of the ‘Act ‘ in 2015, 13 sub-laws or regulations related to the preservation of underwater cultural heritage have promulgated one after another. The most important ones among them are: 1. ‘Rules for the Implementation of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ (2016), 2. ‘Regulations for Notification and Management of Activities Involving Seabed or Subsoil ‘(2016), 3. ‘Regulations for the Investigation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage before the Development and Utilization of waters’ (2016), ‘Regulations for Cultivating Professionals of Underwater Cultural Heritage’ (2016), 4. ‘Regulations for the Administration of Activities directed at Underwater Cultural Heritage’ (2016), 5. ‘Regulations for the Designation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones’ (2016), and 6. ‘Guidance on the Operations of Underwater Cultural Heritage Survey and the Technology of Instrument Detection ‘(2017). Therefore, the legal system concerning the protection of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan covers most of the relevant aspects of protection and management. It seems to be quite complete, and should be able to provide a good foundation for the implementation and development of underwater archaeology. However, after many years of implementation, there are still some problems in the practice and enforceability with these regulations. In the following, I will focus my discussion on three practical issues of preservation in-situ. PRACTICAL ISSUES ARISING FROM IN-SITU PRESERVATION OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN TAIWAN As mentioned above, there are a large number of sunken ships in the waters around Taiwan, and currently 6 of them have been listed by the competent authority as special underwater cultural heritage in accordance with the ‘Act’. Many more underwater cultural heritages are being prepared for listing. The problem currently arising is that are all listed underwater cultural assets required to be preserved in situ? How can we appropriately preserve them in-situ? Undoubtedly, this is a subject that needs to 2 �be carefully evaluated and planned. As far as the current situation is concerned, at least three relevant issues are worthy of discussion: (1) The issue of taking cultural relics out of water. (2) Problems in the supervision and protection of listed shipwrecks. (3) The dilemma of establishing protection zones for underwater cultural heritage. 1. The issue of taking cultural relics out of the water Article 2, paragraph 5, of the UNESCO UCH Convention: ‘ The preservation in situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage.’ This has become one of the most important provisions of this Convention. Correspondingly, my country's ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ has a similar provision. Article 27 stipulates that The preservation in-situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage. The proper means for in situ preservation referred to in the preceding paragraph may include recordation management, protection zone, or other proper preservation measures. Therefore, preservation in-situ is one of the most important criteria for the preservation of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan. Its legislative intention is probably even stronger than that of the Convention. Therefore, the fifth chapter of the ‘Act’ has a special chapter on ‘Excavating Out of the Water’, in which there are very strict regulations for the excavation of underwater cultural heritage: ‘Underwater cultural heritage shall not be excavated out of the water except for the following situations: 1. the underwater cultural heritage related to historical status or recognition of the nation. 2. The absence of such underwater cultural heritage could be detrimental to a full understanding of human history. 3. The underwater cultural heritage is of substantial commercial value that cannot be protected without excavating it out of the water. 4. Excavation is necessary for the investigation and research of underwater cultural heritage. 5. The underwater cultural heritage cannot be sufficiently preserved, protected or managed without excavating it out of the water due to an emergency or the change of the existing environment. 6. Other situations in which the competent authority deems necessary to excavate out of the water. Based on these provisions, the competent authority has become very cautious about the underwater cultural heritage being taken out of the water. Even for approved underwater archaeological investigations, any action of taking underwater cultural relics must be reported for approval in advance. Even if there is an urgency for research or even maintenance, it must first be reported to the competent authority for deliberation and approval. This administrative rule that sticks to the law may 3 �not be appropriate. Not only may it hinder the research needs and understanding of underwater cultural heritage, but also increases the risk of underwater cultural heritage preservation. This is because cultural relics preserved in water may not be absolutely safe, and they are often destroyed or vanished due to various human or natural factors. Therefore, whether cultural relics should be or not should be out of the water should be based on whether the measures of in-situ preservation can be better protected and maximize their benefits. And it should be evaluated and judged based on professional knowledge, not just a rigid legal clause. 2. Issues on the supervision and protection of underwater cultural heritage Article 27(2) of the ‘ Act ‘ stipulates that The proper means for in situ preservation referred to in the preceding paragraph may include recordation management, protection zone, or other proper preservation measures. In my country, there is so far no underwater cultural heritage protection zone that has yet been established so far. The only way to protect the 6 listed special underwater cultural heritage is recordation management, which consists of monitoring and recording. The monitoring work is an attempt to observe the preservation state of the shipwrecks and to observe any change caused by either natural or human factors. The recording work aims to collect basic environmental data related to the preservation of the shipwrecks, mainly including: (1) sea area hydrology: current velocity, flow direction, tide, water temperature. (2) sea water quality: salinity, pH value. (3) sea organisms: planktons and benthic organisms. (4) sediment and topography of the sea bed: sediment morphology, water depth, seabed topography, and slope. Based on years of experience, it seems that there are still some deficiencies that need to be improved in the future. For example, in-situ preservation is not only necessary to avoid intrusion and interference by human and natural factors, but more importantly, to conserve the underwater cultural heritage on site. Professional understanding of the state of the in-situ preserved underwater cultural heritage, such as the decaying condition of the wooden relics, the degree of corrosion and decomposition of the metal objects, etc., will provide valuable information for taking appropriate maintenance measures. This kind of work is undoubtedly a very important part of in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage. Every underwater archaeological operation should be joined by professionally trained conservation personnel. It can assist underwater archaeologists to take immediate protection measures and provide suggestions for further actions to improve them. However, there is a complete shortage of personnel in this area and there is an urgent need to train them in my country. 3. The dilemma of establishing protected area for underwater cultural heritage Article 28 of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Act stipulates that When the review committees make a decision that it is necessary to designate a specific underwater cultural heritage protection zone, the competent authority should consult with relevant authorities to designate and publicize an underwater cultural heritage protection zone within such a water area to preserve the underwater heritage in situ. In order to implement the establishment of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones, the ‘Regulations for the Designation and Management of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection Zones’ (hereafter as’ Protection Zones’ coming into effect in 2016. Article 2 of this regulations stipulates that The criteria for designating underwater cultural heritage protection zones are as follows: （1） It has important historical, cultural, archaeological, artistic or scientific value and must be preserved on site in the form of a protected area. 4 �（2） The texture of the underwater cultural heritage is fragile and prone to man-made or natural damage. In order to ensure the safety of the underwater cultural heritages, they must be preserved on site in the form of protected areas. （3） The remains of underwater cultural heritage are widely distributed or are closely related to the surrounding environment. It is not enough to present a complete context unless preserved underwater, and must be preserved on site in the form of protected areas. （4）Other needs for the preservation, protection or management of underwater cultural heritage. Although the government has established comprehensive regulations for the establishment of underwater cultural heritage protection zones, no protection zone has been able to achieve so far due to many difficulties. According to Article 14 of the’ Protection Zones’, the competent authorities may designate protection zones and make public announcements in accordance with the provisions of Article 28 (1), of the ‘Act’. In addition, according to Article 30 of the ‘Act’, after the announcement of the protection zone, the competent authority should formulate to set up a management and protection plan, and may designate the following zones as appropriate: 1. core zone; 2. buffer zone. However, these provisions seem to be over idealized. I herewith just mention three cases which show the difficulties of establishing a protection zone. Case 1: The Green Island No. 1 was an important mid-19th century European trading vessel, the wreck of which is located in the water near the southeast coast of the offshore Island of Green Island in Southeastern Taiwan, and it is necessary indeed to designate it as a protection zone because of its underwater cultural heritage value. However, since its location is near the main port of Green Island and close to a recreational diving spot, it has immediately encountered resistance from local residents and tourism operators when a protection zone is proposed to set up there. Case 2: The British steamship SS Sobraon wrecked near the northern coast of the Dongyin Island of the Mazu archipelago in 1901, the site of which is located in the military artillery shooting range. Although it can produce the effect of protecting underwater cultural heritage if a protection zone is set up there, the security of national defense must also be taken into consideration. Because Article 31 of the Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act states: Activity undertaken for the needs of national security or emergency may not be subject to the restrictions……, Any activity undertaken thereafter should be reported to the competent authority, except that a military or national defense secret involved. Case 3: The underwater archaeological team has discovered a large number of sunken ships within and surrounding Dongsha Atoll in the South China Sea. This atoll is located in the South China Sea and is a very isolated island group, which seems to be a very ideal place for being designated as an underwater cultural heritage protection zone. But, it is exactly due to its remote and isolated geographical location, which makes supervision and management extremely difficult. Even if the protection zone is designated, it is difficult to achieve the effect of protection. Even today, fishermen from different countries sometimes come here to dismantle iron shipwrecks and salvage underwater cultural relics. It is clear that the designation of an underwater cultural heritage protection zone requires consideration of many factors and is not an easy task. As Article 13(2) of the ‘ Protection Zone’ states: When deliberating the management and protection plan of the protection zone, the review committee may consider whether it will have a major impact on the rights and interests of stakeholders as well as underwater cultural heritage and their 5 �context, including economic activities, research, education, tourism, leisure and entertainment that rely on the area, activities and other related rights and interests, fishery rights, aboriginal culture, ceremonies, or self-use behaviors that conform to sustainable use. In 2021, Chapter 5 of the ‘Regulations for the Designation and Management of Underwater Cultural Asset Protection Areas’ was amended to include new regulations on access to underwater cultural heritage protection zones for tourism diving, including the requirements for qualifications for underwater tour guides. For the purpose of enhancing this provision, the competent authority has recently conducted training programs for underwater cultural heritage tour guides and hope to make preparations for opening some of the underwater cultural heritage protection zones in the future. However, If the establishment of the protection zones can finally be realized, sufficient planning must be completed before it is opened for diving tourists, especially for those who want to go underwater for guiding tours, the requirements for professional qualifications and knowledge training must be strengthened. Otherwise, it will be difficult to avoid irreparable harm to underwater cultural heritage. CONCLUDING REMARKS Although the investigation of underwater cultural heritage in my country has not been developed for a long time. A large number of underwater cultural heritage sites have been discovered, and it has aroused the general attention of the state and the people. Finally, the ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ was promulgated in 2015, but since its implementation is still a new matter, it still needs to accumulate experience from trial and error in order to establish appropriate and feasible ethics and norms. Among the many issues currently facing, the implementation of in-situ preservation is the most controversial. This may be due to the fact that the competent authority has been misled by the principle that ‘ The in- situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage should be considered as the first and preferred option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage.’ stated in the ‘Convention’. On the other hand, it may be due to the lack of understanding of the actual immediate hazards faced by underwater cultural heritage and the environment in which they are located. As a result, many strict restrictions have been set for subsequent excavations and removal of cultural relics from the water. Although the current situation has gradually improved after continuous communication between underwater archaeologists and the competent authority. But, the issues of the supervision and protection of the listed shipwrecks and other underwater cultural relics as well as the difficulties faced in designating protection zones for underwater cultural heritage are still important issues to discuss and find solutions. 6 �BIBLIOGRAPHY Luo, Sheng-tzung, “The Story of General No. 1” in “Scientific Development” February, Issue 458, 2011 National Historical Museum, “Report on the Survey of General No. 1 Excavation of the Ancient Shipwreck in Penghu Sea Area”. Taipei: National Historical Museum, 1997 National Historical Museum, “Report on Excavation of the Ancient Shipwreck General No. 1 in the Penghu Sea Area”. Taipei: National Historical Museum, 1999 Tsang, Chen-hwa, Huang Han-chang, et al. “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas Near Taiwan Report Series: The Third Phase Report (3),” Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture. 2019. “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas Near Taiwan Report Series: The Third Phase Report (2),” Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture. 2019. “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas Near Taiwan Report Series (1): The Third Phase Report”, Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture. 2019 “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Seas Near Taiwan: Phase II Report (3)”, Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture.2018 “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Seas Near Taiwan: Phase II Report (2)”, Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture.2018 “General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Seas Near Taiwan: Phase II Report (1)”, Published by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture.2018 “Report of the General Survey of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the Seas Near Taiwan: The First Phase Report”, Published by the Bureau of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture.2016 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource 2023 Session 26: General session Subject The topic of the resource Session 26 papers Description An account of the resource Papers presented at Session 26 of the 2023 Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2023 Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Language A language of the resource English Rights Holder A person or organization owning or managing rights over the resource. Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource In-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan and related issues Description An account of the resource The preservation of underwater cultural heritage is a nascent matter in Taiwan, and it is necessary to accumulate experience from trial and error in order to establish appropriate and feasible practice. As far as the in-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage is concerned, in accordance with the ‘UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage’, the domestic ‘Underwater Cultural Heritage Preservation Act’ stipulates that ‘underwater cultural heritage should be preserved in-situ as a principle’, and thus the competent authority imposes strict restrictions on the practices of preservation and excavation of underwater cultural heritage. But such actions have caused debates, such as: ‘Is in-situ preservation reasonable in theory or feasible in practice?’ In Taiwan, since 2006, the underwater archeology team of Academia Sinica commissioned by the Cultural Heritage Bureau of the Ministry of Culture has officially launched the archaeological investigation of underwater cultural heritage. It has so far collected more than 700 pieces of documentary records of shipwrecks and underwater cultural relics in the surrounding waters of Taiwan, and 500 of them have been preliminarily investigated and verified as significant underwater targets. Among the 500 targets, 97 were confirmed as the remains of shipwrecks and cultural relics, and 6 of them have already been listed by the competent authority as special underwater cultural heritage in accordance with the ‘Act’ by now. Many more underwater cultural heritages are being prepared for listing. The problem currently arising is that are all listed underwater cultural assets required to be preserved in situ? How can we appropriately preserve them in-situ? Undoubtedly, this is a subject that needs to be carefully evaluated and planned. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Tsang Cheng-Hwa Huang Han-chang Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available The Museum of Underwater Archaeology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2023 Language A language of the resource English Bibliographic Citation A bibliographic reference for the resource. Recommended practice is to include sufficient bibliographic detail to identify the resource as unambiguously as possible. Tsang, Cheng-hwa and Han-chang Huang. 2023. “In-situ preservation of underwater cultural heritage in Taiwan and related issues.” Edited by Jennifer Craig, Jay Mok, T. Kurt Knoerl, and Elena Pérez Álvaro. Proceedings of Fifth Asia Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage: Gwangju, The Republic of Korea, November 13-18 2023. The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. URL: https://apconf.omeka.net/exhibits/show/apconfproceedings/item/2006 Asia-Pac Session 26 2023 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/1fad8480ebfeee2e905a6e80ae0b91f9.pdf cb06b1c2a4e71c98b5e5e6787f619854 PDF Text Text Inclusion and Negotiation: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites for the Public Jennifer F. McKinnon Abstract The development of a World War Two (WWII) underwater heritage trail focusing on the Battle of Saipan has recently been undertaken in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands on Saipan. This WWII heritage trail was formulated out of the interest of the local Historic Preservation Office’s (HPO) desire to protect and interpret its underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Through a United States of America (U.S.) National Park Service American Battlefield Protection Program grant in collaboration with a non-profit organisation and university program this trail was developed during 2009-2010 and launched in 2011. The development of a heritage trail that interprets such a confronting, painful and tragic event for multiple culture groups is a difficult task. A balanced approach of interpreting battlefield heritage can only be achieved through the identification and inclusion of the various stakeholders and an awareness of what is being included, ignored or inadequately represented in the interpretation. Listening to the multiple stakeholders’ views about the significance of such sites and incorporating those views into interpretive and management practices is key to an inclusive and shared interpretation of heritage. Further, an awareness and acknowledgment of the social and political context in which one is working is fundamental to understanding how practitioners negotiate the process of interpretation. As Logan and Reeves (2009:13) have communicated so well, “Heritage conservation is a form of cultural politics; it is about the links between ideology, public policy, national and community identity formation, and celebration, just as much as it is about technical issues relating to restoration and adaptive re-use techniques”. This paper provides an in-depth discussion on the process of developing a battlefield heritage trail. It will explore the theory and practice, the pitfalls and highlights, and the problems and solutions of interpreting and managing a battlefield site. Introduction The remains of the WWII Battle of Saipan, fought between Japanese and U.S. forces in June-July 1944, were recently the focus of a large-scale archaeological project. This project was directed by the non-profit organisation Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc. of Corpus Christi, Texas (Ships of Discovery) and Flinders University of Adelaide, South Australia. Funded through a National Park Service (NPS) American Battlefield Protection Program (ABPP)1, the project goals were three-fold: to refine current knowledge of the Battle of Saipan through the documentation and study of the associated submerged heritage sites, to increase public awareness of their historical significance and to stimulate the local economy through the development of a maritime heritage trail. This WWII heritage trail was formulated out of interest from the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Island (CNMI) HPO desire to protect and interpret its 1 This material is based upon work assisted by a grant from the Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Department of the Interior. �UCH, and the local government’s desire to create sustainable, economicallybeneficial heritage tourism products. These objectives were achieved through three archaeological field seasons that occurred in July 2009, February 2010 and June 2010, as well as, ongoing historical research and public consultation with stakeholders throughout the project period. The development of a heritage trail that interprets such a confronting, painful and tragic event for multiple culture groups is a difficult task. A balanced approach of interpreting battlefield heritage can only be achieved through the identification and inclusion of the various stakeholders and an awareness of what is being included, ignored or inadequately represented in the interpretation. Listening to the views of the multiple stakeholders about the significance of such sites and incorporating those into interpretive materials and management practices is key to an inclusive and shared interpretation of heritage. Further, an awareness and acknowledgement of the social and political context in which one is working is fundamental to understanding how practitioners negotiate the process of interpretation. As Logan and Reeves (2009:13) have communicated so well, “Heritage conservation is a form of cultural politics; it is about the links between ideology, public policy, national and community identity formation, and celebration, just as much as it is about technical issues relating to restoration and adaptive re-use techniques.” This paper provides a discussion on the process of developing a battlefield heritage trail in Saipan. It will explore the theory and practice, the pitfalls and highlights, and the problems and solutions of interpreting and managing a battlefield site. Location and background The Mariana archipelago is located east of the Philippines, north of New Guinea, and south-southeast of Japan (Figure 1). Saipan, the capital of the CNMI and the largest and most populated island, was the site of arguably one of the most strategic battles in WWII’s Pacific Theatre. Saipan is 19 kilometres (km) long by 9km wide and is fringed by a barrier reef on its western side which creates a large lagoon. The lagoon is separated into three smaller ones, Garapan, Tanapag and Chalan Kanoa Lagoons, which range in width from 375 metres (m) to 3.5 km and in depth up to 14 m (Amesbury, et al. 1996). The clarity and consistently warm temperatures of the water make SCUBA diving in the lagoons possible year-round. �Figure 1. The Mariana Islands (Perry-Castañeda Map Collection). Several submerged cultural heritage surveys and assessments have been conducted in the waters surrounding Saipan from 1979 to 2008 (Thomas and Price 1980; Miculka and Manibusan 1983; Manibusan and Miculka 1983; Miculka, et al. 1984; Pacific Basin Environmental Consultants 1985; Thompson 1984; Miculka, et al. 1990; Carrell 1991; Lord and Plank 2003; SEARCH, Inc. �2008a; SEARCH, Inc. 2008b; Carrell, et al. 2009). These surveys provided invaluable baseline data for identifying and conducting further research on sites to be included in the heritage trail. Particularly useful were the surveys and publications produced by the NPS (Carrell 1991), Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc. (SEARCH, Inc.) (SEARCH, Inc. 2008a; SEARCH 2008b) and Ships of Discovery (Carrell, et al. 2009). In April and May of 2008, remote sensing and diver identification surveys in Saipan were conducted by SEARCH, Inc. The purpose of these investigations was to locate and identify archaeological resources inside and outside Tanapag and Garapan Lagoons. The remote sensing surveys including magnetometry and side scan sonar were broad in nature; however the focus of the historical research and diver identification was on WWII heritage. The surveys were intended to be a baseline inventory for future investigations to build upon and were funded through a historic preservation grant provided to HPO and administered by the NPS. A total of 1,543 anomalies were located, of which 142 were chosen for diver survey. According to the report of investigations, “The majority of identified anomalies represents material culture from WWII and offers a unique opportunity for Saipan to interpret its history through maritime heritage and dive trails” (SEARCH, Inc. 2008b:i). In 2009, a comprehensive overview of the maritime history and archaeology of the CNMI was completed by Ships of Discovery (Carrell 2009). The project was undertaken as part of the CNMI’s on-going efforts to meet its historic preservation and inventory mandates and also was funded through a historic preservation grant administered by the NPS. The maritime context document provided an in-depth discussion of the history of the CNMI from the pre-historic period to the present, and pulled together all of the currently available information on submerged cultural heritage sites in the islands. Together these two projects provided the background information and emphasis for the development of a more intensive archaeological investigation and a public interpretation program for the WWII heritage. In fact, at the same time that SEARCH, Inc. was conducting the remote sensing project in 2008, staff and students from Flinders University were on the island working with the HPO to create a plan for developing a “maritime unit” within their existing program. In an earlier trip to Saipan in 2007, the HPO had voiced concerns about their lack of ability to manage submerged heritage (due to a lack of training in underwater archaeological techniques) and the pressing need to do so due to the amount of tourist divers visiting the WWII sites. They also were interested in developing a maritime heritage trail which would provide two favourable outcomes: developing a presence on the water as the agency charged with managing the resources and developing a heritage tourism product that could promote sustainable use of the already heavily visited sites. Thus the idea was formulated to develop a plan to accomplish a number of objectives that would assist HPO in better managing their submerged heritage. These objectives included: • Training staff in underwater archaeological methods in order to create a team of diving archaeologists �• • Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism Training staff in underwater archaeological methods The first objective was accomplished in January 2009 when Flinders University and HPO supported archaeological technician John Castro to travel to Australia and participate in the Flinders University Maritime Archaeological Field School in South Australia. Castro’s extensive diving and archaeological background allowed him to participate as a supervisor in the two-week field school where he gained additional underwater archaeology experience. Next, training was held in July 2009 on Saipan for staff from several government agencies, including HPO, Coastal Resources Management (CRM), the NMI Museum of Culture and History, and Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ), as well as few local interested divers. A total of 20 diving and non-diving participants took part in the two day course (Figure 2). Based on the Flinders University’s Underwater Archaeology Methods topic, it included classroom lectures, practical terrestrial exercises, a diving exercise and an intertidal exercise for those not SCUBA certified. The training was a great success and provided the agencies and locals with information about the importance of preserving underwater heritage. Figure 2. 2009 training participants, Saipan, CNMI (J. McKinnon). �In the final stages of the development of the trail, two Heritage Awareness Diving Seminars (HADS) were run on Saipan in April 2011. HADS is a specialty course run through the three largest diver certification agencies in the world, NAUI, PADI and SSI, and is training intended for course directors, instructor trainers, instructors, dive masters, boat captains and dive shop owners. It was developed to provide diving industry professionals with a greater knowledge of how to proactively protect shipwrecks and other submerged cultural heritage sites (Scott-Ireton 2008). The goal of HADS is to increase awareness of the fragility of submerged heritage, teach proper anchoring, mooring and diving behaviour on such sites, as well as demonstrate the need for preservation of such resources for future generations and the economic benefits of heritage diving tourism. A total of 16 participants took part in the HADS training, including dive shop owners, the president of a local dive professional organization, boat captains, dive instructors and dive masters, U.S. Coast Guard staff, and a staff member from the NMI Humanities Council. This training was funded through a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Pacific Region Grants Cooperative grant awarded to Pacific Marine Resources, Inc. (PMRI), a local non-profit organisation concerned with environmental and historical research and sustainability. This training was seen as a crucial element to the development of the trail and its sustainability. It aimed at educating the end users to protect the sites and educate their students and clients about using the sites appropriately. Conducting more intensive archaeological research and recording known and heavily visited sites In January 2009 Ships of Discovery applied for an ABPP grant for the archaeological and historical investigation of submerged WWII heritage and the collection of data for the development of a proposed maritime heritage trail. The planning for this grant application began in 2007-2008 and included a great deal of local consultation. Public lectures were given to gauge local interest, and meetings were held with several stakeholders including local divers and dive clubs, HPO, CRM, DEQ, NMI Humanities Council, and the Marianas Visitors Authority (MVA). This consultation centred on the needs and wants of the community and government in terms of their heritage and a heritage tourism product. As a result, three agencies (HPO, CRM, and DEQ) pledged their assistance with the project provided funding was secured. Funding was announced for $49,900(U.S.) in August 2009 and the project quickly began. HPO, CRM, and DEQ provided an invaluable amount of in-kind assistance during the project, including staff support both on and off the water, boats and vehicles, equipment and fuel. Their support was instrumental to the success and completion of the project. Archaeological survey The archaeological documentation survey took place within Garapan and Tanapag Lagoons, where most of the accessible shallow water WWII sites are located. The underwater surveys focused on locating and mapping individual �sites, groups of sites and artefacts relating to the pre-invasion, invasion, and post-invasion period. Most of these sites had been located and briefly recorded in previous archaeological surveys and were specifically targeted for potential inclusion on the heritage trail based on this knowledge. Twelve sites were subject to extensive archaeological survey; however additional unrecorded sites were encountered. These additional sites were cursorily recorded and basic details were collected for future investigation (Table 1.) Table 1: Table of submerged or partially submerged sites recorded in 2009-2010. Name of Site Trail (Y/N) Merchant Ship, presumably Shoan Y Maru/Chinsen (Japanese Shipwreck) Possible Auxiliary Submarine Chaser – Y Main Site (Japanese Shipwreck) Possible Auxiliary Submarine Chaser – N Second Site (Japanese Shipwreck) Sherman Tank 1 (U.S.) Y Sherman Tank 2 (U.S.) Y Sherman Tank 3 (U.S.) Y Landing Vehicle Tracked-(A)-4 (U.S.) Y Fishing base Landing Vehicle N Fishing base LVT N Landing Craft (U.S.) N Possible U.S. Landing Craft (in shoreline) N Barges (U.S.) N Barge near Japanese Lighthouse (U.S.) N Daihatsu Landing Craft 1 (Japanese) Y Daihatsu Landing Craft 2 (Japanese) Y Kawanishi H8K “Emily” (Japanese Aircraft) Y Aichi E13A “Jake” (Japanese Aircraft) Y Martin PBM Mariner (U.S. Aircraft) Y TBM Avenger (U.S. Aircraft) Y Navigational Marker (Japanese) N Visits to each of the sites listed in Table 1 included basic underwater survey recording (photographs, overall dimensions, general descriptions, site identification, site location and site condition). Some sites, particularly those to be included on the trail, warranted more extensive survey for the purposes of creating site plans and also collecting baseline data for future monitoring purposes. No archaeological excavation was conducted at the sites and no cultural materials were recovered. All cultural and natural features on and around the sites were recorded. Modifications, battle scars, presence of unexploded ordnance, identifying marks and any other features that may aid in the interpretation of the sites were detailed. An overall description of the site and its general environment (depth, �visibility, current and bottom composition) were also recorded. Cultural and natural impacts to the site were noted, including anchor damage, salvage, removal or movement of artefacts, and deterioration and scouring. Biological data including fish counts was also collected. Data about future access to the sites by the public, such as possible anchoring or mooring locations, was recorded and a reconnaissance of the surrounding area to search for associated sites and activity was conducted. Developing a maritime heritage trail for the purposes of creating sustainable heritage tourism The ABPP funding received for documenting and researching submerged WWII sites also included using that data to develop a maritime heritage trail in conjunction with HPO. This trail was conceptualized as part of a plan to aid in the preservation and protection of submerged heritage sites which were already being impacted through tourist visitation. By providing interpretive literature which outlined each site’s history and importance, legal protection and proper etiquette for visiting such heritage sites, it was hoped that divers, snorkelers, and swimmers would be better educated and develop a greater appreciation for the heritage, thus avoiding impacting or harming the sites further. Planning the trail included a great deal of local and international consultation. Several leading experts in the field of heritage trail development were sought to provide input into the planning. More discussions were had with the agencies charged with managing historical and biological resources; particularly useful were relationships with CRM and DEQ, whose focus is primarily the environment. These agencies provided investigation permits and worked alongside the project staff to develop a program for placing moorings on all the sites for use by boaters and tour operators – a necessity for reducing anchor impacts to sites. Discussions with local divers, dive shops, dive boat operators, and other tourism operators were held concerning their needs and wants in terms of access, the types of sites they would like to see on the trail and what products would best suit. These conversations were most useful in gauging diver and snorkeler interest and behaviour on heritage sites. The trail was not intended to be exclusive to divers so sites particularly close to land that could be accessed by swimmers and snorkelers were also selected. The demographics of diving tourists were also sought from the MVA, who suggested that the products be printed in Korean and Russian, in addition to the already planned printing in English, Japanese, Chamorro, and Carolinian. Trail Products The end results of the fieldwork include the production of a 180-page, detailed report on the activities of the fieldwork and development of the trail (McKinnon and Carrell 2011). Nine underwater guides inclusive of site plans, site descriptions, access information, and a conservation message were produced on �100% waterproof, 100% recyclable, 100% tree-free paper (Figure 3). Each of these has a small hole punched in the corner so a lanyard can be attached. Figure 3. Aichi E13A dive guide (Ships of Discovery). Four themed posters also were produced including: U.S. Aircraft, Japanese Aircraft, Shipwrecks, and Assault Vehicles. The posters are 18 x 24 inches and double-sided; the front includes a glossy photograph of a site and the back is populated with photographs as well as historical and archaeological information about the battle and the wrecks (Figure 4). The posters are inclusive of multiple viewpoints and include quotes of several culture groups involved in the battle (i.e. Chamorro, Carolinian, Japanese, etc.). They also include a message about the importance of protecting sites, examples of how divers impact sites through intentional and non-intentional behaviour, and specific information about the legislation that protects submerged sites. All products were �printed in English and Japanese; funding is currently being sought to have them printed in Chamorro, Carolinian, Korean and Russian. Figure 4. Assault vehicle poster (English) (Ships of Discovery). Pitfalls and highlights The development of the WWII maritime heritage trail was a complex and lengthy process. There were many concerns that needed to be addressed from the very beginning stages of planning - concerns for the project director were multiple. We were very aware early on that we were yet another “colonial” entity with “grand ideas” arriving on the doorstep of an archipelago plagued with past colonial occupation. We were conscious that we were seeking U.S. federal funding to interpret a battle between and among people who were victims of our own country’s actions. We were aware that there were still survivors both on and off the island that were affected greatly by this tragic event. We knew the task of trying to include multiple viewpoints in the interpretive literature would be difficult. We were also aware that for the trail to be successful in terms of protecting the heritage rather than harming it, a comprehensive plan would need to be designed and that a strategy needed to be in place to monitor the heritage in the long-term. The only solution to our concerns appeared to be inclusion, consultation, and negotiation. These three actions were called upon numerous times during the process of the grant. For example, at a public consultation and presentation fishers on the island expressed concerns that their rights to fish sites would be impinged upon as a result of the trail. In this case the answer was “no it would �not”; had it been “yes”, a great deal more consultation with stakeholders would have been necessary. At times local interest and support for the project waned and negative comments appeared on in the comments section of newspaper websites. One such comment appeared just prior to a public lecture that provided an update regarding the completion of the trail. The post related concerns of yet another entity scoring public grants to spend money on travel to the island with little results or products (Marianas Variety, accessed 12 April 2011). Following the public lecture and several reports on local television and newspapers in both English and Chamorro, the same username posted, “This will make a good addition to the WWII sites already toured by visitors on Saipan. Japanese and other divers will have an even better reason to choose the waters of the CNMI to scuba in…” (Marianas Variety, accessed 26 April 2011). This example simply demonstrates that the community has an interest their heritage and a right to be involved in these processes. There is no doubt that there will be complications and issues that follow, such as finding funding for reprinting guides and posters. But steps have been made to alleviate such issues by providing the final artwork to multiple agencies on the islands and uploading the artwork to a website whereby it can be printed by anyone. Long-term monitoring and stabilisation of the sites on the trail will also be of concern. This will hopefully be addressed in another recently awarded ABPP grant which consists of conducting conservation surveys and the production of a management plan for long-term monitoring (American Battlefield Protection Program, accessed 20 September 2011). The list of questions and issues goes on, but in the end, as the situation stood, diving tourism activities related to WWII heritage were simply not sustainable. It is hoped that through the efforts of the local community, agencies, non-profits, and universities involved that the work conducted to record and interpret these sites will provide protection for them into the future. Bibliography American Battlefield Protection Program, 2011 Amesbury, J., Moore D., and HunterAnderson R., 1996 Carrell, T. L. (editor), 1991 Carrell, T. L., 2009 http://www.nps.gov/history/hps/abpp/grants/battlefieldgrants/20 11grantawards.htm, accessed 20 September 2011. “Cultural Adaptations and Late Holocene Sea Level Changes in the Marianas: Recent Excavations at Chalan Piao, Saipan, Micronesia”, in Indo-Pacific Prehistory: The Chiang Mai Papers, (eds.) Ian C. Glover and Peter Bellwood, Australian National University, Canberra, Volume 2, pp. 53-69. Micronesia Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment, National Park Service, Santa Fe, New Mexico. Maritime History and Archaeology of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic �Preservation. Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Inc. Texas. Logan, W., and Places Of Pain And Shame: Dealing With 'Difficult' Heritage, Reeves, K., Routledge, London. 2009 Lord, C. and Surveys of Abandoned Vessels: Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the National Plank, C., 2003 Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration by Research Planning, Inc. Columbia, South Carolina. Marianas http://www.mvariety.com/2011041135834/local-news/heritageVariety, awareness-seminar-today.php, accessed 12 April 2011. 2011 Marianas http://www.mvariety.com/2011042536232/localVariety, news/archaeologist-discusses-prospects-for-nmi-heritagetourism.php, accessed 26 April 2011. 2011 Manibusan, R. “Submerged Cultural Assessment American Memorial Park”, in and Miculka, J., War in the Pacific National Historical Park, Guam, manuscript 1983 on file, CNMI Historic Preservation Office, Saipan, MP. McKinnon, J.F. Saipan WWII Invasion Beaches Underwater Heritage Trail. and Carrell, T., Ships of Exploration and Discovery Research, Corpus Christi, 2011 Texas. Miculka, J. E., “Submerged Cultural Assessment American Memorial Park”, in War in the Pacific National Historical Park, Guam, manuscript and Manibusan, on file, CNMI Historic Preservation Office, Saipan, MP. R.S.N., 1983 Miculka, J. E., “Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment Saipan Lagoon 03 – 05 December 1984”, in War in the Pacific National Carter, K. J., Historical Park, Guam, manuscript on file, CNMI Historic and Ichihara, N., Preservation Office, Saipan, MP. 1984 “Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment: Saipan”, in War Miculka, J. E., in the Pacific National Historical Park, Guam, Manuscript on Wood, E., Cooper, W., file, CNMI Historic Preservation Office, Saipan, MP. and Blackenbaker, D., 1990 Pacific Basin Underwater Survey of Tanapag Lagoon for Historic Properties, Environmental submitted to the Community and Cultural Affairs, Historic Consultants Preservation Office by Pacific Basin Environmental (PBEC), Consultants, Guam. 1985 Scott-Ireton, D., Teaching “Heritage” Awareness” Rather than “Skills” to Sport Diving Community. Journal of Maritime Archaeology 3.2:1192008 �Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., 2008a Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., 2008b Thomas, M., and Price, S., 1980 Thompson, N., 1984 E. 120. Archaeological Survey of Lagoons of on the West Coast of Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., FL. Archaeological Survey of Tanapag Lagoon Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, submitted to the CNMI Department of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Historic Preservation, Southeastern Archaeological Research, Inc., FL. Cultural Resources Reconnaissance Report for the Saipan Small Boat Harbor Study Area. Submitted to the US Army Corps of Engineers Pacific Ocean Division by Pacific Studies Institute, Guam. National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form. Landing Beaches, Aslito/Isley Field, and Marpi Point, Saipan Island. National Park Service Denver Service Center, Lakewood, CO. � https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/841cc9148660be49b2d1d129e4731f44.jpg 0cac07a954b17f38ba5cdaf1423cae51 Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 756 Height 553 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 https://apconf-much.org/proceedings/files/original/0ade75279ddeac22a30adcb71b798539.jpg 5b8fbd5ef63dccf42552515dc01049ed Omeka Image File The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files. Width 907 Height 542 Bit Depth 8 Channels 3 Document A resource containing textual data. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre text. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Inclusion and Negotiation: Interpreting Underwater Battlefield Sites for the Public Subject The topic of the resource Session 1 Contexts of War and Conflict in Maritime and Underwater Cultural Heritage Research and Management Description An account of the resource The development of a World War Two (WWII) underwater heritage trail focusing on the Battle of Saipan has recently been undertaken in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands on Saipan. This WWII heritage trail was formulated out of the interest of the local Historic Preservation Office’s (HPO) desire to protect and interpret its underwater cultural heritage (UCH). Through a United States of America (U.S.) National Park Service American Battlefield Protection Program grant in collaboration with a non-profit organisation and university program this trail was developed during 2009-2010 and launched in 2011. The development of a heritage trail that interprets such a confronting, painful and tragic event for multiple culture groups is a difficult task. A balanced approach of interpreting battlefield heritage can only be achieved through the identification and inclusion of the various stakeholders and an awareness of what is being included, ignored or inadequately represented in the interpretation. Listening to the multiple stakeholders’ views about the significance of such sites and incorporating those views into interpretive and management practices is key to an inclusive and shared interpretation of heritage. Further, an awareness and acknowledgment of the social and political context in which one is working is fundamental to understanding how practitioners negotiate the process of interpretation. As Logan and Reeves (2009:13) have communicated so well, “Heritage conservation is a form of cultural politics; it is about the links between ideology, public policy, national and community identity formation, and celebration, just as much as it is about technical issues relating to restoration and adaptive re-use techniques”. This paper provides an in-depth discussion on the process of developing a battlefield heritage trail. It will explore the theory and practice, the pitfalls and highlights, and the problems and solutions of interpreting and managing a battlefield site. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Jennifer F. McKinnon Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 2011 Asia-Pac Session 1